Sub Module 3.3 (Electrical Terminology) Final

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 3 – Electrical Fundamentals
Category – B Sub Module 3.3 – Electrical Terminology
MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.3
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B BASIC/M3/01 Rev. 01
3.3 Nov 2017
Contents
INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------ 3
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE-------------------------------------------------------- 4
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.) -------------------------------------------- 8
VOLTAGE -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
THE UNIT OF THE VOLT ................................................................ 10
THE ELECTRIC CURRENT ------------------------------------------------------- 11
AMPERE ...................................................................................... 12
OHM'S LAW ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
RESISTANCE (R) ----------------------------------------------------------------- 14
UNIT OF RESISTANCE ................................................................... 14
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE ......................................... 15
RESISTIVITY ( Ρ )----------------------------------------------------------------- 15
CONDUCTORS ------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
CONDUCTANCE (G) ------------------------------------------------------------- 17
CONDUCTIVITY............................................................................ 18
INSULATORS --------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
THE DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW---------------------------------------- 19
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT THEORY & ELECTRON THEORY .......... 19
CONVENTIONAL FLOW .......................................................................... 19
ELECTRON FLOW ................................................................................... 19

3.3 - 2 Nov 2017
Page Intentionally Left Blank

3.3 - 3 Nov 2017
INTRODUCTION there is very little opposition to current flow in conducting wires,

very little potential difference is required to push the current
Consider a simple closed electric circuit, such as a light bulb along the wires and it is normally assumed to be zero.
connected between the terminals of a battery. There are two Whenever the opposition to current flow is not negligible, then a
energy transformations going on concurrently. Chemical energy potential different exists across that component to push the
is being converted to electrical energy by the battery, and electrons through the device.
electrical energy is being converted to heat energy in the
conductor.
The practical unit for the measurement of emf or potential

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE difference is the volt (V). The word volt is derived from the name
of the famous electrical experimenter, Alessandro Volta (1745-
When charges move from one point to another, it is not the
1827), of Italy, who made many contributions to the knowledge
actual values of potential at those points which are important,
of electricity.
but the potential different (Pd) through which the charge has
travelled. Just as lifting weight in the gymnasium, the height
above sea level is not important, but the distance between the Fig 3.3.1 illustrates the flow of electrons of electric current. Two
gym floor and the height of one’s body. In cases where an interconnected water tanks demonstrate that when a difference
actual level of potential is required, the zero of potential is taken of pressure exists between the two tanks, water flows until the
as Earth and whenever the potential at a point is given, it means two tanks are equalized. It shows the level of water in tank A to
the difference in potential between the point and the earth’s be at a higher level (higher potential energy) than the water
surface. level in tank B (lower potential energy). Between the two tanks,
there is a potential difference. If the valve in the interconnecting
If one coulomb of electricity requires one joule of work to move
line between the tanks is opened, water flows from tank A into
it between two points, then there is a potential difference of 1
tank B until the level of water (potential energy) of both tanks is
volt between them. It is sometimes helpful to think of potential
equalized. It is important to note that it was not the pressure in
difference as a difference of ‘electrical pressure’ forcing a
tank A that caused the water to flow; rather, it was the
current through a load.
difference in pressure between tank A and tank B that caused
In order to flow current in a circuit then a potential difference the flow.
must exist between any two points in that circuit and each point This comparison illustrates the principle that electrons move,
in the circuit must be at a different potential. However, because when a path is available, from a point of excess electrons

3.3 - 4 Nov 2017
(Higher potential energy) to a point deficient in electrons
(Lower potential energy).The force that causes this movement Figure 3.3.1
is the potential difference in electrical energy between the two
points. This force is called the electrical pressure (voltage), the
potential difference, or the electromotive force (electron moving
force).

3.3 - 5 Nov 2017
It should be noted that both emf and potential difference are
measured in the same units; they are, in fact, both differences in
charge potential. However, it is important to realize that an emf
is the force to do work, i.e. cause current to flow, whereas
potential difference is the volts drop as a result of the current
flow. Another way to look at it is that the emf is off-load, the
potential difference is on-load. EMF is generally thought of as a
source voltage such as the output of a battery or generator or
maybe even a charged capacitor. Of course, they all three have
a potential voltage difference across their output terminals.
A potential difference is simply a situation where two different
locations are at a different voltage level with respect to each
Figure 3.3.2
other.
For example, when tire is inflated, there exists a difference of
potential (pressure) between the inside of the tire and the
Electromotive force and potential difference may be considered
outside. When the valve is opened, the air rushes out. If the tip
the same for all practical purposes. When there is a potential
of an old-fashioned light bulb is broken off, air rushes into the
difference, or difference of electrical pressure, between two
bulb because the inside of the bulb is at a lower pressure than
points, it simply means that a field of force exists which tends to
the atmosphere. In this case the bulb represents a positive
move electrons from one point to the other. If the points are
charge and the atmosphere a negative charge.
connected by a conductor, electrons will flow as long as the
potential difference exists.
For all practical purposes, the earth is considered to be
electrically neutral; that is, it has no charge. Therefore, if a
positively charged object is connected to the earth, electrons
flow from the earth to the object, and if a negatively charged
object is connected, the electrons flow from the object to the
earth.

3.3 - 6 Nov 2017
Figure 3.3.3

3.3 - 7 Nov 2017
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.)
To make use of electricity by provision of an electric current, the

potential difference must be maintained. That is, the positive
and negative charge must be continuously replenished. A cell
(or battery) uses chemical energy to maintain the potential
difference. Another device used for this purpose is the
generator, which uses electro-mechanical energy to maintain
the potential difference. The potential difference across the
terminals of the source (cell, battery or generator) when it is not
supplying current, is called Electromotive Force (emf), since this
is a measure of the force available to push electrons around the
circuit. In a circuit with a current flowing, the potential difference
across the terminals of the source is always less than the emf
and is referred to as the terminal voltage.
Figure 3.3.4

3.3 - 8 Nov 2017
VOLTAGE
When the emf, of a supply is concerned, it is one volt if the

amount of energy converted into electrical energy is one joule
for each coulomb of electricity passing.
Voltage is most easily described as electrical pressure force.

It is the electromotive force (EMF), or the push or pressure from
one end of the conductor to the other that ultimately moves the
electrons. EMF is always measured between two points and
voltage is considered a value between two points. For example,
across the terminals of the typical aircraft battery, voltage can
be measured as the potential difference of 12 volts or 24 volts.
That is to say that between the two terminal posts of the battery,
there is a voltage available to push current through a circuit.
Free electrons in the negative terminal of the battery move
toward the excessive number of positive charges in the positive Figure3.3.5
terminal. The net result is a flow or current through a conductor.
There cannot be a flow in conductor unless there is an applied
voltage from a battery, generator, or ground power unit. The
potential difference or the voltage across any two points in an
electrical system can be determined by:
V1 – V2 = VDROP

3.3 - 9 Nov 2017
THE UNIT OF THE VOLT
Voltage is the electrical equivalent of mechanical potential. If a

person drops a rock from the first storey of a building, the When a potential difference between two bodies exists,
velocity it will reach when dropped will be fairly small. However, current will flow when they are joined by a conductor. When
if the rock is dropped from the twentieth floor, it will have current is flowing heat energy is being generated. We know that
reached a much greater velocity on reaching the ground. On anything that has energy has the ability to do work but in
the twentieth floor the rock had much more potential energy. electricity we are usually more concerned with the rate at which
The potential energy of an electrical supply is given by its work is done, which is called power (P). The unit of power is
voltage. The greater the voltage of a supply source, the greater WATT (W). Since voltage is related to this power it is defined as
its potential to produce a current flow. follows;
Since potential difference and emf are measured in volts, the
word voltage is commonly used instead of longer terms. For
The volt is the difference in electrical potential between two
example, we may say that the voltage of an aircraft storage
points on a conductor carrying a current of one ampere, when
battery is 24. This means that there is a potential difference of
energy is dissipated between these two points at the rate of one
24 V between the terminals.
Watt (W).

3.3 - 10 Nov 2017
THE ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current is defined as a flow of charge through a A simple illustration will explain this phenomenon. If we
conductor. There are three types of charge carriers, namely, completely fill a tube with tennis balls, as shown in the figure
electrons, holes and ions. But under this section we will discuss and then push an additional ball into one end of the tube, one
about charge carried by electrons only. ball will fall out the other end. This is similar to the effect of
electrons as they are forced into a conductor. When electrical
In an earlier part of this module it was shown that the free pressure is applied to one end of the conductor, it is
electrons of a conducting material move from atom to atom as immediately effective at the other end. It must be remembered,
the result of the attraction of unlike charges and the repulsion of however, that under most conditions, electrons must have a
like charges. If the terminals of a battery are connected to the conducting path before they will leave the conductor.
ends of a wire conductor, the negative terminal forces electrons
into the wire and the positive terminal takes electrons from the
wire; hence as long as the battery is connected, there is a
continuous flow of current through the wire until the battery
becomes discharged.
It is said that an electric current travel at more than 186

000miles per second (mps) [299 000 km/s]. Actually, it would be
more correct to say that the effect, or force, of electricity travels
at this speed. Individual electrons move at a comparatively slow
rate from atom to atom in a conductor, but the influence of a
charge is "felt" through the entire length of a conductor Figure 3.3.6
instantaneously.

3.3 - 11 Nov 2017
When it is necessary to measure the flow of a liquid through a
pipe, the rate of flow is often measured in gallons per minute.
The gallon is a definite quantity of liquid and may be called unit
of quantity. The unit of quantity for electricity is the coulomb (C),
named for Charles A. Coulomb (1736-1806), a French physicist
who conducted many experiments with electric charges. A
coulomb is defined as 6.28 x 1018 electrons, that is, 6.28 billion
electrons. The rate of flow for an electric current is measured by
the number of coulombs per second passing a given point in a
circuit.
AMPERE
Instead of designating the rate of flow in coulombs per second, Figure 3.3.7
a unit called the ampere (A) is used. One ampere is the rate of
flow of one coulomb per second. The ampere was named in
honor of the French scientist Andre M. Ampere (1775-
1836).The flow of electricity through a conductor is called a
current. Hence, when current is mentioned, it indicates a flow of
electricity measurable in amperes.

3.3 - 12 Nov 2017
OHM's LAW
The two fundamental properties of current and voltage are

related by a third property known as resistance. In any electrical
circuit, when voltage is applied to it, a current will result. The
resistance of the conductor will determine the amount of current
that flows under the given voltage. In most cases, greater the
circuit resistance, less the current flow. If the resistance is
reduced, then the current will increase. This relation is linear in
nature and is known as Ohm’s law.
By having a linearly proportional characteristic, it is meant that if
one unit in the relationship increases or decreases by a certain
percentage, the other variables in the relationship will increase
or decrease by the same percentage.
Ohm’s law may be expressed as an equation, as follows: Figure 3.3.8
I=
where, I = Current in amperes (A)

E = Voltage (V)
R = Resistance (Ω)

3.3 - 13 Nov 2017
RESISTANCE (R)
Resistance is that property of a conductor, which tends to

holdback, or restrict, the flow of an electric current; it is
encountered
in every circuit. Resistance may be termed electrical friction
because it affects the movement of electricity in a manner
similar to the effect of friction on mechanical objects. For
example, if the interior of, a water pipe is very rough because of
rust or some other material, a smaller stream of water will flow
through the pipe at a given pressure than would flow if the
interior of the pipe were clean and smooth.
UNIT OF RESISTANCE
The unit used in electricity to measure resistance is the ohm.

The ohm is named for the German physicist George S. Ohm
(1789-1854), who made Ohm's-law. The symbol for ohm or
ohms is the Greek letter omega (Ω).
The resistance of a piece of material is one ohm if a potential
difference of one volt applied across it causes a current of one
ampere to flow.
Figure 3.3.9

3.3 - 14 Nov 2017
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE Cross Sectional Area (A). Resistance is inversely

The four factors that affect the resistance of a wire conductor proportional to A. Thus if the cross sectional area is
are: doubled, resistance is halved.
 Material. Some materials conduct better than others.  Temperature. Temperature affects the number of free
electrons and hence resistance.
 Length ( l ). Resistance is directly proportional to length,
thus if the length is doubled (other factors remaining
constant), resistance is doubled as shown in figure.
RESISTIVITY ( ρ )
Resistance in electric circuits produces heat just as mechanical

friction produces heat. This is called the heat of resistance.
Normally the heat of resistance is dissipated as fast as it is
produced, and the wire of the circuit may become only slightly
warm. However, if the current produced in the circuit is so great
that it generates heat faster than it can be carried away by the
surrounding air or insulation, the wire will eventually overheat.
This may lead to the burning of the insulation and a possible
fire.
Most materials used as conductors increase in resistance as

temperature increases. The resistance of a few alloys, such as
constantan, change very little as the temperature changes. The
amount of increase in the resistance of a 1 ohm sample of a
conductor, per degree rise in temperature above 0° Centigrade
Figure 3.3.10 (C),the assumed standard, is called the temperature coefficient
of resistance. For each metal, this is a different value; for
example, for copper the value is approximately 0.00427 ohm.
Thus, a copper wire having a resistance of 50 ohms at a

3.3 - 15 Nov 2017
temperature of 0 °C will have an increase in resistance of 50×
0.00427, or 0.214 ohm, for each degree rise in temperature
above 0 °C. The temperature coefficient of resistance must be
considered where there is an appreciable change in
temperature of a conductor during operation. Charts listing the
temperature coefficient of resistance for different materials are

available.
Figure 3.3.11 shows a table for “resistivity” of some common

electric conductors.
Two sections of wire having the same resistance generate the

same amount of heat when they carry equal currents but if one FIG 3.3.11
wire has a greater surface, it can carry more current without
damage because it can dissipate the heat faster than the other.
For example, if one section of copper wire has a length of 1 cm
and a cross-sectional area of 1 mm2, and another section of
copper wire is 2cm long and has a cross-sectional area of
2mm2, the resistance of the two sections of wire is the same.
However, the larger wire can carry more current because it can
dissipate heat more rapidly. The resistance of a standard
length and cross-sectional area of a material is called its
resistivity.

3.3 - 16 Nov 2017
positive electrical connections whenever any change is made.
CONDUCTORS
Some materials have a large number of free electrons

wondering around randomly and these are called conductors.
When an emf is not acting on a conductor, it is assumed that
the free electrons are moving at random from atom to atom and
filling the gaps in outer orbits of atoms deficient in electrons, as
shown in fig 3.3.12. When an emf is applied to a conductor, the
free electrons begin to move in a definite direction through the
material, provided that there is a complete circuit through which
the current can flow. The greater the emf applied to a given
Figure 3.3.12
circuit, the greater the current flow.
The best conductors of electricity in the order of their CONDUCTANCE (G)

conductivity are silver, copper, gold, and aluminum, but the use
of gold or silver for conductors is limited because of the cost. The conductance of a material is the reciprocal of its resistance.
Whereas resistance of a conductor measures the opposition,
The resistance of a copper wire of a given diameter and length which it offers to the flow of current, the conductance measures
is lower than that of an aluminum wire of the same size, but for the inducement, which it offers to its flow.
a given weight of each material, aluminum has the lower
resistance. For this reason aluminum wire may be used where The unit of conductance is either mho’s or Siemens.
the weight factor is important.
Thus,
Gold is used extensively in modem electronic equipment to G=1/R

provide corrosion-free contacts for plug-in modules and other
units, which can be removed and replaced for service or repair.
The black boxes containing complex, electronic circuitry can be
quickly and easily repaired merely by removing a circuit module
and plugging in another. The gold at the contacts provides

3.3 - 17 Nov 2017
CONDUCTIVITY and has an overall positive charge.
Hence, it is obvious that conductivity is the conductance of a

material of unit length and cross-sectional area. Conversely, whenever an atom acquires an extra electron, it
becomes a negative ion and has a negative charge
INSULATORS
Insulators are materials, which have relatively few free

electrons. There are no perfect insulators, but many substances
have such high resistance that for practical purposes they may
be said to prevent the flow of current. According to the electron
theory, the atoms of an insulator do not give up electrons easily.
When an emf is applied to such a substance, the outer electron
orbits are distorted; but as soon as the emf is removed, the
electrons return to their normal positions.
Substances having good insulating qualities are dry air, glass
mica, porcelain, rubber, plastic, asbestos, and fiber
compositions. The resistance of these substances varies to
some extent, but they may all be said effectively to block the
flow of current. If, however, the emf applied is so strong that it Figure 3.3.13
strains the atomic structure beyond its elastic limit, the atoms
lose electrons.
CHARGE
When in a natural or neutral state, an atom has an equal

number of electrons and protons. Because of this balance, the
net negative charge of the electrons in orbit is exactly balanced
by the net positive charge of the protons in the nucleus, making
the atom electrically neutral.
An atom becomes a positive ion whenever it loses an electron,

3.3 - 18 Nov 2017
THE DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW CONVENTIONAL FLOW
It was explained that an electric current is the result of the Of the two, the conventional current theory was the first to be
movement of electrons through a conductor. Since a negatively developed and, through many years of use, this method has
charged body has an excess of electrons and a positively become ingrained in electrical texts. The theory was initially
charged body a deficiency of electrons, it is obvious that the advanced by Benjamin Franklin who reasoned that current
electron flow will be from the negatively charged body to the flowed out of a positive source into a negative source or an area
positively charged body when the two are connected by that lacked an abundance of charge. The notation assigned to
conductor. It is therefore clear that electricity flows from the electric charges was positive (+) for the abundance of
negative to positive. charge and negative (−) for a lack of charge. It then seemed
natural to visualize the flow of current as being from the positive
(+) to the negative (−).
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT THEORY & ELECTRON

THEORY ELECTRON FLOW
There are two competing schools of thought regarding the flow Later discoveries were made that proved that just the opposite
of electricity. The two explanations are the conventional current is true. Electron flow is what actually happens where an
theory and the electron theory. Both theories describe the abundance of electrons flow out of the negative (−) source to an
movement of electrons through a conductor. They simply area that lacks electrons or the positive (+) source.
explain the direction current moves. Typically during
troubleshooting or the connection of electrical circuits, the use The study of radio and other electronic devices has made it
of either theory can be applied as long as it is used consistently. necessary to consider the true direction of current flow, but for
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) officially defines all ordinary electrical applications, the direction of flow may be
current flow using electron theory (negative to positive). considered to be in either direction so long as the theory is used
consistently.

3.3 - 19 Nov 2017

3.3 - 20 Nov 2017

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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 3 – Electrical Fundamentals

Category – B Sub Module 3.3 – Electrical Terminology

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Page Intentionally Left Blank

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

INTRODUCTION there is very little opposition to current flow in conducting wires,

The practical unit for the measurement of emf or potential

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

To make use of electricity by provision of an electric current, the

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

When the emf, of a supply is concerned, it is one volt if the

Voltage is most easily described as electrical pressure force.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Voltage is the electrical equivalent of mechanical potential. If a

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

It is said that an electric current travel at more than 186

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The two fundamental properties of current and voltage are

where, I = Current in amperes (A)

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Resistance is that property of a conductor, which tends to

The unit used in electricity to measure resistance is the ohm.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE Cross Sectional Area (A). Resistance is inversely

Resistance in electric circuits produces heat just as mechanical

Most materials used as conductors increase in resistance as

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

temperature coefficient of resistance for different materials are

Figure 3.3.11 shows a table for “resistivity” of some common

Two sections of wire having the same resistance generate the

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Some materials have a large number of free electrons

The best conductors of electricity in the order of their CONDUCTANCE (G)

Gold is used extensively in modem electronic equipment to G=1/R

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Hence, it is obvious that conductivity is the conductance of a

Insulators are materials, which have relatively few free

When in a natural or neutral state, an atom has an equal

An atom becomes a positive ion whenever it loses an electron,

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT THEORY & ELECTRON

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

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