PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Category – “B” Basic Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory

MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.13

AC THEORY

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 PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Category – “B” Basic Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory

Contents
introduction ..................................................................................................... 1
Three Phase Interconnections ....................................................................... 17
the Sinewave ................................................................................................... 2
DEFINITIONS.................................................................................................... 3
CYCLE DEFINED ................................................................................................ 3
FREQUENCY DEFINED ........................................................................................ 3
PERIOD DEFINED .............................................................................................. 5
WAVELENGTH DEFINED ..................................................................................... 5
PHASE RELATIONSHIPS ...................................................................................... 5
VALUES OF AC................................................................................................. 7
INSTANTANEOUS .............................................................................................. 7
PEAK ............................................................................................................. 7
THE AVERAGE VALUE OF AN AC WAVEFORM ........................................................ 8
THE RMS VALUE OF AN AC WAVEFORM ............................................................ 10
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS ................................................................................... 11
TRUE POWER ................................................................................................ 11
APPARENT POWER ......................................................................................... 11
POWER FACTOR ............................................................................................. 12
SYMMETRY.................................................................................................... 16
BALANCE ...................................................................................................... 16
PHASOR REPRESENTATION – VOLTAGE ............................................................... 17
STAR CONNECTION ......................................................................................... 17
DELTA CONNECTION ....................................................................................... 18
PHASE LINE ................................................................................................... 18
NEUTRAL LINE ............................................................................................... 18
STAR- CONNECTION ........................................................................................ 19
LINE AND PHASE VOLTAGES ............................................................................. 19
PRACTICAL VALUES OF PHASE AND LINE VOLTAGES .............................................. 20
DELTA CONNECTION ....................................................................................... 20
LINE VOLTAGE ............................................................................................... 21
DISTINCTION BETWEEN LINE AND PHASE VOLTAGES, AND LINE AND PHASE CURRENTS21
POWER IN BALANCED THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS ..................................................... 22
SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 22

TRIANGULAR OR SQUARE WAVES ................................................................. 13

OPPOSITION TO CURRENT FLOW OF AC ............................................................. 14
RESISTANCE .................................................................................................. 14
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE.................................................................................... 14
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE .................................................................................. 15
IMPEDANCE................................................................................................... 15
AIRCRAFT INSTALLATIONS ................................................................................ 16

Three-phase ac .............................................................................................. 16

SYMMETRY AND BALANCE ............................................................................... 16

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 PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Category – “B” Basic Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
INTRODUCTION commutator, so that the load current always flows in one
The only practical way of generating an electromotive force direction. In an ac machine the output to the load is continually
(emf) by mechanical means is to rotate a conductor in a reversing it direction.
magnetic field. As the conductor rotates in the magnetic field,
its direction of motion relative to the magnetic field is continually
changing, therefore, the emf induced in the conductor is
continuously changing. The emf will start at zero when the
conductor is moving parallel with the lines of flux, it will rise to a
maximum value when the conductor is moving at 90° to the
lines of flux, before decaying back to zero rising to a maximum
value in the opposite direction. In this way, an alternating emf is
produced which, when connected to a circuit, produces an

alternating current flow. FIGURE 3.13.1

By making the conductor in the form of a loop, we have the

basis of the simple ac generator.

All generators, both dc and ac, have this basic design. In a dc

machine the output to the load is continually switched by the

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If the generated emf of the loop is measured and plotted as the
loop rotates, the result will be as shown in the diagram below.
Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
maximum emf is induced in them. By convention, the part of the
waveform above the zero line is labelled positive and the part
below the line is labelled negative.

THE SINEWAVE
If the conductor is rotated at uniform speed in a uniform
magnetic field, the output waveform is said to be ‘sinusoidal’
and we refer to this type of waveform as a sine wave. There
are many other wave shapes that can be generated or
developed, but it is the sine wave that is used for main power
supply systems. It is therefore necessary for the engineer to be
very familiar with this particular waveform and he is expected to
be able to remember and use the various figures and formulae
associated with it.

The wave generated is called a sine wave because its

amplitude (height) at any instant can be calculated from sine
tables, i.e. by plotting the sine’s of all angles between 0º and
360º.

When the conductor has completed 360º of rotation, it is said to

have completed one cycle.

FIGURE: 3.13.2

It can be seen that when the conductors are moving parallel to

the lines of flux, and not cutting them, the induced emf is zero.
When the conductors are cutting the lines of flux at right angles,

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DEFINITIONS
CYCLE DEFINED
A cycle is a completion of a pattern. Whenever a voltage or
current passes through a series of changes, returns to the
starting point, and then repeats the same series of changes, the
series is called a cycle. When the voltage values are graphed,
as in Figure 3.13.3, the complete AC cycle is displayed. One
complete cycle is often referred to as the sine wave and said to
be 360°. It is typical to start the sine wave where the voltage is
zero.
Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
The voltage then increases to a maximum positive value,
decreases to a value of zero, then increases to a maximum
negative value, and again decreases to zero. The cycle repeats
until the voltage is no longer available. There are two
alternations in a complete cycle: the positive alternation and the
negative. It should be noted that the polarity of the voltage
reverses for each half cycle. Therefore, during the positive half
cycle, the electron flow is considered to be in one direction;
during the negative half cycle, the electrons reverse direction
and flow the opposite way through the circuit.
FREQUENCY DEFINED

The frequency is the number of cycles of AC per second (CPS).

The standard unit of frequency measurement is the Hz. [Figure
3.13.10] In a generator, the voltage and current pass through a
complete cycle of values each time a coil or conductor passes
under a north and south pole of the magnet. The number of
cycles for each revolution of the coil or conductor is equal to the
number of pairs of poles.

FIGURE: 3.13.3 CYCLE OF VOLTAGE

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Category – “B” Basic Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
1,000 Hz (103 Hz) = 1 Kilo-Hertz
(1 kHz)

1,000,000 Hz (106 Hz) = 1 Mega-Hertz (1 MHz)

1,000,000,000 Hz (109 Hz) = 1 Giga-Hertz (1GHz)

Periodic time and frequency are related.

T = 1/f and f = 1/T

FIGURE: 3.13.4 FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECONDS

The frequency, then, is equal to the number of cycles in one

revolution multiplied by the number of revolutions per second.

In electrical terms, frequency is the number of cycles completed

in one second (cycles per second) and is expressed in Hertz
(Hz).

1 Hz = 1 cycle / sec.

10 Hz = 10 cycles / sec. etc.

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PERIOD DEFINED
The time required for a sine wave to complete one full cycle is
called a period (P). A period is typically measured in seconds,
milliseconds, or microseconds. [Figure 3.13.3] The period of a
sine wave is inversely proportional to the frequency. That is to
say that the higher the frequency, the shorter the period. The
mathematical relationship between frequency and period is
given as:
WAVELENGTH DEFINED
The distance that a waveform travels during a period is
commonly referred to as a wavelength and is indicated by the
Greek letter lambda (λ). Wavelength is related to frequency by
the formula:
The higher the frequency is, the shorter the wavelength is. The
measurement of wavelength is taken from one point on the
waveform to a corresponding point on the next waveform.
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[Figure 3.13.3] Since wavelength is a distance, common units of
measure include meters, centimeters, millimeters, or
nanometers. For example, a sound wave of frequency 20 Hz
would have wavelength of 17 meters and a visible red light
wave of 4.3 × 10 –12 Hz would have a wavelength of roughly
700 nanometers. Keep in mind that the actual wavelength
depends on the media through which the waveform must travel.
PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
Phase is the relationship between two sine waves, typically
measured in angular degrees. For example, if there are two
different alternators producing power, it would be easy to
compare their individual sine waves and determine their phase
relationship. In Figure 3.13.6, there is a 90° phase difference
between the two voltage waveforms. A phase relationship can
be between any two sine waves. The phase relationship can be
measured between two voltages of different alternators or the
current and voltage produced by the same alternator.
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FIGURE: 3.13.6 TWO VOLTAGE WAVES, 90 OUT OF PHASE

FIGURE: 3.13.5 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ARE IN PHASE

FIGURE: 3.13.7
FIG 3.13.13 TWO VOLTAGE WAVES, 180 OUT OF PHASE

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Figure 3.13.11 shows a voltage signal and a current signal
superimposed on the same time axis. Notice that when the
voltage increases in the positive alternation that the current also
increases. When the voltage reaches its peak value, so does
the current. Both waveforms then reverse and decrease back to
a zero magnitude, then proceed in the same manner in the
negative direction as they did in the positive direction. When two
waves are exactly in step with each other, they are said to be in
phase. To be in phase, the two waveforms must go through
their maximum and minimum points at the same time and in the
same direction.
When two waveforms go through their maximum and minimum
points at different times, a phase difference exists between the
two. In this case, the two waveforms are said to be out of phase
with each other. The terms lead and lag are often used to
describe the phase difference between waveforms. The
waveform that reaches its maximum or minimum value first is
said to lead the other waveform. Figure 3.13.7 shows this
relationship. On the other hand, the second waveform is said to
be lagging the first source. When a waveform is said to be
leading or lagging, the difference in degrees is usually stated. If
the two waveforms differ by 360°, they are said to be in phase
with each other. If there is a 180° difference between the two
signals, then they are still out of phase even though they are
both reaching their minimum and maximum values at the same
time. [Figure 3.13.13]
VALUES OF AC
There are three values of AC that apply to both voltage and
current. These values help to define the sine wave and are
called instantaneous, peak, and effective. It should be noted
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that during the discussion of these terms, the text refers to
voltage. But remember, the values apply to voltage and current
in all AC circuits.
INSTANTANEOUS
An instantaneous voltage is the value at any instant in time
along the AC wave. The sine wave represents a series of these
values. The instantaneous value of the voltage varies from zero
at 0° to maximum at 90°, back to zero at 180°, to maximum in
the opposite direction at 270°, and to zero again at 360°. Any
point on the sine wave is considered the instantaneous value of
voltage.
PEAK
The peak value is the largest instantaneous value, often
referred to as the maximum value. The largest single positive
value occurs after a certain period of time when the sine wave
reaches 90°, and the largest single negative value occurs when
the wave reaches 270°. Although important in the
understanding of the AC sine wave, peak values are seldom
used by aircraft technicians.
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Category – “B” Basic Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
THE AVERAGE VALUE OF AN AC WAVEFORM

The average or mean value of a continuous DC voltage will

always be equal to its maximum peak value as a DC voltage is
constant. This average value will only change if the duty cycle of
the DC voltage changes. In a pure sine wave if the average
value is calculated over the full cycle, the average value would
be equal to zero as the positive and negative halves will cancel
each other out. So the average or mean value of an AC
waveform is calculated or measured over a half cycle only and
this is shown below.

To find the average value of the waveform we need to calculate

the area underneath the waveform using the mid-ordinate rule,
trapezoidal rule or Simpson's rule found in mathematics. The
approximate area under any irregular waveform can easily be
found by simply using the mid-ordinate rule more ordinate lines
that are drawn the more accurate will be the final average or
FIGURE: 3.13.8 VALUE OF AC mean value. The average value will be the addition of all the
instantaneous values added together and then divided by the
total number.

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This is given as.. The zero axis base line is divided up into any
number of equal parts and in our simple example above this
value was nine, ( V1 to V9 ).

Where: n equals the actual number of mid-ordinates used.

This is an arithmetic average of all the values in a sine wave for

one alternation, or half-cycle. The half-cycle is used for the
average because over a full cycle the average value is zero,
which is useless for comparison purposes. If the sine values for
all angles up to 180, for one alternation, are added and then
divided by the number of values

For a pure sinusoidal waveform this average or mean value will

always be equal to 0.637 x Vmax and this relationship also holds
true for average values of current.

FIGURE: 3.13.9 AVERAGE VALUE OF NON SINOSOIDAL WAVEFORM

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These calculations are shown in Table 1. With the peak of 340V, for example, the average value is 0.637
x 340V, which equals approximately 217V.
Table 1 Derivation of Average and RMS Values for a Sine-
Wave Alternation
1 15 0.26 0.07
2 30 0.50 0.25 THE RMS VALUE OF AN AC WAVEFORM
3 45 0.71 0.50
4 60 0.87 0.75 The average value of an AC waveform is NOT the same value
5 75 0.97 0.93 as that for a DC waveforms average value. This is because the
6 1.00 1.00 AC waveform is constantly changing with time and the heating
90
effect given by the formula ( P = I 2.R ), will also be changing
7* 105 0.97 0.93
producing a positive power consumption. The equivalent
8 120 0.87 0.75 average value for an alternating current system that provides
9 135 0.71 0.50 the same power to the load as a DC equivalent circuit is called
10 150 0.50 0.25 the "effective value".
11 165 0.26 0.07
12 180 0.00 This effective power in an alternating current system is therefore
Total 7.62 6.00 equal to: ( I 2.R.Average ). As power is proportional to current
Average voltage: RMS value: squared, the effective current, I will be equal to √ I 2 Ave.
† 6 / 12  0.5  0.707 Therefore, the effective current in an AC system is called
the Root Mean Squared or R.M.S. value and RMS values
Table 1 are the DC equivalent values that provide the same power
to the load. The effective or RMS value of an alternating
current is measured in terms of the direct current value
that produces the same heating effect in the same value
*For angles between 90 and 180, sin   ( 180   ) resistance. The RMS value for any AC waveform can be
† More intervals and precise values are needed to get the exact found from the following modified average value formula.
average of 0.637.

Since the peak value of the sine function is 1 and the average
equals 0.637, then
Average value = 0.637  peak value The effective value of a sine wave is actually a measure of the
heating effect of the sine wave. Figure 3.13.15 illustrates what
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happens when a resistor is connected across an AC voltage
source. In illustration A, a certain amount of heat is generated
by the power in the resistor. Illustration B shows the same
resistor now inserted into a DC voltage source. The value of the
DC voltage source can now be adjusted so that the resistor
dissipates the same amount of heat as it did when it was in the
AC circuit. The RMS or effective value of a sine wave is equal to
the DC voltage that produces the same amount of heat as the
sinusoidal voltage.
FIGURE: 3.13.10 RMS VALUE OF AN AC WAVE FORM
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
Since voltage and current determine power, there are
similarities in the power consumed by both AC and DC circuits.
In AC however, current is a function of both the resistance and
the reactance of the circuit. The power consumed by any AC
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circuit is a function of the applied voltage and both circuit’s
resistance and reactance. AC circuits have two distinct types of
power, one created by the resistance of the circuit and one
created by the reactance of the circuit.
TRUE POWER
True power of any AC circuit is commonly referred to as the
working power of the circuit. True power is the power consumed
by the resistance portion of the circuit and is measured in watts
(W). True power is symbolized by the letter P and is indicated
by any wattmeter in the circuit. True power is calculated by the
formula:
APPARENT POWER
Apparent power in an AC circuit is sometimes referred to as the
reactive power of a circuit. Apparent power is the power
consumed by the entire circuit, including both the resistance
and the reactance. Apparent power is symbolized by the letter S
and is measured in volt-amps (VA). Apparent power is a product
of the effective voltage multiplied by the effective current.
Apparent power is calculated by the formula:
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POWER FACTOR

As seen in Figure 3.13.16, the resistive power and the reactive

power effect the circuit at right angles to each other. The power
factor in an AC circuit is created by this right angle effect. Power
factor can be defined as the mathematical difference between
true power and apparent power.
Example of calculating PF: Figure 3.13.17 shows an AC load
connected to a 50-volt power supply. The current draw of the
circuit is 5 amps and the total resistance of the circuit is 8 ohms.
Determine the true power, the apparent power, and the power
factor for this circuit.

FIGURE: 3.13.12 AC LOAD CONNECTED TO 50-VOLT POWER SUPPLY

SOLUTION:
FIGURE: 3.13.11 POWER RELATIONS IN AC CIRCUIT
P = 2 R
Power factor (PF) is a ratio and always a measurement
between 0 and 100. The power factor is directly related to the P = 52 × 8
phase shift of a circuit.
The greater the phase shift of a circuit the lower the power P = 200 Watts
factor. For example, an AC circuit that is purely inductive
(contains reactance only and no resistance) has a phase shift of S=E×I
90° and a power factor of 0.0. An AC circuit that is purely
resistive (has no reactance) has a phase shift of 0 and a power S = 50 × 5
factor of 100. Power factor is calculated by using the following
formula: S = 250 VA

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PF = TP/S ×100
PF= 200/250 ×100
PF = 80
TRIANGULAR OR SQUARE WAVES
The most common periodic signal waveforms that are used in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering are the Sinusoidal
Waveforms. However, an alternating AC waveform may not
always take the shape of a smooth shape based around the
trigonometric sine or cosine function. AC waveforms can also
take the shape of either Complex Waves, Square Waves or
Triangular Waves and these are shown below.
Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
Peak amplitude is measured from the zero axis to the maximum
positive or negative value. However, peak-to-peak amplitude is
better for measuring non-sinusoidal wave shapes because they
can have unsymmetrical peaks, as in Fig 3.13.19. For all the
waveforms shown here, though, the peak-to-peak (p-p)
amplitude is 20 V.
The rms value 0.707 of maximum applies only to sine waves, as
this factor is derived from the sine values in the angular
measure used only for the sine waveform.
Phase angles apply only to sine waves, as angular measure is
used only for sine waves. Note that the horizontal axis for time
is divided into angles for the sine wave in Fig 1a, but there are
no angles shown for the non-sinusoidal wave shapes.

All the waveforms represent ac voltages. Positive values are

shown above the zero axis, with negative values below the axis.
The sawtooth wave in Fig 3.13.19 represents a voltage that
slowly increases, with a uniform or linear rate of change, to its
peak value, and then drops sharply to its starting value. This
waveform is also called a ramp voltage. It is often referred to as
a time base because of its constant rate of change.

Note that one complete cycle includes the slow rise and the fast
drop in voltage. In this example, the period T for a complete
cycle is 4s. Therefore, these saw tooth cycles are repeated at

FIGURE: 3.13.13 PERIODIC WAVE FORMS the frequency of ¼ MHz, which equals 0.25 MHz. The sawtooth
waveform of voltage or current is often used for horizontal
deflection of the electron beam in the cathode-ray tube (CRT)
for oscilloscopes and TV receivers.

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The square wave in Fig 3.13.19 represents a switching voltage.
First, the 10-V peak is instantaneously applied in positive
polarity. This voltage remains on for 2 s, which is one half-
cycle. Then the voltage is instantaneously reduced to zero and
applied in reverse polarity for another 2 s. The complete cycle
then takes 4 s, and the frequency is ¼ MHz.
The rectangular wave shape in Fig 3.13.19 is similar, but the
positive and negative half-cycle are not symmetrical, either in
amplitude or in time. However, the frequency is the same 0.25
MHz.
OPPOSITION TO CURRENT FLOW OF AC
There are three factors that can create an opposition to the flow
of electrons (current) in an AC circuit. Resistance, similar to
resistance of DC circuits, is measured in ohms and has a direct
influence on AC regardless of frequency. Inductive reactance
and capacitive reactance, on the other hand, oppose current
flow only in AC circuits, not in DC circuits. Since AC constantly
changes direction and intensity, inductors and capacitors may
also create an opposition to current flow in AC circuits. It should
also be noted that inductive reactance and capacitive reactance
may create a phase shift between the voltage and current in an
AC circuit. Whenever analyzing an AC circuit, it is very
important to consider the resistance, inductive reactance, and
the capacitive reactance. All three have an effect on the current
of that circuit.
RESISTANCE
As mentioned, resistance creates an opposition to current in an
AC circuit similar to the resistance of a DC circuit. The current
through a resistive portion of an AC circuit is inversely
proportional to the resistance and directly proportional to the
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voltage applied to that circuit or portion of the circuit. The
equations I = E / R & E = I × R show how current is related to
both voltage and resistance. It should be noted that resistance
in an AC circuit does not create a phase shift between voltage
and current.
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
When moving a magnet through a coil of wire, a voltage is
induced across the coil. If a complete circuit is provided, then a
current will also be induced. The amount of induced voltage is
directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field
with respect to the coil. Conversely, current flowing through a
coil of wire produces a magnetic field. When this wire is formed
into a coil, it then becomes a basic inductor. The primary effect
of a coil is its property to oppose any change in current through
it. This property is called inductance.
When current flows through any conductor, a magnetic field
starts to expand from the center of the wire. As the lines of
magnetic force grow outward through the conductor, they
induce an EMF in the conductor itself. The induced voltage is
always in the direction opposite to the direction of the applied
current flow. The effects of this countering EMF are to oppose
the applied current.
This effect is only a temporary condition. Once the current
reaches a steady value in the conductor, the lines of magnetic
force are no longer expanding and the countering EMF is no
longer present. Since AC is constantly changing in value, the
inductance repeats in a cycle always opposite the applied
voltage. It should be noted that the unit of measure for
inductance is the henry (H).
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CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Capacitance is the ability of a body to hold an electric charge. In
general, a capacitor is constructed of two parallel plates
separated by an insulator. The insulator is commonly called the
dielectric. The capacitor’s plates have the ability to store
electrons when charged by a voltage source. The capacitor
discharges when the applied voltage is no longer present and
the capacitor is connected to a current path. In an electrical
circuit, a capacitor serves as a reservoir or store house for
electricity.
The basic unit of capacitance is the farad and is given by the
letter F. By definition, one farad is one coulomb of charge stored
with one volt across the plates of the capacitor. In practical
terms, one farad is a large amount of capacitance. Typically, in
electronics, much smaller units are used. The two more
common smaller units are the microfarad (μF), which is 10-6
farad and the pico farad (pF), which is 10-12 farad.
IMPEDANCE
The total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit is known as
impedance and is represented by the letter Z. The combined
effects of resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive
reactance make up impedance (the total opposition to current
flow in an AC circuit). In order to accurately calculate voltage
and current in AC circuits, the effect of inductance and
capacitance along with resistance must be considered.
Impedance is measured in ohms.
Impedance is the total opposition to current flow in an AC
circuit. If a circuit has inductance or capacitance, one must take
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into consideration resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL),
and/or capacitive reactance (XC) to determine impedance (Z).
In this case, Z does not equal RT. Resistance and reactance
(inductive or capacitive) cannot be added directly, but they can
be considered as two forces acting at right angles to each other.
Thus, the relation between resistance, reactance, and
impedance may be illustrated by a right triangle. [Figure
3.13.20] Since these quantities may be related to the sides of a
right triangle, the formula for finding the impedance can be
found using the Pythagorean Theorem. It states that the square
of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides. Thus, the value of any side of a right triangle
can be found if the other two sides are known.
FIGURE: 3.13.14 Impedance triangle
Z2 = R2 + (XL – XC)2
Z = √ R2 + (XL – XC)2
This formula can be used to determine the impedance when
the values of inductive reactance and resistance are known.
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 PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Category – “B” Basic Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
distribution of three phase ac is most efficient when the system
AIRCRAFT INSTALLATIONS is operating in the balanced condition.

Three-phase generators are also to be found on aircraft To achieve balance, it is necessary to equally load the individual
because of their robust construction and favorable output-power phases and for the phase voltages to be sinusoidal.
to weight ratio. Again, the voltage symmetrical 3-phase system
is preferred, but the frequencies most used are 400 Hz and
1600 Hz.

THREE-PHASE AC

SYMMETRY AND BALANCE

Symmetry and balance are two important terms in the

generation and distribution of electrical energy by three phase
ac systems. The first term, symmetry, is defined as follows

SYMMETRY

The normal arrangement is to generate and distribute electrical

energy by a voltage symmetrical three phase ac system. The
waveforms are symmetrical because the voltage waveforms are
of equal magnitude, of the same frequency and there is equal
phase displacement between waveforms.
The second term, balance, is defined as follows:

BALANCE

A three phase system is said to be balanced when the currents

in the line conductors are equal in magnitude and their phasor
sum is zero.

Balance is achieved when the phases of a voltage symmetrical

three phase ac system are equally loaded. The generation and

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PHASOR REPRESENTATION – VOLTAGE
Typical voltage waveforms of a voltage symmetrical 3-phase
system are illustrated in Fig 3.13.21 their associated phasors
being illustrated in Fig 3.13.22. The individual phases are
distinguished by the letters a, b, c, or by the colours red, yellow,
blue.
Convention requires that for a voltage symmetrical system the
following conditions apply:
 The red voltage phase is taken as the reference phase
 The yellow voltage phase lags the red by 120
 The blue voltage phase lags the yellow by 120

 All voltage phasors are of the same magnitude

If the individual phase voltages attain their maximum positive or

negative values in the order red, yellow, blue, then they are in
positive phase-sequence. A negative phase-sequence exists
when the order is red, blue, yellow.

THREE PHASE INTERCONNECTIONS

FIGURE: 3.13.15 VOLTAGE WAVEFORM PRODUCED IN THREE - PHASE AC
POWER SOURCE
Although it is possible to run a three-phase system with the
phases completely separate, using two conductors for each
phase, it is unusual to do so since interconnection makes
possible considerable savings in line conductor materials. The
terms star and delta are the general terms applied to the
interconnection of three phase AC phases.

STAR CONNECTION

A star connection is an arrangement in which the corresponding

ends of phases, either start or finish, are connected to a
common terminal known as the star point. The other end of
each phase is connected to a separate terminal.
FIGURE: 3.13.16 PHASOR DIAGRAM RELATED TO VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS

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 PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
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DELTA CONNECTION

A delta connection is an arrangement in which the finish of each

phase is connected to the start of the next in sequence. Phases
connected in this manner form a ring and each point of
connection is connected to a separate terminal.

PHASE LINE

The phase lines of a three phase AC system are those

conductors which connect the source of electrical energy to the
load. In the star connection, a phase line is required from each

terminal other than the terminal for the star point. In the delta
connection, a phase line exists for each terminal which
connects the finish of one phase to the start of the next in
sequence. Phase lines are identified either by letters a, b, c
etc., or by colours.

NEUTRAL LINE

When loads of equal impedance are star-connected to a voltage

symmetrical three phase system, then the artificial point of
reference given by the star point of the load is termed the
neutral point. The conductor which connects the star points of
generator and load is called the neutral line.

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STAR- CONNECTION LINE AND PHASE VOLTAGES

The circuits is shown in fig 3.13.23 . Since three of the phase
winding ends are joined at the star point, then only one terminal
(n) is required for these ends. Thus a star connected 3-phase
system requires a maximum number of four conductors to
transfer energy from source to load.
It is possible to provide a choice of voltage to the consumer if
four conductors, three phases and one neutral, are used for 3-
phase distribution. The two voltages available are phase
voltage (line-to-neutral) and line voltage (line-to-line). the phase
voltage is measured between the phase line and the neutral
line; it is the voltage induced in the particular phase winding.
The line voltage is measured between two phase lines and is
the phasor sum of the voltages induced in the two-phase
windings involved.
The magnitude of the line voltage is 3 times the magnitude of
the phase voltage.

FIGURE: 3.13.17 STAR-CONNECTED WINDINGS

FIGURE: 3.13.18 STAR CONNECTED THREE PHASE CIRCUIT SUPPLYING

POWER TO LOADS

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PRACTICAL VALUES OF PHASE AND LINE VOLTAGES DELTA CONNECTION

From the previous paragraphs it is seen that a star-connected
voltage symmetrical 3-phase system with a phase voltage of
240 volts can also provide a line voltage of 3 x 240 = 415
volts. these values, 240 volts and 415 volts, are the normal
voltages available to the consumer from the electricity supply
industry in the United Kingdom. the most common voltages in
use on aircraft at the time of writing are 115 volts for phase
voltage and 200 volts for line voltage.
This Fig 3.13.25 demonstrate the delta-connection. Since the
phase ends are paired from start to finish, then only three
terminals are required. Thus a delta-connected 3-phase system
requires only three conductors to transfer energy from source to
load.

FIGURE: 3.13.19 THREE PHASE DELTA CONFIGURATION

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LINE VOLTAGE
The voltages induced in the phase windings of a delta-
connected system are the line voltages.
NOTE: Those only line voltages are available from
delta-connected generators and transformers.
In a delta-connected system the magnitude of the line current is
3 times the magnitude of the phase current.
This effect can be used to advantage in high current power
supplies by reducing the current carrying capacity requirement
of the generator or transformer windings.
FIGURE: 3.13.20 DELTA-CONNECTED LOAD
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Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
DISTINCTION BETWEEN LINE AND PHASE VOLTAGES,
AND LINE AND PHASE CURRENTS
The voltage produced by a single winding of a three-phase
circuit is called the line-to-neutral voltage, or simply the phase
voltage, EPHASE. In a wye-connected three-phase ac power
source, the phase voltage is measured between the neutral line
and any one of points A, B, and C, as shown in Fig 3.13.23.
This results in the following three distinct phase voltages:
EA-N, EB-N, EC-N. The voltage between any two windings of a
three-phase circuit is called the line to- line voltage, or simply
the line voltage ELINE. In a wye-connected three-phase ac power
source, the line voltage is √3 (approximately 1.73) times greater
than the phase voltage (i.e., ELINE = √3 EPHASE. In a delta-
connected three-phase ac power source, the voltage between
any two windings is the same as the voltage across the third
winding of the source (i.e., ELINE = EPHASE ), as shows Fig 3.13.25 .
In both cases, this results in the following three distinct line
voltages: EA-N, EB-N, and EC-N.
The three-line wires (wires connected to points A, B, and C) and
the neutral wire of a three-phase power system are usually
available for connection to the load, which can be connected in
either a wye configuration or a delta configuration. The two
types of circuit connections are illustrated in Figure 3.13.24 and
fig 3.13.26 Circuit analysis demonstrates that the voltage (line
voltage) between any two-line wires, or lines, in a wye-
connected load is √3 times greater than the voltage (phase
voltage) across each load resistor. Furthermore, the line
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current ILINE flowing in each line of the power source is equal to
the phase current
IPHASE flowing in each load resistor. On the other hand, in a
delta-connected load, the voltage (phase voltage) across each
load resistor is equal to the line voltage of the source. Also, the
line current is √3 times greater than the current (phase current)
in each load resistor. The phase current in a delta-connected
load is therefore √3 times smaller than the line current
POWER IN BALANCED THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
The formulas for calculating active, reactive, and apparent
power in balanced three-phase circuits are the same as those
used for single-phase circuits. Based on the formula for power
in a single-phase circuit, the active power dissipated in each
phase of either a wye- or delta-connected load is equal to:
P phase = E PHASE x I PHASE x cos
Where
P phase :
is the active power dissipated in each phase of a three phase
circuit, expressed in watts (W)
E PHASE :
is the phase voltage across each phase of a three-phase circuit,
expressed in volts (V)
I PHASE:
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Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
is the phase current flowing in each phase of a three-phase
circuit, expressed in amperes (A)
:
is the angle between the phase voltage and current in each
phase of a three-phase circuit, expressed in degrees (°)
Therefore, the total active power PT dissipated in a three-phase
circuit is equal to:
PT = 3 x P PHASE x E PHASE x I PHASE x cos
PT = is the total active power dissipated in a three-phase circuit,
expressed in watts (W)
In purely resistive three-phase circuits, cos equals 1.
Therefore, the total active power PT dissipated in purely
resistive three-phase circuits is equal to:
PT =3 x E PHASE x I PHASE
SUMMARY
In a balanced symmetrical 3-phase system the total power is
three times the power in one phase. This is a special case of
the general statement which is – in a balanced symmetrical N-
phase system the total power is N times the power in one
phase.
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Category – “B” Basic Sub Module 3.13 – AC Theory
In a balanced star-connected system FIG 3.13.27 :
Line current equals phase current
Line voltage is 3 times the phase voltage

In a balanced delta-connected system FIG 3.13.28 :

Line voltage equals phase voltage

Line current is 3 times the phase current

FIGURE: 3.13.21 BALANCED STAR CONNECTED SYSTEM

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FIGURE: 3.13.22 BALANCED DELTA CONNECTED SYSTEM

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