PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 3 – Electrical Fundamentals

Category – B Sub Module 3.2 – Static Electricity and Conduction

MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.2

STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTOIN

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Contents
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 3
STATIC ELECTRICITY .................................................................................... 4
ATTRACTIVE AND REPULSIVE FORCES ........................................................ 4
TRIBOELECTRIFICATION........................................................................... 6
ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION AND POLARIZATION ......................................... 7
INDUCTION IN A CONDUCTING MATERIAL.................................................. 7
Removing Charge From Electroscope............................................................. 8
ELECTRIC FIELD ................................................................................... 12
ELECTROSTATIC LAWS OF ATTRACTION ANDREPULSION ................ 12
FIRST LAW ...................................................................................................... 12
Nature Of Charges ........................................................................................ 15
Movement Of Charge ................................................................................... 15
UNIT OF CHARGE .......................................................................................... 16
Coulomb ....................................................................................................... 16
STATIC ELECTRICITY AND THE AIRPLANE ................................................... 16
LIGHTNING................................................................................................ 17
COMPOSITE MATERIALS ....................................................................... 19
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH SOLIDS ........................................ 20
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH LIQUIDS ....................................... 21
AQUEOUS SOLUTION WHICH CONDUCT ELECTRICITY ................................... 21
3.2.14 CONDUCTION THROUGH A GAS AT LOW PRESSURE ........................... 24

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INTRODUCTION
Electrostatics (electricity at rest) is a subject with which most
persons entering the field of electricity and electronics are
somewhat familiar. For example, the way a person’s hair stands
on end after a vigorous rubbing is an effect of electrostatics.
While pursuing the study of electrostatics, you will gain a better
understanding of this common occurrence. Of even greater
significance, the study of electrostatics will provide you with the
opportunity to gain important background knowledge and to
develop concepts which are essential to the understanding of
electricity and electronics.
Electrostatics is the branch of science that deals with the
phenomena arising from stationary or slow-moving electric
charges Interest in the subject of static electricity can be traced
back to the Greeks. Thales of Miletus, a Greek philosopher and
mathematician, discovered that when an amber rod is rubbed
with fur, the rod has the amazing characteristic of attracting
some very light objects such as bits of paper and shavings of
wood.
About 1600, William Gilbert, an English scientist, made a study
of other substances which had been found to possess qualities
of attraction similar to amber. Among these were glass, when
rubbed with silk, and ebonite, when rubbed with fur.
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Gilbert classified all the substances which possessed properties
similar to those of amber as electrics, a word of Greek origin
meaning amber because of Gilbert’s work with electrics, a
substance such as amber or glass when given a vigorous
rubbing was recognized as being electrified or charged with
electricity.
In the year 1733, Charles Dufay, a French scientist, made an
important discovery about electrification. He found that when a
glass was rubbed with fur, both the glass rod and the fur
became electrified. This realization came when he
systematically placed the glass rod and the fur near other
electrified substances and found that certain substances which
were attracted to the glass rod were repelled by the fur, and
vice versa. From experiments such as this, he concluded that
there must be two exactly opposite kinds of electricity.
Benjamin Franklin, American statesman, inventor, and
philosopher, is credited with first using the terms positive and
negative to describe the two opposite kinds of electricity. The
charge produced on a glass rod when it is rubbed with silk,
Franklin labeled positive. He attached the term negative to the
charge produced on the silk. Those bodies which were not
electrified or charged, he called neutral.
It took about 50 years to find out that charges are polarized.
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STATIC ELECTRICITY

Electricity is often described as being either static or dynamic.

The difference between the two is based simply on whether the
electrons are at rest (static) or in motion (dynamic). Static
electricity is a buildup of an electrical charge on the surface of
an object. It is considered “static” due to the fact that there is no
current flowing as In AC or DC electricity. Static electricity is
usually caused when non-conductive materials such as rubber,
plastic or glass is rubbed together, causing a transfer of
electrons, which then results in an imbalance of charges
between the two materials. The fact that there is an imbalance
of charges between the two materials means that the objects
will exhibit an attractive or repulsive force.

Attractive and Repulsive Forces

One of the most fundamental laws of static electricity, as well as

magnetism, deals with attraction and repulsion. Like charges
repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. All
electrons possess a negative charge and as such will repel
Figure 3.2.1: Reaction of like and unlike charges
each other. Similarly all protons possess a positive charge and
as such will repel each other. Electrons (negative) and protons
For example, if two pith balls are suspended, as shown in the
(positive) are opposite in their charge and will attract teach
figure3.2.1, and each ball is touched with the charged glass rod,
other.
some of the charge from the rod is transferred to the balls. The
balls now have similar charges and, consequently, repel each
other as shown in part B of Figure 3.2.1. If a plastic rod is
rubbed with fur, it becomes negatively charged and the fur is
positively charged. By touching each ball with these differently
charged sources, the balls obtain opposite charges and attract
each other as shown in part C of Figure 3.2.1.

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Although most objects become charged with static electricity by
means of friction, a charged substance can also influence
objects near it by contact. This is illustrated in Figure 3.3.2.
Figure 3.2.2: Charging by contact
If a positively charged rod touches an uncharged metal bar, it
will draw electrons from the uncharged bar to the point of
contact. Some electrons will enter the rod, leaving the metal bar
with a deficiency of electrons (positively charged) and making
the rod less positive than it was or, perhaps, even neutralizing
its charge completely.
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A method of charging a metal bar by induction is demonstrated
in Figure 3.2.3. A positively charged rod is brought near, but
does not touch, an uncharged metal bar. Electrons in the metal
bar are attracted to the end of the bar nearest the positively
charged rod, leaving a deficiency of electrons at the opposite
end of the bar. If this positively charged end is touched by a
neutral object, electrons will flow into the metal bar and
neutralize the charge. The metal bar is left with an overall
excess of electrons.
Figure 3.2.3: Charging a bar by induction
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Triboelectrification free charge carriers, and so excess charge tends to stay where
it’s put on the surface of an insulator.

Today, the process of rubbing two materials together to transfer
some amount of electric charge is known as triboelectric
charging it can also be said as static charging by friction
between two or more dissimilar materials. This type of charging
is an important factor in the design and installation of electric
and electronic equipment in aircraft. Table 1 below indicates the
relative ability of a material to gain or lose charges due to
rubbing. More plusses (+) next to a material in the chart
indicates a greater ability to obtain a net positive charge. More
minuses (−) next to a material in the chart indicates a greater
ability to obtain a net negative charge.
When an insulator is charged by rubbing it with a dissimilar
material, the charge remains at the points where the friction
occurs because the electrons cannot move through the
material; however, when a conductor is charged, it must be
insulated from other conductors or the charge will be lost.
Walking is one of the biggest sources of triboelectric charging.
Shoe soles contact and then separate from the floor or carpet,
effectively leaving both person and floor charged. Conveyor
belts and other moving machinery are also sources of
triboelectric charging.

In general when two objects listed in the chart are rubbed

together, the material listed higher in the chart becomes
positively charged and the material listed lower in the chart
becomes negatively charged. The greater the separation of the
materials in the chart, the greater the magnitude of the charge
transferred.

We can also characterize how easily charge can flow along or

through a material. Materials that easily allow charge to flow
through them are known as conductors. Materials through which
charge cannot easily flow are known as insulators. We
understand this distinction today in terms of the mobility of
charge carriers within the material. For instance, in most metals
(which are often good conductors), valence electrons are free to
move anywhere throughout the metal, and thus can easily
transfer charge from one location to another within the metal. In Table 3.2.1Tribolectric charging
insulating materials, on the other hand, there are relatively few

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Electrostatic Induction And Polarization
In general terms, polarization means to separate into opposites.
In the political world, we often observe that a collection of
people becomes polarized over some issue. For instance, we
might say that the United States has become polarized over the
issue of the death penalty. That is, the citizens of the United
States have been separated into opposites - those who are for
the death penalty and those who are against the death penalty.
In the context of electricity, polarization is the process of
separating opposite charges within an object. The positive
charge becomes separated from the negative charge. By
inducing the movement of electrons within an object, one side of
the object is left with an excess of positive charge and the other
side of the object is left with an excess of negative charge.
Charge becomes separated into opposites.
Electrostatic induction is a method to create or generate static
electricity in a material by bringing an electrically charged object
near it. This causes the electrical charges to be redistributed in
the material, resulting in one side having an excess of either
positive (+) or negative (−) charges.
This phenomenon is most effective when the object is a
conducting material, such as metals. The only drawback is that
once the electrically charged object is removed, the conductor
loses its charge. This can be solved by temporarily grounding
the conductor.
Certain non-conducting materials can also be given a static
electric charge by electrostatic induction. In these cases, it is
caused by polarization of their molecules.
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Induction In A Conducting Material
In its normal, neutral state, an electrically conducting object
typically has an equal number of positive (+) and negative (−)
electrical charges—such as positive ions, negative ions and
electrons—intermingled within the material. When a static
electrically charged object is brought near this conductor, the
electrical charges on or near the surface of the object attract the
opposite charges in the conductor and repel the like charges.
Plastic rod near metal plate
As shown in figure3.2.4 (a), if a charged plastic rod is brought
near a metal plate, the negative charges on the rod attract the
positive charges in the plate and repel its negative charges.
This creates a redistribution of electrical charges in the plate. As
long as the electrically charged rod is near the metal plate, the
electrical charges in the plate will be redistributed. But once the
charged object is removed, thermal motion of the atoms in the
metal will cause the charges to intermingle again.
Bringing Charge Near Electroscope
Another example is the electroscope. If you bring a charged
object such as the plastic rod near an electroscope, opposite
electrical charges will move towards the metal end of the
electroscope.
In this illustration, the rod has negative (−) electrical charges on
its surface, which attract positive (+) charges in the metal shaft
of the electroscope by means of electrostatic induction.
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The electrical charges in the metal shaft are redistributed, with
negative charges collecting on the leaves at the other end of the
shaft. Since like charges repel, the electroscope leaves push
part, due to the electrical force where opposite charges repel.

The electroscope has not gained any electric charges. They

have just been redistributed, with positive charges near the top
and negative charges by the leaves, as seen in figure 3.2.4.

Figure 3.2.4(b): Electroscope leaves separate because of

electrical charges

Figure 3.2.4(a): Electrical charges in the conductor are
redistributed
Removing Charge From Electroscope
When the charged rod is removed, the electrical charges in the
electroscope intermingle again and the leaves fall back to a
neutral position.

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Figure3.2.5: Electroscope leaves fall back after charged rod
removed
Ground to Keep Charges
You can cause the electroscope to have an excess of one type
of electrical charge by drawing off the other type of charge.
This is shown in figure 3.2.6 by touching the negative (−)
electrical charged rod to the shaft containing the positive (+)
charges or by simply touching the shaft with your finger. This
will result in drawing off many of the positive charges but
allowing the negative charges in the leaves to remain. It is often
called grounding, although the charges aren't really going into
the ground.
You can tell the leaves are still charged, because they remain
separated.
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Figure3.2.6: Electroscope remain charged after grounding
Induction In Non-Conducting Materials
Electrostatic induction can also work in non-conducting or
dielectric materials. However, movement of electrical charges is
much more constrained in nonconductors than in conductors.
Electrons are allowed to move about in a conductor, and that is
what allows the flow of electricity in a metal wire. In a
nonconductor, the electrons are constrained within the atoms,
so separation of charges particles does not work.
However, if the nonconductor consists of polar molecules—that
is, molecule that have one side more positive than the other
side—then electrostatic induction will cause those molecules to
be aligned with positive charges on one side and negative
charges on the other side.
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Figure3.2.7: Water molecule can polarize by electrostatic

induction

For example, the water molecule has more positive charges on

one side of the molecule and negative charges on the other
side. Thus, water can be slightly attracted to a static electric
charge.
A demonstration of that can be seen in bending a stream of
water with a charged plastic comb in the figure below.
Figure 3.2.8
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of charge through direct contact.
Conduction occurs when a charged object directly contacts an
object with a different charge. There must be a conductive path
between the objects.

Let's assume we have a negatively charged metal object and an

uncharged metal sphere (Illustration 3.2.9 a). The uncharged
sphere is on an insulating stand so it will not interact with
anything else.

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We bring the two objects close together. We will see a

separation of charge happen in the neutral object as negative
electrons are repelled to the right hand side (Illustration 3.2.9b).

At this time, they are not touching and no charges have been
transferred. We allow the two objects to touch (Illustration 3.2.9
c).

Some of the negative charge will transfer over to the uncharged

metal object. This happen since the negative charges on the
first object are repelling each other, by moving onto the second
object they spread away from each other. When the negative
object is removed, it will not be as negative as it was (Illustration
3.2.9d).

Both of the objects have some of the negative charge… how

much depends on the size of the objects and the materials they
are made of.
If they are the same size, made of the same materials, then the
charge will be the same on both.
Figure 3.2.9
Total deficiency or addition of access electrons in an atom is
called its charge and the element is said to be charged. The
charge on one electron or proton is 1.602×10-19 coulomb.

One coulomb charge is a charge possessed by a total of

1/1.602x10-19 electrons i.e. 6.24x1018 electrons

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Electric Field
The medium around a charge is surrounded by an invisible field
of force. The region in which the stress exists or in which the
electric force acts is called Electric or Dielectric or electrostatic
field.
A field of force exists around a charged body. This field is an
electrostatic field (sometimes called a dielectric field) and is
represented by lines extending in all directions from the charged
body and terminating where there is an equal and opposite
charge. To explain the action of an electrostatic field, lines are
used to represent the direction and intensity of the electric field
of force. As illustrated in Figure 3.2.10, the intensity of the field
is indicated by the number of lines per unit area, and the
direction is shown by arrowheads.
.
Figure 3.2.10: Direction of electric field around positive
and negative charges
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ELECTROSTATIC LAWS OF ATTRACTION ANDREPULSION
FIRST LAW
Like charges of electricity repel each other, whereas unlike
charges attract each other. Charged objects repel or attract
each other because of the way electrostatic fields act together.
This force is present with every charged object.
When two objects of opposite charge are brought near one
another, the electrostatic field is concentrated in the area
between them, as shown in Figure3.2.11.The direction of the
small arrows shows the direction of the force as it would act
upon an electron if it were released into the electric field. When
two objects of like charge are brought near one another, the
lines of force repel each other, as shown in Figure 3.2.12.
Force between 2 charges each 1Q when they are at 1metre
apart in air: Ɛ0 = 8.854 x 10-12 Farad/meter.
Now F = Q1. Q2 / 4π Ɛ0 d2 by putting values we get
F = 8.9878 x 109 N
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SECOND LAW (COULOMB’S LAW)

The strength of the attraction or of the repulsion force depends

upon two factors:
(1) The amount of charge on each object, and
(2) The distance between the objects.
(3) The nature of medium surrounding the charges

The greater the charge on the objects, the greater is the

Figure 3.2.11: Electrostatic Field between Two Charges of
Opposite Polarity
electrostatic field. The greater the distance between the objects,
the weaker the electrostatic field between them, and vice versa.
This leads us to the law of electrostatic attraction, commonly
referred to as Coulomb’s Law of electrostatic charges, which
states that

The force of electrostatic attraction, or repulsion, is directly

proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them

Consider two point charges Q1 and Q2 placed d distance apart.

Figure 3.2.12: Electrostatic Field between Two Charges of Same
Then the Force exerted between the two charges,
Polarity

If, k is the constant of proportionality representing the

surrounding medium,

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F = k Q1Q2 / d2
The value of this constant for free space is given as, k=1/4πЄ0 Electro statics. It is also a replica for the Dielectric constant,
Where, Є0Epsilon is the permittivity of free space, which is which is the ability of an insulator to concentrate flux on it.
equal to 8.854 PF/m for air.
As we know that
Therefore in free space, C of a capacitor = Dielectric Constant K x Area of the plates
Distance b/w the plates
i.e. C = k A/d
K = C d/A = C.m/m2 = F/m………… (a)

If the charges are placed in any other medium, Similarly in comparison to µ0 = B/H: Ɛ0 = D/E
Then, Where D = Electric flux density = Coulomb/meters (q = Q/A)
E = Electric field strength = Volt/meter = V/d
This is potential drop per unit length or the potential gradient.

The ratio of electric flux density to the electric field strength is

Where, Є is the absolute permittivity of the medium.
called the permittivity of free space Ɛ0, hence
The knowledge of relative permittivity is of importance since in
Ɛ0 = D/E = Q/m2 . m/V
practice the permittivity of materials is defined by this e.g.,
= Q/V x m/m2 since C= Q/V
relative permittivity of air = 1, water = 81, paper = 2-3, glass= 5-
Ɛ0 = C/m = F/m…………………………….. (b)
10, mica = 2.5 - 6.

Relative permittivity or the Dielectric constant of the material

Permittivity of free space:
inserted between the plates, is the ratio of the C of a capacitor
having a certain material as a dielectric to the capacitance of the
The term permeability of free space µ0 = B/H is used in same capacitor having free space or vacuum.
electromagnetism whereas the term permittivity is used in
Єr = Cd / Co = Є /Єo
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Є = Єr . Єo
This is the Absolute permittivity of a medium.
Charge
Static electricity arises as the separation of positive and
negative charges at the interface between two dissimilar
surfaces. If one or other of the surfaces prevent easy migration
of charge, or the conductor on which they reside is isolated,
then this charge is 'static' on the surface and remains available
to influence the surroundings. 'Static' electricity can also arise
on surfaces as trapped ions from the air.
Static charges may be electrons, or positive, or negative ions -
but they are in the basic units of electronic charge 1.602x10-19
coulomb
Nature Of Charges
When in a natural or neutral state, an atom has an equal
number of electrons and protons. Because of this balance, the
net negative charge of the electrons in orbit is exactly balanced
by the net positive charge of the protons in the nucleus, making
the atom electrically neutral.
An atom becomes a positive ion whenever it loses an electron,
and has an overall positive charge.
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Conversely, whenever an atom acquires an extra electron, it
becomes a negative ion and has a negative charge.
Due to normal molecular activity, there are always ions present
in any material. If the number of positive ions and negative ions
is equal, the material is electrically neutral. When the number of
positive ions exceeds the number of negative ions, the material
is positively charged. The material is negatively charged
whenever the negative ions outnumber the positive ions.
Since ions are actually atoms without their normal number of
electrons, it is the excess or the lack of electrons in a substance
that determines its charge. In most solids, the transfer of
charges is by movement of electrons rather than ions. The
transfer of charges by ions will become more significant when
we consider electrical activity in liquids and gases. At this time,
we will discuss electrical behavior in terms of electron
movement.
Movement Of Charge
Although electric current is referred to as the flow of electrons
through a conductor, it should be noted that more exactly, any
movement of electric charge constitutes an electric current.
Thus, passage of electricity may occur through a:
 Conductor such as metal, due to the movement of the
loosely held outer electrons of the atoms.
 Vacuum or gas, due to the movement of electrons.
 Gas, due to the movement of the ionised gas molecules.
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 Liquid, due to the ionisation of certain molecules,
particularly those of acids and salts in solution (e.g.
Electrolytes).
The ampere may be defined in terms of the mechanical units of
force and length, a more helpful picture is that of moving
electrons. When a current of one ampere is flowing in a
conductor, one coulomb of charge passes any point in the
conductor every second.
The ampere is thus a measure of the rate of flow of electrons.
UNIT OF CHARGE
Coulomb is the unit of charge.
Coulomb
We have seen that a current of electricity () is a flow of
electrons but the electron itself is too small to be of use as the
unit of electrical quantity and therefore a more practical unit
consisting of many millions of electrons has been chosen. It is
called the COULOMB (C) and is 6.28 x 1018 electrons.
This is a Quantity of electricity (Q) not a measure of current, but
it is used to define the unit of electrical current the AMPERE (A).
When a current of one ampere is flowing in a conductor, 1
coulomb of electrons passes any point in the conductor every
second. In other words the size of an electrical current is
dependent upon the rate of flow of electrons not a number of
electrons.
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We can write this in equation form.
 = Q/t amperes (A) where t is the time in seconds
Thus 1 ampere of current flowing in a conductor for 1 hour is
equivalent to 3600 coulombs and this is called an ampere-hour.
STATIC ELECTRICITY AND THE AIRPLANE
As mentioned earlier, the effects of static electricity are of
considerable importance in the design of aircraft and aircraft
equipment. An aircraft in flight picks up static charges as it flies
through rain, cloud, snow, dust and other particles in the
atmosphere. This build-up of statics is referred to as
precipitation static.
The amount of charge that builds up in any particular part of the
aircraft depends on the atmospheric conditions to which it is
subjected, and the material of which it is made. If two adjacent
pieces of material are able to build up charges at different rates,
a potential difference will exist between them. Eventually the
potential difference will be sufficient to break down the
insulation and current will jump as a spark between the 2
materials. This spark creates numerous problems; it damages
the materials, it causes corrosion, it radiates radio frequencies
that interfere with radio and navigation equipment and it could
ignite fuel or oil vapor. In order to prevent this happening, it is
essential that all of the aircraft structure and equipment is
interconnected or bonded. Bonding allows small currents to
continuously flow between materials and equipment, thereby
preventing the buildup of large static charges.
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An aircraft often accumulates very high electric charges, not
only from precipitation but also from the high velocity gases
exiting the engine exhausts. When the charge is sufficiently
large, it will start to dissipate into the surrounding atmosphere
from any sharp or pointed parts of the aircraft, such as the
trailing edges of aerofoil sections. The point at which this
occurs is called the corona threshold. The corona discharge
produces severe radio interference and needs to be controlled.
This is achieved using special devices called wicks that allow
the charge to dissipate in a controlled manner from specific
points on the aircraft so that it causes minimum interference.
The subject of static electricity can be considered amusing or
annoying when one suffers from its effects. However, it must be
taken very seriously by aircraft maintenance engineers. The
following are a few points to consider.
 It essential to maintain the integrity of bonding when
carrying out any maintenance work on aircraft.
 You can build up a charge on yourself as you move and
work around the aircraft. Much of the equipment in modern
aircraft is electronic, and can easily be destroyed by you
discharging static through it.
 When an aircraft is refuelled, is the refuel vehicle at the
same potential as the aircraft. If it isn’t, then it could be
possible for a spark to ignite fuel vapour as the fuel nozzle
comes into close proximity with the aircraft. It is essential
that the two vehicles are interconnected electrically before
any hoses or fillers are opened.
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 An aircraft in flight can have a potential several thousand
volts higher than the ground. This charge is dissipated
through the tyres or special straps on the undercarriage
when the aircraft lands.
 When an aircraft is inside a hangar for maintenance it
should be correctly grounded.
LIGHTNING
Lightning occurs as a result of a buildup of static charges within
a Cumulonimbus cloud, often associated with the vertical
movement and collision of ice particles (Hail), which result in a
negative charge at the base of the cloud and a positive charge
at the top of the cloud. Beneath the cloud, a "shadow" positive
charge is created on the ground and, as the charge builds,
eventually a circuit is created and discharges takes place
between the cloud and the ground, or between the cloud and
another cloud. An aircraft passing close to an area of charge
can initiate a discharge and this may occur some distance from
a Thunderstorm.
Lightning strikes on aircraft commonly occur within 5,000 feet
of the freezing level.
Lightning is accompanied by a brilliant flash of light and often by
the smell of burning, as well as noise. A lightning strike can be
very distressing to passengers (and crew!) but significant
physical damage to an aircraft is rare and the safety of an
aircraft in flight is not usually affected.
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Damage is usually confined to aerials, compasses, avionics,
and the burning of small holes in the fuselage. Of greater
concern is the potential for the transient airflow disturbance
associated with lightning to cause engine shutdown on both
FADEC and non-FADEC engines with close-spaced engine
pairs.
Lightning may also occur in Volcanic Ash clouds formed in the
immediate vicinity of eruptions because the vertical movement
and collision between solid particles within the cloud generates
static charges.
Module 3 – Electrical Fundamentals
Sub Module 3.2 – Static Electricity and Conduction
Effects
Aircraft Damage
Structural damage to aircraft from Lightning strikes is
rare and even more rarely of a nature that threatens the
safety of the aircraft.
Nevertheless, there have been many incidents of lightning
strikes leaving puncture holes in the radome and tail fins of
aircraft (entry and exit holes) and damage to control
mechanisms and surfaces.

Crew Incapacitation

Momentary blindness from the lightning flash, especially

at night, is not uncommon.

Interference with Avionics

A lightning strike can affect avionics systems,

particularly compasses.

Engine Shutdown

Transient airflow disturbance associated with lightning

to cause engine shutdown on both FADEC and non-FADEC
engines with close-spaced engine pairs.

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Defenses
Avoidance
Standard advice to pilots is to remain 20 nautical miles
displaced from any Cumulonimbus cloud. The dangers from
Turbulence, Wind Shear, and Icing associated with
Cumulonimbus clouds are far greater than the threat of
Lightning.
Bonding
It is a mandatory requirement that aircraft structure and
equipment are electrically bonded. Specific bonding and
grounding connections are made in an aircraft to accomplish the
following:
 dissipate energy from a high intensity radiated fields
(HIRF) and lightning strikes
 dissipate static electricity
 limit the potential difference between equipment
 Provide a low resistance path for earth return systems.
Bonding connections are made between components and
structure using purpose-made straps, see Fig. 3.2.14.
Bonding is categorized as either primary or secondary; this is
determined by the magnitude of current being conducted.
Primary bonding is designed for carrying lightning discharges
and to provide electrical return paths. Secondary bonding is
used to dissipate static electricity and keep all structure at the
same potential. Bonding straps (or leads) are pre-fabricated
from braided copper or aluminum terminated with crimps
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.
Figure 3.2.14: Bonding
Composite Materials
There is an increasing use of composite materials being used
in the construction of aircraft because of their good strength-to-
weight ratio (compared with aluminum). Composite material has
a high electrical resistance and is intrinsically unsuitable for
bonding earth returns and lightning strike dissipation. A ground
plane has to be integrated into the airframe; this is normally
achieved by bonding an aluminum wire mesh into the composite
structure during manufacture. This mesh is accessed at key
points around the aircraft to gain access to the ground plane.
Direct bonding (Fig.3.2.15) is achieved by exposing the mesh
(ground plane) and mounting the equipment directly on to the
conductive path. Indirect bonding (Fig.3.2.16) is achieved by
exposing the mesh and installing a bonding wire and connector.
The mesh must always be coated after making a connection
since the aluminums will oxidize when exposed to air, leading to
high resistance and unreliable joints. Lightning protection in
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composite aircraft is achieved via aluminum wire integrated into
the outer layers of the composite construction.
Module 3 – Electrical Fundamentals
Sub Module 3.2 – Static Electricity and Conduction
The lightning strike will enter and leave the aircraft at its
extremities; the integrated wires are installed in anticipation of
this and the energy dissipated through the aircraft long pre-
determined routes to the exit point(s).

CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY

Conduction of electricity through solids

The only solids, which conduct electricity, are:

Metals- you can find these on the left side of the periodic table.
Graphite is one of the forms of the element carbon.
Figure 3.2.15: Direct bonding on composite
Structure Nearly all of the other solids in the world - non-metal elements,
solid ionic and covalent compounds are non-conductors of
electricity.

Why can metals conduct electricity?

Figure: 3.2.16: Indirect bonding on composite

Structure
Figure 3.2.17: Movements of electrons

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The conductivity of metals is much higher than that of
semiconductors and insulators because they have many more
free electrons. The free electrons come from the metal atoms.
In metals the charge carriers are the electrons, and because
they move freely through the lattice, metals are highly
conductive. The very low mass and inertia of the electrons
allows them to conduct high-frequency alternating currents
Conduction of electricity through liquids
The only liquid elements, which conduct, are the liquid metals.
At room temperature liquid mercury is a conductor. Other
metals continue to conduct electricity when they are melted.
Covalent liquids like water, alcohol, ethanoic acid, propanone,
and hexane and so on, are all non-conductors of electricity.
Even solid covalent substances remain non-conductors when
you melt them. Ionic substances do conduct when you melt
them.
Why do ionic melts conduct?
Ionic substances are made of charged particles - positive and
negative ions. In the solid state they are held very firmly in place
in a lattice structure. In the solid state the ions cannot move
about at all. When the ionic solid is melted, the bonds holding
the ions in place in the lattice are broken. The ions can then
move around freely.
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When an electric current is applied to an ionic melt the
electricity is carried by the ions that are now able to move. In an
ionic melt the electric current is a flow of ions.
Aqueous solution which conduct electricity
Remember firstly, that water is considered to be a non-
conductor of electricity. It can allow some electricity through it if
a high voltage is applied to it. This is due to the presence of a
minute concentration of H + (aq) and OH - (aq) ions in the
water. However, electrons cannot flow through water.
Covalent substances do not conduct at all in solution. Ionic
substances are able to conduct electricity when they are
dissolved in water.
Why can ionic substances conduct in solution?
The reason lies again in the fact that ionic substances are made
of charged particles - ions. When the ionic solid is dissolved in
water the ionic lattice breaks up and the ions become free to
move around in the water. When you pass electricity through
the ionic solution, the ions are able to carry the electric current
because of their ability to move freely. A solution conducts by
means of freely moving ions.
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Figure3.2.18: Ionic compounds which dissolve in water to form
aqueous solutions will conduct electricity
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTROLYTES
Electrolytes are liquids that conduct electricity. Most need to be
dissolved into water or another solvent. Batteries have an
electrolyte in them, either as a liquid or as a paste. Liquid
electrolytes are used in electrolysis, electroplating, and other
chemical processes. When electrolytes dissolve they release
positive and negative ions. The released ions carry electric
charges between electrodes, in the solution. Cation (a positively
charged ion that migrates to the cathode, a negative electrode)
carry positive electric charges toward the cathode.
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Anions carry negative electric charges toward the anode,
positive electrode. Strong electrolytes release many ions and
conduct electricity well.
Weak electrolytes, like acetic acid, don’t release many ions and
conduct poorly. Non electrolytes, like sugar, release no ions and
form non conducting solutions.
A couple electrolytes conduct electricity as solids. These solid
electrolytes have ions that can move and carry charges without
solvents.
Example The electrolysis of copper (II) chloride solution
The products of this electrolysis are:
Brown copper metal at the negative electrode.
Chlorine gas (Cl2) at the positive electrode.
Happening Hint
At the negative electrode:
Copper (II) ions (Cu2+) are attracted.
The blue Cu2+ ions are forced to accept two electrons.
The ion-electron half equations for this reaction are:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
The copper forms as a brown solid on the negative electrode.
At the positive electrode:
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of electrons near the cathode, called space charge. If anode is
Colorless chloride ions (Cl-) are attracted to the positive made positive w.r.t. cathode, the electrons (magenta dots) from
electrode. the space charge speed towards the anode and collide with gas
molecules (cyan circles) in the tube.

The chloride ions are forced to give away their extra electron to
form chlorine atoms.

The chlorine atoms join up in pairs to form diatomic chlorine gas

(Cl2).

The ion-electron half equation for this reaction is:

Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-

The chlorine appears as a gas with a characteristic smell at the

positive electrode.

Conduction of electricity in a gas

A gas under ordinary pressure is a perfect insulator and cannot

conduct current. However, if the gas pressure is low, it is
possible to produce a large number of free electrons in the gas
by the process of ionization and thus cause the gas to become
a conductor. This is precisely what happens in gas filled tubes.
The current conduction in a gas at low pressure can be
beautifully illustrated by referring to the hot-cathode gas diode

shown in Fig. 3.2.19. The space between cathode and anode of

the tube contains gas molecules. When cathode is heated, it
emits a large number of electrons. These electrons form a cloud

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3.2.14 Conduction through a gas at low pressure
If the anode-cathode voltage is low, the electrons do not
possess the necessary energy to cause ionization of the gas.
Therefore, the plate current flow in the tube is only due to the
electrons emitted by the cathode. As the anode-cathode voltage
is increased, the electrons acquire more speed and energy and
a point–called ionization voltage is reached, where ionization
of the gas starts. The ionization of gas produces free electrons
and positive gas
ions (cyan circles with +ve signs). The additional free electrons
flow to the anode together with the original electrons, thus
increasing plate current. However, the increase in plate current
due to these added electrons is practically negligible. But the
major effect is that the positive gas ions slowly drift towards the
cathode and neutralize the space charge. Consequently, the
resistance of the tube decreases, resulting in large plate
current.
Hence, it is due to the neutralization of space charge by the
positive gas ions that plate current in a gas tube is too much
increased.
Conduction of electricity in Vacuum
Since a "perfect vacuum" contains no charged particles,
vacuums normally behave as very good insulators. However,
metal electrode surfaces can cause a region of the vacuum to
become conductive by injecting free electrons or ions through
either field emission or thermionic emission. Thermionic
emission occurs when the thermal energy exceeds the metal's
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work function, while field emission occurs when the electric field
at the surface of the metal is high enough to cause tunneling,
which results in the ejection of free electrons from the metal into
the vacuum. Externally heated electrodes are often used to
generate an electron cloud as in the filament or indirectly heated
cathode of vacuum tubes. Cold electrodes can also
spontaneously produce electron clouds via thermionic emission
when small incandescent regions (called cathode spots or
anode spots) are formed. These are incandescent regions of
the electrode surface that are created by a localized high
current flow. These regions may be initiated by field emission,
but are then sustained by localized thermionic emission once a
vacuum arc forms. These small electron-emitting regions can
form quite rapidly, even explosively, on a metal surface
subjected to a high electrical field. Vacuum tubes and sprytrons
are some of the electronic switching and amplifying devices
based on vacuum conductivity.
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