Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.3 (Tools)

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 7.3 - Tools
MODULE 7A
Sub Module 7.3
TOOLS
ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7A/01 Rev. 01
7.3 Nov 2017
Contents
INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------- 2
COMMON HAND TOOLS TYPES ------------------------------------- 2
COMMON POWER TOOLS--------------------------------------------48
OPERATION AND USE OF PRECISION MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS -----------------------------------------------------------56
LUBRICATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT -------------------67
OPERATION, FUNCTION AND USE OF ELECTRICAL
GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT ---------------------------------------72

7.3 - i Nov 2017
INTRODUCTION
The increment graduation marks are etched into the rule
Servicing of an aircraft, requires the dismantling, cleaning, surface providing a grooved recess. These grooves enable
examination, adjustment and re-assembly of the parts in dividers to be set to a greater accuracy, as the divider points
accordance with the maintenance schedule. Further aspects of can be felt to ‘drop in’ to the recess.
the work may require the manufacture of simple components
from metal or other materials, the drilling and tapping of holes,
removal of burrs and other operations. A reasonable degree of
skill, in the use of hand tools is, therefore, to be expected from
all trades-persons. This skill can only be obtained by practice,
but it may be stated, that the more efficient the tool, then the
better will be the finished work.
Metric Scale
COMMON HAND TOOLS TYPES
The best results are always obtained by using the correct tool 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
for the task. Care and maintenance of all tools is very important, 1 2 3 4 10 11 12
since damaged or inefficient tools can lead to injury of the user
or damage to the components. A range of common hand tools
is considered in this part of the course. Imperial Scale
Edge View
Engineer’s Rule
An engineer’s rule (refer to Fig. 1) is made from high-carbon

steel and is graduated in Imperial and Metric units. Rules are
classified by the length and width of their graduated portion,
must be kept free from rust and should not be subjected to Grooves
rough usage. The most common engineer’s rule has a length of
300mm (1ft) but rules can be obtained in lengths of up to
1,800mm (6ft).

7.3 - 2 Nov 2017
Scriber
A scriber (refer to Fig. 3.1) is used for marking lines on the

surface of metals. Scribers are made from high-carbon steel
and are classified by their length. One end of the scriber is Key Seat Rule
usually bent at right angles to enable lines to be scribed in
difficult places such as through a hole.
Round Bar
All scribed lines, on soft materials, must only be cutting
(boundary) lines, and none must be left on the surface of the
metal on completion, as they can cause cracks. Other lines,
including bend lines and lines for the position of rivets must be
marked with a sharp pencil.
Scriber points must be kept sharp and fine by careful ‘stoning’,

with an oil stone, rather than an abrasive wheel (grindstone).
Using a wheel is likely to generate too much heat, which will Scriber
result in the temper being drawn from the steel and the point of
the scriber becoming soft and useless.
When not in use (and as with other tools with sharp points), Scriber and Key Seat Rule
placing pieces of cork, plastic or similar material over their Fig. 3.1
points will protect them.
Key-Seat Rule
Key-seat rules are used for marking-off lines, parallel to the

axis, on the surface of tubes or round bars (refer to Fig. 2).
Sometimes referred to as ‘Box Squares’, key-seat rules are
usually graduated and are classified by their length.

7.3 - 3 Nov 2017
Combination Set Scriber
The Combination Set (refer to Fig. 3.2), consists of a graduated Spirit Level
steel rule, which has a machined groove running along the Centre Head
centre of its entire length. The rule can be slid into three Square Head
different ‘heads’ and secured, by a locking screw device, so that
the combination of rule and ’head’ will enable certain tasks to be
accomplished.
Groove
The Centre Head is used, with the rule, to locate the centre line
of bars or round tubes.
The Square Head has one working surface at 90° and another
at 45° to the locked rule. This allows the tool to be used, either
Protractor Head
in a similar manner to the Fitter’s Square (to check the
squareness of work), or it may be used for the marking out of
mitre joints and bevels.
A spirit level and scriber are, sometimes, accommodated in the

base of the Square Head, to permit a check to be done on the
horizontal or vertical accuracy of work pieces.
The Protractor Head also has a spirit level, which rotates with
the head, and allows the head to be used, singly, as a
clinometer or, in conjunction with the rule, it may be used to Combination Set
mark out and check angles on work pieces. Fig. 3.2

7.3 - 4 Nov 2017
Surface Plates and Tables

lightly on to the surface plate and any high spots will show up as
Surface plates (and surface tables which are larger), while not blue spots on the test piece. These spots will be filed or scraped
actually being classed as marking out or measuring tools, are until the whole surface shows blue. After use, a light film of oil
simply blocks of grey cast iron with finely machined faces which should be applied to the working surface of the surface plates
can be used as a standard of flatness. They may also be used and tables. They should, then, be protected with a wooden
to provide a true surface, from which marking out, measuring cover, to prevent the onset of corrosion.
and testing can be done.
V Blocks
Surface plates are usually mounted on a bench and, normally,
only have three supports, or feet, to ensure steadiness, if the V Blocks are accurately machined, six-sided, rectangular blocks
surface of the bench were to be slightly uneven. (generally made of cast iron), which may be used, on surface
plates and tables, to hold a round bar, which can then be
Surface tables are free standing, on the workshop floor, and marked in a variety of ways, to give centres and lines parallel to
their sheer weight provides the required steadiness. its side. V blocks are classified by the maximum diameter of the
work, which they can hold.
The standard of the surface finish varies. The better grades are
scraped and the cheaper ones are merely planed. The accuracy All opposite sides of the blocks are parallel and all adjacent
of a planned table depends upon the accuracy of the machine faces are square to each other. A 90° groove (in the shape of a
producing it. V) is machined in two (longer) opposite faces, but the grooves
are cut at different depths, to cater for bars of different
Surfaces of grade ‘A’ standard would only be used in Standards diameters.
Rooms, grade ‘B’ surfaces are for inspection work while grade The V-cut grooves have a small, square-cut, clearance groove
‘C’ surface plates and tables would be found in typical in the bottom of the V. This ensures that any oil, or dirt runs off
workshops. the sides of the V and does not clog the bottom of the V,
causing an imperfect seating of any bar which were to be
Surface plates and tables can be used to test for flatness, placed in the blocks.
providing the standards required are not too high. The surface
of the plate is lightly smeared with a mixture of engineer’s blue
and a few drops of oil. The piece to be tested has to be rubbed

7.3 - 5 Nov 2017
V blocks are made in (identified) matching pairs, which must

always be used together, so that a block of one pair should not
be used with one of another pair. Some V blocks also have
grooves machined along the other two longer, parallel, sides, to
locate specially designed clamps, which may be used to
securely hold work while it is being accurately marked out or
drilled.
V Blocks
Surface Gauge (Scribing Block)
A Surface Gauge, or Scribing Block (refer to Fig. 3.3), is another

marking out tool, used, on a surface plate or table, in
conjunction with a scriber (and, occasionally, with V blocks), for
the marking of lines, which are parallel to a true surface.
The scriber is clamped to a spindle, which can be accurately Scribing Block

pivoted, by means of a fine adjustment screw, on the heavy
base. The base, which is generally made from cast iron (or
hardened steel) is machined to be as flat as the surface plate on
which it slides, but it is also grooved (in a similar manner to the Surface Plate
V block) so that it can be used on round stock when required.
Two friction-fit pins, in the base, may be pushed down, to assist

in drawing lines parallel to a true edge. Scribing Block with V Blocks and Surface Plate
Fig. 3.3

7.3 - 6 Nov 2017
Dividers
Dividers are used to set out distances and to scribe arcs and
circles. The legs are made of high-carbon steel, the spring
made of spring steel and the adjusting mechanism of mild steel.
Dividers are classified by the length of their legs. The points

should be kept sharp and of equal length by stoning only the
outside of the legs. If grinding is used to sharpen the points, it
must be done very carefully, as the temper of the points can be
drawn, leaving them soft.
The points of dividers should be protected, when not in use, in a

similar manner to those of scribers and such tools.
Callipers
Callipers (refer to Fig. 3.4) are a type of measuring device,

typically used to measure diameters and distances or for
comparing sizes. The three basic types of calliper are:
 Outside Callipers: Used to measure the outside diameter of
an object and have legs that point inwards
 Inside Callipers: Used to measure the inside of a hole and
have legs that point outwards
 Odd-Leg Callipers (Hermaphrodite or ‘Jenny’ Callipers): This
tool is really half callipers and half dividers. It may be used Outside Inside Oddleg
for scribing arcs on metal surfaces from an edge, for Calipers
scribing lines parallel to an edge or surface, (provided Fig. 3.4
accuracy is not of great importance), and for finding the
centre of a round bar.

7.3 - 7 Nov 2017
Hammers
 Body Hammer: Little used in aircraft work, as they are
Hammers (refer to Fig. 3.5) are classified by their weight and primarily used to remove dents and blemishes from sheet
type of head. Steel heads are forged and manufactured from metal. They are also known as planishing hammers.
high-carbon steel. Most shafts are made from straight-grained
Ash or Hickory and are secured to the head by wedging. The weight of hammer required can be found with experience.
Before use, it must be ensured that the head is secure on the
As can be seen from Fig. 3.5, the main types of engineering shaft. The shaft should be gripped close to the end opposite the
hammers are the: head, as proper control is not possible if it is held close to the
head.
 Ball Pein: The flat surface is used for most general-purpose
work whilst the ball pein is used primarily for riveting-type
operations
 Straight Pein: Used for general work, the narrow, straight
pein being particularly suitable for use where access to the
work is limited
 Cross Pein: As for the straight pein, but the axis of the pein
is at 90° to that of the shaft
 Hide/Copper Face: The rawhide facing enables heavy blows
to be delivered without damaging the surface of the work,
while the copper face may be used for heavier types of work
than hide faced hammers
 Rubber Head and Plastic Face: More modern versions of
the Hide Face hammer. Can often have one of each type of
face on each end of the head
 Claw Hammer (not shown): More commonly used for
woodworking. The face is used for hammering nails whilst
the claw is used for removing nails

7.3 - 8 Nov 2017
Ball Pein Straight Pein Cross Pein

Hide/Copper
Face
Hide Face
Rubber Head
Plastic Face
Types of Hammers
Fig. 3.5

7.3 - 9 Nov 2017
Punches The first three punches are, usually, constructed from

hexagonal (or knurled, round) rods of tempered, cast steel with
Although punches are not ‘pounding tools’, they do allow the a length of approximately 127 mm (5 in), a gripping diameter of
force from a hammer blow to be concentrated in the immediate approximately 3.175 mm (0.125 in) and a smaller, driving end of
area of the punch tip. This in turn means that the pressure at the appropriate size.
the end of the punch is increased compared to a hammer blow
without a punch.
Centre Punches are relatively sharp-pointed tools, used to
Over a period of time, the hammered shank end of a punch, make an indentation in metal. The indentation aids in locating
tends to deform into the shape of a mushroom. To reduce the the centre of a hole and for starting a drill bit when drilling the
chance of a metal chip flying off and causing injury, during hole. The points may be ground at angles between 60 to 90°,
punching operations, the deformation should be removed and depending on the hardness of the metal on which the punch is
the shank end returned to its original shape by the use of a being used. The softer the metal, then the larger will be the
bench grinder. angle of the punch’s point.
Eye or face protection should always be used when using When using a centre punch, it must be struck hard enough to
punches of any type. give an indentation large enough for a drill bit to start, but not so
hard as to distort the metal.
The types of punches, more commonly found in an engineer’s
toolkit, include: Another form of Centre Punch is the ‘Dot’ or ‘Prick’ Punch (also
‘Pricker’), which has a finer point and is used to make
 Centre Punches indentations along a drawn line when the line is, otherwise,
 Pin Punches difficult to see. The indentations may also be used, when
 Hollow Punches sawing down to a line, as ‘witness’ points, to show that the
 Drifts cutting is accurate.

7.3 - 10 Nov 2017
Centre punches should not be used to drive out pins or rivets

from their holes.
Pin Punches, as their name implies, are the tools to be used for
the removal of pins and rivets from their respective holes. The
driving end of a Pin Punch is cut flat, and its diameter ground to
match that of the pin or rivet which is being driven from its hole.
Pin Punches may be found with parallel or tapered driving ends.
Hollow Punches are used to punch out bolt (or stud) holes in
soft, thin sheets, such as shimming or gasket materials, which
are difficult to cut with drills. The material being cut should be
supported by a wooden block, to avoid damaging the cutting
end of the Hollow Punch.
Drifts may be fashioned from aluminium alloy, copper or steel

bars (or tubes), and are used for driving out bearings, bushes or
shafts from their respective cages or housings.
Only steel drifts should be used on bearings, due to the

possibility of small metal chips, from the softer metals, breaking
off and fouling the bearing assemblies.

7.3 - 11 Nov 2017
Metal-Cutting Chisels Cross-Cut (or Cape) chisels are used to cut narrow, flat-
bottomed, grooves, such as keyways in shafts or where it is not
Metal-cutting chisels (also called Cold Chisels) are used in practical to use a flat chisel. These chisels are also used to
conjunction with steel hammers. Chisels are forged, usually remove the heads of round-headed rivets during repairs.
using short lengths of hexagonal-sectioned, high-carbon steel
bars, with the cutting edge hardened and tempered. Diamond-Point chisels are particularly useful for cutting in
corners, cutting small oil grooves and for rectifying an incorrect
To prevent flying particles when hammering, the striking end is start when drilling.
not hardened and is, therefore, comparatively softer.
Periodically, the burr, that forms at the striking end of the chisel, Half-Round (and may, also, be called Round) chisels are
should (in a similar manner to punches), be removed by filing or general-purpose, grooving chisels, which are suitable for cutting
grinding. half-round, bottomed, grooves. They are also suitable for
rectifying an incorrect start when drilling.
Alternatively, the chisels may be made of nickel-alloy steel,
specially heat-treated, to produce a long-lasting cutting edge.
Chisels are classified by their shape, overall length, cross-

Section of shank and width of cut. There are four principal
shapes of chisels (refer to Fig. 3.6), in general use. They are
the:
 Flat
 Cross-Cut
 Diamond-Point
 Half-Round.
Flat chisels are used for general chipping work, such as parting Flat Cross-Cut Diamond-Point Half-Round
sheet metal or cutting flat surfaces, preparatory to filing. The
cutting edge is formed slightly convex. Chisel Types
Fig. 3.6

7.3 - 12 Nov 2017
When selecting a chisel for a specific task, consideration must Most types of bench vice have a quick-release mechanism,
be given both to the nature of the work and to the material that operated by a small lever. The jaws can then be slid either open
is to be cut. The nature of the work governs the choice of or closed until the correct position is reached. The lever
shape, whilst the angle formed by the cutting edge is influenced disengages the half nut from the thread to permit the sliding
by the hardness of the metal. action and it is driven back into engagement by a strong spring.
Bench vices are classified by the length of their jaws.
In general, it may be assumed that the softer the metal the more
acute should be the cutting angle. Table 5 shows some The height of the top of the vice above the ground is important,
suggested cutting angles for use on typical metals, found in and should ideally, be level with the technician’s elbow when
aircraft engineering workshops. standing adjacent to the vice. With the vice at the correct height,
work will be less tiring and correct control of the tools, such as
Table 1 Suggested Chisel Cutting Angles files and saws, will be achieved.
Hard Steels 70 The vice must be secured firmly to the bench (with occasional
Mild Steels 60 checks of the holding-down nuts), and the screw should be kept
Soft Metals 40 clean and lubricated. The jaws must not be over-tightened as
the mechanism may be damaged or the work piece becomes
High-carbon, steel chisels should be sharpened by grinding on distorted.
an abrasive wheel, but nickel-alloy, steel chisels are sharpened
by filing. The cutting edge of the chisel must be kept cool, To protect soft materials from the hardened serrated, vice jaws,
during grinding, by frequent immersion in water, which will aluminium ‘vice clamps’ (or clams) can be positioned over the
prevent the temper being drawn from the metal. jaws. Other, special holding devices, such as ‘V’ blocks (made
out of wood to protect tubular items) can be manufactured
Bench Vice locally.
The bench vice (refer to Fig. 3.7) is used to firmly grip the
material or item upon which work is being done in a workshop.
The body of the vice is provided with detachable steel jaws. The
screw is made with a square or with a buttress thread.

7.3 - 13 Nov 2017
Hand Vice
A hand vice (refer to Fig. 3.8) is classified by its overall length

and can be used when splicing cables or holding small objects
that are to be shaped or drilled. The body and screw are made
of mild steel, with a wing nut provided for the operation of the
hand vice. Small vice clamps can also be used with these vices
when working with soft material.
Bench Vice
Fig. 3.7
Hand Vice
Fig. 3.8

7.3 - 14 Nov 2017
Hacksaws
The hacksaw is the most widely-used, metal-cutting, hand saw.

Hacksaws are used for parting off, or for cutting materials
approximately to size. They are designed primarily for cutting
metal, but may be used on other materials. The saw consists of
a mild steel frame, with a suitable handle and a replaceable,
serrated blade, which is made from high-carbon or alloy steel.
Fine-toothed blades have 24 or 32 teeth per inch and are used

for cutting thin material. Coarser blades, with 14 or 18 teeth per
inch are for thicker material. A ‘rule of thumb’ is that at least two
teeth must be in contact, with the work being cut, at all times.
The blade mountings must be set in the most convenient

position with the teeth facing away from the handle. This allows
the blade to cut on the more efficient, forward stroke.
Hand pressure should be applied on this forward stroke and

relieved on the return stroke. The full length of the blade should
be used for each stroke, if at all possible. This action prolongs
the life of the blade, lessens the chance of teeth breaking away
from the blade and reduces the chance of the saw jamming
during use.

7.3 - 15 Nov 2017
Sheet Metal Shears and Snips

Unlike hacksaws (and files), shears simply part the metal
Shears are another type of cutting tool used on aircraft sheet without removing any material. This can, however, cause tiny
metal. Long, straight cuts, across a piece of sheet metal, are fractures to occur along the severed lines and so, for this
made on a guillotine, which may also be referred to as ‘squaring reason, cuts should be made approximately 0.8 mm (0.03 in)
shears’. from the marking out line and the metal then filed down to the
line.
The fabrication of smaller parts requires hand cutting, followed
with further trimming to the final dimensions. This can be
achieved with different types of shears, known as Tinman’s
Shears or Aviation Snips. They can vary in length from 175 mm
(7 in) up to 300 mm (12 in) and can be straight or curved
cutting.
Straight shears (or snips) are primarily for cutting straight or

wide radius curves whilst the curved shears are dedicated
solely to cutting curves.
Curved shears can be found in symmetrical form, which can be

used to cut curves in either direction, or they can be
asymmetrical and dedicated to cutting curves in one direction
only. The handles of asymmetrically curved shears are usually TIN SNIP
colour-coded (red and green), to indicate the intended cutting
direction. ‘Left-cutting’ shears are coloured red while ‘right-
cutting’ shears are coloured green).

7.3 - 16 Nov 2017
DIAGONAL CUTTER
AVIATION SNIPS

7.3 - 17 Nov 2017
Files
Files are cutting tools for removing metal from a surface and are
made of high-carbon steel. The blade is hardened, whilst the
tang (to which, a handle must always be attached, for safety
reasons, before the file is used), is left in a softer, tougher Tip Shoulder
condition and is, therefore, less brittle. Hand files are classified
by their: Parallel
 Length
 Shape Length Tang
 Cross-Section
 Cut
 Grade. Tapered
The length of a file is measured from the shoulder to the tip of
the blade. Files are available, for special work, in lengths from
75 mm (3 in) to 350 mm (14 in). The most common sizes are
150 mm (6 in), 200 mm (8 in) and 250 mm (10 in).
Bellied
Files are available in a variety of shapes (refer to Fig. 3.9), and
the most common shapes are those which are:
Three Most Common Shapes of Files
 Parallel Fig. 3.9
 Tapered
 Bellied.

7.3 - 18 Nov 2017
The various shapes and the cross-sections of files allow them to The Round section is used in association with bellied, parallel
be used on a wide range of tasks. The standard file cross- and tapered blade shapes, with the bellied being the one most
sections (refer to Fig. 3.10) are: commonly used. These files are suitable for filing small radii.
 Hand Half-Round files are mostly associated with bellied-shaped

 Round blades. Such files are suitable for use on work of irregular
 Half-Round shape or for filing large internal radii.
 Square
 Three-Square. Square files may be bellied, tapered or parallel in shape. They
are used for internal work.
Three-Square (or Triangular) files are, usually, of the bellied

shape. They are particularly useful for filing internal corners.
Hand Round Half-Round Square Three-Square
File Cross-Sections
Fig. 3.10
The Hand is the most commonly used section for general filing;
and the blade is usually parallel in shape. One edge may be
without teeth, to permit safe working against a finished surface.
Such a file is called a ‘Hand Safe Edge’ (HSE) file.

7.3 - 19 Nov 2017
The ‘Cut’ of a file refers to the arrangement of the cutting teeth, The teeth of the Rasp are ‘cut’ with a punch, while the metal is
on the blade of the file. The pattern, in which the teeth are cut, hot, at the time of manufacture. This type of cut is used for filing
will depend upon the type of material to be filed. The common very soft materials such as wood and leather.
cuts of files (refer to Fig. 3.11) are the:
Manufacturers will cut files to cater for a wide range of
 Single Cut specialised materials, such as encountered when working with
 Double Cut aluminium and other non-ferrous alloys.
 Dreadnought
 Rasp.
The Single Cut file has its teeth cut parallel, in a single direction
and (for general engineering), usually, at an angle of
approximately 60° to the main axis of the blade. This type of cut
is relatively open and the teeth do not clog easily.
Sometimes referred to as ‘Floats’, single cut Hand files are,

chiefly, used for filing hard metals. Round files and the curved
surface of Half-Round files are usually single cut.
The Double Cut file also has one set of teeth cut at an angle of
60° to the centre line of the file, with another, crossing set, cut at
angle of approximately 75°. This is the most widely used type of
file for general purposes. Single Cut Double Cut Dreadnought Rasp
The cut of the Dreadnought’s teeth, make this file especially File Cuts
suitable for heavy cutting on broad, soft metal surfaces. Its use Fig. 3.11
is generally restricted to the larger sizes of flat files.

7.3 - 20 Nov 2017
Filing Techniques
The ‘Grade’ of a file refers to the depth and spacing (number of
teeth per inch) of the cutting teeth in a similar manner to the Good filing is not just a matter of removing surplus metal. The
size and spacing of the particles employed on abrasive papers correct amount of material, at each point on the surface of the
and wheels. The rate of cutting and the finish given to the work work piece, needs to be removed, so that the dimensions and
is determined, to a large extent, by the grade of the file. tolerances, set by the drawing, will be met.
While there are several more grades of files, available from Proficiency comes with practice. New files should, if possible,
manufacturers, the most common grades (or degrees of be first used on soft metal. This achieves ‘tempering’ of the
coarseness) of the single and double cut files, found in a typical cutting teeth and will contribute to a longer life for the file.
aerospace technician’s toolkit, are the:
Before starting work, it must be ensured that the work piece is
Bastard secure and correctly placed, as both hands are required for
Second-Cut filing tasks.
Smooth.
A file must never be used without a handle. The file will not be
The Bastard is a comparatively coarse grade of file and, though under full control and the risk of puncturing the wrist or palm is
the number of teeth per inch varies with each manufacturer, the very great.
Bastard file has approximately 30 teeth per inch. It removes
metal fairly quickly and is intended, primarily, for roughing out, Files must be handled carefully. File blades, being hard, are
but may be used for the entire work, if the finish is not important. also brittle and will break if dropped. After use, all files should
be returned to their respective racks or bandolier-type holdalls,
The Second-Cut files are finer (40 teeth per inch) and, to prevent them knocking together and being damaged.
consequently, give a better surface finish to the work, but are
slower cutting. The length and grade of file, appropriate to the shape (and
material) of the work piece, and to the quality of the desired
Smooth files (50 to 60 teeth per inch) enable a good finish to be surface finish, must always be used.
obtained, but such files cut comparatively slowly. They should,
therefore, be used for finishing work only.

7.3 - 21 Nov 2017
As mentioned previously, the height of the vice is important and Obviously, if attempting to file a flat surface, then it must be
platforms may be constructed, to ensure that the elbows of ensured that the file is kept level during the filing action and that
shorter persons are level with the top of the vice. Any platforms, regular checks are made to verify the accuracy of the
so constructed, should ensure that a correct stance be attained, dimensions.
by the work-person, in front of the vice.
During work (and particularly so with non-ferrous metals), the
It is recommended that the person stand, with feet apart and teeth of the file gradually become clogged (pinned) with small
(depending on whether the person is left- or right-handed), one particles. If these pinnings are ignored they will cause scratches
foot advanced, in a manner similar to a boxer (or a fencer) to the surface of the work piece with subsequent loss of surface
taking guard. The body weight should be taken on the balls of finish. To this end, pinnings should be regularly removed by the
the feet but, primarily, over the rearmost foot. use of a ‘file card’ (also called a ‘scratch card’) or wire brush.
Again, depending on the person, the handle of the file is gripped Chalk, rubbed along the face of the file, before starting the
in the appropriate hand, while the palm of the other hand is finishing work, will assist in minimising pinning.
placed, flat on the back of the file, near the tip, when the tip of
the file is resting on the work piece. Draw-filing, by grasping the file between the fingers and thumbs
of both hands, on either side of a work piece, and rubbing back
Using a rocking action, the body weight is transferred over the and forth on the surface, may be used to rectify any ‘hollows’,
forward foot while pushing the file forward (and, simultaneously, which may appear on a filed surface, due to incorrect filing
to the left or right) with the gripping hand, and exerting equal action. It may also be used, in conjunction with chalk, applied as
downward pressure, on the file, with both hands. previously described, to assist in creating a finer surface finish.
The full length of the file should be used for each stroke (which
should not be rushed) and, at the completion of the stroke, the
action is reversed, excepting that the downward pressure is
relieved on the backstroke, as the file does not cut in the
rearward direction.

7.3 - 22 Nov 2017
Hand Brace (Hand Drill)
Whenever it is necessary to cut accurate, circular holes in

materials, then, where possible, the material should be securely
clamped and the holes cut, using fixed, power-operated drilling
machines. These machines are usually found in workshops and
bays, bolted down to the floor (or to benches) and will be
discussed in later topics. Where it is impractical to do the work
with fixed machines, then the drilling is done, using either
portable power tools or hand-operated drills. Portable, power-
operated tools will also be discussed later.
The Hand Brace, or, as it is more usually called, the Hand Drill
(refer to Fig. 3.12), is, typically, only used to drill holes of up to
6.5 mm, (¼ in) diameter in thin and comparatively soft
materials. The device shown is similar to those most commonly
found in the toolkits of aircraft technicians, though the actual
Hand Brace (Hand Drill)
design will depend upon each manufacturer.
Fig. 3.12
Another hand-operated drill, the Breast Brace, being larger, is
designed to hold larger drills than the hand drill and is, normally,
used (in workshops etc.) for drilling holes between 6.5 mm and
12 mm (¼ and ½ in).
The breast brace has one other advantage over the hand drill,
in that two running speeds can be selected, which will more
closely match the correct speed, required by the various sized
twist drills being employed.

7.3 - 23 Nov 2017
Twist Drills
The helical flute (or fluting), formed in the drill body, provides a
While the range of tools, designed to create holes in metals and rake angle for the cutting edges of the drill. The fluting also
other materials is vast, the Morse-type (named after its inventor, allows any lubricant to flow towards the cutting edges and
an American engineer) of Twist Drill (refer to Fig. 3.13) is the provides a path for the waste metal (‘swarf’), to move clear.
one most commonly used in aircraft (and in general)
engineering. The land of the drill actually touches the wall of the hole and
steadies the drill during rotation. Immediately behind the land,
The shank is the part of the twist drill that is gripped and driven metal is removed from the body of the drill, to reduce the friction
by the chuck of the drilling machine and it is on the shank that during rotation.
the details of the type (grade) and diameter of the drill can
usually be found printed or engraved.
On drills up to 12.5 mm (½”) diameter, the shank is parallel and

placed into the jaws of a self-centring chuck. On drills above Land
Flute
12.5 mm the shank is usually tapered (to a Morse Taper) of Point
1:20. The tapered shank fits directly into a matching tapered
housing in the drilling machine spindle.
The tapered shank usually ends in a tang and this arrangement

provides a more positive drive, which is necessary to overcome
the higher forces when drilling with the larger diameter drills.
Body Shank
Twist Drill
Fig. 3.13

7.3 - 24 Nov 2017
In order that the drill will cut properly, the point must be ground It is essential that the drill point is central and that the cutting
to the correct shape (refer to Fig. 3.14). The cutting, angle of angles of 59 are equal. An offset point or unequal cutting
59 (118° inclusive), a clearance angle of 12 and a web angle angles will cause an unbalanced rotation that will, in turn,
of 130°, are typical for normal metal cutting, such as aluminium produce an oversized hole.
alloys, steels, cast iron and copper. These can be changed to
suit the cutting of different materials such as harder metals, To achieve the desired cutting and clearance angles (and
softer metals or plastics. resulting web angles), a drill grinding attachment may be found
attached to a grinding wheel in a workshop.
Web or Point
Angle Hand grinding/sharpening of drills can be achieved (especially
115°-135° after practice), to an acceptable standard for general work. For
Inclusive the high standard of hole, required to receive rivets, in the
pressurised skins of aircraft, it is common practice to discard
drills, which have become blunt and to replace them with new
drills.
There are many different grades of metal, used in the

manufacture of twist drills, the most common being:
Cutting Clearance Angle  Carbon Steel

Angle 12°-15°  High Speed Steel
59°  Cobalt Steel.
Cutting
Edges
Typical Twist Drill Point Angles
Fig. 3.14

7.3 - 25 Nov 2017
Carbon Steel drills, in addition to iron and carbon, contain Drill diameter sizes are also usually marked upon the shank of
various amounts of manganese, silicon, sulphur and the drill and can be identified by the method used in their sizing.
phosphorus. The letters CS may be found on the shanks of The most common methods of identifying the diameter of twist
these drills. drills are:
High Speed Steel (HSS) drills contain a comparatively high  Metric

percentage of tungsten (8%-12%) with a lesser percentage of  Fractions of an inch
chromium (5%) and smaller amounts of vanadium and,  The Number/Letter range.
possibly, molybdenum added to the carbon and iron in this
steel. In the Metric range, the smallest, commercially available, drill
has a diameter size of 0.35 mm. The full range proceeds in
HSS drills retain their hardness at low red heat and can, thus, increments of 0.05 mm up to 5.0 mm, and, for larger sizes, in
be used at much higher speeds than carbon steel drills. This increments of 0.1 mm.
results in much less damage to the cutting edges and, although
HSS drills are more expensive than CS drills they can, over a
period of time, result in a greater economy in the purchase of
drills.
Cobalt Steel drills, contain up to 12% cobalt, with as much as

20% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1%-2% vanadium and traces of
molybdenum combined with 0.8% carbon. These drills are
normally used on metals such as stainless steels, titanium and
other very hard metals.
Being extremely hard, Cobalt Steel drills are also quite brittle.
Because of this, the use of these drills can be very dangerous,
and, so, strict observance of the recommended cutting speeds
is essential.

7.3 - 26 Nov 2017
When drilling small holes, up to 6.0 mm (¼”) diameter, the

depth of the centre punch mark will, usually, accommodate the
non-cutting, chisel-like point of the drill, keeping it on centre and
guiding the drill until it is established in the metal.
When a hole larger than 6.0 mm diameter is to be drilled, the

centre punch mark is not large enough to accept the non-cutting
point of the drill. In this instance it will be necessary to employ
the use of a pilot drill (refer to Fig. 3.15) to provide a guide for
the larger drill.
Firstly, the centre of the hole is marked out on the metal and
care must be taken to accurately centre punch the metal.
A small drill (the pilot drill), whose diameter is slightly larger than
the non-cutting point of the ‘finished size’ drill, is selected and a
pilot hole is drilled in the metal (ensuring that the correct
lubricant, for the particular metal, is used).
The pilot drill is replaced by the ‘finished size’ drill, which can,
then (and again using lubricant), be guided through the pilot
hole to complete the hole to the appropriate size.
Using a Pilot Drill
Fig. 3.15

7.3 - 27 Nov 2017
Stop, and Press (Dimpling), Countersinking Tools

The pilots can be changed, depending on the size of holes in
Two special tools, used during the riveting process, are the the material, leaving the remainder of the tool to be used for all
‘Stop’ countersinking bit and the ‘Press’ countersinking, or (as it jobs unchanged. The stop may be held rigidly, during cutting, to
is more commonly known), the Dimpling tool. Both of these prevent marking the surface.
tools have evolved as a result of the need for flush skins on
high-performance aircraft.
In order to have the rivet heads flush with the surface, the skin
must be prepared by either cutting away a portion of the metal
to match the taper of the rivet head, or by indenting (by Locknut Stop
pressing) the edges of the hole to accept the rivet head.
Fibre Collar
If the top sheet of the metal, being joined, is thicker than the
Face
tapered portion of the rivet head, then the material should be
‘cut’ countersunk.
Whilst the standard countersink bit (or a twist drill, twice the
diameter of the rivet hole) can be used, in a hand or power drill, Pilot
to form a countersunk hole, the lack of accuracy and Drill Chuck
consistency means they are only useful for small jobs and Fitting
certainly they should not be used where pressurised skins are Chip Opening
concerned.
Where a large number of holes need to be countersunk to a Stop Countersink Tool

consistent depth, then the Stop Countersink tool should be used Fig. 3.16
(refer to Fig. 3.16). This tool can be adjusted to cut an exact
countersink repeatedly, regardless of the force applied to the
drill/tool combination.

7.3 - 28 Nov 2017
Press countersinking or ‘dimpling’ is done where the aircraft Radius dimpling uses a male die to drive the sheets into a
skin is too thin to countersink, and without the attendant risk of female die. The sides of the formed holes are not as smooth as
enlarging the drilled hole. The edges of the hole are formed, to the coin dimpling method, but this less- precise operation is
accommodate the head of the rivet, by using a set of dimpling quicker and cheaper to achieve.
dies, using either ‘coin dimpling’ or ‘radius dimpling’ methods.
With harder materials, such as magnesium and certain
Coin dimpling forces the sheets into the lower die, leaving a aluminium alloys, a process called hot dimpling is used. This
sharply defined and parallel-sided hole. This process also method involves pre-heating the metal, so that it forms more
allows a number of sheets to be ‘stacked’ together at the easily and is less likely to crack when shaping takes place.
expense of a complex pair of tools and leaves a neat, clean
dimpled hole with smooth sides (refer to Fig. 3.17).
Dimpled
Punch
Skin
Skin
After Rivet has

been Formed
Die
Dimpling Tool
Fig. 3.17

7.3 - 29 Nov 2017
Reamers
Reamers are supplied in protective sleeves, to protect the fine,
Reamers are precision-ground tools, which are used to enlarge vulnerable cutting edges, which run along the body of the tool
drilled holes to accurate dimensions and provide a smooth and, to preserve the sharp edges, they should be kept in their
internal finish to accommodate precision-ground bolts and some sleeves when not in use.
special types of rivets. Reamers are manufactured from high-
carbon steel or alloy steel and are fluted to provide a series of The three most common types of hand-operated reamers are
cutting edges. the:
They are available, either for use by hand, or for using with a  Hand Parallel Reamer
suitable drilling machine. Machine reamers can usually be  Hand Expanding Reamer
identified by the Morse tapered shank, which is inserted directly  Hand Taper Reamer.
into the spindle of a drilling machine.
Hand Parallel Reamers (refer to Fig. 3.18) are fixed-size,
The use of machine reamers is, usually, the prerogative of parallel-bodied reamers, possessing either straight or spiral
specialist machinists and not of line- or hangar-based aircraft flutes. The straight fluted reamer can be considered to be the
engineers so that only the hand-operated reamers will be general-purpose reamer, whilst the spiral fluted reamer is used
discussed here. for reaming holes which have keyways or grooves as the spiral
flutes smoothly bridge the edges of the gap in the metal while
Hand reamers are rotated, by means of the hand wrench, which the reamer rotates.
locates on the squared portion of the shank. They must always
be rotated only in the cutting direction, even when withdrawing
from a hole. The cutting lubricants, used on specific materials,
are those which are used for drilling procedures.
Reamers are used for removing only small amounts of material,

which, typically, for hand reamers, is approximately 0.2 mm-0.3
mm (0.008 in-0.012 in), so holes should be drilled with this fact
in mind.

7.3 - 30 Nov 2017
Hand Expanding Reamers (refer to Fig. 3.19) are used where

standard parallel reamers of the required dimension are not
available. This type of reamer has separate, replaceable blades
that slide, in tapering slots, and which are held in position by a
pair of circular nuts. The reamer blades can be adjusted to the
required cutting size by slackening one nut and tightening the
other.
The shape of each blade is such that, at any point along the
Straight Fluted Reamer
slot, its cutting edge is always parallel to the axis of the reamer.
The size range of each expanding reamer is stamped on its
shank. The actual size set during adjustment can be checked
using either a ring gauge or micrometer/calliper.
Spiral Fluted Reamer
Hand Parallel Reamers

Fig. 3.18 Hand Expanding Reamer
Fig. 3.19

7.3 - 31 Nov 2017
Hand Taper Reamers (refer to Fig. 3.20), are used to produce a

tapered hole for the insertion of a standard taper pin. The two
types of tapered reamers are the:
 Metric: This type, and its corresponding taper pins, has a

taper of 1:50. Its size is etched, or stamped, on the
shank, and refers to its smaller diameter
 Imperial: The reamers and the taper pins, for which they
are used, have a taper of 1:48. The size of a reamer is Hand Taper Reamer
indicated by numbers (which range from 0 to 10), or by a Fig. 3.20
fractional designation. The size is etched or stamped on
the shank and refers to its larger diameter.
The difference between the Metric and Imperial tapers is very

slight, but it is sufficient to make the taper pins incompatible.
When replacement taper pins are required, particularly when
both types are available, then great care must be taken to
ensure that pins of the correct taper, size and type are installed.

7.3 - 32 Nov 2017
Internal Screw Thread, Cutting Taps

The Plug (or Bottoming) Tap has no taper and its purpose is to
Taps are used for the hand cutting of internal (female) screw finish the threads in deep, through holes or to cut threads to the
threads of the common types, up to a maximum diameter of bottom of ‘blind’ holes.
approximately 25.4 mm (1.0 in). They are short, threaded bars
of hardened and tempered steel, which are fluted to give cutting Before the thread can be cut, a hole must be drilled in the work
edges and the end of the shank is squared, to facilitate turning piece. This hole must be of the correct size and the drill that is
with a wrench (refer to Fig. 25). Taps are normally made in sets selected (the ‘tapping’ drill), must have the same diameter as
of three, with the exception of the BA thread tap sets, which the minor diameter of the thread needed to be cut. The correct
have only two taps to a set. A tap set, which all have the same tapping drill size can be obtained from workshop charts and
maximum diameter, normally consists of a: reference books.
 Taper Tap Unfortunately, because taps are ‘glass hard’ they are also brittle
 Second Tap and can, thus, be easily broken if due care is not given to their
 Plug Tap use. It is imperative that the tap’s location in the drilled hole be
constantly confirmed and that its main axis is maintained in
The Taper Tap is used to start the thread cutting process. It is proper alignment with the corresponding axis of the hole.
tapered gradually from the point for about two thirds of the
threaded length, so that it can enter the pre-drilled hole easily Adequate cutting fluid (as used in the drilling procedure) must
and assist in the correct alignment of the tap (which is very be applied, and the arms of the wrench should be of an
important) before cutting commences. The last third of its length appropriate length (not too long) so that the possibility of the tap
has fully formed threads. wobbling in the hole, or excessive turning force being applied to
the tap (and especially to the smaller diameter taps), is
The Second (or Intermediate) Tap is used, following the taper minimised.
tap, to deepen the thread. This tap is tapered for the first two or
three threads only and, where it is possible for the tap to pass If a tap jams, and snaps off in a hole, its removal can cause
the whole length through a hole, it is capable of cutting a fully serious difficulties.
formed thread. The Intermediate is the tap that is not available
in BA thread tapping sets.

7.3 - 33 Nov 2017
Applying lubricant as required, the taper tap is inserted into the

hole and its correct alignment verified (by use, for example, of
an Engineer’s square), before it is rotated clockwise (for a ‘right
hand’ thread), slowly and gently, until the initial threads are
Plug Tap
established.
Full Length Once the initial threads are established, the tap must not be
Threads rotated continuously, otherwise the cuttings will not break off
and the tap will, consequently, jam in the hole and, if forced, it
Second Tap
will shatter.
To this end, the tap, after each full turn, is rotated backwards,
2-3 Thread Full
Threads
approximately ½ to ¾ of a turn, to break the cuttings off. The
Taper forward rotation is then continued, with subsequent cutting
Taper Tap breaks, until the full thread portion of the tap has cut sufficient
full threads in the hole.
Gradual Full After the preliminary cut, the process is repeated, using the
Taper Threads Conventional Tap Set second tap (if not a BA thread), and, if required, repeated again
Fig. 3.21 using the plug tap. The thread, and each end of the hole
(where accessible), should be cleaned out if burrs or swarf are
present and, with ‘blind’ holes, the swarf must be cleared out of
the hole regularly to prevent the tap binding at the bottom of the
Following the drilling of the correct sized hole, the tapping hole.
procedure involves ensuring that the work piece is securely held
(firmly attached to another component or clamped in a vice) and In the event of a tap breaking in a hole, it may be necessary to
that the taper tap is attached to the correct sized wrench. Taps, resort to specialist procedures (spark erosion for example) for
incidentally, may have ‘right’ or ‘left hand’ threads. its removal without causing further, and, possibly, expensive
damage, to the component or work piece.

7.3 - 34 Nov 2017
External Screw Thread, Cutting Dies
Dies are used for the hand cutting of external (male) threads on
round rods or bars of comparatively small diameters. While
there are several designs of dies (depending on the diameter of
the thread being cut), consideration is given here only to the Split Die
‘split’ circular or button dies (refer to Fig. 3.22), which are,
typically, found in aircraft maintenance workshops and may be Shoulder
used, by aircraft technicians, for the manufacture of studs and
similar items.
Circular dies consist of an internally threaded (‘right’ or ‘left Stock

handed’) disc of hardened and tempered steel, which is fluted to
form several cutting edges. Dies also need to be rotated (in a
similar manner to the previously mentioned taps), in order to cut
threads but, unlike a tap and wrench, a die is rotated by the use
of a stock.
Die discs, within the smaller diameter ranges have a standard Outer Securing and
outside diameter, which allows a range of dies, with different Adjusting Screws
internal sizes, to be used with the same, standard, stock. The
discs are ‘split’, to allow for a degree of adjustment to the depth Centre Adjusting Screw
of the thread being cut.
The manufacturers name, thread type, diameter and number of Circular Die and Stock
threads per millimetre (or inch) are marked on the face of the Fig. 3.22
die (Taps, incidentally, are similarly marked on their shanks).

7.3 - 35 Nov 2017
Before external thread cutting is commenced, it is necessary to Ensuring that the die is set to cut the maximum diameter, as
obtain a suitable length of rod, the diameter of which is equal to described previously, the die should be placed squarely onto
the major diameter of the thread to be cut. Care needs to be the taper of the rod and, with steady downward hand pressure,
taken in this matter (and especially where closely sized Imperial and the die is carefully rotated (clockwise) to start the cut.
and Metric rods are available) because it is possible to create a
thread on slightly undersized or oversized rods. It must be ensured that the die remains square to the rod at all
times during the cutting, which is continued in a series of small
The undersized rod would, of course, be a looser fit with the arcs, reversing each time to sever the cuttings, in a similar
corresponding female threaded item, which would not be manner as is done when using the taps.
acceptable, while the oversize rod may cause damage to the
other threaded device by being too tight a fit. When enough thread has been cut, the die is removed and the
thread checked, using a finished nut. If the thread proves to be
The die should be placed in the stock with the tapered threads too tight, then, after backing off the centre adjusting screw and
(if any) away from the shoulder and the split aligned with the (carefully) turning the outer adjusting screws inwards another
centre adjusting screw. It is next necessary to set the die to the cut is made with the die.
maximum diameter, by slightly slackening the outer adjusting
screws and gently tightening the centre adjusting screw. This The procedure is repeated as often as necessary until a
will ensure that the first cut will be shallow. Failure to do this will satisfactory fit is achieved between the two, mating, threaded
invariably result in a poor quality thread. items.
A shallow taper, or chamfer, must be ground or filed onto the As the internal tapped thread is NOT adjustable, the internal
end of the rod; to assist in the location of the die before cutting thread should be cut first. The external thread, which CAN be
commences and the rod should be clamped firmly, and, slightly adjusted, should always be cut last to ensure the
preferably, vertically in the bench vice with the tapered end desired degree of fit between the respective threads.
uppermost.
Once more, adequate lubrication must be used throughout the

procedure, again, using the same lubricants as used for the
drilling and tapping tasks.

7.3 - 36 Nov 2017
Screwdrivers
The correct engagement of the screwdriver blade in the slotted
Despite the many shapes and sizes which may be met, it can head of the screw or bolt is most important. The most common
be stated that screwdrivers may be divided into two main faults can be seen in the illustration. The end of the blade
groups, which, basically, are: should never be ground to a sharp chisel edge and a blade of
the correct thickness and width should always be chosen.
 Blade Screwdrivers
 Cross-Point Screwdrivers. Screwdrivers of the wrong size can cause serious damage to
fasteners, surrounding aircraft structure and to the persons
Blade (or Common) screwdrivers consist of a high carbon or an using them.
alloy steel blade, mounted into a wooden or composite handle.
The end of the blade is ground to engage the diagonal slot in
the head of the screw. If the blade is of high carbon steel, it will
be hardened and tempered.
Screwdrivers in this category are classified by type and by the

length of blade, which can be from approximately 35 mm (1.5
in) to 300 mm (12 in) long, although special screwdrivers can be
obtained with blade lengths of 500 mm (20 in).
Some variations may incorporate a reversible ratchet device in

the handle while others may also have an Archimedes’ drive (as
in a ‘Pump’ screwdriver).
All of these features would form part of the classification of the

screwdriver. Blade too Small Blade Correct Blade too Large
Correct Screwdriver Engagement

Fig. 3.23

7.3 - 37 Nov 2017
Cross-Point Screwdrivers have been designed, by the several There is also a wide selection of other specialist screwdrivers,
manufacturers of the different types of screw heads (refer to which have been made to allow certain tasks to be
Fig. 3.24). accomplished. These can include:
These screw heads allow greater torque to be applied to the  Offset (or Cranked) Screwdrivers: which can reach screws
fasteners but, due to the variations in design, it is vital that the with little clearance above their heads (and which may, also,
correct screwdriver be used with each type of screw head as have a blade at one end and a cross-point at the other)
they are not compatible.  Reversible Tip Screwdrivers: with hexagonal shanks, that
allow the shank of the screwdriver to be reversed in the
The accurate fit of cross-point screwdrivers into the recess in handle to provide a different tip, with a blade at one end and
the respective screw head is essential if damage is to be a cross-point at the other end of the hexagonal shank
prevented.  Interchangeable Tip Screwdrivers: which have a selection of
socket-like tips that can be interchanged to suit any
particular type of screw head.
Reed and Price Phillips Posidrive Triwing
Various Types of Cross-Point Screwdrivers

Fig. 3.24

7.3 - 38 Nov 2017
Pliers
 Wire-Locking Pliers: which are used for the specific task of
Pliers are classified by type and overall length and usually made gripping wire, during the wire-locking of components. Due to
from alloy steel, with an insulated handle. They are designed for their integral Archimedes’ screw, they are also able to spin
gripping, bending or moving small items that cannot be easily and so twist two wires, so that a neat and tight wire-locking
handled with the fingers. Some of the many types, that are is obtained.
available for a variety of purposes, include:
 Circlip Pliers: these may be found in two basic forms
 Side-Cutting Pliers: which are the general-purpose type, and (Internal and External). Both types have pins on the ends of
are useful for the installation and removal of split pins. They the jaws, which are used to install and remove circlips from
also have a facility for cutting wire around (and from within) components. The mechanisms are
designed so that, squeezing the handles together, either
 Round-Nosed Pliers: which are useful for putting small results in the jaw pins coming together, (Internal), or
radius bends into wire in addition to a variety of other tasks spreading apart (External).
 Flat-Nosed Pliers: which, because the jaws are much There are other groups of gripping tools that could, loosely be
thinner, may be used for many small holding and bending called pliers, but they usually go under the names of grips or
tasks, that are not possible with the side-cutting pliers clamps. These include ‘Mole’-type Grips: which can be locked,
holding a component, freeing up the operator’s hand for other
 Needle-Nosed Pliers: which have finely pointed jaws and work, Pipe Clamps, which can be used for gripping pipe unions,
can be used in electrical and electronic work, that involves and Slip-Joint (or Water Pump) Pliers that can have several,
holding small components and thin wires. Needle-nosed different gripping ranges, due to their multi-pivot mechanisms.
pliers may, sometimes, have the jaws turned at right angles
to the handles, to allow the operator to see the work being
held

7.3 - 39 Nov 2017
Spanners, Sockets and Wrenches

The British Standard system uses Imperial units (fractions of an
The commonest spanners are those which are used on the inch etc.) and embraces two of the three main thread systems,
standard hexagonal heads of bolts, nuts, screws and similarly used in British engineering, one of which is no longer used in
shaped fastening devices. aircraft engineering.
Other spanners are often referred to as special or non-standard The sizing, on BS spanners, relates to the nominal diameter of
spanners, and are used on different types of screw thread the nut, bolt or stud, upon which the spanner is to be used. For
fastenings. Some of these special spanners have a limited example, a spanner marked as ½ BS indicates that the spanner
application, whilst others are specifically produced for a is used on a ½" diameter bolt (nut, stud etc.), although the
particular component, and will only be found in special toolkits actual distance across the jaws of this spanner would be 0.820".
applicable to that component.
Most spanners are manufactured from case-hardened mild

steel, hardened and tempered high-carbon steel or alloy-steel,
though there are some which are made from copper alloys, BS and BA
where spark-resistant tools are required. (Imperial) Dimensions
The size of a spanner, is either marked on the jaw face, or on

the shank, in the units of the type of thread system being used
on the fastening device.
The units, shown on a particular spanner, however, relate to

different parts of the fastening devices (refer to Fig. 3.25), so a American/Unified (Imperial)
knowledge of the spanner sizing systems is necessary. The two and Metric Dimensions
main sizing systems are those of the:
 British Standard Institution (BS) and British Association (BA)

Imperial system
 American/Unified (Imperial) and the Metric system. Spanner Sizing Systems
Fig. 3.25

7.3 - 40 Nov 2017
Earlier BS spanners can be found with two figures stamped In some instances, the correct tool size may be quoted in the
adjacent to each other (e.g. 7/16 BSW 1/2 BSF). The BSW figure maintenance manual. This must be strictly followed.
relates to the Whitworth thread system, which is not used on
aircraft, due to its tendency to loosen when subjected to
vibration. The BSF refers to the British Standard Fine thread
but, to avoid confusion, the older system has now been brought
into line with the BS system, so that a ½" BS (BSF) spanner can
(for general engineering purposes) also be used on a ½"
Whitworth bolt/nut combination.
British Association (the third British thread system) sizes, also

use Imperial measurements, and, although they are in decimal
fractions of an inch, they are represented by a whole number
(2BA, 4BA, 6BA and so on) which again relates to the nominal
diameter of the fastening device.
The American Fine and Unified thread systems, also use

Imperial measurements. The sizes, stamped on spanners, refer
to the dimensions across the spanner jaws (or across the flats (BOX END SPANNER)
of the hexagon of the fastening device). A spanner marked ½"
A/F, would be used on a bolt with an actual diameter of 5/16".
Metric spanners are marked with a number also denoting the

width (millimetres) across the flats, of the hexagon shaped
fastener on which it is used.
It is important that the correct procedure is followed to avoid

incorrect tools being used to install or remove a nut, bolt, stud or
any other fastening device. (COMBINATION SPANNER)

7.3 - 41 Nov 2017
There are so many tool catalogues, crammed with a bewildering spanner. This aperture is usually bi-hexagonal, to facilitate the
range of tools that it is impossible to include so many in these use of the spanner when angular movement is restricted.
course notes. Some of the more common spanners and
wrenches (in addition to the previously-mentioned tools), which Ring spanners are usually supplied in double-ended form, to fit
are liable to be found in the average toolkit, of an aircraft nuts and bolts of consecutive sizes. The ends are normally
maintenance technician, include such general tools as: offset but straight (and also cranked) types of ring spanners can
be obtained.
 ‘Set’ (Open-Jaw) Spanners
 Ring Spanners Flare Nut spanners are designed with a gap in the ring, which
 Flare Nut Spanners. allows the spanner to be placed over a pipeline or electrical
 Sockets loom, and then to be moved onto the hexagon of the union nut
 Allen Keys or plug.
 Torque Wrenches.
Sockets spanners (but, more commonly, simply referred to as
The Set or Open-Jaw spanners are usually made in double- sockets) typically, have a six- or twelve-pointed opening,
ended form, to provide two available sizes in one tool. designed to enclose different sized nuts and bolt heads in one
end, with a square hole, for the standard ‘T’ bar driver (or an
The open jaws are ‘set’ at an angle (usually 15°) to the axis of alternative turning device), in the other end.
the shank, which is a useful feature, because (when replacing
nuts and bolts in restricted spaces), by turning the spanner Socket sets are available in a variety of drive sizes. However, in
over, the nut or bolt can be approached from a different angle. aircraft maintenance, the ¼" square drive and the 3/8" square
They are not, however, totally satisfactory devices, as the jaws drive are the most popular. Other sizes available are the ½", ¾"
only bear against two of the available six flats of the hexagon. and 1" square drives.
There is always the tendency for the jaws to spring open when Sockets are available in both Imperial and Metric sizes (though
force is applied to the spanner. the drive sizes tend to be quoted in Imperial units) and can be
used with several accessories, which greatly facilitate the use of
Ring spanners are preferred to set spanners as they give full the sockets and extend the range of their application.
enclosure of the hexagonal head of the nut or bolt, each corner
of which engages snugly within an angle in the aperture of the

7.3 - 42 Nov 2017
The socket spanners are usually supplied in complete sets, of Speed braces can have a socket or screwdriver blade ‘snapped’
incremental sizes to suit various tasks. Deep sockets are used onto their ends. They are normally used to turn down nuts or
where a bolt extends further through a nut than normal, screws, which have many threads before they tighten-up. Final
preventing the use of a standard socket. They are also used to tightening is completed using either a ‘T’ bar, a ratchet handle
remove spark plugs from piston-type aero engines. or (more usually) a torque wrench.
The main accessories, supplied with socket sets, can (in Extension bars are used where access for a standard drive
addition to the standard T’ bar driver) include: handle is restricted. Extension bars are made from forged alloy
steel and come in a range of nominal lengths from 50 mm (2 in)
 Ratchet Handles to 1 m (39 in).
 Drive Bars
 Speed Braces Universal joints allow tightening of nuts, bolts and screws where
 Extension Bars it is not possible to obtain access in a straight line. They
 Universal Joints function better if the angle they are working through is not too
 Converter/Adapters. great.
Ratchet handles allow the turning to continue, even if the space Converter/Adapters allow sockets from one type of drive to be
does not allow full rotation of the normal ‘T’ bar driver. Most used with another type. For example, a 3/8" drive socket with a
1
ratchets are reversible, either by the use of a selector lever or /4" drive ratchet would use a ‘step-up’ or ‘step-down’ adapter.
by the square drive being able to be ‘floated’ through the Care must be taken, when using larger drive equipment on
mechanism, to be available on both sides of the ratchet handle. smaller sockets, that the nuts or screws are not over tightened.
Drive bars are usually produced with long handles and so,
should normally be used only to break the ‘stick’ of a tight nut
and not for tightening up. These are also known as breaker bars
or knuckle bars.
Universal Joint

7.3 - 43 Nov 2017
Extension Bar Speed Brace
Ratchet handle
Drive Bar

7.3 - 44 Nov 2017
Converter/Adapter
Certain bolts and screws, are sunk (or set) below the surface of
a component and are used for locking purposes. These set- Allen Keys
bolts and set- screws have a hexagonal recess in their heads
and the tool used for tightening and loosening these bolts and The holding power, of a threaded fastener is greatly increased,
screws is the Allen Key (also called Allen Wrenches). when it is placed under an initial tensile load that is greater than
the loads to which the fastener is, normally, subjected. This task
Allen Keys are made from hexagonal-section, steel bar, suitably is accomplished, by tightening a bolt or nut, to a pre-determined
hardened and tempered and are cranked at 90 to give the torque or pre-load.
desired leverage. Allen keys are supplied in a variety of sizes to
locate with the recesses in the various screws and bolts. They If a fastener is under-torqued, there is danger of the joint being
are classified (in Metric or Imperial units), by the dimension subjected to unnecessary loads, leading to premature failure.
across the flats of the hexagon bar from which they are made. When a fastener is over-torqued then the threads are over
stressed and can fail.

7.3 - 45 Nov 2017
A Torque Wrench is a precision tool that governs the amount of There are, again, many different designs of torque wrenches, so
force applied to a fastener and allows accurate torque values to consideration is given here only to three basic types of torque
be applied consistently. Under controlled conditions, the amount wrench. They are the:
of force required to turn a fastener is directly related to the
tensile stress within the fastener.  Deflecting Beam
 Torsion Bar
The amount of torque is the product of the turning force  Toggle Type.
multiplied by the distance between the centre of the fastener
and the point at which the force is applied (usually the length of The Deflecting Beam torque wrench, has a square drive, on one
the wrench handle). Table 4 shows various units of torque, end of an accurately-ground beam, with a handle, mounted on a
including Imperial, Metric and SI values. pivot, at the other end.
A pointer is attached to the square drive end of the beam, whilst

a scale is attached to the beam near the handle. When a force
Table 4 is applied to the handle, the beam bends and the pointer
Various Units of Torque deflects over the scale. The deflection is directly proportional to
the torque applied.
Imperial Metric SI
pound force foot kilogram force metre Newton metre The Torsion Bar torque wrench, uses the principle that a bar
(lbf.ft) (kgf.m) (Nm) accurately deflects in torsion, as well as bending, when a force
pound force inch kilogram force centi-Newton is applied. The square drive is accurately ground and has a rack
(lbf.in) centimetre metre gear on one end.
(kgf.cm) (cNm)
When the bar is twisted, the rack moves across a pinion gear in
a dial indicator, which shows the amount of bar deflection. The
dial is calibrated in units of torque.

7.3 - 46 Nov 2017
The Toggle type of torque wrench, is pre-set to the desired

torque before it is put on a fastener. When this pre-set torque is
reached, a sound (a click), is heard and the handle releases a
few degrees, indicating that the set torque value has been
exerted. Once this release occurs, then all force is removed.
Deflecting Beam
Note; When a castellated nut is being torque loaded, it must,
first, be torqued to the lowest value of the given torque range.
The torque may then be increased until the holes are in line, but
before the maximum torque value is reached.
Torsion Bar
Toggle Type

7.3 - 47 Nov 2017
COMMON POWER TOOLS

 Machinery is checked for any “Warning” notices
Powered tools have to be treated with respect because they can indicating it is unsafe for use.
injure, and in exceptional cases, can cause death if they are
incorrectly operated. Before using any powered machine/tool, Possibly the most common method of powering tools is through
personnel must make sure that: the use of electricity, which is readily available from the ac
mains supply and can also be provided from portable, dc
 They have been properly trained and are currently batteries.
authorised to use it
However, because of the fire hazard, associated with the
 All protective guards and fences are securely in operation of electrically powered tools, and where there is a
place possibility of flammable vapours being present, pneumatically
powered hand tools are provided for aircraft maintenance tasks,
 No part of the body or clothing can come into contact such as drilling, cutting, shaping, screw driving, riveting, nut
with moving parts running and setting.
 Protective clothing is fastened and neck ties (if worn) As previously mentioned, these pneumatic tools may be
tucked in or removed operated from a fixed air supply gallery, in a workshop or
hangar, or from a mobile air compressor.
 All rings and other jewellery are removed
Electrically Powered Pillar Drills
 Safety glasses/goggles are worn wherever there is a
debris risk Electrically powered, Pillar Drills are used for heavy-duty drilling
tasks, where larger drill sizes and rigid holding-down of the work
 Where necessary, the appropriate fire extinguisher is piece are required.
readily to hand
Pillar drills also have an advantage in that they are equipped
 A safety mat is available to stand on where electrical with a method of altering the speed of rotation (rpm) of the
machinery is used chuck to suit the material being drilled and the size (and type) of
the drill being used.

7.3 - 48 Nov 2017
This flexibility is needed to enable drills of all sizes to cut Electrically Powered Hand Drills
efficiently and safely for different types of materials. If the rpm of
the machine were constant, then the cutting speed of any drill These drills are useful in certain locations when work cannot be
being used would be dependent upon the diameter of the drill. taken to a fixed, pillar drill and where there is no risk of fire from
Small drills would cut slowly and larger drills more rapidly. inflammable materials or vapour. They are quicker than the
hand brace and, when used correctly, can be perfectly safe.
For example, at a constant rpm, a point, on the circumference of
a drill with a diameter of 10 mm, will travel twice as far, and cut
at a much faster rate, than a similar point on a drill, which has a The smaller electric drills have a 6.5 mm (¼") chuck, whilst
diameter of 5 mm. At this excessive rpm, the larger drill would other larger drills can be found with chuck sizes up to 13 mm
become very difficult to control and would, almost certainly, be (½") and larger. This size classification simply indicates the
damaged by over-heating. largest size of twist drill that the chuck will hold.
The speed of rotation of most fixed drilling machines may be Battery powered (cordless), drills offer more freedom than ac
changed, either by means of a gearbox or by a system of coned powered or pneumatically powered drills, but they should not be
pulleys. used in the vicinity of flammable vapours as they are not
considered to be ‘spark proof’.
The work, being drilled, must be clamped in a manner that will
prevent any movement during the drilling operation. Failure to Pneumatically Powered Hand Drills
observe this precaution may result in spoilt work, a broken drill
and it may also cause serious injuries. The type of pneumatic drill, used for a specific task, depends
very much on the access available. Three typical types of
Larger pieces of work are clamped directly to the drilling table of pneumatic hand drills, in common use, are the:
the machine, whereas small items are usually held in a machine
vice, which has smooth jaws.  Straight Drills
 Angled Drills
It is essential to ensure that the point of the drill aligns with the  Pistol Grip Drills.
centre punch mark and adequate cutting fluid (where required)
is applied before drilling starts.

7.3 - 49 Nov 2017
Straight Drills have conventional chucks and keys to accept

twist drills with diameters up to 5 mm (13/64”) and have push-
button operation. These drills can be used for all conventional
drilling operations where direct access is possible.
Angled Drills are available for drilling holes in positions where

access is not possible with straight types. The most common
types of angled drills are the Angled and Offset Head drills
(refer to Fig. 3.26), both of which will accept twist drills with
diameters in sizes up to 4.8 mm (3/16”). Each drill size requires
its own chuck collet, which is tightened into place with collet
spanners.
Pistol Grip Drills (refer to Fig. 3.26), have standard chuck and
key arrangements, accept twist drills of diameters up to 8 mm
(5/16”) and have a trigger operation.
All drills may be found with built-in filters, pre-set compressed

air pressure- reducing devices and a requirement for lubrication.
The air supply is normally via a quick release, male and female
coupling (bayonet type), allowing the tool to be moved from Typical Angled and Pistol Grip Pneumatic Hand Drill
place to place, as the work requires. Fig. 3.26

7.3 - 50 Nov 2017
Pneumatically Powered Riveting Hammers
The two basic types, into which these hammers may be divided,
are:
 Short-Stroke: fast-hitting hammers, which produce light Pistol Grip

blows
 Long-Stroke: slower-hitting hammers, which produce heavy
blows.
The short-stroke hammers are usually used for 3/32" or 1/8" rivets
and their bodies are made from light-weight, aluminium alloy
castings.
The long-stroke hammers may be of either the slow-hitting,

reciprocating type, or may be a one-shot type, that drives the Swan Neck
rivet set only one blow at a time, when the trigger is pulled.
These hammers are used to drive the larger rivets and are
much heavier than the fast-hitting hammers.
Different handle styles are provided for both types of hammers

(refer to Fig. 31). The Pistol Grip and Swan Neck are the most
popular styles, with the Push Button (Straight) type being Push Button or
available for special applications where access is not possible Straight
for either of the more popular styles of hammer.

7.3 - 51 Nov 2017
Pneumatic Miller (Micro shaver) Nibblers
Certain hollow rivets leave a mandrel projecting from the work Nibbler are tools used for rough cutting small-to-medium sized
after the closing action. These are removed, leaving a flush holes in skins, radio chassis, instrument panels and other light
surface, by careful use of a Miller or Micro shaver (refer Fig. alloy sheets. Whilst a hand- operated nibbler can, occasionally,
3.27). The miller has an adjustable stop, to prevent the cutting be found in use, the powered nibbler (powered by either
tool (which rotates at high speed), from damaging the aircraft electricity or compressed air), is the most common type of tool.
skin. Two rubber feet give the tool stability during the cutting
operation. The machine operates by using a reciprocating punch to cut a
groove out of the metal, in small bites or ‘nibbles’. The holes,
When the shank of the rivet is closed into a countersunk hole that have been ‘nibbled’, have to be filed and cleaned
(where the rivet is installed from inside the aircraft skin), there afterwards, to the limit marks of the true hole.
can be a small amount of metal projecting above the skin line.
This excess metal is also removed using a miller. One limitation, of the powered nibbler, is that it can become
uncontrollable, if it is not held securely by the operator. Care
and skill will, thus, be required to take advantage of the benefits
of the tool, namely its fast removal of metal when hole cutting is
involved.
Unforme Formed Milled

d Rivet Rivet
Rivet
Pneumatic Miller
Fig. 3.27 Nibbler

7.3 - 52 Nov 2017
KETTS SAW
The electrically operated portable circular-cutting Ketts saw

uses blades of various diameters. The head of this saw can be
turned to any desired angle, which makes it very useful for
removing damaged sections on stringers and other intricately
designed parts.
Advantages of a Ketts saw include:
 The ability to cut metal up to 3/16 inch thick.
 A starting hole is not required.
 A cut can be started anywhere on a sheet of metal.
 The saw provides the capability to cut an inside or

outside radius.
Although the tool is fairly easy to operate, some basic operating

precautions are required. To prevent the blade from grabbing
and kicking back, keep a firm grip on the saw handle at all
times.
In addition, before installing any cutting blade on the tool, the Ketts Saw
blade should be checked carefully for cracks. A crack could
cause the blade to fail during operation, thereby causing parts
to fly out, possibly causing serious injury to the operator or
bystanders.

7.3 - 53 Nov 2017
Pneumatic Tool Maintenance
The two main types of abrasives, used for grinding wheels, are:
When used, maintained and stored correctly, air operated tools
have a long and trouble-free life. They will not, however, tolerate  Aluminium Oxide or Corundum: next in hardness to
lack of lubrication, nor the entry of moisture and foreign particles diamond, the blue variety of which is the sapphire, while the
introduced via the air supply. These effects can be reduced by: red variety is the ruby
 Silicon Carbide: formed by the fusing together of silica (or
 Draining the oil and water traps in the air supply system at sand) with carbon, in an electric furnace.
least daily and more often if the tools are in prolonged use.
 Ensuring that both the male and female parts of the air Aluminium Oxide (Corundum), abrasive wheels are used for
supply couplings are clean before the connection is made. steel and other ferrous metals of high tensile strength.
 Before using a tool, introducing the specified lubricating oil
into the air supply opening, in the correct quantity. Silicon Carbide (better known under the trade name of
 Before the tool is stored, after use, repeating the lubricating ‘Carborundum’), wheels are used, primarily, for hard, brittle
procedure and operating the tool as slowly as possible, to metals such as cast iron, but may also be used for grinding
distribute the lubricant throughout the tool. aluminium, brass, bronze or copper.
Abrasive Wheels Wheels, which are designated for use with steels, must NEVER,
under any circumstances, be used for the grinding of any other
The most common types of Abrasive (or Grinding) Wheels, materials, and in particular, NOT soft materials (light and copper
found in workshops are the double-wheeled, bench-mounted alloys, wood, plastics etc.).
machines, with a coarse abrasive wheel, used for rapid metal
removal, and a finer grade wheel, used for smoother work. These materials are liable to clog the wheel and, if ignited by a
Protective guards are secured around the moving parts, for the spark, will cause the wheel to explode, with devastating
protection of the operator, and adjustable rests are provided for consequences.
the support of tools, during grinding operations.
A word of caution is necessary here, because of the terms that

are (carelessly) applied to the various abrasives, which may be
used in engineering procedures.

7.3 - 54 Nov 2017
Only authorised personnel are allowed to use abrasive wheels An uneven or grooved wheel will require ‘dressing’ (and,
and, before use, it is mandatory to ensure that: possibly, need being trued) by a qualified ‘dresser’, using
special fixtures and extra-hard tools.
 The machine is securely attached to the bench or
wall Care must be taken, during grinding, to ensure that tools do not
become overheated. Cutting tools (chisels, punches etc.) will
 The wheels are secure, not chipped and have no have their ‘temper’ drawn from them if they get too hot, so that it
excessive bearing play is necessary to ensure that the item is kept as cool as possible,
by the frequent use of water or, possibly, a directed jet of
 The operator’s clothes are not loose or in danger of cooling air.
fouling the wheel
After completion of the grinding task, the machine should be
 Suitable fire extinguishers are available switched ‘off’, but it should not be left until the wheels become
stationary, as this takes a little time and (particularly in a noisy
 All guards are correctly attached and secure workshop), unattended, rotating wheels pose a danger to
unsuspecting personnel.
 The tool rests are set at minimum distance, clear of
the wheels
 Protective goggles, in addition to any safety screens,

are worn
 The operator stands on an insulated mat, where

provided.
During grinding operations, the item, being ground, should be

moved in alternate directions, across the width of the wheel, so
that the grinding area of the wheel will remain flat and true and
will not become dangerously grooved.

7.3 - 55 Nov 2017
OPERATION AND USE OF PRECISION MEASURING External Micrometers

INSTRUMENTS
An External Micrometer (refer to Fig. 3.28), as the name
Precision Measuring Instruments are provided to measure implies, is used for measuring (or testing the level of accuracy
dimensions to a greater accuracy than can be obtained by the of) the external sizes of objects.
use of a simple engineer’s rule.
The standard (or common) external micrometer consists of an
Where the smallest graduation on a rule is usually either 1 mm appropriately shaped frame, to one end of which is attached an
or, perhaps, 1/64", precision instruments are available which internally threaded barrel (or sleeve).
measure to 0.01 mm or to 0.0001”.
Graduated Barrel with Fiducial Line
The precision instruments mentioned here would normally be
found either in a workshop environment or in a ‘clean room’,
which may be part of a company’s Quality Department. Ratchet Stop
Spindle
It should also be noted that, whilst very basic forms of the
different instruments are described, in order that the principles Anvil
of operation be understood, the actual precision instruments,
found in workshops and ‘clean rooms’ may appear quite
different and, in all probability, will possess digital readout Graduated Thimble
facilities.
Locking Ring
Frame
External Micrometer
Fig. 3.28

7.3 - 56 Nov 2017
A partially, externally threaded spindle, located in a hollow, The thimble is bevelled so that its graduations are brought close
tubular thimble, is able to be screwed into (or out of) the sleeve to those on the fiducial line. The bevelling eliminates shadows
by means of rotating the thimble. and also lessens parallax error when reading the measurement.
The body of the micrometer usually has a matt finish, which
The working tip of the spindle has an accurately machined face, serves to reduce glare and, thus, aids accurate readings.
to match the equally accurately machined face of the anvil. The
anvil is located at the opposite end of the frame and, with the The locking ring (some micrometers have a locking lever) is
spindle moved sufficiently, the object to be measured is placed used to lock the spindle, when the instrument is employed as a
between the faces of the anvil and the spindle. fixed (or snap) gauge.
The ratchet stop is used to rotate the thimble so that the spindle The mechanism of the external micrometer is arranged so that
moves until the object is held between the faces of the spindle the spindle face can only move between 0 - 25 mm (or 0 – 1in)
and the anvil. To prevent distortion of the frame and to ensure from the anvil face and, thus, the standard micrometer has the
that the reading is constant when taken by different users of the capability to measure items which are in this range.
instrument, the ratchet stop ‘slips’ (3 clicks!) when sufficient
pressure is applied to the object being measured. For larger items, the size of the frame is simply increased in
successive increments of 25 mm (or 1in). For example, the next
The principle of the micrometer is based on the lead of the size of micrometer would be able to measure between 25 mm –
screw thread. This is the distance the thread moves, either 50 mm (1 in – 2 in), the next 50 mm – 75 mm (2 in – 3 in) and
forwards or backwards, during one complete revolution of the so on. While the frames increase in size to accommodate the
thimble. If the lead is known, together with the number of larger items, the spindle movement (of external micrometers)
revolutions, then the total distance the screw moves can be remains in the range of 0 – 25 mm (0 – 1 in).
calculated.
The circumference of the thimble and the length of the barrel

are graduated to indicate the measurement of the object that is
in contact with the faces of the anvil and the spindle. The barrel
also has a datum (fiducial) line, against which the
measurements are made, from the bevelled end of the thimble
as it uncovers the markings on the fiducial line.

7.3 - 57 Nov 2017
Both Metric and Imperial micrometers (while their units of

measurement are different), are operated in a similar manner.
The Metric micrometer uses a thread pitch and, thus, a lead, of

0.5 mm (two threads per millimetre), so that the thimble moves
over the barrel a distance of 0.5 mm per revolution. The fiducial Thimble (0.01 mm divisions)
line, on the barrel, is marked in increments of 0.5 mm and 1 Fiducial Line (0.5 mm divisions)
mm, with numerals at intervals of 5 mm (5, 10, 15, etc.) to 25
mm. Barrel
The thimble has a total of 50 markings, so that one thimble
division represents 1/50 of 0.5 mm, or 0.01 mm.
30
When reading a Metric micrometer (refer to Fig. 3.29) it is, first
of all, necessary to decide on the number of divisions, on the
fiducial line, which are exposed by the thimble and to note the 0 5 25
division on the thimble which also coincides with the fiducial
line.
The subsequent actions, to arrive at the dimension being

measured, are to: C A = 8.00 mm
B B = 0.50 mm
A C = 0.28 mm
 Note the number of main divisions exposed (as shown at A
= 8.00 mm) Total = 8.78 mm
 Note the additional number of sub-divisions (as shown at B Metric Micrometer Reading
= 0.50 mm) Fig. 3.29
 Note the number of divisions on the thimble (as shown at C
= 0.28 mm)
 Add all the numbers together to provide the total dimension
(8.78 mm).

7.3 - 58 Nov 2017
Imperial Micrometers measure in decimals of an inch. Their In this example the total dimension would be 0.400” + 0.075” +
screw threads have forty threads per inch, giving a ‘lead’ of 1/40" 0.008” = 0.483”.
(0.025"), which is the length of each sub-division on the fiducial
line and represents one revolution of the thimble. To ensure the integrity of any dimensions it is imperative that
the faces of the spindles and anvils of micrometers are kept
The thimble circumference is, now, divided into only 25 equal scrupulously clean.
divisions, making one division read 1/25 of 1/40”, which equals
1
/1000” (or 0.001") movement of the spindle. Micrometers should be stored in a protective case, preferably
with a sachet of desiccant (or VPI paper) and not used in
Barrel markings are made at each tenth of an inch (1, 2, 3, 4, extremes of temperature (the temperature of a standards room
etc) with four sub-divisions between each main mark. is usually maintained at 20°C).
Again, in a similar manner to the Metric micrometer, when Never store a micrometer with its spindle and anvil in contact.
taking a dimension, it is necessary to deduce the number of Changes in temperature will cause distortion of the frame, with
division, on the fiducial line, exposed by the thimble. Next note the obvious consequences.
the mark on the thimble which aligns with the fiducial line and
follow similar actions to those employed with the Metric Prior to use, the accuracy of a micrometer should be confirmed
micrometer. by doing a check on the zero setting (with the spindle and anvil
faces in contact) and a sample check (using slip gauges or
If, for example, nineteen divisions, on the barrel of an Imperial similar, accurate standard test pieces), of measurements within
micrometer, were exposed, while the eighth mark on the thimble the range of the micrometer.
aligned with the fiducial line, then the total dimension would
consist of: It is possible to do adjustments with special tools, which are
provided with micrometers, but any adjustments should
 Four 1/10” divisions (sixteen 1/40” divisions) on the barrel normally, only be done by qualified personnel, who will then
 Three further 1/40” divisions on the barrel (making nineteen in certify that the micrometer is accurate enough, to be used for
all) aerospace work.
 Eight 1/1000” divisions on the thimble

7.3 - 59 Nov 2017
Internal Micrometers An Imperial, ‘Stick’ micrometer, consists of a micrometer head,

with an overall closed length of only 1½”, a ‘spacing’ collar
Internal micrometers are used for the precision measuring of which has a length of ½" and ten extension rods. The lengths of
internal dimensions, using much the same principles as those the rods increase in increments of one inch, with the shortest
used with the external types. length being ½” and the longest 9½” (e.g. ½”, 1½”, 2½” etc.).
While there are many designs for internal micrometers, to suit The internal micrometer differs from the external type in that the
particular tasks, space (and time) dictates that consideration be thimble travel is only half an inch and so, from closed, the
given here only to the type more commonly referred to as the micrometer is capable of measuring internal dimensions from
‘Stick’ micrometer (refer to Fig. 3.30), which is found in both 1½” up to 2”. For dimensions greater than 2” it is then
Imperial and Metric versions. necessary to close the micrometer and attach the smallest
extension rod (½”), enabling dimensions up to 2½” to be
measured.
Handle
(replaced by a Grub Screw when By adding the spacing collar (½”) with the smallest extension
the Handle is not required)
rod, measurements up to 3” can be made, then, by removing
both collar and rod and using the next rod (length 1½”), it is
possible to measure dimensions up to 3½”.
Collar With alternate use of extension rod and rod/collar combinations,
the Imperial internal micrometer has a measuring range from
1½” to 12”.
0 1 2 With Metric internal micrometers, similar principles are used, but

the dimensions are, obviously, changed and are not directly
related to the measurements used with the Imperial type. The
Extension Rod closed body length is 50 mm, thimble range is 10 mm, the collar
Micrometer Head length is also 10 mm and the seven extension rods are provided
in a selection of lengths, which allow measurements (in
increments of 20 mm), from 50 mm to 210 mm to be made.
Internal ‘Stick’ Micrometer
Fig. 3.30

7.3 - 60 Nov 2017
Micrometer Depth Gauge
Whilst only used in specialist applications, a micrometer depth

gauge is useful when the depth of a groove or recess needs to
be measured with precision.
The device (refer to Fig. 3.31) has a standard micrometer head

(but the scale, on the barrel, is reversed) mounted onto a
precisely ground base. When the spindle of the micrometer is
flush with the face of the base, then the depth gauge reads zero
and the thimble is at its maximum distance from the base.
To measure the depth of a recess, the base is placed over the

groove and the spindle screwed down until it contacts the
bottom of the groove. The reading on the micrometer head
indicates the groove depth.
Micrometer Depth Gauge

Fig. 3.31

7.3 - 61 Nov 2017
Vernier Micrometers In the very basic example (refer to Fig. 37) ten divisions on the
Vernier scale are made to equal nine divisions on the main
Some micrometers (and other precision measuring scale, so that one Vernier scale division equals one tenth of
instruments), have a ‘Vernier’ scale, which enables the nine millimetres (0.9 mm). The difference between one main-
instrument to measure to a greater accuracy. scale and one Vernier division is, therefore, 0.1 mm.
The ‘Vernier’ principle (inventor Pierre Vernier 1580 – 1637)) When the Vernier scale is moved (to the right in this instance),
utilises two accurately graduated scales. The main scale may so that the first of the smaller Vernier divisions is aligned with
be fixed, whilst the other (the Vernier scale), moves parallel to the first main-scale division, the zeros will be displaced by
the main scale (refer to Fig. 3.32), or, depending on the exactly one tenth of one millimetre. If this principle is continued
instrument (such as with micrometers), it could be the other way until the second division of each scale is coincident, then the
around, where the main scale moves while the Vernier scale is zeros will have moved exactly two tenths of a millimetre apart.
stationary.
From this it can be seen that, whichever lines on the main and
Vernier scales align, then the zero (or datum) marks will be
0 10 Main Scale displaced by the small amount shown on the Vernier scale.
mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Vernier Scale
Vernier Principle
Fig. 3.32

7.3 - 62 Nov 2017
When the Vernier principle is applied to a micrometer (refer to Care must be taken that it is the Vernier number, which is
Fig. 3.33), the Vernier scale is engraved on the barrel and is, added, and not the value of the main scale (thimble) reading
therefore, stationary. The Vernier graduations are scaled, which aligns with the Vernier line. This is a common fault when
usually, to represent one tenth of those on the thimble, which reading Vernier.
enables a Vernier micrometer to read dimensions to an
accuracy of one tenth of that of a standard micrometer. It may also be found advantageous, to use a magnifying glass,
Consequently, the graduations on the Vernier of a Metric to assist in the reading of the smaller Vernier scale and in
micrometer represent 0.001 mm, while those on an Imperial deciding which lines are actually in alignment.
micrometer represent 0.0001”.
The example shows a Metric micrometer reading, where the

graduation on the thimble scale does not exactly coincide with Ten Vernier Scale
the datum line on the barrel. The procedure for reading the Marks on Barrel.
dimension is to:
0
 Note the main and sub divisions visible on the barrel (8.5) 8
= 8.500 mm 35
6
 Note the nearest thimble reading below the datum line (27) 4
= 0.270 mm 2 30
 Note the Vernier line which aligns with a thimble line (6)
= 0.006 mm
0 5 25 Thimble Markings
 Add the readings to provide the total dimension
= 8.776 mm.
Barrel Markings with
A similar procedure would be followed with an Imperial Fiducial Line.
micrometer.
Vernier Micrometer
Fig. 3.33

7.3 - 63 Nov 2017
Vernier Callipers
A Vernier Calliper (refer to Fig. 3.34), is a versatile precision Jaws for Internal
instrument, used to measure both inside and outside Measurement.
dimensions. In many situations, a Vernier calliper is faster to
use than a micrometer but, possibly, needs greater skill in Main Scale
manipulation in order to obtain the correct ‘feel’ and to, thus,
ensure accurate readings. Callipers, furthermore, have a
working range of up to 150 mm (6 in) as opposed to the
micrometer’s more limited movement.
The Vernier scales on Imperial instruments are accurate to

0.001 inch, while Metric Verniers have an accuracy of 0.02 mm.
With some types of calliper, ‘nibs’ are located at the end of both
jaws. The nib size, which is etched on the jaw, must be added Position Lock
Vernier Scale
to any internal dimensions that have been measured.
Two ‘target’ points may also be found on some callipers, one on

the beam and one on the sliding jaw. These are used to set Jaws for External
spring dividers accurately, when they are being used in a Measurement
comparator mode. The target points are exactly the same
distance apart as the reading on the Vernier and main scale.
Vernier Calliper
Fig. 3.34

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Feeler Gauges
Feeler Gauges have a wide application and consist of a series

of thin, flexible, steel blades in varying thicknesses (normally
from 0.04 mm to 1.00 mm or from 0.0015 in to 0.015 in). The
blades are secured in a protective, metal scabbard, by a pin. It
is important that those blades not in use should be withdrawn
into the scabbard, to prevent accidental distortion, especially of
the thinnest blades.
Feeler gauges are used to measure very small, fixed gaps

between faces. The blades are chosen to comply with the
measurement given in the maintenance instructions. Sometimes Feeler Gauges
there will only be a need to use a single blade whilst, at other
times, a combination of blades may be required to achieve the
given dimension. Feeler gauges are classified by the length of
the blade.
Screw Pitch and Radius Gauges
These gauges are used to check the profiles of threads and

radii, by comparison with sets of blades held in a case much like
feeler gauges. The thread gauges are available in all thread
types and the radius gauges have both an internal and external
radius.

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Go/No-Go Gauges
Where a single dimension has to be repeatedly measured, a

comparator-type of gauge is used which checks, simply,
whether a component is within a pair of dimensions, usually
NOGO
GO
referred to as maximum and minimum dimensions. GO NOGO
These gauges are referred to as ‘GO/NO-GO’ gauges (Fig 3.35)

and, providing the item being checked passes through one jaw
of the gauge, (the ‘GO’ dimension), and fails to pass through the Plug Type Gauge
other jaw, (the ‘NO-GO’ dimension), it is considered to be
satisfactory. Caliper or Snap Gauge
Limit (GO/NO-GO) Gauges

Fig. 3.35

7.3 - 66 Nov 2017
LUBRICATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT A large number of different greases and oils are in use in
aircraft maintenance. All lubricants should be kept clean and
Solid surfaces are never perfectly smooth, as the actual rubbing covered to keep out foreign objects. The correct quantity of the
contact (the friction), between two moving surfaces, is respective lubricant must, always, be used, as over-lubrication
concentrated on a number of high spots on the respective may cause all manner of problems, from contamination of
surfaces. Any load between the two surfaces tends to wear electrical and mechanical equipment, to dirt and dust collecting
away these high spots until the area of contact is large enough on the lubricant residue.
to support the load without further deformation.
Care must also be taken that lubricants do not remain in
During the wearing action fragments of the surface are broken prolonged contact with unprotected skin (and particularly eyes)
away and high local temperatures are generated. The effects as many of them are severe irritants and present serious
are potentially dangerous, in that the fragments can cause hazards to health. Hot oil also constitutes a danger to
serious damage to the surfaces while excess heat leads to personnel.
expansion of the materials.
Lubrication methods
The expansion is likely to cause higher frictional forces, leading
to further damage (due to more particles breaking from the Grease is the preferred lubricant, in certain circumstances, for
surface) and can possibly result in eventual ‘seizure’ and the following reasons:
stoppage of movement. Seizure could have disastrous results in
any moving mechanism.  Where conditions are dirty, dusty or wet, grease will
provide a sealing medium, which will tend to prevent the
Lubrication is a process for reducing friction and wear, through entry of foreign matter into moving parts
the introduction of an unguent between two moving surfaces.  Grease will stay in vertical bearings, whereas oil will
The materials, commonly used for these purposes, are greases drain away
and oils and this topic discusses the various methods and  Grease, packed into a bearing or housing, will provide
equipment used in the lubrication of aerospace mechanisms. sufficient lubrication for prolonged periods of time
 Grease lubrication systems use much cheaper fittings,
and less complicated designs than those required for oil
systems.

7.3 - 67 Nov 2017
Grease, however, has limitations in certain situations, in that Oils are also required to remain chemically stable and to
grease: possess (and retain) a suitable viscosity during their useful life.
In general, every oil must:
 Cannot replace oil when heat needs to be carried away
 Cannot be used where contamination is likely to occur  Adequately wet the surface needing lubrication
 Cannot be used where debris and contaminants have to  Not evaporate too much in service
be washed away.  Not produce gum, sludge or carbon
 Not damage the material with which it normally comes into
Greases (as with oils), are produced to a range of specifications contact.
that depend upon the applications for which they are used.
Some greases have to be water- resistant, while all have to In addition to protecting surfaces from corrosion, other
posses good storage characteristics and be of a specific properties of oils include the previously mentioned ability to
viscosity. A grease, generally, is required to: wash away small particles of debris and to remove heat from
system components. The heat can be as a result of the friction
 Remain chemically stable when it is heated, and of motion, or from other sources such as the heat of combustion
especially if that grease is to be used in bearings that within a gas turbine or piston-type aero engine.
are running at high temperature
 Be thin enough to flow into applicators and spaces, Oil provides lubrication in two distinct phases, which are
whilst having the ability to remain in the desired referred to as:
location
 Resist the tendency to harden at the low  ‘Boundary’ lubrication
temperatures met at high altitudes  ‘Fluid’ lubrication.
 Retain the limits, set on its alkalinity or acidity, to
prevent the onset of corrosion. Boundary lubrication occurs in a stationary engine, when the oil
tends to drain away from surfaces, leaving only an extremely
thin film of oil, clinging to the microscopically ‘rough’ surfaces of
the metals.

7.3 - 68 Nov 2017
Boundary lubrication will assist in the initial movement of one Generally, lubricating oils do not deteriorate during storage, but
surface against another but, if it is not renewed, the surfaces will low-temperature greases can suffer and must be stored in a
slide until the film disappears and seizure follows. cool place. If water gets into either type of lubricant, the result
can be very serious. Water contamination can cause:
Fluid lubrication is a thin, but continuous, film of oil, separating
the moving surfaces, and so preventing metal to metal contact.  Breakdown of normal properties under bearing loads
The oil also acts as a cushion between the surfaces. If,  Oil additives rendered ineffective, giving a tendency to
however, the oil is driven from the space between the surfaces, ‘sludge’
possibly due to excess loading, the fluid film is reduced to  Failure of normal properties due to oil emulsification
almost nothing and again, the surfaces will slide until eventual  Frothing of engine oil, which can cause excessive loss of
seizure occurs. oil through the system vents.
A typical example of oil fluid lubrication would be as found in a Many contaminants, such as rust and dust in suspension, may
typical gearbox in which the gears are immersed in oil or are lead to blocking of oil passages or damage to moving parts. In
flooded with oil from pressure jets. grease, these solids produce a sort of grinding paste, which
wears moving parts very quickly.
Oils in a similar manner to greases, have specialised purposes
which include: When oils and greases are in storage, a number of precautions
will prevent subsequent problems. Good lubricant storage and
 Normal Lubrication usage demands that:
 High Pressure (Gearboxes)
 Extreme High Pressure (Hydraulics)  All containers have their lids firmly secured at all times when
 Preservation and Inhibiting of components or systems. not in use
 The majority of lubricants need to be stored in a cool place
As a general rule, the specification will identify the lubricant that  Different types or groups of lubricants must be kept apart, to
is required for each application. It is not necessary for engineers prevent a risk of cross-contamination
to know the properties of every lubricant, as component  All equipment must be kept totally clean.
manufacturers specify the lubricants approved for use on their
equipment.

7.3 - 69 Nov 2017
Lubrication equipment
Because of the numerous types of lubricants that are available,

the equipment used for applying those lubricants is vast and so
mention is made here of only some of the more typical
equipment, which includes; Pumping Handle
 Grease Guns
Filling Point
 Oil Cans
 Risbridger Replenishing Rigs.
Adapter
Grease Guns cover a wide range of tools, which are all
designed to inject grease, under pressure, into bearings and
other components requiring greasing. One common ‘Universal’
model (refer to Fig. 3.36), - which can also be used to inject oil -
is usually supplied with four nozzles for use with different Grease Bleed Point
nipples. The four nozzles are the:
 Standard: Tecalamit standard sized hexagonal nipples Various Hose Lengths Various Nozzles
 Miniature: Tecalamit miniature sized nipples (Flexible and Rigid)
 Push-on: Tecazerk and similar push-on nipples
 Hydraulic: Used on hydraulic nipples for priming
Universal Grease Gun
Note: If it becomes necessary to change nozzles, it is advisable Fig. 3.36
to prime the new nozzle before its first use.
The gun consists of a barrel that is closed, at one end with a

spring type cap, and, at the other end, by a pump head.

7.3 - 70 Nov 2017
The barrel houses a piston follower assembly. The pump head, Risbridger Replenishing Rigs are a number of differently
which screws on to the barrel, houses a lever-operated piston designed, replenishing rigs, which are normally used to
and a spring-loaded non-return valve. In addition, installed in replenish engine and hydraulic systems.
the front face of the head, is an adapter for attaching the various
nozzles. A pressure- relief valve is also incorporated into the The basic principle of the rigs is that, by attaching a pump
adapter. assembly to normal cans of the correct oil, the pumping action
will draw the oil from the can and deliver the oil to the
For oil filling, the cap is removed, to reveal a light chain. The tank/reservoir of the relevant system.
chain is attached to the piston follower assembly, which is
pulled out by using the chain. Once the pump is aligned head One of the commonest rigs is attached to a can of oil by means
down, the barrel is filled to approximately 40 mm (1½ in) from of integral clamps, which seal the pump and hose assembly to
the top, then the piston is replaced and the cap secured. the top of the can. A sharp blow will puncture the top of the can,
depositing the collector pipe into the oil and the pump is then
For grease filling, the pump head is, firstly, removed. Next the ready for action.
cap is removed and the piston is pulled down to the cap end.
Grease is loaded from the ‘head end’ until the barrel is full. The The hose end will have one of a variety of connectors (such as
pump head is replaced before the cap is finally secured to the bayonet and push-on). These will be of the correct type to
opposite end of the barrel. enable connection to the relevant system requiring
replenishment, and so avoid refilling with the incorrect oil.
Note: All guns must be clearly marked with their contents and,
most importantly, a check must be made to ensure that the gun Note: All engineers must be careful not to attach the incorrect
is refilled with the same grease or oil as stated on its label. can to the replenisher, although most tool stores will employ a
system of labels and colour- coding, to minimise the risk of this
Oil Cans are often used to apply oils, in smaller quantities, to happening. On completion, it is normal practice to leave the can
parts and areas which require more exact lubrication than is attached to the pump (even if it is empty), as an additional
possible with a general spray. Cans are able to apply oil in precaution against attaching the incorrect can at the next
droplets, without spillage, just where the oil is wanted. Oil cans replenishment.
must also be clearly labelled to show the type of oil that they
contain.

7.3 - 71 Nov 2017
OPERATION, FUNCTION AND USE OF ELECTRICAL

GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
Electrical measurements
The basic quantities need to be measured in electrical systems

are:
1 Current
2 Potential difference
3 Resistance
4 Power
Current is measured with an ammeter. Potential difference or

voltage is measured with voltmeter. Basic resistance measuring
instrument is the ohmmeter. However, measuring high
resistances require specific types of ohmmeters. Power is
measured with a wattmeter.
Ammeter
The electrical measuring instruments broadly fall into two
categories: analog and digital, and in each category, there are
various meter operating principles, constructional features, and
specific application instruments which are explored here in the
discussions to follow.

7.3 - 72 Nov 2017
Analog meter operation Control torque (tc)
An analog direct-reading instrument consists of moving system The rotation of the moving system under the deflecting torque
whose rotational movement is proportional to the measured should be stopped when the pointer indicates a reading equal to
quantity. This amount is indicated by the position of a pointer the measured quantity. This requirement is fulfilled by control
attached to the moving mechanism against a calibrated scale. torque, which opposes the deflecting torque.
The moving system is pivoted in jewel bearings that minimize Typically, the control torque comes from a phosphor-bronze
the frictional forces against its movement. spiral hairspring. The torque produced by the spring is
proportional to its angular deflection. If the spring constant is k,
Precaution: The instruments should not be dropped or for a movement of θ °, the control torque will be:
subjected to impact loads. The shaft of the moving system has
got fine pointed ends that rest on the bearings. Even for a
seemingly moderate impact, the pointed ends may suffer
damage owing to the high pressure they experience. When the pointer is at rest, the deflecting torque and the control
torque will be equal and opposite.
The moving system is subject to three types of torques:
1 Deflecting torque or operating torque (TO)

2 Control torque (TC) Damping torque (td)
3 Damping torque (TD)
When the deflection torque is applied, the pointer moves away
Deflecting torque (to) from the zero reading and as a result the control torque will be
generated by a compressed spring or some other control
The deflecting torque, which is also known as the operating mechanism. However, the inertia of the rotor will cause the
torque, necessary to move the pointer away from zero reading. pointer to overshoot and oscillate about the balanced position. A
damping torque is necessary to reduce the amplitude of
oscillations and bring the pointer to steady position quickly.

7.3 - 73 Nov 2017
The damping torque is proportional to the speed of the rotor If the instrument is under-damped, the oscillations will take a
deflection and it is in the opposite direction to the movement. long time to decrease sufficiently. If it is over-damped, the
pointer movement will be slow.
If ω denotes the rotational speed of the rotor, damping torque,
ω∝DT
General construction of electrical instruments

7.3 - 74 Nov 2017
Damping mechanisms Eddy current damping
The following methods are used in producing damping torque: When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an electromotive
force is induced in it and if a closed path is provided, a current
 Fluid friction damping flow. When this phenomenon occurs in a conductive block or a
disc without a clearly defined circuit marked by conductive paths
 Eddy current damping and insulation between them, such currents are known as eddy
currents. In a damping system, these currents will interact with a
Fluid friction damping magnetic field to produce a torque opposing the movement.
Fluid friction damping depends on air friction or liquid friction.
Air friction damping consists of a light aluminum piston attached

to the moving system, and moving in a fixed air chamber with
one end closed. The clearance between the piston and the
chamber walls is uniform and small. As the piston moves in or
out, the air should escape through the narrow gap between the
piston and the wall of the chamber to equalize the pressure on
the two sides. Because the passage of air is restricted, the
differential pressure created by the movement of the piston will
apply a damping force against the movement. This mechanism
is popularly known as a ‘dash pot’.
One type of liquid friction damping system has got a disk

submerged in a fluid pot. As the disk turns with the moving
system, the fluid friction on the disk causes a damping effect.
Another construction has got a vane arrangement submerged in
a fluid. In this arrangement, the plane of a vane is perpendicular
to the plane of rotation; hence increased damping torque can be
obtained.

7.3 - 75 Nov 2017
Damping Mechanisms

7.3 - 76 Nov 2017
Electrical principles Hall effect
Electrical instruments can be divided into the following When electrons flow across a magnetic field, they experience a
categories based on the electrical principles they use to force perpendicular to the direction of the current. As a result,
measure physical quantities: there will be a charge polarization in the medium in a direction
mutually perpendicular to the directions of the electron flow and
1 Heating or thermal effect the field. This phenomenon is known as the Hall Effect.
2 Electrostatic effect The potential difference created by the Hall effect is proportional
to the applied field strength and the current. Semiconductor
3 Induction effect materials can be used a as Hall Effect sensors measuring a
current flow as a Hall voltage (V Hall).
4 Hall effect
5 Magnetic effect
Heating or thermal effect
In this technique, the current to be measured creates some heat

in a resistive element connected in series. The hot junction of a
thermocouple is placed next to the heating element and the cold
junction is formed by a highly sensitive galvanometer. The
galvanometer reading is calibrated to indicate the measured
current.

7.3 - 77 Nov 2017
Hall Effect
Thermal Effect
Operating principles of electrical instruments

7.3 - 78 Nov 2017
Electrostatic effect Magnetic effect
When two plates of a capacitor are charged, there is a force This principle is widely used in general-purpose electrical
mutually exerted upon them. This effect can be utilized in an measuring instruments.
electrical instrument by fixing one plate rigidly and providing
freedom of movement to the other plate restrained with a control A broad classification of magnetic effect techniques is as
spring. follows:
This principle is applied for rotational deflection in quadrant 1 Moving coil meter
electrometers.
a) Permanent magnet type
Induction effect b) Electrodynamometer type
c) Ratio meter type
When a metallic disc is placed in an alternating magnetic field,
eddy currents are induced on it. The eddy currents in turn 2 Moving iron meter
produce a magnetic field. The interaction of the two fields
creates a torque on the disk. a) Attraction type
b) Repulsion type
In induction type instruments, non-magnetic (typically aluminum)
disk is applied with two out-of-phase fields by inserting a copper These techniques will be discussed in detail together with the
shading band in a part of the magnetic circuit. Operation of applications later in this module.
these instruments is quite similar to a single-phase induction
motor. The damping torque is provided by a permanent magnet.

7.3 - 79 Nov 2017
Electrostatic Effect
Induction effect
Operating principles of electrical instruments

7.3 - 80 Nov 2017
Rectifier type meter
A moving coil meter can be adapted to measure AC quantities

by incorporating a rectifier to convert an AC current to DC. The
deflecting torque will be proportional to the average value of the
pulsed DC waveform.
The calibration of the AC scale assumes a form factor of 1.11,

which is true for pure sine waveforms. Any distortion of the AC
waveform will result in errors.
Symbol
Schematic
Moving Coil Rectifier Type Meter

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Electrodynamometer Ammeter and voltmeter
An electrodynamometer is an instrument used for measuring When the moving coil and the field are connected in series, both
the electric power. The basic principle was laid out in an 1848 the coils pass the same current I.
paper by Wilhelm Weber (1804-1891): when the same current
passes through two concentric coils placed at right angles to The magnetic field from the fixed coil being proportional to the
each other, the resulting torque depends on the square of the current I, the torque Td on the moving coil carrying the same
current. current is now proportional to I2. Thus, the instrument can
measure both DC and AC currents, but a non-linear scale will
The fixed coil is in two parts typically, and it can be built with an appear on the indicator dial.
air core to prevent hysteresis losses.
Similarly, a voltmeter can be constructed by connecting the coils
The controlling torque is provided by a spring while the damping in parallel. As the measured voltage V drives a current in each
torque comes from air friction. coil according the coil resistance, it can be derived that the
deflecting torque
Electrodynamometer instruments are less costly and free from
hysteresis loss. The disadvantages are the poor sensitivity and Td is proportional to V2. The meter thus measures DC and AC
the susceptibility to be affected by stray magnetic fields. voltages.
Wattmeter
The most common application of electrodynamometer principle

is the wattmeter. In the wattmeter, the voltage coil is connected
in parallel and the current coil is connected in series to the load.
So, the deflecting torque is proportional to the product of the
voltage and current in the circuit.

7.3 - 82 Nov 2017
Ammeter
Watt meter
Electrodynamometer

7.3 - 83 Nov 2017
Ammeter
If the ammeter resistance is R, the current for maximum
Ammeter is used for measuring current. It is series connected in deflection is Im, and the maximum current to be measured is I,
the circuit where current needs to be measured.
But,
Effect of the meter on the circuit
Ammeter being connected in series, resistance of its coil adds

up to the total resistance of the circuit. An ideal ammeter will
have zero resistance, and will not affect the reading. However,
Therefore,
in reality, ammeter resistance will be a non-zero, small value.
In the illustrated measurement of current, a 1.5 V DC source is

expected to drive a 1.5 A current in a circuit with 1.0 Ω
resistance. If the ammeter resistance is 0.05 Ω, the total
resistance of the circuit will be 1.05 Ω, and the current will be
1.5/1.05 =1.429 A. thus the influence of the meter on the circuit The multi-range ammeters use this technique to offer a number
is [(1.5-1.429)/1.5] X100 = 5%. of ranges on the same instrument.
Extension of the ammeter range Sensitivity
The measuring capacity of any instrument is limited by the Sensitivity of an analog measuring instrument is related to the
maximum current it can admit. However, the measuring range current required to produce full-scale deflection of the pointer.
can be increased by appropriately incorporating resistances in The lower the current, the higher is the sensitivity.
the meter circuit.
By adding a parallel resistor across the sensing element of the

ammeter, some amount of current can be made to bypass it,
and this could be accounted for, knowing the ratio between the
ammeter internal resistance and the shunt resistance.

7.3 - 84 Nov 2017
Ammeter Shunt
Measurement of Current
A multi range ammeter

Extension of Ammeter Range

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Voltmeter
Extension of meter range
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical
potential difference between two points in an electric circuit. The current entering the sensing element of a voltmeter can be
Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion limited by adding a series resistor when a higher voltage is
to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical measured.
display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.
If the voltmeter internal resistance is R, the current for maximum
It is connected in parallel across the two points where the deflection is Im, and the maximum voltage to be measured is V,
potential difference is to be measured.
Effect of the meter on the circuit

The multi-range voltmeters use this technique to offer a number
An ideal voltmeter will have infinite resistance and hence will not of ranges on the same instrument.
draw any current for its operation from the circuit it is applied
upon. Usually a practical voltmeter has got a high internal
resistance.
In the illustrated measurement of voltage, a 1.5 DC voltage is to

be measured with a voltmeter with 20 kΩ internal resistance.
When there is no other resistance in the circuit, the voltmeter
draws a current of 1.5/2X104= 7.5X10-5 A. A current of this
magnitude seems quite harmless. However, situation drastically
changes when some resistance – 10 kΩ in this example – is
connected in series with the 1.5 V supply. The total resistance
now being 30 kΩ, when the voltmeter is connected, the current
drawn from the source is 1.5/3X104=5X10-5 and the measured
voltage is 1 V instead of 1.5 V.

7.3 - 86 Nov 2017
Voltmeter
7.3 - 87 Nov 2017
Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical

resistance, the opposition to an electric current. Micro-
ohmmeters (micro ohmmeter or micro ohmmeter) make low
resistance measurement. Megohmmeters (aka mega ohmmeter
or in the case of a trademarked device Megger) measure large
values of resistance. The unit of measurement for resistance is
ohms (Ω). The mechanical movement of an ohmmeter is quite
the same as that of an ammeter or a voltmeter. But in the
ohmmeter an internal battery provides the electromotive force
(emf) required to drive the current in the mechanical movement.
The principle of measurement of resistance is simply the

application of Ohm’s law. As the circuit emf remains fixed, the
current through the circuit is inversely proportional to the total
resistance of the circuit.
Ohmmeter

7.3 - 88 Nov 2017
Series ohmmeter Shunt ohmmeter
In the illustrated series ohmmeter, the meter movement, the In measuring low resistances, the unknown resistance is
fixed resistance, and the adjustable resistance together produce connected in parallel to the meter movement and the internal
3000 Ω. When the test prods are shorted together, the meter resistance. Now the maximum deflection comes when the meter
experiences the maximum possible current and hence switch is closed and the test prods are open circuited. When
maximum deflection. The maximum deflection in this case is they are shorted together, the meter movement will be short-
marked as zero ohms. Similarly, the open circuited prods circuited and the entire current in the circuit will pass through
produce zero deflection, which is equivalent to infinite the shorted contacts. This indicates that the minimum deflection
resistance. If the measured resistance is equal to the internal of the pointer is equivalent to zero volts. The meter movement
resistance of 3000 Ω, the deflection will be half the full having a resistance of 5 Ω, a measured resistance of 5 Ω will
deflection. The rest of the scale can be calibrated accordingly. produce half of the full-scale deflection. In this method, half the
scale is available for indicating resistances between 0 and 5 Ω.
The adjustable resistance is used as the ‘zero adjustment,’
which compensates for the battery voltage variations.
If the measured resistance is much smaller than the total fixed

resistance, the variation of current for a variation in measured
resistance will not be that significant. Therefore, a separate
arrangement is necessary for measuring low values of
resistance.

7.3 - 89 Nov 2017
Shunt Ohmmeter
Series ohmmeter
Ohmmeter Circuit

7.3 - 90 Nov 2017
Ratiometer movement
In an ohmmeter, resistance is measured as a current, which is If the test leads are open-circuited, no current flows in coil B.
directly or inversely proportional to the measured resistance. However, current flows internally through coil A, and deflects
However, the current is sensitive to the variations in the supply the pointer to infinity, which indicates a resistance too large to
voltage. A decrease in voltage may attribute a false increment measure. When a resistance R is connected between the test
to the measured resistance. The ratio meter movement leads, a current flow in coil B, trying to move the pointer
produces a deflection, which is proportional to a current ratio, clockwise. At the same time, coil A still tends to move the
removing the effect of voltage variations from the indication. pointer counter clockwise. Therefore, the moving element,
composed of both coils and the pointer, comes to rest in a
Ratio meter is an extension of the moving coil principle, where position at which the two forces are balanced. This position
two moving coils, with currents flowing in mutually opposite depends upon the value of the external resistance, which
directions, are wound on the same former. controls the relative amount of current in coil B. Because
changes in voltage affect both coil A and coil B in the same
The magnetic circuit is constructed with some eccentricity so proportion, the position of the moving system is independent of
that the coil carrying the larger current will move into an area the voltage.
with weaker field, and vice versa. This is equivalent to applying
a control torque to stop the movement at an angle, which is If the test leads are short-circuited, the pointer rests at zero
proportional to the deflecting torque. This arrangement because the current in coil B is relatively large. The instrument
precludes the necessity for a control spring in the moving is not damaged under these circumstances because the current
mechanism. is limited by R2.
The illustrated ratio meter circuit consists of two parallel

resistance arms: one with coil A and fixed resistance R1, and
the other with coil B, fixed resistance R2 and the external
resistance to be measured R. The coils are so wound that the
currents flow in opposite directions. Therefore, the torque
produced by one coil will oppose that form the other coil.

7.3 - 91 Nov 2017
Symbol
Circuit
Construction
Ratiometer

7.3 - 92 Nov 2017
Analog multimeter Parallax error
A multimeter, also known as AVO meter, can measure current In reading the scale against the pointer of an analog meter, the
(Ampere), potential difference (Volt), and resistance (Ohm). It is reading depends on the viewing angle, owing to the finite gap
basically a combination of three multi-range meters. The meter between the pointer and the dial. For an accurate reading, the
movement is switched to various circuits using the multimeter scale should be read keeping the eye right above the pointer
switch. A typical multimeter can be used for both DC and AC with the line of sight perpendicular to the surface of the dial. A
measurements. mirror is incorporated in analog meters to help in taking a proper
reading. When taking the reading, the pointer should cover its
In the illustrated schematic diagram, there are separate image in the mirror. At this position the alignment of the viewer’s
switches for function selection (ampere, volt, ohm) and range eye is perpendicular to the dial.
selection. However, typically there is only one knob, known as
multimeter switch, on the front face of the meter, controlling
both internal switches.
The multimeter test leads, or probes, should be connected to

the input jacks on the multimeter appropriately for measuring
electrical parameters. A red probe is connected at the input
jack, and a black one at the ground input jack. Note that there
is a separate input jack position for measuring high currents.
This must be used whenever a current in the range of 3~10 A is
measured. Resolution of analog multimeters is limited by the
width of the scale pointer, vibration of the pointer, the accuracy
of printing of scales, zero calibration, number of ranges, and
errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display.

7.3 - 93 Nov 2017
Probes

7.3 - 94 Nov 2017
Mega ohmmeter Insulation tester
A mega ohmmeter is a high resistance meter dedicated to Instead of hand-cranked insulation testers, battery powered
measure an ohmic value under direct voltage of great stability. ones are commonplace now.
To measure a high value resistance, techniques for measuring
a low value current are used. A constant voltage source (DC The test voltage can be applied continuously or as and when
Voltage) is applied to the resistance to be measured and the required with a switch. In some testers, the continuous mode
resulting current is read on a highly sensitive ammeter circuit comes with a timer.
that can display the resistance value (in MΩ, GΩ, TΩ). A Mega
ohmmeter is also called a high resistance tester, a tera The normal precautions and practices stated under
ohmmeter, a megger, a high insulation tester. measurement of resistance and megger operation should be
observed in using the battery-powered insulation tester.
Mega ohmmeter is also known as the megger.
The illustrated insulation tester has got an additional AC voltage
Mega ohmmeter has got a hand-cranked generator that can measurement feature too.
deliver a voltage of several hundred volts. The generated
voltage is limited to typically 500 V by a slip clutch. The meter
movement is of ratio meter type.
Like in a normal measurement of resistance, the equipment

under test should not be powered during the measurement of
insulation resistance.
Precautions should be observed to avoid electric shock from the

high voltage generated by the megger. Proper condition of
probe insulation should be assured before starting the test.
Never touch the test leads when the megger is cranked.

7.3 - 95 Nov 2017
Megohmmeter
Hand-cranked Megohmmeter

7.3 - 96 Nov 2017
Bonding tester
Bonding tester is intended primarily for testing the continuity of

equipotential bonding connections of aircraft. It can also be
used for continuity testing of other circuits.
This is a ratio meter type ohmmeter with an internal battery. It

comes with a pair of standard test leads, one 60 ft long with a
single spike, and the other 6 ft long with a double spike.
The low resistance coil A is in series with the battery and the
resistance under test through the single spike and the right-
hand spike of the double probe.
The high resistance coil B is connected parallel across the

resistance under test; therefore, it will carry a current
proportional to the voltage across the bond.
The position taken up by the pointer is determined by the ratio

between opposing torques, that is, by the ratio:

7.3 - 97 Nov 2017
Meter and test leads
Meter schematic and test circuit

7.3 - 98 Nov 2017

Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.3 (Tools)

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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 7.3 - Tools

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

An engineer’s rule (refer to Fig. 1) is made from high-carbon

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

A scriber (refer to Fig. 3.1) is used for marking lines on the

Scriber points must be kept sharp and fine by careful ‘stoning’,

Key-seat rules are used for marking-off lines, parallel to the

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Combination Set Scriber

A spirit level and scriber are, sometimes, accommodated in the

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Surface Plates and Tables

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

V blocks are made in (identified) matching pairs, which must

A Surface Gauge, or Scribing Block (refer to Fig. 3.3), is another

The scriber is clamped to a spindle, which can be accurately Scribing Block

Two friction-fit pins, in the base, may be pushed down, to assist

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Dividers are classified by the length of their legs. The points

The points of dividers should be protected, when not in use, in a

Callipers (refer to Fig. 3.4) are a type of measuring device,

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Ball Pein Straight Pein Cross Pein

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Punches The first three punches are, usually, constructed from

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Centre punches should not be used to drive out pins or rivets

Drifts may be fashioned from aluminium alloy, copper or steel

Only steel drifts should be used on bearings, due to the

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Chisels are classified by their shape, overall length, cross-

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

A hand vice (refer to Fig. 3.8) is classified by its overall length

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The hacksaw is the most widely-used, metal-cutting, hand saw.

Fine-toothed blades have 24 or 32 teeth per inch and are used

The blade mountings must be set in the most convenient

Hand pressure should be applied on this forward stroke and

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Sheet Metal Shears and Snips

Straight shears (or snips) are primarily for cutting straight or

Curved shears can be found in symmetrical form, which can be

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

 Hand Half-Round files are mostly associated with bellied-shaped

Three-Square (or Triangular) files are, usually, of the bellied

Hand Round Half-Round Square Three-Square

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Sometimes referred to as ‘Floats’, single cut Hand files are,

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Hand Brace (Hand Drill)

Whenever it is necessary to cut accurate, circular holes in

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

On drills up to 12.5 mm (½”) diameter, the shank is parallel and

The tapered shank usually ends in a tang and this arrangement

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only