. Chemistry VIE fan Sojid Sharmin Akhtar Shove & Handout 01 - Unit 2: States of Matter jor possible states: Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter has ‘three major possible + Solid + Liquid + Gas The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Matter ‘The kinetic-molecular theory of matter is the’ theory used to explain the different states of matter. Generalizations that can be made based on this theory include: + The particles possess kinetic energy because they are in constant motion, + The particles possess potential energy because they are attracted and repelled by each other. + The average speed of a particle (kinetic energy) increases with temperature, + The porticles transfer energy from one to another during collisions in which no net energy is lost. The total energy of a sample of matter is equal to the sum of its kinetic and potential energies Kinetic energy (K.E.) is the energy a particle possesses because It is moving, the kinetic energy is proportional to the velocity of the moving particles, Potential energy is the energy a particle possesses due 10 I18 position relative to the other particles, The potential energy from attractive Interactions Increases az the particles become further apart from one another, The potential energy from repulsive interactions Increases ax the particles become cloxer together. Molecules can experience an array of repulsive and attractive interaction | Scanned with CamScannerRelative strengths of interporticle forces “The states of matter can be understood by considering the cohesive and disruptive influences that kinetic and potential energies have on a collection of particles: + Cohesive forces tend to hold particles together; they arise from attractive interactions (potential energy), + Disruptive forces are those that tend to separate the particles; they arise from kinetic ‘energy and counter the effects of the cohesive forces. Disruptive forces ore directly dependent on temperature, whereas cohesive interactions are independent of temperature. As the temperature increases the disruptive forces become greater and more dominant. kinetic Theory can be easily described as, the kinetic theory of matter (particle theory) says that all matter consists of many, very small particles which are constantly moving or in a continual state of motion. The degree to which the particles move is determined by the amount f energy they have and their relationship to other particles. These particles might be atoms, lecules or ions. Scanned with CamScanner+ Strong forces of attraction between particles. + Particles are packed very closely together in a fixed and regular pattern + Atoms vibrate in position but can't change position or move + Solids have a fixed volume, shape and high density + Insolids the cohesive forces are much greater than the disruptive forces. Ina crystalline solid, each molecule is held at a fixed location within a crystal lattice. ‘The disruptive forces cause the molecules to vibrate at their fixed location, but does not allow the molecules to move past one another. ‘The kinetic-molecular model of matter can explain the characteristic properties displayed by solids, High density Because the cohesive forces are dominant, the molecules in a solid are very close together, which results in a greater number of molecules in a given volume. Because the molecules in a solid cannot move past one another, they maintain a defined shape. Low compressibility Btoaine the molectled tho slid ore ver-aleal bagi ther, lacreacing ths pressure ls undble to ove them much closer together. Small thermal expansion Though heating causes the molecules ina solid to vibrate faster about their fixed positions, the Cohesive force still predominates, holding them very close together. Scanned with CamScanner ~Liquids + Weaker attractive forces as the particles ore farther apart than in solids, + Particles are not regularly arranged + Particles can move and slide past each other which is why liquids adept the shape of the container they're in and also why they are able to flow + Liquids have a fixed volume but not a fixed shape and have a moderate to high density. In holding the molecules almost as close the liquid state the cohesive forces still predominate, together as in the solid state. The disruptive forces are strong enough, though, that the molecules do not have fixed locations, they instead are able to move about, slipping past one another. As with s is, the kinetic-molecular model of matter can explain the characteristic properties of liquids. * Because the cohesive forces are able to still hold the molecules close together in liquid, their densities, compressibility and thermal expansions are similar to their corresponding solids, because all three of these properties depend on the distances separating the molecules, Scanned with CamScannerCondensation + When a gos changes into a liquid, usually on cooling. When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy ond when they bump into each other, they lack energy to bounce away again, instead grouping together to form a liquid. + No energy is required for condensation to occur and it takes place over a.range of temperatures. imation When a solid changes directly into a gas. is happens to only a few solids such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide. e reverse reaction also happens and is also called sublimation (sometimes called jeposition) sublimation occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for a pure substance STATE OF MATTER Scanned with CamScannerGases + No intermolecular forces, particles are in random movement and so there is no defined pattern, + Particles are far apart and move quickly (around 500 m/s) in all directions, they collide with each other and with the sides of the container (this is how pressure is created inside a can of gas) + No fixed volume, since there is a lot of space between the particles, gases can be ‘compressed into a much smaller volume. Gases have low density. + Ingases, the molecules move about independently of one another. They come in contact with one another only when they collide. + And then only briefly before heading off in a new direction after the collision. + Between collisions the molecules travel in straight line at a constant velocity. + Inthe gas state, the disruptive interactions predominate; the cohesive forces are no longer able to hold the molecules together The kinetic-molecular model of matter can explain the characteristic properties displayed by gases. Low density - because the disruptive forces are dominant, the molecules are spread out and as far apart from one another as possible. This give gases very low densities, and therefore little mass in «a giving volume Indefinite shape - Like liquids, the molecules can easily move past one another. They take on the shape of their container, Large compressibility - In gases the molecules are spread out with lots of space between them. When pressure is applied, they can easily be pressed closer together. Moderate thermal expansion - as a gas is heated the individual molecules acquire more velocity, which means they strike the walls of the container with a greater force. Scanned with CamScanner‘State Changes ‘Melting + Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid. + Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to move + Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (mp.) which is unique to each pure solid. Boiling + Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas. Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid, allowing for liquid porticles to escape from the surface and within the liquid, Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.) which is unique to each pure liquid. Freezing + Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid, «This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting, hence the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same. Water for example freezes and melts at 0°C. " + Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for each pure substance. Evaporation + When a liquid changes into a gas. Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape from the liquid's surface at low temperatures, below the bp. of the liquid, + The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/sunface, the more quickly a liquid can evoporate, No heat is required and evaporation occurs over a range of temperatures. Scanned with CamScannerVolatile Liquid: quids that evaporate quickly at room temperature are called volatile liquids. Lic Examples: Petrol and perfumes etc. ‘They usually have boiling points just above room temperature. bifferences between Boiling and Evaporation. Boiling Evaporation ‘Occurs only at boiling point Occurs at temperatures below boiling point ‘Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs only at the surface of the liquid Occurs rapidly Occurs slowly Important Reading: Nearly every substance can exist as a solid, liquid, or a gas. These are the three common states of matter. Whether a substance is a solid, «liquid, or a gos depends on its temperature and the pressure placed on it. At room temperature (about 22°C) and at the normal pressure exerted by the atmosphere, water exists os 0 liquid, which can flow from one container to another. But if its -0.01°C, liquid water freezes to solid ice. Going the opposite direct temperature is lowered to temperature and at this same pressure, water changes to a gas when the temperature exceeds 100°C. Changes in state can also occur by changing the pressure while holding temperature constant. ‘Any change in phase is accompanied by the taking in or release of heat energy because, os change takes place, the attractive forces between molecules are being broken down or being formed. As solid water converts to liquid water, heat is absorbed as the forces between water molecules weaken, allowing the liquid to flow. The energy involved in phase changes is accurately known for mony substances, The heat energy needed te warm or cool solids, liquids, and gases without changing phase is also accurately known, Scanned with CamScannerCooling and Heating Curve L | ‘A cooling curve, first of all, is the graph that | Temperature/°C describes the cooling of an object, usually [Condensation] incorporating phase changes, or changes in matter. @ a Freezing < [Complete The quote-on-quote “typical” cooling curve storts t -Temperaiure with an object in gaseous form that in time (1: on Gas start 7 Leecirael to condence 7% Temperature the x-axis) decreases in Temperature (T; on the y- . : Tiqidset | U ‘oxis). An arbitrary example: tovieeze S , a ime/minute substance is subjected to increasing temperature it absorbs and changes state with g curve is a plot or graph wherein a A heatin: measure the amount of energy against time to increasing temperature. Temperature/*C ‘The heating curve usualy involves « system in @ closed container in order to isolate it from d observe how it changes as it is When heated, the system sauses the system its environment anc influenced by the heat. ‘obsorbs the energy. This, then, c to change its state. (Note: also learn from the book) Scanned with CamScannerZerownian Motion & Diffusion Brownian motion Brownian motior defined as the random movement of particles in a liquid or a gas produced by large numbers of collisions with smaller, often invisible particles The observation of Brownian motion proves the correctness of the kinetic particle theory Gaseous Particles Gaseous particles are in constant and random motion An increase in ‘temperature —_ increases the kinetic energy of each particle, as the thermal energy is transformed to kinetic energy, so they move faster. Decreasing the temperature has the opposite effect. The pressure that a gas creates inside a closed container is produced by the gaseous particles hitting the inside walls of the container, As the pam 7 0 *% @ > > a ane ost e temperature increases, the particles in the gas move faster, impacting the containers walls more frequently Therefore, an increase in temperature causes an increase in pressure Diffusion This is the process by which different gases or different liquids mix and is due to the random motion of their particles, Dif fusing particles move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Eventually the concentration of particles is even as they spread out to occupy all of the available space. Diffusion happens on its own and no energy input is required although it occurs faster at higher temperatures, Scanned with CamScanner(= WATER MOLECULE POTASSIUM, MANGANATE (vit ‘POTASSIUM WANGANATE MOLECULES DIFFUSE THROUGH THE SOLUTION, FROM A. REGION OF HGH CONCENTRATION TO, A REGON OF LOW CONCENTRATION Fonsaannancaare AUTEN AFTER YOURS: CQULIORIA 5 REACHED Scanned with CamScannerpiffusion & Molecular Mass Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous particles move much quicker than liquid particles. At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at the same rate. This is due to the difference in their relative molecular masses. Lighter gas particles can travel faster and hence further, therefore the lower its relative mass the faster a gas will diffuse HCt 3659 mel Ty REASTS WITH HET, MARR i Tne pRcoUcT NHjct_ CLOSER Jo THe NCt 0 OF THE TUDE | NHs molecules have less mass than the HCI molecule, so diffuse faster, hence the product (a white cloud of NH4Cl) forms closer to the end where the HCl is. Scanned with CamScanner