Module 25: The wave equation-III

Lecture 25: The wave equation-III

25.1 Standing Waves

We consider a stretched string of length L as shown in Figure 25.1. The string
is plucked and left to vibrate. In this case we have a transverse wave where
ξ(x, t) the displacement of the string is perpendicular to the direction of the
string which is along the x axis.

0 x L

Figure 25.1: A string fixed at the ends

As we have seen in the earlier section that the evolution of ξ(x, t) is gov-
erned by the wave equation,

∂2ξ 1 ∂ 2ξ
− = 0, (25.1)
∂x2 c2s ∂t2
q
where cs = T /µ. Here T is the tension in the string and µ is the mass per
unit length of the string. The two ends of the string are fixed. This imposes
the boundary conditions ξ(0, t) = 0 and ξ(L, t) = 0. We could proceed by
taking the general form of the solution and imposing the boundary conditions.
Instead of doing this we proceed to introduce a different method of solving the
wave equation. We take a trial solution of the form,

ξ(x, t) = X(t)T (t), (25.2)

ie. ξ(x, t) is the product of two functions, the function X(x) depends only on
x and the function T (t) depends only on t. This is referred to as the separation
of variables. The wave equation now reads,

d2 X X d2 T
T − = 0. (25.3)
dx2 c2s dt2

157
158 CHAPTER 25. THE WAVE EQUATION-III

We divide this equation by XT , which gives,

1 d2 X 1 d2 T
= . (25.4)
X dx2 T c2s dt2
The left hand side of this equation is a function of x alone whereas the
right hand side is a function of t alone. This implies that each of these two
should be separately equal to a constant ie.
1 d2 X
= α, (25.5)
X dx2
and
1 d2 T
= α. (25.6)
T c2s dt2
Let us first consider the solution to X(x). These are of the form,
√ √
αx
X(x) = B1 e + B2 e− αx
. (25.7)

In the situation where α > 0, it is not possible to simultaneously satisfy the

two boundary condition that ξ(0, t) = 0 and ξ(L, t) = 0. We therefore consider
α < 0 and write it as,
α = −k 2 , (25.8)
and the equation governing X(x) is

d2 X
= −k 2 X . (25.9)
dx2
This is the familiar differential equation of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator whose
solution is,
X(x) = A cos(kx + ψ) . (25.10)
The boundary condition X(0) = 0 implies that ψ = ±π/2 whereby

X(x) = A sin(kx) . (25.11)

The boundary condition X(L) = 0 is satisfied only if,

Nπ
k= , (N = 1, 2, 3, ...) . (25.12)
L
We see that there are a large number of possible solutions, one corresponding
to each value of the integer N = 1, 2, 3, .... Let us next consider the time
dependence which is governed by,
d2 T
= −c2s k 2 T, (25.13)
dt2
which has a solution,
T (t) = B cos(ωt + φ), (25.14)
25.1. STANDING WAVES 159

where ω = cs k. Combining X(x) and T (t) we obtain the solution,

ξ(x, t) = AN sin(kN x) cos(ωN t + φN ), (25.15)
corresponding to each possible value of the integer N . These are standing
waves and each value of N defines a different mode of the standing wave. The
solution with N = 1 is called the fundamental mode or first harmonic. We
have, µ ¶ µ ¶
πx cs πt
ξ(x, t) = A1 sin cos + φ1 , (25.16)
L L
which is shown in the left panel of Figure 25.2. The fundamental mode has
wavelength λ1 = 2L and frequency ν1 = cs /2L.
1
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
ξ
ξ
0
0
−0.2
−0.2
−0.4
−0.4
−0.6
−0.6
−0.8
−0.8
−1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 −1
x 0 0.2 0.4 x 0.6 0.8 1

Figure 25.2: Standing wave modes: 1st and 2st harmonics

The second harmonic,

µ ¶ µ ¶
2πx cs 2πt
ξ(x, t) = A2 sin cos + φ2 , (25.17)
L L
which is shown in the right panel of Figure 25.2 has wavelength λ2 = L and
frequency ν2 = cs /L. The higher harmonics have wavelengths λ3 = λ1 /3,
λ4 = λ1 /4, λ5 = λ1 /5 and frequencies ν3 = 3ν1 , ν4 = 4ν1 , ν5 = 5ν1 respectively.
Each standing wave is a superposition of a left travelling and a right trav-
elling wave. For example,
sin(ω1 t + k1 x) − sin(ω1 t − k1 x) = 2 sin(k1 x) cos(ω1 t), (25.18)
gives the fundamental mode. At all times the left travelling and write travelling
waves exactly cancel at x = 0 and x = L.
Any arbitrary disturbance of the string can be expressed as a sum of stand-
ing waves
∞
X
ξ(x, t) = AN sin(kN x) cos(ωN t + φN ) . (25.19)
N =1
The resultant disturbance will in general not be a standing wave but will travel
along the string as shown in Figure 25.3.
Question : If a string which is fixed at both the ends is plucked at an
arbitrary point then which of the modes will not be excited?
Answer : Read about Young-Helmholtz law.
160 CHAPTER 25. THE WAVE EQUATION-III
2.5

1.5 t=3
1 t=1
0.5 t=2
ξ 0

−0.5

−1

−1.5

−2

−2.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x

Figure 25.3: Arbitrary travelling wave in a string

Problems

1. Consider a longitudinal wave

µ ¶ µ ¶
πx 2πx
ξ(x, t) = A[cos(ω1 t) sin + cos(ω2 t) sin ]
L L
in a steel rod of length L = 10 cm.

a. What are the values of the angular frequencies ω1 and ω2 of the

fundamental mode and the second harmonic respectively ?
b. After what time period does the whole displacement profile repeat?

2. Consider a longitudinal standing wave

µ ¶
πx
ξ(x, t) = A cos(ω1 t) sin [A = 10−4 m]
L
in a steel rod of length L = 5 cm.

a. What is the instantaneous kinetic energy per unit volume at x =

2.5cm?
b. What is the instantaneous potential energy per unit volume at x =
2.5cm?
c. What is the time averaged kinetic energy per unit volume at x =
2.5cm?
d. What is the time averaged potential energy per unit volume at
x = 2.5cm?

3. Two steel rods, one 1m and another 1 cm longer are both vibrating in
the fundamental mode of longitudinal standing waves. What is the time
period of the beats that will be produced?