Sub Module 3.7 (Resistance) Final2

PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Category – B Sub Module 3.7 – Resistance / Resistor
MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.7
RESISTANCE / RESISTOR
ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B BASIC/M3/01 Rev. 01
3.7 Nov 2017
Contents
RESISTANCE -------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Effect Of Temperature On Resistance -------------------------------- 2
Temperature Coefficient Of Resistance ------------------------------ 4
Conductance (G) ----------------------------------------------------------- 6
RESISTOR IDENTIFICATION ------------------------------------------ 6
RESISTANCE BANKS AND STRINGS IN SERIES-PARALLEL 9
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF WHEATSTONE
BRIDGES -------------------------------------------------------------------11
Wire Wound Resistor ---------------------------------------------------- 12
Composition Resistor ---------------------------------------------------- 13
VARIABLE RESISTORS ------------------------------------------------ 15
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION POTENTIOMETER ----- 15
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF RHEOSTAT --------- 16
THERMISTORS -----------------------------------------------------------17

3.7 - i Nov 2017
RESISTANCE The Unit of Resistance
You will be aware that the value of the current in a circuit is not
The practical unit of resistance is ohm. A conductor is said to
only dependent upon the voltage being used but also the
have a resistance of one ohm if it permits one ampere current to
RESISTANCE.
flow through it when one volt is impressed across its terminals.
Resistance may be defined as the property of a substance due
For insulators whose resistances are very high, a much bigger
to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity (i.e.,
unit is used i.e. mega ohm =10 ohm (the prefix 'mega' or mega
electrons) through it.
meaning a million) or kilo ohm = 10 ohm (kilo means thousand).
Metals (as a class), acids and salts solutions are good Inthe case of very small resistances, smaller units like milli-ohm
conductors of electricity. Amongst pure metals: silver, copper = 10 ohm or microhm = 10 ohmare used. The symbol for
and aluminum are very good conductors in the given order. This ohm is Ω.
is due to the presence of a large number of free or loosely-
attached electrons in their atoms FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
Those substances which offer relatively greater difficulty or The factors which affect the value of a resistance are:
hindrance to the passage of these electrons are said to be
relatively poor conductors of electricity or Insulators. Fibrous  The type of material of which the resistance is made,
and different materials have different resistances.
substances such as paper and cotton when dry, mineral oils
This is called the SPECIFIC RESISTANCE or
free from acids and water, ceramics like hard porcelain and RESISTIVITY (  ) of the material and the value of the
asbestos and many other plastics besides P.V.C are good
resistance is directly proportional to  (rho).
Insulators.
 The length of the material  and again the value of
the resistance is directly proportional to  .
 The cross-sectional area (a) of the materials, but in
this case the resistance is inversely proportional to
area (a).

3.7 - 1 Nov 2017
Putting them all together the resistance is given by
Consider the following problem. If the length of a piece of
 material is doubled and its area is halved, what is the effect on
R= ohms
a its resistance? Since  is doubled and a is halved the effect
isto quadruple the value of the resistance. This is all very well
but what materials are we talking about when used to make
To find the value of R,  must be in meters, a - in sq meters and resistances? In the main, there are two types of resistors, those
 , found in tables in physical text books, in ohm-meters. which are made of a carbon composition or those made of
special resistance wire wound on a ceramic former. The wire
wound can be made larger than the carbon and are used in high
current circuits, although it should be realized that the size does
not indicate resistance value but the size does depend upon the
heat to be dissipated. For wire wound resistors the value of
resistance is usually stenciled on the body but for carbon
resistors a color code is used.
Effect Of Temperature On Resistance
Let us connect an incandescent lamp L in series with an

ammeter A and a variable resistor R across a 240 V supply, as
in the diagram. A voltmeter V is connected across the lamp.
Assume the current through the voltmeter to be very small
compared with that through the lamp.
We can obtain the resistance of the lamp by dividing the

Figure 3.7.1. Resistivity table.
voltmeter reading by the corresponding ammeter reading. By
varying the value of R, we can vary the current through the lamp
Figure 3.6.1 shows a table for “resistivity” of some common and thus vary the filament temperature. In this way, we can
electric conductors. determine the resistance of the lamp over a wide range of
filament temperature.

3.7 - 2 Nov 2017
MEASUREMENT OF FILAMENT RESISTANCE AT DIFFERENT

VOLTAGES FIGURE 3.7.2
The graph below shows the results obtained with a 100 W 240
V gas filled lamp having a tungsten filament. It will be seen that
as the temperature of the filament increases, so also does its
resistance and that the resistance at normal working
temperature, i.e. with a terminal voltage of 240 V, is about ten
times that of the lamp when cold. VARIATION OF FILAMENT RESISTANCE WITH VOLTAGE
Figure 3.7.3
The resistance of all pure metals, such as copper, iron,
tungsten, etc., increases with increase in temperature ie. Positive Temperature Coefficient - Metals, Cu, Fe, Tungsten
positive temperature coefficient. On the other hand, the
Negative Temperature Coefficient - Insulators, semiconductors,
resistance of carbon, electrolytes and insulating materials such
electrolytes, Carbon
as rubber, paper, and semi-conductors decreases with increase
in temperature ie. negative temperature coefficient. The Zero Temperature Coefficient – Alloys like Manganin
resistance of certain alloys, such as manganin (copper,
manganese and nickel), remains practically constant for a
considerable variation of temperature.

3.7 - 3 Nov 2017
Temperature Coefficient Of Resistance The ratio of the increase of resistance per degree Celsius rise of
temperature to the resistance at some definite temperature, say
If the resistance of a coil of insulated copper wire is measured 00 C, adopted as a standard is termed the temperature
at various temperatures up to, say, 2000 C, it is found to vary as coefficient of resistance and is represented by the Greek letter
shown in the diagram, the resistance at 00C being, for  (alpha).
convenience taken as 1 ohm. The resistance increases
uniformly with the increase of temperature until it reaches 1.426 In general, if a material has a resistance R0 at 0C and a
 at 1000C; i.e. the increase of resistance is 0.426  for an
temperature coefficient of resistance 0 at 0C, the increase in
increase of 1000C in temperature, or 0.00426 /0C rise of
resistance for 1C rise of temperature is R00. If the
temperature.
temperature rises to t, the increase of resistance is R00t.
Effect of Temperature on pure Metals like Cu, Fe, Tungsten etc.
Hence, if Rtbe the resistance at t,
Rt= resistance at 0C + increase of resistance at t0 C

= R0 + R00t = R0 (1 + 0t)
= R0(1 + 0.004 26t) for annealed copper.
Since α0 = ∆ R / 0C per R0 = 0.00426/1.
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE
This is the resistance offered by a cube of material at 00C. It is

a method of comparing the resistive properties of different
materials. From a knowledge of the specific resistance, the
resistance of non-uniform materials can be calculated.
VARIATION OF RESISTANCE OF COPPER WITH TEMPERATURE

FIGURE 3.7.4
3.7 - 4 Nov 2017
To calculate the resistance of a conductor of a given AWG size,

the cross-sectional area in square meters must be determined
using the conversion factor 1 mil = 0.0254 mm. The most
convenient unit of wire length is the foot. Using these standards,
the unit of size is the mil-foot. Thus, a wire has unit size if it has
a diameter of 1 mil and length of 1 foot.
In the case of using copper conductors, we are spared the task

of tedious calculations by using a table as shown in Figure
3.6.5. Note that cross-sectional dimensions listed on the table
are such that each decrease of one-gauge number equals a 25
percent increase in the cross-sectional area. Because of this, a
decrease of three-gauge numbers represents an increase in
cross-sectional area of approximately a 2:1 increase. Likewise,
change of ten wire gauge numbers represents a 10:1 change in
cross-sectional area — also, by doubling the cross-sectional
area of the conductor, the resistance is cut in half. A decrease
of three wire gauge numbers cuts the resistance of the
conductor of a given length in half.
Figure 3.7.5. Conversion table when using copper

conductors.

3.7 - 5 Nov 2017
Rectangular Conductors RESISTOR IDENTIFICATION
CARBON COMPOSITION
To compute the cross-sectional area of a conductor in square
miles, the length in mils of one side is squared. In the case of a The carbon composed resistor is constructed from a mixture of
rectangular conductor, the length of one side is multiplied by the finely grouped carbon/graphite, an insulation material for filler,
length of the other. For example, a common rectangular bus bar and a substance for binding the material together. The amount
(large, special conductor) is 3/8-inch-thick and 4 inches wide. of graphite in relation to the insulation material will determine
The 3/8-inch thickness may be expressed as 0.375 inch. Since the ohmic or resistive value of the resistor. This mixture is
1,000 mils equal 1 inch, the width in inches can be converted to compressed into a rod, which is then fitted with axial leads or
4,000 mils. The cross-sectional area of the rectangular “pigtails.” The finished product is then sealed in an insulating
conductor is found by converting 0.375 to mils (375 mils × 4,000 coating for isolation and physical protection.
mils = 1,500,000 square mile).
There are other types of fixed resistors in common use.
Conductance (G)
Included in this group are:
Sometimes it is more convenient to think in terms of how well a
material conducts current, rather than to think in terms of how • Carbon film
well it opposes current. Because of this, the property called • Metal oxide
conductance is often used. Conductance is the opposite, or • Metal film
more properly, the reciprocal of resistance. • Metal glaze
Conductance (G) = 1/Resistance and is measured in Siemens The construction of a film resistor is accomplished by depositing
a resistive material evenly on a ceramic rod. This resistive
material can be graphite for the carbon film resistor, nickel
chromium for the metal film resistor, metal and glass for the
metal glaze resistor and last, metal and an insulating oxide for
the metal oxide resistor.
3.7 - 6 Nov 2017
RESISTORS RATING COLOR CODING
It is very difficult to manufacture a resistor to an exact standard when the end-to-center band marking system is used, either
of ohmic values. Fortunately, most circuit requirements are not three or four bands will mark the resistor. The most common
extremely critical. For many uses, the actual resistance in ohms method of resistor value identification is color coding whereby a
can be 20 percent higher or lower than the value marked on the series of color bands around the resistor body show:
resistor without causing difficulty. The percentage variation  Value
between the marked value and the actual value of a resistor is  Multiplier
known as the “tolerance” of a resistor. A resistor coded for a 5  Tolerance
percent tolerance will not be more than5 percent higher or lower  Reliability (optional)
than the value indicated by the color code.
The resistor color code is made up of a group of colors,

numbers, and tolerance values. Each color is represented by a
number, and in most cases, by a tolerance value. [Figure 10-48]
When the color code is used with the end-to-center band

marking system, the resistor is normally marked with bands of
color at one end of the resistor. The body or base color of the
resistor has nothing to do with the color code, and in no way
indicates a resistance value. To prevent confusion, this body will
never be the same color as any of the bands indicating
resistance value.

3.7 - 7 Nov 2017
Preferred values of resistors (First two significant figs.)

RELIABILITY 20% (no band) 10% (silver band) 5% (gold band)
SIGNIFICANT
COLOUR MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE LEVEL% / 10 10 10
FIGURE
1000 HRS
11
12 12
SILVER  10%
13
GOLD  5% 15 15 15
16
BLACK 0 1 18 18
20
BROWN 1 10 1 1.0%
22 22 22
RED 2 102  2% 0.1% 24
27 27
ORANGE 3 103 0.01% 30
33 33 33
YELLOW 4 104 0.001%
36
GREEN 5 105  0.5% 39 39
43
BLUE 6 106  0.25% 47 47 47
51
VIOLET 7 107  0.1% 56 56
62
GREY 8 108
68 68 68
WHITE 9 109  20% 75
82 82
91
Figure 3.7.6 Resistor color code. 100 100 100

3.7 - 8 Rev. 01
Nov 2017
PREFERRED VALUES points. A branch point such as point A or B is common to two or
more current paths. For instance, R1 and R6 are not in series
In order to reduce manufacturing costs, STANDARD resistors with each other. They do not have the same current, because
are made to a range of PREFERRED values. the current in R1 divides at point A into its two component
branch currents. Similarly, R5 is not in series with R2, because
of the branch point B.
This means that a specific resistor may not be readily available,
but practically there is little problem as available resistors may To find the currents and voltages, first find RT in order to
be combined, (by series, parallel or series/parallel connection), calculate the mainline current T as VT/RT. In calculating RT, start
into an EQUIVALENT VALUE network. reducing the branch further from the source and work toward
the applied voltage. The reason for following this order is that
Some resistors use four bands, others use five bands eg: you cannot tell how much resistance is in series with R1 and R2
 Yellow, Violet, Orange, Gold = 47  103,  5% until the parallel branches are reduced to their equivalent
 Yellow, Violet, Black, Red, Gold = 470  102 5% resistance
Table of preferred values
It should be noted that an important advantage of resistor

networks is that very accurate resistances may be obtained in
spite of the manufacturing tolerances of individual resistors
e.g.:47 k 10% would have a maximum/minimum value of
47,000  10% of 47,000 ie 4,700 giving 51,700 to 42,300
RESISTANCE BANKS AND STRINGS IN SERIES-PARALLEL
In the solution of such circuits, the most important fact to know

is which components are in series with each other and what
parts of the circuit are parallel branches. The series
components must be in one current path without any branch

3.7 - 9 Rev. 01
Nov 2017
Figure 3.7.7

3.7 - 10 Rev. 01
Nov 2017
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF WHEATSTONE

BRIDGES This type of circuit is used in test equipment to determine the
value of an unknown resistor by comparison with other
The series/parallel arrangement of resistors shown in the
resistors, the values of whose resistances are accurately
diagram below is known as the Wheatstone Bridge used by Sir
known.
Charles Wheatstone 1802 – 1875 for precise resistance
measurement.
In the Wheatstone Bridge the values of resistors R1 and R2 are
known and fixed. R3 is a variable resistor and R4or Rx is the
resistor whose value we wish to find.
R3 is adjusted until the bridge is balanced, i.e.
VA = VB
no current IA flowing in the zero-centered ammeter which
registers zero amps.
It also means that the current in R1 equals the current in R2 and

the current in R4 equals that in R3. This is from applying
Kirchhoff’s First Law at junctions A and B respectively.
Figure 3.7.8

PTC/CM/COMMON/M3/01 Rev. 01
3.7 - 11 Nov, 2017
I 2 R4 Negative temperature coefficient devices are those devices
1 I 2 R1  I 3 R 4   When the whose resistance decreases with increase in Temperature.
I 3 R1
bridge is Examples of these devices are semiconductor devices.
I 2 R3
2  and I 2 R 2  I 3 R3   balanced
I 3 R2
R4 R3 R 3 R1 R1
3     R4    R3
R1 R 2 R2 R2
R1
and is a fixed, known ratio
R2
eg if R1  25 k  , R 2  5 k  and R 3 is 20 k 
then R 4  5  1  20 k   10 3  100 k 
Bridge resistance measuring instruments have two important

advantages over other measuring methods. The reading does
not rely on the accuracy of reading a meter dial but only on
being able to detect zero current. The balance point of the FIXED RESISTORS
bridge is not affected by value of the applied voltage, this can
be seen from the expression given by equation 3.
There are three general forms at fixed resistor in common use:
POSITIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT DEVICES
 Wire wound
Positive temperature coefficient devices are those devices  Composition
whose resistance increases with increase in Temperature.
Examples of these devices are conductive devices etc. Wire Wound Resistor
Resistance wire is wound round a rod of insulating material,

NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT DEVICES
usually porcelain. The whole is covered in an insulating
material, eg. epoxy coating.

3.7 - 12 Nov, 2017
Wire Wound resistors are normally of low ohmic value and high
wattage rating. The ohmic value is usually printed on in
numbers.
Their size depends on the heat to be dissipated and therefore

the power loading. It is not indicative of resistance value.
They are normally used for the control of large currents due to
their excellent heat dissipation abilities.
Figure 3.7.10
Composition Resistor
Consists of a mixture of granulated carbon and powdered resin

binder fused together. The ohmic resistance value is varied by
altering the percentage of carbon in the mixture. Wire fly leads
are attached at each end.
Ohmic value is usually given by a color code. The wattage

rating is indicated by the size of the body of the resistor. They
are inexpensive and common in electronics due to their small
size.
They cover the range:<10  to > 20 M. They have a low

power dissipation and so are used in low current circuits.

3.7 - 13 Nov, 2017
Figure 3.7.11
A glass core has a resistive film sprayed onto it. The amount of
resistance is determined by the depth of coating of the film,
usually metal oxide or carbon.
The ohmic value is indicated by the color coding around the

body of the resistor. The power rating is indicated by their size.
They also are inexpensive and commonly used in electronic
circuits.
They cover the range: 10  to 1M  and have a power range of

0.125w to 1w.

3.7 - 14 Nov, 2017
VARIABLE RESISTORS
Variable resistors are constructed so that the resistive value can

be changed easily. This adjustment can be manual or
automatic, and the adjustments can be made while the system
that it is connected to is in operation. There are two basic types
of manual adjustors. One is the rheostat and the second is the
potentiometers which are discussed earlier. Examples of
automatic type of resistors are Thermistors and Varistors.
These automatic types of thermistors are Negative
temperature coefficient devices i.e. if temperature increases
their resistance decreases.
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION POTENTIOMETER
A Potentiometer uses all three terminals, so as one resistance

increases the other decreases and varies the voltage across a
load.
NOTE: Four wires are connected to the three

terminals. This component will be of high
resistance, taking a small current and therefore
low wattage.
Figure 3.7.13

3.7 - 15 Nov, 2017
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF RHEOSTAT
A Rheostat only uses two terminals, reducing the flexibility of

the unit to an increase or decrease single action and varies the
current through a load.
NOTE: Two wires are connected to two terminals. This

component will be of low resistance, taking the full
Figure 3.7.14 circuit, current and therefore of high wattage,
maybe needing cooling!
Potentiometers are used to subdivide a voltage across a load.
They are of two types in term of construction:

1- Carbon resistance material:
High R, Silent Operation However heat & humidity
affects
2- Wire Wound:
Low R, High Current Capacity, Noisy. Used in audio
volume control.
Carbon Potentiometers are easier to build with taper resistance

i.e. small resistance variations at the low end and large
variations at the high end, than the wire wound potentiometers. FIGURE 3.7.15
As human ear has nonlinear response to sound thereby for
compensating tapered resistors are preferred.

3.7 - 16 Nov, 2017
THERMISTORS
These are semi-conductor devices whose resistance decreases

as temperature increases.
The change in resistance is not linear, so temperature indication

is only possible over small ranges. The device is highly
sensitive however which makes it ideal for switching
applications such as over or under temperature switching in air
conditioning systems.
Varistor
THERMISTOR
Figure 3.7.16 Figure 3.7.17
VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTORS
Known as the VARISTOR, these are two electrode

semiconductor devices whose resistance decreases abruptly at
a specific voltage. They are used as a shunt component to
short circuit voltage transients that may cause damage to
electronic circuitry.

3.7 - 17 Nov, 2017

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PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Category – B Sub Module 3.7 – Resistance / Resistor

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

RESISTANCE The Unit of Resistance

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Effect Of Temperature On Resistance

Let us connect an incandescent lamp L in series with an

We can obtain the resistance of the lamp by dividing the

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

MEASUREMENT OF FILAMENT RESISTANCE AT DIFFERENT

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Rt= resistance at 0C + increase of resistance at t0 C

Since α0 = ∆ R / 0C per R0 = 0.00426/1.

This is the resistance offered by a cube of material at 00C. It is

VARIATION OF RESISTANCE OF COPPER WITH TEMPERATURE

To calculate the resistance of a conductor of a given AWG size,

In the case of using copper conductors, we are spared the task

Figure 3.7.5. Conversion table when using copper

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Rectangular Conductors RESISTOR IDENTIFICATION

RESISTORS RATING COLOR CODING

The resistor color code is made up of a group of colors,

When the color code is used with the end-to-center band

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Preferred values of resistors (First two significant figs.)

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Table of preferred values

It should be noted that an important advantage of resistor

RESISTANCE BANKS AND STRINGS IN SERIES-PARALLEL

In the solution of such circuits, the most important fact to know

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF WHEATSTONE

It also means that the current in R1 equals the current in R2 and

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Bridge resistance measuring instruments have two important

Resistance wire is wound round a rod of insulating material,

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Their size depends on the heat to be dissipated and therefore

Consists of a mixture of granulated carbon and powdered resin

Ohmic value is usually given by a color code. The wattage

They cover the range:<10  to > 20 M. They have a low

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The ohmic value is indicated by the color coding around the

They cover the range: 10  to 1M  and have a power range of

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Variable resistors are constructed so that the resistive value can

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION POTENTIOMETER

A Potentiometer uses all three terminals, so as one resistance

NOTE: Four wires are connected to the three

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF RHEOSTAT

A Rheostat only uses two terminals, reducing the flexibility of

NOTE: Two wires are connected to two terminals. This

They are of two types in term of construction:

Carbon Potentiometers are easier to build with taper resistance

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

These are semi-conductor devices whose resistance decreases

The change in resistance is not linear, so temperature indication

Figure 3.7.16 Figure 3.7.17

VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTORS

Known as the VARISTOR, these are two electrode