R oy S tubbs

President, 1934-35
M r . R . W . S t u b b s w as ed u cated a t th e V ictoria P a rk
School, M an ch ester, an d th e n a t th e M anchester
G ra m m a r School. He stu d ied m e ta llu rg y , m achine
d ra w in g an d ch em istry a t th e College of Technology,
M anchester, an d jo in ed th e firm of M essrs. Joseph
Stubbs, L im ited , w here he sp en t m an y y ears in th e
fou n d ry a s a m oulder an d co rem ak er, etc." Mr. Stubbs
served in th e w ar a s a g u n n e r in th e R .F .A ., and
a t th e end o f th e w ar re tu rn e d to an executive posi­
tio n in th e fo u n d ry of M essrs. Jo sep h Stubbs, L im ited.
L a te r he jo in ed th e bo ard of d irecto rs and is now in
c h a rg e of th e fo u n d ry . H e jo in ed th e L a n c a sh ire
B ra n ch in 1919 an d was P re sid e n t in 1930 a n d 1931.
H e is also a m em ber of th e M anchester A ssocia­
tion of E n g in ee rs. H e is a m em ber of th e E x ecu tiv e
B o ard of th e N a tio n a l Iro n fo u n d in g E m p lo y ers’
F e d e ra tio n an d of th e E xecutive C o m m ittee of th e
M an ch ester an d D istric t Iro n fo u n d e rs’ E m p lo y ers’
A ssociation.
P r o c e e d in g s
of the . . .
In s t i t u t e of
OUNDRYMEN.

X XV II. 1933-1934.

Containing the Report of the Thirty-

First Annual Conference, held at
M anchester, June 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th,
1934; also Papers and Discussions
presented at Branch M eetings held
during the Session 1933-1934.

Institute of British Foundrymen.

Head Office :
Saint John Street Chambers, Deansgate, Manchester, 3.
(R e g is te r e d O ffice : 49, W e llin g to n S tr ee t, S tra n d , L o n d o n , W .C .2.)

LONDON : Printed by
“ THE FOUNDRY TRADE JOURNAL,”
49, Wellington Street, Strand, London, W.C.2.
 THE INSTITUTE OF BRITISH
FOUNDRYMEN
OFFICERS 1934-35

_ PRESlfiENT.;
R oy Stubbs, 36, B ro ad w ay , C headle, C heshire.
V IC E -P R E S ID E N T S :
J . E . H u rst, “ Astrlfeigh,” ..T rent V alley R oad, Lichfield,
Staffs. •„ ■■ -
H . W in te rto n , “ M Sorlands,” M ilngavie, D u m b arto n sh ire.
PA ST rPR E SLD E N T S :
(S u rv iv in g Past-PresicfeA ts; .Sr.e Ax-officio m em bers of the
G en eral ^Council.)
R. B u ch a n a n . (D eceased, 1924.) 1904-1905.
H . PilkingtO Q . (D eceased.) 1906-1907.
F. J . Cook, M .L M ech.E ., 31, P o p la r Avenue, E d g b asto n ,
B irm ingham ,* 17. 1908-1909.
P. L o n g m u ir, M .B .E ., D .M et., 2, Q ueen’s R o ad , Sheffield.
1910-1911.
C. Jo n es. (D eceased, 1923.) 1912.
S. A. G im son, 20, Glebe S treet, L eicester. 1913-1914.
W. M ayer. (D eceased, 1923.) 1915.
J . E llis. (D eceased, 1930.) 1916-1917.
T. H . F ir th . (D eceased, 1925.) 1918.
J o h n L ittle , M .I.M ech.E . (D eceased, 1932.) 1919.
M atthew R id d ell, 1920.
O liver Stubbs, M .I.M ech.E . (D eceased, 1932.) 1921.
H . L. R eason, M .I.M ech.E . 1922.
O liver Stubbs, M .I.M ech.E . 1923.
R. O. P a tte rs o n , P io n eer W orks, B laydon-on-T yne. 1924.
J . C am eron, J .P ., C am eron & R oberton, L im ited , K irk in ­
tilloch, S cotland. 1925.
V. C. F a u lk n e r, M .Inst.M ., 49, W ellin g to n S treet, S tran d,
London, W .C.2. 1926.
J . T. Goodwin, M .B .E ., M .I.M ech.E ., Sheepbridge Coal &
Iro n C om pany, L im ited , C hesterfield. 1927.
S. H . R ussell, B a th L an e, L eicester. 1928.
W esley L a m b e rt, C .B .E ., 28, C an a d ia n Avenue, C atford,
London, S.E.6. 1929.
F. P . W ilson, J .P .. " P a rk h u r s t,” M iddlesbrough. 1930.
A. H a rle y , The D aim ler C om pany, L im ited , C oventry.
1931
Victor Stobie. M .I.E .E ., L an g h o lm . South D rive, H a rro ­
g a te . 1932.
C. E . W illiam s, “ C oniston,” Cefn-Coed R oad, R o a th P a rk ,
C ardiff. 1933.
HON. TR E A S U R E R :
W. B. L ak e, J .P ., A lbion W orks, B ra in tre e , Essex.
T R U ST E E S :
M ossrs. F . J . Cook, R . O. P a tte rs o n an d A. H arley .
SE C R E TA R Y AND G E N E R A L O F F IC E :
Tom M akem son, Assoc.M .C.T., St. J o h n S treet C ham bers,
D eau sg ate, M an ch ester, 3.
(R e g istered Office : 49, W ellin g to n S treet, S tran d ,
London, W.C.2.)
A U D IT O R S :
J . & A. W . Sully & C om pany, 19/21, Queen V ictoria Street,
London, E.C.4.
 COU NCIL

D ELEG ATES ELECTED A T A N N U A L

G E N E R A L M E E T IN G :
P rof. J . H . A ndrew , D.Sc., D e p a rtm e n t of M eta llu rg y ,
St. G eorge’s S q u are, Sheffield, 1.
A. C am pion, F .I.C ., 8, T h o rn R oad W est, B earsd en , by
G lasgow .
V. D elp o rt, C axton H ouse E a st, W estm in ste r, London,
S.W .l.
J . W . G ardom , 39, B en n e tts H ill, B irm in g h a m , 2.
B. H ird , “ W oodcot,” Tipper C w m bran, n e a r N ew port,
Mon.
J . R. H y d e, A .M .I.M ech.E ., Lym brook, 33, D ore Road,
Dore, Sheffield.
E. Longden, 11, W elto n A venue, D id sb u ry P a rk , M an­
chester.
J . M. P rim ro se, The G ran g em o u th Iro n C om pany, G range
Iro n W orks, F a lk irk , Scotland.
E. Stevenson, “ C harnw ood,” S u n n y d ale R o ad , N o ttin g ­
ham .
D. H . W ood, “ K ingsw ood,” P a r k R oad, M oseley, B ir­
m in g h am .

BRAN C H D ELEG ATES:

(B ranches represented show n in b ra ck e ts.)
J. A. Affleck, B.Sc., 68, S ta m p e rla n d D rive, Clagkston,
R en frew sh ire. (S cottish.)
A. W . G. B ag sh aw e, D u n stab le W orks, D unstable, Beds.
(London.)
C. W . B ig g , “ S elw o rth y ,” B u rley L an e, Q uarndon, D erby.
(E a s t M idlands.)
G. M. C allag h a n , 524, Fox H ollies R oad, H all Green,
B irm in g h a m . (B irm in g h am .)
F . J . Cree, 22, P ro sp e c t Avenue, F rin d sb u ry , Rochester,
K en t. (London.)
J . W. D onaldson, D.Sc., S co tt’s S h ip b u ild in g & E n g in eerin g
C om pany, L im ited , G reenock, S cotland. (Scottish.)
W . J . F lav ell, J .P ., C a rte r’s G reen P assag e, W est B ro m ­
w ich. (B irm in g h am .)
E . Flow er, 3, R ookery A venue, Abbey H ey, G orton, M an­
c h ester. (L an cash ire.)
P. L eonard Gould. V ulcan F o u n d ry , E a s t Moors, C ardiff.
(W ales an d Mon.)
J . H o g g , 321, M an ch ester R oad, B urnley. (L an cash ire.)
J . B. Jo h n so n , 27, B all F ield s, Tipton, Staffs. (B irm in g ­
ham .)
A. L ogan, R. & W . H a w th o rn , Leslie & C om pany, L im ited ,
St. P e te r’s W orks, N ew castle-upon-Tyne. (N ew castle.)
J . M asters, “ The Hollins,** V ane R oad, L o ngden R oad,
Shrew sbury. (L an c a sh ire .)
W . H . M eadow crolt, 5, C rom ford Avenue, L ostock H a ll
E s ta te , S tretfo rd , M anchester. (L an c a sh ire .)
J. E. M ercer, “ S u n n y d en e," H a rlsey R oad, H a rtb u rn ,
Stockton-on-Tees. (M iddlesbrough.)
R. A. Miles, 46, D ean L ane, N ew ton H e a th , M anchester,
10. (L an cash ire.)
J . M cA rthur, “ H a w th o rn ,” Shields R oad, M otherw ell,
S cotland, (Scottish.)
N. M cM anus, M .B .E ., The A rgus F o u n d ry , T h o rn lieb ank,
n e a r G lasgow . (Scottish.)
F . K. N e ath , B.Sc., 10, Scott L ane, R iddlesden, K eighley,
Y orks. (W .R . of Y orks.)
A. P h illip s, 1, M elfort Avenue, off E d g e L an e, S tretford,
M an ch ester. (L an cash ire.)
C. D. P o llard , “ B elm o n t,” A venue V ivian, Scunthorpe,
Lincs. (Sheffield.)
J . S. G. P rim ro se, A .R .T.C., A .I.M .M ., 17, S alisb u ry R oad,
C horlton-cum -H ardy, M anchester. (L an cash ire.)
N . D. R idsdale, F.C .S., 3, W ilson S treet, M iddlesbrough.
(M iddlesbrough.)
H . J . Roe, 29, P a rk R oad, M oseley, B irm in g h a m . (B ir­
m in g h am .)
J . R o x b u rg h , 341, S p rin g v ale R oad, Sheffield. (Sheffield.)
P . A. R ussell, B.Sc., B a th L ane, L eicester. (E a s t M id­
lands.)
J . N. Simm, 61, M arine D rive, M onkseaton. (N ew castle.)
J . G. A. Skeri, D.Sc., 21, St. P a u l’s Square, B irm in g h a m , 3.
(Sheffield.)
T. A. Spiers, “ D elam ere,” U p p in g h am R oad, Leicester.
(E a s t M idlands.)
A. C. T u rn er, R ussell H ouse, A dam S treet, A delphi,
London, W.C.2. (London.)
F. J . W ares, 216, Cromwell R oad, P eterb o ro u g h . (London.)
A. S. W orcester, T o ria H ouse, 162, V icto ria R oad, Lock­
wood, H uddersfield. (W .R . of Y orks.)

J. G. P earce, M.Sc., M .I.E .E ., F .In s t.P ., 21, St. P a u l’s

Square, B irm in g h a m , 3.

H on. M ember.—F. W . F in ch , Queens H ead , K ingsholm

R oad, G loucester.
 B RAN C H P R E S ID E N T S A N D SE C R E T A R IE S.
, (Ex-Officio M em bers o f C ouncil.)
B IR M IN G H A M .
G. T. L u n t, “ B ria rd e n e ,” N ew b rid g e A venue, W olver­
h a m p to n .
L. W . B olton, A .M .I.M ech.E ., 21, St. P a u l’s S q u are, B ir­
m in g h am , 3.
EAST M ID LA N D S.
A. E. Peace, The R ose an d Crown H o tel, B ra ilsfo rd , n e a r
D erby.
H . B u n tin g , 82, O tte r S treet, D erby.
EAST M ID L A N D S—L IN C O L N SE C T IO N .
T. M ath e r, South View, C arholm e R oad, L incoln.
E. R . W alter, M.Sc., The T ech n ical C ollege, L incoln.
L A N C A S H IR E .
W. N . Cook, B.Sc.. 10, S tan ley R oad, H e ato n M oor, Stock­
p ort.
J . E . Cooke, 1, D erb y sh ire C rescent, S tretfo rd , M an ch ester.
L A N C A S H IR E —B U R N L E Y SE C T IO N .
t \ H a rris , 8, R u tla n d P lace, P a d ih a m , L ancs.
J . Pell, 17, M ersey S treet, R ose G rove, B u rn ley .
L A N C A S H IR E —PR E S T O N SE C T IO N .
F . W . C. H in to n , J . F o ste r A- Sons, L im ited , Soho F o u n d ry ,
P resto n , L ancs.
P . L e y lan d , 6, A shley T errace, F a rin g to n , L an cs.
LO N D O N .
A. S. Beech, F o u n d ry E q u ip m en t, L im ite d , L eighton
B u zzard , Beds.
H . W . Lockw ood, S te w a rts a n d Lloyds, L im ite d , W in­
c h este r H ouse, Old B ro ad S treet, London, E.C.2.
M ID D L E S B R O U G H .
J . H ackw ood, 52, B y lan d S treet, M iddlesbrough.
D. A nderson, Stockton S treet, M iddlesbrough.
N EW C A STL E A ND D IS T R IC T .
F. R obson, 37, S ta n n in g to n A venue, H e a to n , Newcastle-
upon-T yne, 6
W. Scott, Sir W . G. A rm stro n g , W h itw o rth & Company
(Iro n fo u n d ers), L im ited , Close W orks, G ateshead-on-
Tyne.
SC O TT ISH .
H . H u rs t, 40, C olinslee Avenue, Lockfield, P aisley , Scot­
land.
J . B ell, 60, St. E noch Square, G lasgow , C .l.
SC O T T ISH —F A L K IR K SE C T IO N .
W m . W alk er, 10, L a rb e rt R o id , B o n n y b rid g e, S tirlin g sh ire.
H . B. M cN air, 14, Seabegs C rescent, B o n n y b rid g e, S tirlin g ­
shire.
SC O T T ISH —E D IN B U R G H C O M M ITTEE.
W . W allace (C h a irm a n ), 32, C olinton R oad, E d in b u rg h .
S H E F F IE L D .
J . E. H u rs t, “ A sh lo ig h ,” T re n t Valley R oad, Lichfield
Staffs.
T. R. W alk er. B.A., 33, L a d y sm ith Avenue, N e th er E d g e
Sheffield, 7.
W A LES A ND M ON M O U TH .
C. E. R ic h ard s, “ C arisb ro o k ,” C ardiff Road, D inas Pow is,
Cardiff.
J . J . M cC lelland, 122, W ellin g to n R oad, B ilston, Staffs.
W EST R ID IN G O F Y O R K S H IR E .
A. W . W alk er, “ A ilsa C ra ig ,” 113, D alton G reen L an e,
H uddersfield.
S. W . W ise, 110, P u lía n A venue, Ecclesfield, B ra d fo rd ,
Yorks.
 BONORAHY C O R R E S P O N D I N G M E M B E R S OF
C0ÜNC1L.

A U STR A LIA .
W. T. M ain, T. M ain & Sons P ro p tie ta ry , L im ited. 2».
G eorge S treet, E a s t M elbourne, V ictoria.

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA.
P rofessor Dr. M ont. F r. P isek , T echnical H ig h Schoo!
B rno.
FR A N C E .
E. R onceray, 2, R ne S aint-Sauveur, T hiais.

G ER M A N Y .
D r. In g . G eilen k irch en , V erein D eu tsch er Eisengiessereien
G ie sse re n erb an d , D üsseldorf, Po stfach 503.

IT A LY .
D r. In g . G uido V a n ze tti, Via B ia n ca di Savoia, 10,
M ilan (115).
SO U TH A FR IC A
A. H . Moore, S ta n d a rd B rass & Iro n Fo u n d ry , Lim ited
B enom .
 A W A R D S 1933-34

T H E “ O L IV E R S T U B B S ” GOLD M E D A L .
1934 A w ard to M r. V. C. FA U L K N E R ,
“ for his w ork in connection w ith th e estab lish m en t of
th e D egree Course in F o u n d in g a t th e U n iv ersity of
Sheffield.”

M E R IT O R IO U S S E R V IC E S M E D A L .
1934 A w ard to M r. J . J. M CCLELLAND,
" as a re co g n itio n of h is devoted services fo r m an y y e a rs.”

D IP L O M A S O F T H E I N S T I T U T E
w ere aw ard ed to —
Mr. IV. G. M ORGAN, for h is P a p e r on “ F ettlin g -S hop
Efficiency,” given before th e B irm in g h a m B ran ch .
M r. F. H U D SO N , fo r his P a p e r on ” M oulding-Sand Con­
tro l,” given before th e L a n c a sh ire an d London
B ranches.
Mr. A. LOGAN, fo r h is P a p e r on “ Some A spects of Non-
F erro u s F o u n d in g ,” given before th e L an cash ire
B ranch.
M r. T. M AKEM SON, for h is P a p e r on “ Some Im pressions
of Czecho-Slovakian F o u n d ries,” given before th e
London B ranch .
M r. G. L. B A IL E Y , for h is P a p e r on “ P o ro sity in Non-
F erro u s C astin g s,” given before th e London B ran ch.
D r. A. B. E V E R E ST , fo r his P a p e r on “ P o te n tia litie s of
C ast Iro n ,” given before th e London B ran ch .
Mr. J . L O N G D E N , lo r his P a p e r on “ G rey -Iro n C astings
for L a u n d ry M ach in ery ,” given before th e Scottish
B ran ch .
Mr. J . R O X B U R G H , for his P a p e r on “ A lloys in th e
Iro n F o u n d ry ,” given belo re th e Sheffield B ran ch .
Mr. B. G A LE, for his P a p e r on “ P ra c tic a l C onsiderations
in a Sm all J o b b in g F o u n d ry ,” given before th e W ales
an d M onm outh B ran ch .

T H E O L IV E R S T U B B S M E D A L .
The O liver Stubbs M edal h a s been aw ard ed as follows :—
1922.—F. J . Cook, M .I.M ech.E .
1923.—W. H . S h erburn.
1924.—J o h n Shaw.
1925.—A. C am pion, F .I.C .
1926.—A. R . B a rtle tt.
1927.—P ro f. T hom as T u rn er, M.Sc.
1928.—J . W . D onaldson, D.Sc.
1929.—W esley L a m b e rt, C .B .E.
1930.—Ja m e s E llis.
1931.—J o h n C am eron, J .P .
1932 —J . E . H u rs t.
1933.—J . W. G ardom .
1934.—V. C. F a u lk n e r.
 CONTENTS

PAG E
A nnual C onference, M anchester
A n n u a l G eneral M eetin g .. .. .. .. .. 2
A n n u al R e p o r t . . .. .. .. .. .. .. 3
T h ird R e p o r t o f th e T ech n ica l C o m m ittee .. .. .. 17
E le c tio n o f O fficers .. .. .. .. .. .. 27
C ivic W elc o m e . . . . .. .. .. .. .. 34
P r e sid e n tia l A d dress . . .. .. .. .. .. 42
A nnual B an quet .. .. .. .. .. .. 62

P ap ers P resen ted a t M an ch ester C onference

R e p o r t o f th e W ork o f t h e C ast Iro n S u b -C o m m ittee o f
th e T ec h n ic a l C o m m ittee . . .. .. .. .. 76
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 109
G rap hite F o r m a tio n a n d Stru ctu re in C ast I r o n ; b y
H. N ip p er . . .. .. .. .. .. . . 127
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 157
O ven D r y in g o f Cores a n d M oulds ; b y E . G. F ie g eh en . . 169
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 184
R e c e n t D e v e lo p m e n ts in B r itish S y n th e tic M oulding Sand
P r a c tic e ; b y J . J . S h e e h a n .....................................................199
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 240
U s e o f H ig h -D u ty C ast Ir o n in th e M a n u fa ctu re o f T e x tile
M achin ery ; b y A . R o ed er . . .. .. .. . . 257
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 263
S tu d ie s o f C ast R e d B rass fo r t h e E sta b lish m e n t o f a
B a sic C lassifica tio n o f N o n -F erro u s I n g o t M eta ls for
S p e cification P u rp o ses ; b y C. M. Saeger, J u n r .. . . . 268
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 304
S tu d ies in C ast B ro n zes ; b y F . W . R o w e . . .. .. 318
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 332

Papers P resented to B ranches

C om m ercial M ou ld in g San d C ontrol fo r th e M odern Iron-
fo u n d e r ; b y F . H u d so n . . .. .. .. .. 342
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 375
A llo y s in th e Iro n F o u n d r y ; b y J. R o x b u r g h .. .. 396
G rey-Iron C astin gs for L a u n d ry M achin ery ; b y J. L o n g d e n 414
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 442
P ra c tic a l C on siderations in a S m a ll J o b b in g F o u n d r y ;
b y B . G ale .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 447
T h e F e ttlin g Sh o p a n d E fficien cy ; b y W . G. M organ .. 469
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 477
Som e A sp e c ts o f N o n -F erro u s F o u n d in g ; b y A . L ogan .. 483
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 514
P o r o s ity in N on -F erro u s M eta l C astin gs ; b y G. L . B a ile y 522
 PAGE

L ig h t C astin gs fo r E n a m e llin g ; b y H . B . M cN air .. 543

P r o d u c tio n o f S p e c ia lly H a rd C ast Iro n s fo r A llo y in g a n d
H e a t-T r e a tm e n t ; b y W . T. G riffiths .. .. . • 563
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. -. • • 587
M an u factu re a n d A p p lic a tio n o f C en trifu g a l C a stin g s ; b y
T . R . T w igger .. .. .. .. .. • • 595
P a tte r n m a k in g ; b y F . C. E d w a r d s . . .. .. ■ • 611
D isc u ssio n .. .. .. .. .. .• • • 638
P ro b lem s in W o o d w o rk in g M a ch in ery C a s tin g s; by
R . B a lla n tin e .. .. .. .. •• • • 648
T y p ic a l M icrostru ctu res o f C a st Iro n ; b y t h e T e c h n ic a l
C o m m ittee o f th e I n s tit u te o f B r itish F o u n d r y m e n and
B r itish C ast Ir o n R e se a r c h A s so c ia tio n .. .. • ■ 66a
 The Institute of
British Foundry men
THIRTY-FIRST
ANNUAL CONFERENCE,
MANCHESTER

JUNE 5, 6, 7 and 8,1934

The th irty -firs t A nn u al C onference of th e I n ­
s titu te of B ritis h F o u n d ry m en was held in M an ­
chester from J u n e 5 to 8, 1934, u n d e r th e P re si­
dency of M r. Roy S tu b b s (M anchester). The
arran g em en ts in connection w ith th e conference
were m ade by th e L an cash ire B ran ch an d M r.
T. M akem son, th e G eneral S ecretary of th e I n ­
s titu te . The C h airm an of th e C onference E xecu­
tiv e C om m ittee was M r. A. P h illip s (im m ediate
P a s t-P re s id e n t of th e B ran ch ), th e o th er mem­
bers being M r. W . N . Cook (P re sid e n t of th e
B ranch), M r. R . A. Miles, M r. R oy Stubbs and
M r. J . E . Cooke (H on. Conference S ecretary ).
The conference com m ittees included a L ad ies’
C om m ittee, of w hich M rs. Roy Stubbs was
C hairm an, an d th e re was an excellent program m e
fo r th e e n te rta in m e n t of th e ladies a p a rt from
th e social fu n ctio n s in which both sexes joined,
these la t te r in clu d in g th e a n n u a l b an q u et and
dance, receptions an d en te rta in m e n ts. The
h ead q u arters of th e conference were a t th e M id­
lan d H otel, M anchester.
In ad d itio n to th e conducting of th e form al
business of th e I n s titu te an d th e m eetings for
th e consideration of technical P ap ers, a rra n g e ­
m ents were m ade fo r v isits to v arious large
 2

works in th e M an ch ester d is tric t. The w orks

visited by th e m em bers d u rin g th e period of th e
conference were those of M essrs. Jo sep h Stubbs,
L im ited , a t O penshaw (F o u n d rie s: te x tile
m achinery an d g e n eral en g in ee rin g c a s tin g s ):
th e M etro p o litam V ick ers E le c tric a l Com pany,
L im ited , T rafford P a r k (m a n u fa c tu re rs of steam
tu rb in e s, g en e ra to rs an d all k in d s of electrical
p la n t, th e w orks ¡d eluding th e iro n fo u n d ry ,
w here castings up to 60 to n s a re m ade, a n d the
non-ferrous fo u n d r y ); th e L a n cash ire Steel Cor­
p o ratio n , Irla m (b last fu rn aces, coke ovens,
o pen -h earth steel p la n t, ro llin g m ills a n d iron
an d steel fo u n d r y ); M essrs. Tweedales & Smalley,
L im ited , C astleto n , n e a r R ochdale (te x tile m a­
chinery m a n u fa c tu re rs, whose w orks include an
iro n fo u n d ry ); M essrs. C raven B ros., L im ited,
R ed dish (m akers of heavy m achine tools, whose
works include an iro n fo u n d ry , fo r castin g s up
to 40 tons, an d n o n -ferrous fo u n d ry ), and
M essrs. L eyland M otors, L im ited , Leyland
(builders of heavy m o to r vehicles, whose works
include a steel fo u n d ry w ith e lectric furnaces
an d iron, non-ferro u s an d alu m in iu m foundries).
On J u n e 8, th e la s t d ay of th e conference, the
mem bers an d th e ir ladies enjoyed a v isit by
m otor-coach to L langollen, N o rth W ales. A fter
lunch a t L langollen th e y proceeded by barge
along th e can al to B erw yn, in th e valley of the
Dee, a n d la te r rejo in ed th e m otor-coaches and
trav elled to C hester fo r te a , re tu rn in g to M an­
chester in th e evening.

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

The A nnual G eneral M eetin g of th e In s titu te
was held a t th e M idland H o tel on Tuesdav even­
ing, J u n e 5. M r. C. E . W illiam s, of Cardiff
(R e tirin g P re s id e n t), w as in th e chair.

Greetings to Original Members

The C h a i r m a n , who said he had been rem in d ed
t h a t he h a d a tte n d e d th e I n s tit u te ’s first m eet­
ing, said t h a t some of th e o rig in al m em bers who
w ere still living w ere u n a b le by reason of age to
 3

a tte n d th e conference. I t had heen suggested

by M r. P rim rose, th e refo re , t h a t th e g reetin g s of
th e conference be sent to them , an d th e C h air­
m an proposed th a t t h a t be done. The resolution
was seconded by M r. J . S. G. P rim rose, and
c arried . M r. P rim ro se said he had derived g re a t
p leasure from corresponding w ith all th e original
m em bers in o rd er to o b tain th e ir photographs
an d sig n atu res, which w ere co n tain ed in th e con­
ference souvenir booklet.

Minutes
The m in u tes of th e preceding an n u a l g eneral
m eeting, held a t C ardiff in Ju n e , 1933, were
ta k e n as read , and w ere confirmed an d signed.
On th e m otion of th e C h a i r m a n , seconded b y
M r. F . J . C o o k (P a st-P re sid e n t), th e an n u al
re p o rt of th e G eneral Council fo r th e session
1933-34 w as adopted, w ith o u t discussion.

ANNUAL REPORT
T his re p o rt covers th e period of tw elve m onths
ended A p ril 30, 1934, an d th e accounts are for
th e y ear ended D ecem ber 31, 1933.

Membership
E xperience shows t h a t tra d e conditions are
usually reflected in th e m em bership of In s titu te s
such as th is, a fte r a period of tw o or th re e years,
an d th e re is a slig h t decrease of m em bership due
to th e conditions of tra d e which prevailed d u rin g
the years 1931 an d 1932. A recent influx of new
m em bers encourages th e hope th a t th is decrease
will be n eu tralise d in th e course of th e p resen t
y ear.
Tables I an d I I show th e changes of m em ber­
ship, an d an analysis of th e p resen t m em bership.

Obituary
I t is w ith re g re t t h a t th e C ouncil re p o rts th e
d eath s of te n m em bers d u rin g th e y ear, in cluding
those of M r. F . A llan, P re sid e n t of th e N ew castle
B ran ch in 1931-32, and M r. S tan ley G. F lag g , of
P h ilad elp h ia, a P a st-P re s id e n t of th e A m erican
F o u n d ry m en ’s A ssociation an d an h onorary
b 2
 4

m em ber of th is In s titu te . M r. R . R . McGowan,

a form er P re s id e n t of th e S co ttish B ra n c h , also
passed aw ay d u rin g th e y e a r.

Finance
I t is sa tisfa c to ry to n ote t h a t th e finances of
th e I n s titu te a re in a prosperous condition.
S ubscriptions have in creased by ap p ro x im ately
£60, an d due to econom ical w o rking, th e re has
been a decrease in ex p e n d itu re . The y e a r’s
w orking shows an excess of incom e over expendi­
tu r e of over £60. The cash a t th e bank,

T able I. — Changes of Membership.

Sub­ Asso­
scrib­ Mem­ ciate Asso­ Total.
ing bers. mem­ ciates.
firms. bers.

At April 30, 1933,. • 49 748 962 135 1,894

Losses and trans­
fers to other
grades 2 76 97 43 218

47 672 865 92 1,676

Additions and
transfers from
other grades 3 72 69 12 156
A t April 30, 1934. 50 744 934 104 1,832

£336 4s. 6d., includes th e sum of £74 11s. 9d.,

w hich has been tra n s fe rre d from th e su rp lu s
fu n d s in th e h an d s of th e B ranches.

Cardiff Conference
The T h irtie th A n n u al C onference was held in
C ardiff from .Tune 20 to 23, 1933.
On T uesday, J u n e 20, ladies and m em bers w ere
e n te rta in e d a t a reception by th e L o rd M ayor
an d L ady M ayoress of Cardiff, an d th e L o rd
M ayor an d o th e r p ro m in en t citizens a tte n d e d th e
opening m eeting.
The a u th o ritie s of th e U n iv ersity College,
C ardiff, also e n te rta in e d th e ladies and m em bers
a t a reception.
 5

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 6

A t th e A n n u al G eneral M eetin g , M r. C. E.
W illiam s was in stalled P re s id e n t in succession to
M r. V icto r Stobie.
The C ouncil te n d e rs its sincere th a n k s to the
L ord M ayor, A lderm an C. F . S au n d ers, J . P . , th e
L ady M ayoress, M iss M u riel S au n d ers, an d P rof.
•J. F . Rees, of th e U n iv e rsity College of South
W ales and M onm o u th sh ire, fo r th e ir h o sp itality ,
and to M r. J . M o rg an R ees, P re s id e n t of the
South W ales I n s titu te of E n g in eers, an d his
C ouncil, for so k in d ly placing th e ir b u ild in g at
th e disposal of th e I n s titu te fo r th e ir m eetings.
The th a n k s of th e C ouncil a re also given to
those firms who a rra n g e d v isits for m em bers and
ladies to th e ir respective w orks, and to th e staffs
of those firm s; to th e a u th o rs of P a p e rs, and to
those who subscribed to th e C onference F u n d or
in any w ay assisted in th e o rg an isatio n . Thanks
are specially due to th e C h airm an of th e Recep­
tio n C om m ittee, M r. Wm. W illiam s, to M r. J . J .
M cClelland, th e H o n o ra ry C onference Secretary,
and to his d a u g h te r, M rs. R aw den.

Technical Committee
The a c tiv ities of th e T echnical C om m ittee and
its Sub-C om m ittees which have been referred to
in previous re p o rts, h ave co n tin u ed w ith con­
siderable vigour. F u r th e r d etails are given in
th e special re p o rt of th is C om m ittee which follows
th is rep o rt.
Invitations
M essrs. F . W. B rid g es & Sons invited th e
Council to luncheon, an d th e whole of th e
mem bers to te a , a t th e S hipping, E n g in e erin g
an d M achinery E x h ib itio n held a t O lympia, in
S eptem ber, 1933. A larg e num ber of m em bers
accepted these in v ita tio n s and th e C ouncil’s
th a n k s are hereby te n d ere d to M essrs. F . W .
B ridges & Sons.
The Council also wishes to th a n k th e B irm in g ­
ham C ham ber of Commerce for th e ir in v ita tio n
to luncheon a t th e B ritish In d u s trie s F a ir on
F e b ru a ry 27. The in v ita tio n was accepted by a
num ber of m em bers of th e C ouncil.
 7

Educational Activities
C onsiderable progress has been m ade in th e
p relim in ary w ork in connection w ith th e pro­
posed D egree C ourse in F o u n d in g a t th e U n i­
v ersity of Sheffield. A Sub-C om m ittee of th e
I n s titu te has held a num ber of m eetings, and is
a t p re se n t engaged in soliciting th e necessary
financial su p p o rt from th e in d u stry . A consider­
able am o u n t of financial assistance has already
been prom ised.
The G eneral C ouncil has also accorded its
su p p o rt to th e scheme b ro u g h t forw ard by th e
B ritis h C ast Iro n R esearch A ssociation, for th e
establishm ent of a B ritish F o u n d ry School.
The exam inatio n s in F o u n d ry P ra c tic e and in
P a tte rn m a k in g conducted by th e C ity and Guilds
of London I n s titu te w ere held for th e th ird tim e
u n d e r th e revised a rran g em en ts, in A pril and M ay,
1934. The resu lts will be issued in due course. The
resu lts of th e 1933 ex am in atio n s show t h a t th ere
was a considerable increase in th e n um ber of
can d id ates ta k in g th e ex am in atio n s in P a tte rn -
m aking. T here was also a slig h t increase in th e
num ber of can d id a tes fo r th e e x am in atio n in th e
subject of F o u n d ry P ra c tic e and Science. The
num bers p re sen tin g them selves for th e 1933
exam inations w ere as follow : —
No. of Pass Pass
Candidates. 1st Class. 2nd Class.
Patternmaking—■
Intermediate Grade 36 11 10
Patternmaking—•
Final Grade 10 2 2
Foundry Practice and
Science . . . . 51 13 15
P rizes w ere aw arded as follow : —
P a tte rn m a k in g : In te rm e d ia te G rade.— M r.
B. R . P earso n , T echnical College, C o v en try ;
Bronze M edal.
P a tte r n m a k in g : F in a l G rade.—M r. J . G.
Rees, Sheffield F o u n d ry T rades S o c iety ; Silver
M edal an d B u ch an an M edal of th e I n s titu te of
B ritish F oundry m en .
 8

F o u n d ry P ractice a n d S cience.— Mr. T. W.

T ray h ern e, B irm in g h a m ; B ronze M edal and
B u ch an an M edal of th e I n s titu te of B ritish
F ou n d ry m en . M r. G. T. H a m p to n , C ounty
T echnical College, W e d n e sb u ry ; B ronze M edal.
B u ch an an Book P rizes w ere also aw ard ed to
M r. J . L. H an d ley an d M r. G. T. H a m p to n .
N a tio n a l C ertificates.— F o rty -six N a tio n a l Cer­
tificates in M echanical E n g in e e rin g were en­
dorsed in resp ec t to special F o u n d ry su b jects by
th e I n s titu te of B ritis h F o u n d ry m e n , m aking a
to ta l of n in e H ig h e r an d sev en ty -n in e O rdinary
C ertificates since th e in a u g u ra tio n of th e special
endorsem ent of these certificates th re e years ago.
Awards of the Institute
O liver S tu b b s M edal.— The tw e lfth aw ard was
m ade in J u n e , 1933, to M r. J . W . G ardom, “ for
his d istin g u ish ed services as C onvener of the
T echnical C om m ittee d u rin g th e p a st y e a r.”
D iplom as.— D iplom as w ere aw arded a t th e
C ardiff C onference in 1933, to five members for
P a p e rs given d u rin g th e previous year. The
nam es of th e recip ien ts an d th e B ranches before
which th e P a p e rs were given a re as follow: —
W. W est, B irm in g h a m an d L ancashire
B ranches.
H . E . B eardshaw , L a n cash ire B ranch.
E . J . L. H ow ard, L an cash ire B ranch.
R . B allan tin e, S co ttish B ranch.
C. A. H owe, W ales an d M onm outh B ranch.
The announcem en t of th e D iplom a aw ards for
th e Session 1933-34 will be m ade a t th e A n n u al
G eneral M eeting on J u n e 5.
S u rtees M em orial E x a m in a tio n .—The 1934
ex am in atio n was held by th e S cottish B ran ch ,
and th e successful ca n d id a tes w e re :__
A ndrew L. M o rtim er— Gold M edal.
Jo h n M ’G regor— S ilver M edal.

Overseas Foundry Associations

A bout tw enty-five mem bers and ladies a tte n d e d
th e In te rn a tio n a l F o u n d ry C onference in P ra g u e
in S eptem ber and afte rw a rd s m ade a to u r of th e
in d u s tria l po rtio n s of C zecho-Slovakia.
 9

A m eeting of th e In te rn a tio n a l C om m ittee of

F o u n d ry T echnical A ssociations was held in
P ra g u e d u rin g th e C onference p e rio d ; th e In s ti­
tu t e was rep rese n te d a t th is m eeting by Messrs.
J . C am eron, V . C. F a u lk n e r and T. M akem son,
who was p resen t as S ec re ta ry of th e C om m ittee.
M essrs. J . G. P e arc e an d T. M akem son were also
p re s e n t a t th e m eetin g of th e In te rn a tio n a l C ast
Iro n T esting C om m ittee held d u rin g th e same
period.
The value of in te rn a tio n a lism in foundry
technique was recognised by P re s id e n t M asaryk,
who honoured th e C onference by receiving a
sm all d e p u ta tio n of mem bers of th e In te rn a tio n a l
C om m ittee. The I n s titu te ’s in te rn a tio n a l mem­
bership is in d icate d by th e fa c t th a t no less th a n
five m em bers of th e d e p u ta tio n of seven are
m em bers of th e I n s titu te , n a m e ly : M r. J .
C am eron, re p rese n tin g G re a t B rita in ; M r. V.
Gel p o rt, rep resen tin g th e U n ite d S ta te s ; P ro f.
P isek, C zecho-S lovakia; M r. J. L eonard,
B elgium ; and M r. T. M akem son.
The official exchange P a p e r to th e I n te r ­
n a tio n al C onference a t P ra g u e was p rep ared by
M r. C. H . K ain . M r. W . Y. B u ch an an was th e
a u th o r of th e P a p e r to th e Polish F o u n d ry Con­
ference in J u n e , an d M r. W . W est p rep ared th e
P a p e r which was su b m itted on behalf of th e
i n s titu te to th e F ren c h F o u n d ry Conference in
N ovem ber.
E xchange P a p e rs will be p resented on behalf
of th e In s titu te a t fo rthcom ing C onferences by
th e following m em bers : —-
In te rn a tio n a l Conference, P hiladelphia.—D r.
W . H . H atfield.
French F ound ry Conference, N a n cy.—M r. E .
Longden.
E xchange P a p e rs will be p resen ted to our own
C onference a t M anchester in J u n e n e x t on behalf
of th e A m erican, F ren c h and G erm an Associa­
tions.
Branch Activities
The In s titu te has always recognised th e value
of th e w ork of th e B ranches, an d th e re is
probably no o th e r sim ilar tech n ical body which
 10

holds m eetings in so m an y c en tres an d whose

B ranches ta k e so active a p a r t in th e co nduct
of th e I n s tit u te ’s affairs. D u rin g th e p a s t year,
m eetings have been held reg u la rly in about
tw en ty cities an d tow ns in vario u s p a rts of the
c o u n try and no less th a n one h u n d re d an d th irty
P a p e rs have been p resen ted . A d d itio n ally , th ere
have been several g en eral discussions a n d the
P re s id e n tia l Addresses of th e B ran ch -P resid en ts.
T he G eneral C ouncil wishes to th a n k all these
au th o rs an d th e firms w ith whom th e y a re asso­
ciated fo r placin g th e ir ex perience a t th e dis­
posal of th e I n s titu te a n d th e in d u stry in
general. The Council also wishes to express its
ap p re c ia tio n of th e w ork of th e B ran ch -P resi­
d en ts an d S ecretaries and all who h ave assisted
in th e very larg e am ount of d e ta il w ork necessary
in th e o rg an isatio n of th e v ario u s B ranches.

Employment Bureau
The C ouncil is indebted to th e p ro p rie to rs of
T h e F o u n d r y T r a d e J o u r n a l fo r th e co n tin u ­
ance of th e facilitie s which th e y h av e given for
some years, w hereby mem bers of th e In s titu te
who desire em ploym ent are p e rm itte d to use th e
a d v ertisin g colum ns of th e J o u r n a l free of charge.
A considerable num ber of su ita b le positions h ave
been filled as a re su lt of these facilities.

British Cast Iron Research Association

A lthough th e financial year of th e B ritis h C ast
Iro n R esearch A ssociation does n o t close u n til
J u n e 30, th e re is every prospect t h a t th e incom e
an d a c tiv ity fo r th e year will c o n stitu te a record
an d th e contacts w ith th e I n s titu te h av e been
fully m a in tain ed .
D u rin g th e y e a r th e A ssociation has b ro u g h t
forw ard an im p o rta n t proposal fo r th e c re a tio n
of a fo u n d ry high school which shall pro v id e
in stru c tio n of th e hig h est o rd er fo r those a lread y
engaged in th e in d u stry , and also to m ake G re a t
B rita in in th is resp ect a t le a st as well off as
o th e r countries, n otably F ra n ce a n d G erm any.
 11

Bye-Laws and Rules

The revised by-laws were approved by th e
A n n u al G eneral M eetin g in J u n e last, an d have
been su b m itted to th e P riv y C ouncil. The cer­
tificate of th e P riv y Council has n o t y e t been
given an d in th e m eantim e i t is necessary to
w ork to th e ex istin g by-laws.

General Council
F o u r G eneral C ouncil m eetings an d a large
num ber of C om m ittee m eetings have been held
a t C ardiff, Y ork, B irm in g h am an d D erby. The
average a tte n d a n c e a t th e G eneral Council
m eetings was 45.
T here have been e ig h t m eetings of th e Tech­
nical C om m ittee and T echnical Council, an d a
larg e num ber of sub-com m ittee m eetings have
been held. A dditionally, th e re have been m eet­
ings of th e A dvisory C om m ittees in connection
w ith th e C ity an d Guilds of London In s titu te
ex am inations, an d th e proposed D egree Course
a t th e U n iv ersity of Sheffield.
Of th e te n m em bers of th e G eneral Council
elected by b allo t of th e whole of th e mem bers,
five re tire each y e a r; th e five who so re tire a t
th e A nnual G eneral M eeting on J u n e 5 a re : —
M r. A. C am pion, M r. F . J . H em m ing, M r. B.
H ird , M r. .T. R . H yde and M r. J . M. Prim rose.
All these gentlem en offer them selves for re-
election.
The C ouncil wishes to te n d e r its very g ra te fu l
th a n k s to M r. W . B. L ake, J . P . , H o n o rary
T reasu rer, whose in te re s t on b ehalf of th e In s ti­
t u t e ’s finances has been invaluable.

Manchester Conference
The T h irty -first A n n u al Conference will be held
a t M anchester from J u n e 5 to 8, when M r. Roy
Stubbs, P residen t-elect, will be in stalled P re s i­
d e n t of th e In s titu te .
The re p o rt is signed by M r. C. E . W illiam s,
P re s id e n t; M r. Tom M akem son, G eneral Secre­
ta r y .
 12

BALANCE SHEET, DECEMBER 31, 1933.

L ia b il it ie s .
£ s. d. £ s. d.
Subscriptions paid in advance 97 2 6
Sundry creditors .. .. 429 9 9
The Oliver Stubbs Medal Fund :—
Balance from last Account 209 9 2
Interest to date . . 7 14 0
Income Tax Refund 2 11 4
219 14 6
Less Cost of Medal 9 0 0
210 14 6

Balance from last Account 120 18 10

Interest to date 4 14 3
125 13 1
Sheffield University Fund .. 45 8 0
International Conference
Fund :—
Surplus included in General
Investments .. .. 40 18 11
Accumulated Fund :—
Balance a t December 31,
1932 1,428 4 8
Add : Excess of Income
over Expenditure for
the year ended Decem­
ber, 31, 1933 .. .. 60 13 3
1,488 17 11
£2,438 4 8
A ssets.

Cash in hands of Secretaries :—

£ s. d.
L ancashire.. 1 13 11
Birmingham 28 12 10
Scottish 14 0 2
S h e f f ie ld .......................... 31 10 10
London 23 17 6
East Midlands 21 10 0
West Riding of Yorkshire 13 11 3
Wales and Monmouth 4 9 9
Middlesbrough 3 11 6
142 17 9
 13

Sundry Debtors :—
Subscriptions due and sub­
sequently received 99 4 6
Due from Sheffield Council 3 17 6
Lloyds Bank Ltd. 336 4 7
Do. (Sheffield Univer­
sity Fund) 45 8 0
The Oliver Stubbs Medal Fund
£342 5s. 7d. Local Loans
£3 per cent. Stock a t Cost 200 0 0
Balance at Lloyds Bank Ltd. 10 14 6
— 210 14 6
The Buchanan Medal Fund :—
£125, £3 10s. per cent. Con­
version Stock at 78J 98 6 9
Balance at Midland Bank 27 6 4
------------ 125 13 1
Investments Account:—
£650, 3£ per cent. War
Loan at cost 630 8 4
£300, 5 per cent. Conver­
sion Stock, 1944/64 at
cost 297 14 11
£653 19s. Local Loans 3 per
cent. Stock at cost 451 13 8
------------- 1,379 16 11
Furniture, Fittings and Fix­
tures :—
Per last Account 104 17 7
Less : Depreciation 10 per
cent. 10 9 9
94 7 10
£2,438 4 8

W. B. Lake, Hon. Treasurer.

T om M a k em so n , General Sec.
We have prepared and audited the above Balance
Sheet with the Books and Vouchers of the Institute and
certify the same to be in accordance therewith.
J . & A . W . S u l l y & Co., Chartered Accountants, Auditors,
19-21, Queen Victoria Street,
London, E.C.4.

April 5, 1934.
 14

INCOME AND EXPEN DITU RE ACCOUNT EOR

THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1933.
E x p e n d it u k e .

£ s. d. £ s. d.
Postages .. .. .. I l l 11 2
Printing and Stationery in­
cluding printing of “ Pro­
ceedings ” .. .. 664 17 10
Council Finance and Annual
Meetings Expenses .. 122 7 11
Medal for Past-President .. 3 0 0
Branch Expenses : —
Lancashire 146 11 1
Birmingham 73 17 4
Scottish 99 15 4
S h e f f ie ld .......................... 56 19 2
London 59 2 10
E ast Midlands 44 18 7
Newcastle 42 1 0
West Riding of Yorkshire 25 8 9
Wales and Monmouth 30 15 3
Middlesbrough 32 19 3
612 8 7
Audit Fee and Accountancy .
Charges 12 12 0
Incidental Expenses 75 15 3
Loss on Sale of Badges 0 3 4
Salaries—Secretary and Clerks 669 12 5
Rent, Rates, &c., of Office,
less Received 91 5 0
Subscription International
Committee 5 0 0
Depreciation of Furniture .. 10 9 9

2,379 3 3
Excess of Income over E x­
penditure carried to
Balance Sheet 60 13 3
£2,439 16 6

I ncom e.

£ s. d £ s. d.
Subscriptions Received :—
Lancashire 482 9 6
Birmingham 282 9 0
Scottish 311 6 6
S h e f f ie ld ........................ 237 6 0
 15

£ s. d. £ s. d.
Subscriptions Received (continued)
London 366 19 6
E ast Midlands 156 10 0
Newcastle 148 11 6
West Riding of Yorkshire 126 10 6
Wales and Monmouth 93 9 0
Middlesbrough 81 18 0
Unattached Members 42 0 10

2,329 10 4
Add ; Subscriptions in ad­
vance, 1932 89 15 6
Do. due, 1933 99 4 6 •
£189 0 0
Less : Subs, in ad­
vance, 1933 £97 2 6
Do. due,
1932 .. 62 9 6
159 12 0
29 8 0

2,358 18 4
Sale of “ Proceedings,” &c.. . 4 11 4
Interest on Investments and
Cash on Deposit 50 6 10
Income Tax Refund 6 15 6
John Surtees Medal Fund
Surplus 19 4 6
£2,439 16 6

Finance
M r. W . B. L a k e , J .P . (hon. tre a s u re r), p re­
sen tin g th e accounts and balance-sheet fo r th e
y e a r ended D ecem ber 31, 1933, an d proposing
th e ir adoption, said th e d etails of th e accounts
differed only slig h tly from those of th e previous
y ear. P r in tin g costs had in creased slightly, due
to th e expense of th e d r a f t copies of th e R ules
an d th e p re p a ra tio n of th e I n s titu te ’s booklet
on M icro stru ctu res, b u t he com m ented t h a t th e
m oney h ad been very well sp en t. There had
been a slig h t decrease in th e e x p e n d itu re on
postages and in th e a u d it fee, th e la tte r decrease
being due to th e fa c t t h a t in 1933 th e re was no
expensive legal w ork in connection w ith th e re ­
covery of Incom e Tax.
 16

The n e t re s u lt was an excess of incom e over

e x p e n d itu re to th e e x te n t of £60 12s. 3d. The
fa c t th a t, in sp ite of th e g re a t depression in th e
in d u s try , th e I n s titu te h ad been able so to m a in ­
ta in its m em bership t h a t i t could show a c re d it
balance on th e y e a r’s w ork, w as a g re a t te s ti­
m onial to th e w ork of th e In s titu te . There
h ad been an ap p re c ia tio n of th e I n s tit u te ’s in ­
vestm ents. T he a m o u n t p a id fo r th e various
stocks held was £1,678 3s. 8d., a n d a,t c u rre n t
m a rk e t prices those stocks w ere w o rth £2,037,
so t h a t th e a p p re c ia tio n was ro u g h ly £300.
UndeV all th e circum stances, th e position was
satisfacto ry .
The m otion fo r th e adop tio n of th e accounts
and balance-sheet w as seconded by M e . A.
H a k l e y (P a s t-P re sid e n t), an d carrie d .

Report of Technical Committee

M r . J . W . G aiuiom (C onvener of th e In s titu te ’s
Technical C om m ittee) proposed th e adoption of
th e C om m ittee’s th ird A n n u al G eneral R eport.
H e added t h a t d u rin g th e y e a r th e Comm ittee
had exam ined a re p o rt published by th e B ritish
C ast Iro n R esearch A ssociation on th e analyses
of v ario u s m etals, an d was in favour of th e
adoption of t h a t re p o rt by th e In s titu te .
C om m enting u pon th e devoted work of th e
m em bers of th e T echnical C om m ittee and its sub­
co m m ittees, he said t h a t possibly i t m ig h t be
th o u g h t in some q u a rte rs t h a t th ey were n o t
doing m uch, a n d t h a t if th e y gave only one h o u r
p er week to th is w ork th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r i t
would am o u n t to only one w eek’s work in any
w hole-tim e research o rg an isatio n . As an in stan ce
of achievem ent, how ever, he drew a tte n tio n to
th e T echnical R e p o rt produced by th e Sub-Com ­
m ittee on C ast Iro n , and said th a t if an y re ­
search w orker a t a U n iv ersity could produce such
a re p o rt in six m onths he would consider t h a t he
had done very well. I t m ust be a p p re c ia te d t h a t
th e production of such a re p o rt m u st have
en tailed m any ho u rs of w ork.
M r . Y . C. F a u l k n e r (P a s t-P re sid e n t), second­
ing th e m otion for th e adop tio n of th e T echnical
C om m ittee’s R e p o rt, said he h ad a tte n d e d one
or tw o of th e C om m ittee’s m eetings, and although
he played only a m in o r rôle, he had been very
much im pressed by its w ork. The fa c t which had
im pressed him m ostly was th e speed w ith which
suggestions w ere p u t in to p ra c tic e ; th e lag
betw een suggestion a n d accom plishm ent was of
th e low est possible order.
The C h a i r m a n also p aid a tr ib u te ¡to th e
w onderful w ork of th e C om m ittee, w hich was
done v o lu n tarily an d g ra tu ito u sly , an d said th a t
it w as essentially th e k in d of w ork t h a t th e
I n s titu te w anted to do. All th e m em bers could
read ab o u t th e researches of th e B ritish C ast
Iro n R esearch A ssociation and o th e r bodies, b u t
in applying th e findings of such researches in
a ctu a l practice in th e fo u n d ry and connecting
u p w ith th em th e C om m ittee was perfo rm in g a
useful fu n ctio n . H e could n o t praise th e Com­
m itte e ’s w ork too highly.
T he re p o rt w as ad o p ted , am id applause.

THIRD ANNUAL GENERAL REPORT OF THE

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
T he re o rg an isa tio n which was ex plained in
d e ta il in th e la s t A n n u al R e p o rt has been in
o p eratio n d u rin g th e p a st tw elve m onths and has
been com pletely successful. The Technical
C ouncil, w hich consists of th e m em bers elected
by th e B ranches, to g e th e r w ith th e officers of th e
T echnical C om m ittee and th e conveners of sub­
com m ittees, has m e t fo u r tim es d u rin g th e y ear,
on th e sam e days as th e m eetings of th e G eneral
C ouncil, and has d ealt w ith m a tte rs of g en eral
a d m in istra tio n . The fu ll T echnical Com m ittee,
consisting of th e T echnical Council, th e whole of
th e m em bers co-opted on th e sub'-committees on
account of th e ir special knowledge and c e rta in
ex-conveners of sub-com m ittees, has held fo u r
m eetings on d ates ap p ro x im ately m idw ay betw een
th e T echnical C ouncil m eetings. Such m eetings
have been held a t C arlisle (tw ice), London and
irm ingham . These m eetings of th e full Tech-
1 C om m ittee afford a m ethod of review ing
 18

th e w ork of th e whole of th e sub-com m ittees and

provide th e necessary liaison. The to ta l nu m b er
of sub-com m ittee m eetin g s which have been held
is ab o u t fo rty .
I n th e la s t A nnual R e p o rt, referen ce was m ade
to th e T echnical E x h ib it o rganised in connection
w ith th e In te rn a tio n a l F o u n d ry E x h ib itio n in
A pril, 1933. The C om m ittee co n tin u es to receive
evidence of th e value of th is e x h ib it in th e
in te re s t shown in th e developm ent of foundry
technique.
Inquiry Bureau
The In q u iry B u re a u was commenced in October,
1932, fo r an ex p e rim en tal p erio d of twelve
m onths. T his p erio d has now been continued
indefinitely, as i t was fo u n d t h a t th e B ureau
was of real service to m em bers, as i t provides a
definite m eans of answ ering in q u iries reg ard in g
publications a n d o th e r m a tte rs of a technical
ch a ra c te r, w hich were n o t d e a lt w ith previously
by an y special m ach in ery . Since th e establish­
m en t of th e B u re au 40 in q u iries have been
answ ered.
Publication of Technical Data
I n th e course of th e ir w ork, th e various sub­
com m ittees have collected and ta b u la te d a large
am o u n t of d a ta b earin g on th e ir respective
subjects and carefu l co n sid eratio n is being given
to a su itab le m ethod of m ak in g th is d a ta avail­
able to th e m em bers of th e In s titu te . A ce rta in
am o u n t of m a tte r re la tin g to the- p roperties of
cast iron is alread y av ailable to members on
ap p licatio n to th e G eneral S ecretary .
The T echnical C om m ittee wish to b ring to th e
notice of m em bers of th e In s titu te , and of th e
in d u s try generally, th e value of th e p u b licatio n
on “ Recom m ended M ethods of S am pling an d
A nalysis of C ast F e rro u s M etals and A lloys,”
published by th e B ritish C ast Iro n R esearch
A ssociation. The m ethods given in th is p u b lica­
tio n have th e ap p ro v al of th e C om m ittee.
A tte n tio n , p a rtic u la rly of non-ferrous fo u n d ers,
is also d irected to a n o th er p u b licatio n , nam ely,
“ The C asting of B rass In g o ts ,” by D r. R .
 19

G enders an d M r. G. L. Bailey. T his book is

published by th e B ritish N o n-F errous M etals
R esearch A ssociation, an d alth o u g h concerned
specifically w ith th e m a n u fa c tu re of ingots, con­
ta in s m uch in fo rm atio n of value to founders of
non-ferrous m etals.
D u rin g th e y ea r th e p rin c ip a l activ ities have
been of a specialised c h a ra c ter an d have been
c arried o u t m ainly by th e various com m ittees.
D etails of th e ir w ork ap p e a r in th e re p o rts of
these sub-com m ittees w hich are appended to th is
re p o rt.
The Sub-C om m ittee on C ast Iro n has issued a
b o o k le t' of T ypical M icro stru ctu res of various
types of cast iron. Copies m ay be ob tain ed by
any m em ber of th e I n s titu te free of charge, ad d i­
tio n a l copies m ay be h ad a t th e price of 2s. 6d.
A t th e C ardiff C onference held in Ju n e , 1933,
a P a p e r by th e S ands and R efracto ries Sub-Com­
m ittee was presen ted e n title d “ R o u tin e M ethods
of T esting G reen S a n d .” D u rin g th e p a st year
th e Sub-C om m ittee on C ast Iro n has c a rrie d ou t
a larg e am oun t of ex p erim en tal and in v estig atio n
w ork on v ario u s phases of cast iro n , including
such sub jects as porosity, co n tractio n , th e influ­
ence of phosphorus, etc. This w ork has been
em bodied in a re p o rt which will be p resented by
th is C om m ittee to th e M anchester C onference
in J u n e n e x t. These Sub-C om m ittee rep o rts
follow th e re p o rt p resen ted by th e M alleable C ast
Iro n Sub-C om m ittee to th e N ew castle Conference
in 1932, and it is a n tic ip a te d t h a t fu r th e r rep o rts
will be received a t subsequent conferences from
these and o th e r sub-com m ittees.
The Sub-C om m ittee on F o u n d ry C osting has
m ade considerable progress u n d e r th e eonvener-
sbip .of M r. V in cen t D elp o rt and is engaged
actively in fo rm u la tin g proposals, which will be
placed before th e I n s titu te in due course.
F ro m tim e to tim e th e In s titu te has been
in v ited to p u t forw ard its views on d ra f t specifi­
cations issued by .th e B ritish S ta n d a rd s I n s titu ­
tio n and to p a rtic ip a te in th e w ork of o th er
com m ittees, b o th in te rn a tio n a l an d n atio n al.
The T echnical com m ittee has now become th e
I

20

recognised m edium th ro u g h w hich th e I n s titu te

p a rtic ip a te s in such w ork, an d th ro u g h w hich it
is rep re se n te d on th ese com m ittees.
The C onvener ta k e s th is o p p o rtu n ity of p ay in g
tr ib u te to th e devoted w ork done by th e
m em bers of th e com m ittee an d of th e sub-com­
m ittees. T he m em bers c a rry o u t a considerable
am o u n t of w ork in th e ir own tim e a n d th ey
a tte n d m eetings in v ario u s p a rts of th e cou n try ,
u sually a t th e week-ends a n d a t th e ir own
expense. The th a n k s of th e I n s titu te a re due to
th e m fo r th e ir w ork fo r th e b enefit of th e
mem bers as a whole an d th e in d u s try in general.
A considerable am o u n t of tim e m u st necessarily
elapse before w ork of th is k in d reaches a stage
a t w hich u sefu l in fo rm a tio n can be published,
sufficient w ork has a lread y been p ublished, how­
ever, to in d ic a te t h a t considerable progress is
being m ade in alm ost every b ra n c h of modern
fo u n d ry p ractice.
J . W . Gardom,
C onvener, T echnical C om m ittee.

REPORTS OF SUB-COMMITTEES

Sub-Committee on Cast Iron

As th is sub-com m ittee h as been responsible for
th e pro d u ctio n of a T echnical R e p o rt for th e
M anchester C onference, th e re is little to re p o rt
beyond th e w ork described th e re in . The sub­
com m ittee has co-operated in th e w ork of th e
T echnical C om m ittee by a tte n d in g to queries
raised in th e In q u iry B u re a u an d o th er m a tte rs
of g en eral in te re st.
The p re p a ra tio n of th e T echnical R e p o rt has
involved m any m eeting s of th e Sub-C om m ittee,
special m eetings h a v in g been held in a d d itio n to
th e u su al q u a rte rly ones.
P . A. R ussell ,
C onvener.

Sub-Committee on Non-Ferrous Castings

Since th e record re p o rt issued a y e a r ago, th e
N on-F errous C astin g s S ub-C om m ittee m em bers
 21

have held th re e m eetings an d atte n d e d four

T echnical C om m ittee m eetings in various centres.
T heir chief w ork has c en tred round th e selected
alloys to he recom m ended to th e B ritish
S ta n d a rd s In s titu tio n for th e sim plification of
num erous com m ercial specifications dealing w ith
leaded g u n m etals and leaded phosphor bronzes.
C e rta in m odifications both in th e suggested com­
position ran g es an d also th e physical p ro p ertie s
to be expected from these have been decided upon
as th e re s u lt of te s ts m ade by th e various
m em bers, b u t before th ese w ere finally declared
in th e P a p e r proposed for th e n e x t C onference,
it was agreed to g e t evidence of o th er founders.
W ith th is end in view several collaborators have
been selected, whose w ork is now in progress, and
u n til th is whole scheme can be co rrelated i t was
deem ed inadvisable to fram e a final re p o rt on
th is piece of w ork. One o u tsta n d in g fe a tu re of
th e w ork so fa r covered has been th e dem on­
s tra tio n of th e usefulness of th e tw o ty p es of
s ta n d a rd te s t-b a r selected tw o y ears ago.
O ther aspects of th e w ork u n d e rta k e n by th e
sub-com m ittee h ave been th e condensation of the
various tab les of sta n d a rd physical d a ta collected
an d also th e answ ering of several technical
in q u iries which h ave been passed to th em by th e
fu ll T echnical C om m ittee to deal w ith. I n con­
nection w ith th e M eltin g F u rn ac e s Sub-Com­
m ittee, d eta ils of all ty p es of fu rn aces suitable
fo r m eltin g n on-ferrous m etals have been ta b u ­
lated an d will form a basis of jo in t w ork w ith
th e ir sub-com m ittee as th e ir w ork expands.
J . S. G. P r im r o s e ,
Convener.
Sub-Committee on Malleable Cast Iron
M uch w ork has been done d u rin g th e course of
th e la s t tw elve m onths, b u t as th e investig atio n s
in h a n d have been of considerable m ag n itu d e
none of th e w ork has y e t been com pleted.
An in v estig a tio n is in progress in connection
w ith th e possibility of u tilisin g a sta n d a rd size
te st-b a r, b u t specifying d ifferen t te s t req u ire­
m ents satisfacto rily to re p rese n t differen t sections
 22

of m etal. This w ork has involved th e p re p a r a ­

tio n of larg e num bers of te st-b a rs, and a t th e
p re se n t tim e these b ars a re u n d erg o in g or a b o u t
to undergo an n e alin g tr e a tm e n t. T he w ork
should be b ro u g h t to a conclusion w ith in th e
n e x t m o n th or tw o.
An a tte m p t to co rrela te physical p ro p e rtie s of
m alleable cast iro n w ith m ic ro stru c tu re h as been
in progress fo r a considerable tim e, a n d th is w ork
has also involved th e p re p a ra tio n of num erous
te st-b a rs. I t is expected t h a t th is in v e stig a tio n
will be b ro u g h t to com pletion d u rin g n e x t y ear.
The C om m ittee has ta k e n up th e q uestion of
“ Tolerances on D im e n s io n s” of C astin g s, and
m uch w ork has been done in in v e s tig a tin g th e
accuracy to draw in g s an d p a tte rn s o b tain ed in
norm al p ractice. I n th is w ork th e C om m ittee
has received th e co-operation of th e S teel C ast­
ings, N o n -F erro u s an d Grey C a st Iro n Sub-Com­
m ittees, an d th e whole of th e d a ta w ill sho rtly be
draw n to g e th e r, an d i t is hoped to m ake some
p u b licatio n on th e su b ject.
A. E . P e a c e ,
C onvener.

Sub-Committee on Sands and Refractories

I n J u n e , th e P a p e r e n title d “ R o u tin e
M ethods of T estin g G reen S ands ” was presented
to th e C ardiff C onference. A fte r th is, oppor­
tu n ity was given for discussing th e relativ e
m erits of v arious m ethods of te s tin g , th e Sub-
C om m ittee p u t fo rw ard in S eptem ber, 1933,
definite recom m ended m ethods for ro u tin e te stin g
of g reen sands as follow s: —
Use th e A .F .A . test-piece p re p a re d in th e
s ta n d a rd A .F .A . ram m er.
D eterm in e th e p erm eab ility by th e A .F .A .
m ethod in th e A .F .A . a p p a ra tu s or R ic h a rd ­
son’s m odification.
D eterm in e th e bond stre n g th u sin g th e
A .F .A . sta n d a rd ram m ed test-piece crushed in
th e B .C .I.R .A . com pression-strength te s tin g
m achine.
D eterm ine m o istu re in th e Speedy M o istu re
(p a te n t) m oistu re te s te r.
 23

F irm s and in d iv id u als th ro u g h o u t G reat

B rita in h ave been in v ite d to use th e recom­
m ended m ethods in p ractice over a period of
a b o u t a year w ith th e object of re p o rtin g th e ir
experiences of th e m ethods.
The Sub-C om m ittee is now engaged in corre­
la tin g te s ts w ith p ractice w ith a view to d e te r­
m ining th e re latio n sh ip betw een th e bond and
“ l i f t ,” also w h at am o u n t of m oisture, p erm ea­
b ility and bond stre n g th is best for each ty p e of
green-sand castin g .
I t is also in v e stig a tin g w h at modified m ethods
are su itab le for d eterm in in g p erm eability and
bond s tre n g th in d ry m oulding sands and core
sands. The Sub-C om m ittee has already agreed
t h a t th e A .F .A . m ethod of d eterm in in g perm ea­
b ility in dry sands- is satisfacto ry .
A su itab le in s tru m e n t for d eterm in in g th e
m ould h ard n ess is being in v estig ated , also th e
relatio n sh ip betw een m ould hardness and p er­
m eability in o rd er to determ in e th e link betw een
s ta n d a rd te s ts fo r perm eab ility and th e perm ea­
b ility of th e a c tu a l moulds.
N . D. R id s d a l e ,

Convener.

Sub-Committee on Melting Furnaces

The M eltin g F u rn ac e s Sub-C om m ittee has been
co n tin u in g th e w ork o u tlin ed in th e la s t A nnual
R e p o rt. A re p o rt on th e cupola fu rn ace has been
p rep ared an d i t is in ten d ed to am plify th is by
including recom m ended o p e ra tin g d a ta for a
36-in. dia. (lined) cupola. W ith re g a rd to non-
ferro u s m eltin g fu rn aces, a schedule of th e
various ty p e s available has been draw n up, and
it is proposed to collect o p e ra tin g d a ta from
published an d o th e r sources w ith a view to
m aking a com prehensive re p o rt which will be of
value to m em bers.
A t th e re q u e st of th e m ain T echnical Com­
m ittee and arisin g o u t of a discussion a t one of
th e B ranches, a q u estio n n aire has been p rep ared
and has been c ircu lated to a num ber of foundries,
on th e subject of cupola linings an d p atch in g
 24

m aterials, w ith a view to o b ta in in g a u th o rita tiv e

d a ta on th e consum ption of such m a te ria l u n d e r
differen t m ethods of cupola o p eratio n .
F. K. N eath ,,
C onvener.

Sub-Committee on Steel Castings

The Steel C astin g s Sub-C om m ittee has been
in v e stig a tin g th e c astin g of a valve, a n d e ig h t
firms have prom ised to assist an d sup p ly castings,
some of which are com pleted.
T hese castings will enable th e Sub-C om m ittee
to in v estig ate m oulding tro u b les, c o n tra c tio n and
h o t te a rs, to g e th e r w ith th e physical p roperties
of th e m etals m ade u n d er d ifferen t processes.
T his will occupy a considerable tim e, an d in th e
m eantim e we re fra in from m ak in g any detailed
r e p o r t or conclusion.
R . J . R ic h a k d s o n ,
C onvener.
Sub-Committee on Costing
The C osting Sub-C om m ittee was definitely con­
s titu te d in N ovem ber, 1933, an d im m ediately
s ta rte d its inv estig atio n s.
T ak in g up the su b ject in re la tio n to grey-iron
foundries, i t was decided a t th e first m eeting
t h a t th e system would be d ivided in to fo u r m ain
divisions, as follow s:— (a) M eltin g D e p a rtm e n t;
(b) M oulding D e p a rtm e n t; (c) C ore-m aking D e­
p a rtm e n t; (d ) C leaning and F in ish in g D e p a rt­
m ents. I n ad d itio n , a n u m b er of au x iliary
d e p a rtm e n ts would also be considered.
The C osting Sub-C om m ittee has agreed upon a
n um ber of suggestions covering th e s ta n d a rd
system of costs for th e m eltin g d e p a rtm e n t, and
i t is fe lt th a t i t w ould be very h elp fu l if th e
proposed recom m endations could be p u t before
th e fo u n d ry in d u stry in order to o b ta in a
reactio n from those who show sufficient in te re s t
in th e subject. I t would th u s be possible to
o b tain w h at m ig h t be valuable su g g estio n s and
co n stru ctiv e criticism , which w ould enable th e
Sub-C om m ittee ev en tu a lly to p re s e n t a com plete
 25

system em bodying th e b est p ractice. As consti­

tu te d a t p resen t, th e Sub-C om m ittee comprises
five m em bers who are fa irly rep re se n ta tiv e of
various aspects of th e grey-iron fo u n d ry in d u stry ,
b u t suggestions from outside th e Sub-C om m ittee
m ig h t fill c e rta in gaps which m ay or m ay n o t
e x is t in th e proposed recom m endations of th e
C om m ittee.
A num ber of fo u n d ry owners have been asked
to supply in fo rm atio n concerning th e system used
in th e ir w orks. F ro m th e replies which have
been received, i t would a p p e a r t h a t a few very
b road principles are m ore or less in use in all th e
foundries t h a t have been approached, and these
replies show t h a t i t would be difficult to compare
costs accurately w ith o u t a sta n d a rd system th a t
could be followed by th e m a jo rity of foundries.
I t is suggested t h a t th e b est way in which to
receive constru ctiv e criticism would be to subm it
before one or several of th e B ranches a sh o rt
P a p e r sum m arising th e proposed recom m enda­
tions on m eltin g costs. The Technical C om m ittee
an d th e G eneral Council have approved of th e
p re p a ra tio n of such a P a p e r, and th e Costing
Sub-C om m ittee hopes to be in a position to
p re s e n t i t to th e B ranches a fte r th e m onth of
N ovem ber.
V in c e n t D e i /p o r t ,

Convener.

The Oliver Stubbs Gold Medal

T he C h a i r m a n announced th a t th e G eneral
C ouncil recom m ended th e aw ard of th e Oliver
S tubbs Gold M edal fo r 1934 to M r. V. C.
F a u lk n e r (P a st-P resid e n t) fo r th e w onderful way
in w hich he h a d steered th e C om m ittee (as
C onvener) w hich h ad been concerned w ith th e
e stab lish m en t of a school of fou n d in g science in
Sheffield. T here w ere th o u san d s of reasons why
th a n k s w ere due to M r. F a u lk n e r fo r his work
on behalf of foundrym en.
M r . F a u l k n e r said he was deeply moved by
th e kindness of th e In s titu te in aw arding him
th e M edal. Some 12 years ago he had h ad dis­
cussions w ith th e la te M r. O liver Stubbs as to
 26

th e term s of th e aw ard, b u t h ad n o t d ream ed a t

t h a t tim e t h a t he w ould e v e r be a r e c ip ie n t; he
was indeed h ap p y in th e know ledge t h a t he was
to receive th e aw ard, by reaso n of h is g re a t
respect fo r th e nam e w ith w hich i t was
associated. The w ork which th e I n s titu te had
been k in d enoug h to recognise in th is w ay h ad
been v ery m uch a lab o u r of love'; o th e r w ork
t h a t he had done, such as th e p re p a ra tio n of th e
B u lletin , was m uch h a rd e r.

An Institute Medal
The C h a i r m a n said t h a t th e O liver S tubbs
Gold M edal was aw arded fo r w ork done specific­
ally in any one y e a r. T here w ere m en, however,
who by th e ir co n tin u o u s service accu m u lated a
m ass of c re d it over m an y years. I n 1933, th e re ­
fore, th e I n s titu te h ad p resen ted a M edal to M r.
F . W . F in ch (th e I n s tit u te ’s first S ecretary ),
an d in 1934 i t was decided to p re se n t a sim ilar
M edal to M r. J . J . M cC lelland. (A pplause.)
The C h airm an added th a t, as a re sid e n t of South
W ales, w here M r. M cC lelland h ad done so much,
he w as deligh ted to be able to m ake th e
an n o u n cem en t.
Diplomas
The S ecretary (M r. Tom M akem son)
announced t h a t th e follow ing D iplom as had been
aw arded, fo r P a p e rs re a d before th e branches
d u rin g th e p a st sessio n : —
M r. W. G. M o rg an : “ F e ttlin g Shop
Efficiency.” — B irm in g h am B ran ch .
M r. F . H u d so n : “ M oulding S and C o n tro l.” —
L ancashire and London B ranches.
M r. A. L o g an : “ A spects of N o n -F erro u s
F o u n d in g .” — L an cash ire B ranch.
M r. T. M ak e m so n : “ Some Im pressions of
C zecho-Slovakian F o u n d rie s.” '— London B ran c h .
M r. G. L. B ailey : “ P o ro sity in N o n -F e rro u s
C a stin g s.” —L ondon B ranch.
D r. A. B. E v e re s t: “ P o te n tia litie s of C ast
Ir o n .” —London B ranch.
 27
t
M r. J . L o n g d e n : “ C ast Iro n fo r L a u n d ry
M ach in ery .” —S c o ttish B ranch.
M r. J . R o x b u rg h : “ Alloys in th e Iro n
F o u n d ry .” — Sheffield B ranch.
M r. B. G ale: “ P ra c tic a l C onsiderations in a
Small Jo b b in g F o u n d ry .” —W ales an d M on­
m outhshire B ran ch .

Election of President
The C h a i r m a n , proposing th e election of M r.
R oy S tubbs as P re s id e n t of th e I n s titu te fo r th e
en su in g y ear—a ta s k which he reg ard ed as a
privilege— said it was difficult to assess th e value
of frien d sh ip , b u t one of th e o u tsta n d in g
ch ara c te ristic s of M r. R oy Stubbs was t h a t he
was a frien d of every foundrym an. H e (M r.
W illiam s) had found in him a tr u e frie n d d u rin g
his te rm of office, and in electin g M r. S tubbs th e
I n s titu te would be electing th e night m an, who
would sta n d by th e In s titu te in th e coming year.
H is nam e was a household word am ongst th e
m em bers, and i t was indeed a pleasure to be able
to propose his election.
M r . V i c t o r S t o b i e (P a st-P re sid e n t), second­
ing, com m ented t h a t M r. Stubbs would be th e
youngest P re s id e n t th e In s titu te had had for
m any years, an d , like all who a tta in e d m erited
prom inence in early years, he was undoubtedly
one of g re a t q u a lity and a wise counsellor. H e
had th e blood of Oliver S tubbs in his veins, b u t
t h a t w as by no m eans th e reason why he had
come to th e f o r e fro n t; he h ad focussed th e a tte n ­
tio n , th e ad m ira tio n an d th e esteem of all by
his own u n aid ed efforts. The L ancashire B ranch,
u n d e r h is P residen cy , h ad forged ahead, due to
a g re a t e x te n t to th e g r it a n d d e te rm in a tio n w ith
which he had conducted its a ffa irs ; t h a t g r it and
d e te rm in atio n , harnessed to th e m ain body of
th e I n s titu te , would produce w onderful results.
Amid enth u siasm th e resolution was carried
unanim ously.
M r . S t u b b s , responding, confessed t h a t he was
overw helm ed. A t th e same tim e, he was
conscious of th e very h ig h honour conferred upon
 28

him , an d was a p p re c ia tiv e of th e actio n s of

those who h a d deem ed h im w o rthy of such a
d is tin c tio n . H e was succeeding a long lin e of
capable, en erg etic, sincere an d p ro m in e n t men
in th e in d u s try , each of whom h a d ad d ed his
own step of in d iv id u a lity in th e m arch of
progress t h a t had b ro u g h t th e I n s titu te of B ritish
F o undrym en to its p resen t sta n d in g am ongst
I n s titu te s n o t only of th is c o u n try b u t of th e
w o rld ; an d if he could add his little step fo rw ard
in t h a t m arch of progress he w ould be very
h appy. H e te n d e re d his sin cerest th a n k s to all
th e Officers and m em bers of th e I n s titu te for
th e ir kindness to him on th is occasion, an d to
M r. W illiam s an d M r. S tobie fo r th e ir very
gracious expressions of goodwill.

Vote of Thanks to Retiring President

M r . S tu bbs, ta k in g th e o p p o rtu n ity to propose
a vote of th a n k s to th e re tirin g P re s id e n t, said
t h a t M r. W illiam s had placed th e I n s titu te u n d e r
la stin g obligation s by th e ex cep tio n ally active
an d co n stru ctiv e service w hich he h ad m ain tain ed
continuously d u rin g his y e a r gf office. There
was no d oubt t h a t th e I n s titu te h a d thereby
g ain ed g re a tly in p restig e, an d th e m em bers paid
tr ib u te to him , acknow ledging th e ir deep
indebtedness fo r his wise counsel and ta c tfu l
guidance.
M r . J . E . H u r s t (V ice-P resid en t), seconding,
said he was voicing th e o pinion of all when he
s ta te d t h a t no o th e r P re s id e n t h ad -wormed his
w ay m ore quickly th a n h a d M r. W illiam s into
th e esteem an d re a l affection of every m em ber
of th e I n s titu te . One could feel assured t h a t
his y ear of P residen cy would ever be rem em bered
in th e a n n als of th e I n s titu te .
The vote of th a n k s w as carried w ith acclam a­
tio n .
M r . W i l l i a m s , w ith his usu al m odesty, said
t h a t a P re s id e n t could do n o th in g w ith o u t th e
aid an d su p p o rt of th e S ecretary , th e V ice-
P re sid e n ts, th e C ouncil an d th e C o m m ittees; he
was ju s t one of th em . If he h ad been of any
 29
service to th e I n s titu te an d if he h ad done any
of th e m em bers any good he w as indeed glad.
D u rin g his P resid en cy he h ad m ade a g re a t m any
frien d s, and he valu ed frien d sh ip very h ig h ly ;
we b ro u g h t n o th in g into th e w orld, and we could
ta k e n o th in g o u t of it b u t frien d sh ip .

Election of Senior Vice-President

M r . S proposing th e election of M r.
tu bbs,
J . E . H u r s t (of D ronfield, Sheffield) as Senior
V ice-P resid en t, rem ark ed jo cu larly t h a t he would
n o t m en tio n a ll t h a t he knew of M r. H u r s t; he
w as a m an know n in te rn a tio n a lly , however, for
his researches in to th e m ysteries of cast iron.
H e h ad delivered n u m erous lectu res—some of
w hich th e hea rers ag reed w ith and some of which
th e y did not— and had w ritte n various te x t books
w hich w ere re g ard ed as classics. The m em bers
could be su re t h a t u n d e r his (M r. S tubbs’) able
guidance M r. H u rs t would m ake q u ite a n efficient
V ice-P residen t. (L a u g h te r.)
M r. C. D. P o l l a r d , who claim ed th e privilege
of seconding th e proposal, said t h a t some people
had h onour th r u s t u pon them , w hilst o thers
sou g h t i t . M r. H u rs t was n o t in th e la tte r
category, and he would hon o u r th e In s titu te by
becoming its S enior V ice-P resid en t, and ev ent­
ually, th e m em bers hoped, its P re sid e n t. As a
m em ber of th e Sheffield B ranch, M r. P ollard
assured M r. H u rs t of th e w hole-hearted su p p o rt
of t h a t B ranch .
The resolution w as c arrie d w ith enthusiasm .
M r. H u r s t , responding, said he reg a rd ed his
election m ore in th e n a tu r e of a com plim ent to
th e Sheffield B ranch. I t h ad alread y been in d i­
cate d by M r. P o lla rd t h a t th e m em bers of th e
B ranch were conscious of th e hon o u r done to
th em , an d th e y hoped in due course to welcome
th e I n s titu te to Sheffield. H e would do all in
his pow er to m a in ta in th e tra d itio n s of th e
V ice-Presidency an d th e P re sid e n tia l C hair.

Election of Junior Vice-President

M r. J . C a m e r o n , J .P . (P a st-P re sid e n t), pro­
posed th e election of M r. H . W in te rto n (Scottish
 30

B ranch) as .Junior V ice-P resid en t, a ta s k which

gave him th e g re a te s t pleasure. H e recalled
t h a t 10 or 12 y ears ago th e re h a d been
trem en d o u s difficulty in g e ttin g m en to ta k e
office, and added m odestly t h a t he him self w ould
not have been P re s id e n t h u t fo r t h a t s ta te of
a ffa irs ; M r. O liver S tu b b s h a d p ra c tic a lly ta k e n
him by th e e a r and h ad m ade him accept th e
office, an d th e re w as no opposition. The
I n s titu te was to be c o n g ra tu la te d , how ever, on
th e fa c t t h a t to-d ay th e re are p len ty of good men
re a d y to ta k e office, w ith th e respo n sib ilities
a tta c h e d th e re to . N ow adays th e B ran ch Councils
were asked to n o m in a te c a n d id a tes fo r th e Vice-
Presidemcy, an d it w as th e ta s k of th e P a st-
P re s id e n ts to m ake a selection an d to place th e ir
decision before th e Council. T his y e a r th e task
had been very difficult. E ach d is tric t should
have th e rig h t to provide a P re s id e n t from tim e
to tim e.
M r. W in te rto n was no stra n g e r to th e In s ti­
tu t e ; he h ad jo in ed only a y e a r a fte r it was
form ed, and had been a good frie n d ever since.
H is sons an d M rs. W in te rto n w ere good frien d s
and w orkers, an d th e re were m em bers of his staff
who w ere good w orkers also. H e was th e
nom inee of th e S co ttish B ran ch , which was for
th e second tim e n o m in a tin g an E nglishm an.
The B ranch bad tr ie d t h a t e x p e rim e n t in th e
case of th e la te W illiam M ayer, and it was so
successful t h a t one fe lt sure th e I n s titu te would
ag a in accept th e proposal. M r. “W in terto n would
w orthily m a in ta in th e tra d itio n s of th e office,
and a fte r he had passed th ro u g h th e P re sid e n tia l
C h air, as it was hoped h e would do, he w ould
still m a in ta in his in te re s t in th e In s titu te .
M b . S h a r p , seconding, said all who knew M r .
W in te rto n would a p p re c ia te his g e n ia lity and
his cap acity fo r frien d sh ip , and th a t he w as well
fitted for th e V ice-P residency.
The resolution was c arried w ith acclam atio n .
M r . W in t e r t o n expressed h is th a n k s an d
hoped sincerely t h a t he m ig h t give sa tisfa c tio n
to h is m any frie n d s in th e In s titu te . As fa r
 31

back as 1905 be was nom in ated a m em ber of th e

I n s titu te —th e n know n as th e B ritish F o undry-
n ien ’s A ssociation—he was elected early in 1906,
an d since th e n his in te re st in th e I n s titu te had
increased y ear by y ear. H e would endeavour
sincerely to su p p o rt M r. Stubbs and M r. H u rst.
A nother reason he was glad to be able to ta k e
office was his conviction th a t research and th e
g a th e rin g to g e th e r of those connected w ith th e
v ario u s branches of th e iron fo u n d ry tra d e m ust
be fo r th e good of iron fou n d ers g e n e ra lly ; he
looked upon his election as a fu rth e r indication
th a t th e m em bers of th e fo u n d ry in d u stry
realised t h a t th e whole m u st work to g e th e r in
o rd e r to achieve success.

Auditors
On th e m otion of M u. V. C. F a u l k n e r ,
seconded by th e C h a i r m a n , M essrs. J . and
A. W . Sully & C om pany (ch artered accountants)
w ere re-elected a u d ito rs for th e coming year.

Assumption of Presidential Duties

The S e c r e t a r y announced th a t, inasm uch as
th e A nnual G eneral M eeting was being held
before th e official o pening of th e conference by
th e L ord M ayor of M anchester, M r. W illiam s
had been asked th e fulfil th e d u ties of P re sid e n t
u n til a f te r th e official opening of th e following
m orning.
Election of Members of Council
I t was announced th a t as th e re su lt of th e
b allot fo r th e election of m em bers of Council to
fill vacancies, th e following were elec ted : —
M essrs. A. C am pion, J . W . G ardom , B. H ird ,
J . R . H yde, J . M. P rim ro se and E . Stevenson.
F iv e w ere elected fo r two years, and M r. H yde
fo r one y e a r; th e la tte r filled th e vacancy due to
M r. W in te rto n ’s elevation to th e Vice-
Presidency.
Membership
M r. A. S u t c l i f e e m ade an appeal th a t th e
I n s titu te should increase its efforts to a ttr a c t
g re a te r num bers of p ractical m oulders in to its
 32

ran k s. H e poin ted o u t t h a t castin g s w ere m ade

on th e fo u n d ry floor, an d n o t in th e la b o ra to ry .

Mr. Stubbs’ Welcome

M r . R oy S tubbsex te n d e d to all m em bers of
th e I n s titu te a very sincere welcome to th e C ity
of M anchester, and expressed th e hope t h a t th ey
would avail them selves to th e fu ll of L an ca­
sh ire ’s c h a ra c te ristic h o sp itality .

Presentation of Presidential Badges

Follow ing th e business of th e A n n u a l G eneral
M eeting, th e m em bers jo in ed th e ir ladies a t th e
in fo rm al recep tio n an d e n te rta in m e n t. T here a
very h ap p y little cerem ony took place, for
co llarettes w ere p resen ted for th e use of th e
P re s id e n t, th e w ife of th e P re s id e n t, an d for
th e V ice-P resid en t. The first w as th e g ift of
th e L ancashire B ran ch , th e second was th e g ift
of th e ladies of th e L a n c a sh ire B ra n ch , and the
th ir d was presen ted by M r. a n d M rs. W illiam s.
M r. A. P h i l l i p s (C h airm an of th e C onference
C om m ittee) presen ted to M r. W illiam s, on behalf
of th e L ancashire B ra n ch , th e badge to be used
by P re sid e n ts on occasions when th e usu al chain
a n d badge of office w as too cum bersom e. W hen
th e L an cash ire B ran ch was h onoured, he said,
by th e decision to hold th e 1934 conference in
M an ch ester th e m em bers h ad wished to m ark th e
occasion in some su itab le m an n e r, and, h aving
o b tain ed th e necessary perm ission from th e In s ti­
tu te , h ad subscribed th e m oney to provide a
co llarette to be w orn by th e I n s titu te ’s P re s i­
dents. A t a re c e n t m eetin g i t was th e
u nanim ous feeling t h a t th e B ran ch w ould be
honoured if M r. W illiam s w ere th e first P re s i­
d e n t to w ear i t ; he h ad been a n o u ts ta n d in g
P re s id e n t, an d i t w as hoped t h a t he w ould live
fo r m any years to see i t w orn by his successors.
M r. W il l ia m s accepted th e c o lla re tte on
behalf of th e In s titu te , an d expressed h is w arm
th a n k s fo r h av in g been given th e o p p o rtu n ity of
w earing it, if only fo r a few hours. The larg e
P re s id e n tia l C h ain an d B adge, he said, was
 33

properly worn a t fu n ctio n s of th e I n s titu te , and

it w as d elig h tfu l t h a t th e L ancashire B ran ch
should have h it u pon th e idea of pro v id in g a
d istin ctiv e badge which could he w orn by a
P re s id e n t when rep re se n tin g th e In s titu te a t the
fu n ctio n s of o th e r bodies, w here it would be
o u t of place to w ear th e larg e C hain and Badge.
M r s . S t u b b s , p re se n tin g to M rs. W illiam s th e
co llarette provided fo r th e use of th e P re s id e n t’s
w ife, said th a t when th e L ad ies’ C om m ittee had
h eard t h a t a co llarette was to be presented to th e
P re sid e n t, th ey h ad decided to provide one to
be w orn by th e w ife of th e P re sid e n t when
su p p o rtin g h e r husband. They, asked h e r to
accept th e co llarette, w ith th e ir good wishes and
th e ir lo v e ; she had charm ed everyone by her
p erso n ality , and it was hoped t h a t her successors
would fill th e position w ith equal d ig n ity .
T here was g re a t applause when M rs. Stubbs,
in m aking th e p re se n tatio n to M rs. W illiam s,
kissed h e r affectionately.
M rs. W il l ia m s fe lt deeply th e specially
g racefu l g estu re on th e p a r t of th e ladies of
th e L ancashire B ran ch in offering it to h er in
th e first place, and she was indeed proud to w ear
it. She acknow ledged also th e pleasure she had
derived from v isitin g v ario u s branches of th e
I n s titu te , th e m em bers of which w ere p a rtic u ­
larly h ap p y an d frien d ly , and expressed th e hope
t h a t M rs. S tubbs would derive equal pleasure.
On b ehalf of M r. W illiam s and herself, Mrs.
W illiam s th e n presen ted to M r. S tubbs a
co llarette to be w orn by V ice-P residents of th e
In s titu te . They fe lt t h a t th e V ice-P resident
should have a d istin g u ish in g decoration, and it
was presen ted as an e a rn e st of th e ir hope for
g re a t th in g s to come.
M r. S tu bbs, in accepting it, said he
ap p reciated th a t he had been m ade th e custodian
of a very w onderful g ift, an d t h a t M r. and Mrs.
W illiam s bad te n d e red a su b sta n tial com plim ent
to th e In s titu te . I t w ould p e rp e tu a te th e
m em ory of M r. W illiam s’ P residency and of th e
conference held in C ardiff in 1933, an d all who
o
 34

were given th e h o nour of w earin g i t w ould th in k

m ost generously of h is a n d M rs. W illiam s’ k in d ­
ness. H e p ersonally was p ro u d in d eed to be th e
first to w ear it, an d to h av e th e o p p o rtu n ity of
expressing th e I n s tit u te ’s g ra titu d e .

A Civic Welcome
The m em bers an d th e ir lad ies assem bled a t the
M idland H o tel on W ednesday m o rn in g fo r th e
official opening of th e conference by th e L ord
M ayor of M an ch ester (A lderm an Jo sep h B inns,
M .B .E .), su p p o rte d by M r. B. M o u a t Jones,
D .S .O ., M .A. (P rin c ip a l of th e M an ch ester
College of Technology).
M b . W i l l i a m s (re tirin g P re s id e n t) intro d u ced
th e L ord M ayor, who, a p p ro p ria te ly enough, was
a p a tte rn m a k e r, so t h a t his presence was doubly
ap p reciated .
The L okd M ayor e x te n d e d to th e m e m b e rs a n d
th e ir la d ie s a h e a rty w e lc o m e to th e c ity , and
e x p r e s s e d th e h o p e t h a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e w o u ld
b e in e v e r y w a y a s u c c e s s ; h e c o n g r a t u l a t e d th e m
a lso upon th e fa c t th a t th e y w e re e n jo y in g
b rig h t w e a th e r and upon th e p ro g ram m es
arran g e d b o th fo r th e la d ie s a n d th e g e n tle m e n ,
w h ic h in d ic a te d th a t th e y w o u ld e n jo y a v e ry
happy tim e .
T hough n o t a m em ber of th e I n s titu te , he was
a p a tte rn m a k e r by tr a d e ; also, occasionally he
h ad had th e m isfo rtu n e to ta k e c h a rg e of
foundries, b u t, bein g a m ild a n d g e n tle p a tte r n ­
m ak er in th e e a rly days, h is m ethods w ere n o t
q u ite forcible enough to p ro je c t in to th e m en
u n d e r his charge t h a t e n e rg y w hich w ould h ave
m ade his m an ag e m en t m ore effective. I n his
a p p ren ticesh ip days it w as recognised t h a t if one
w anted definite p u rp o sefu l la n g u a g e w hereby to
p u t some vim into th e m en one could alw ays
find i t in th e fo u n d ry ! As a p a tte rn m a k e r, he
had ta k e n a keen in te re s t in m e ta llu rg y ; he re ­
m em bered th e I n s titu te bein g s ta rte d in M a n ­
chester in 1904, fo r he w as th e n a s tu d e n t in
m etallu rg y (lab o rato ry a n d p ra c tic a l) at_ th e
M anchester College of T echnology; he believed
 35

th a t th e class on iron fo u n d in g a t th a t College

was th e first in th e U n ite d K ingdom . I n 1904
he had passed th ro u g h his final te rm in th e
m etallu rg ical section and also th e iron founding
classes.
Lancashire and Professional Societies
H e was proud of th e I n s titu te ’s associa­
tio n w ith M an ch ester ; d u rin g th e p a st year
he h ad a tte n d e d some 70 or 80 d in n ers and
luncheons as th e g u est of associations which had
m et in M anch ester, and had found th a t so m any
of the bodies t h a t were form ed to co-ordinate
th e a c tiv ities of specific in d u strie s o r professions
— from th e ch a rte re d acco u n tan ts to th e u n d e r­
ta k e rs—w ere founded in th a t city. T his circum ­
stance had arisen , he claim ed, from th e fa c t
th a t S o u th -E a st L an cash ire was th e first d istric t
in w hich m any in d u strie s were developed in te n ­
sively. The m etal tra d e s, th e m achine building
tra d e , th e developm ent of power engines, h ad all
come forw ard very rap id ly in S o u th -E ast L an ca­
shire, and th e necessity fo r o rg an isatio n was
proved in th e first in stan ce in a definite m anner
by labour. L a te r, th e ad v an ta g es of such
o rg an isatio n had caused th e professional classes
to consider th e m a tte r. The B ritish F o undry-
m en ’s A ssociation w as form ed in 1904.
H e co n g ra tu la te d th e I n s titu te u pon th e
a rra n g e m e n t of its p rin te d m a tte r, and said he
had n ev er seen a n y th in g b e tte r done by any
of th e o th e r associations'; it showed t h a t its
m em bers, belonging to a calling which in th e
early days was re fe rre d to as. t h a t of th e sand-
ra ts , were anxious to acquire fu n d am en tal know­
ledge an d to see th a t th e whole in d u stry was so
co-ordinated and reg u lated th a t th e m axim um
efficiency would be a tta in e d . W hen he had been
closely associated w ith th e fo u n d ry in d u stry it
had in very few instan ces possessed those q u ali­
fications, b u t to -day it had sp ru n g rig h t to th e
fo refro n t. I ts m em bers in terested them selves not
only in th e o rd in a ry p roductions of th e ir estab ­
lishm ents, b u t also in th e fu n d am en ta l ed ucation
of th e younger men. I t was necessary to in s tru c t
o2
 36

th em in th e ro o t prin cip les, to give th em an idea

of th e n a tu r a l law s w hich req u ire d considera­
tio n to a g re a te r degree in th e fo u n d ry th a n in
th e m a jo rity of th e e n g in ee rin g sections of th e
tra d e .
Advancement in Foundry Knowledge
M ore th a n 35 y ears ago he h ad re a d a book
on fo u n d ry p ractice , in which it was seated th a t
if a m oulder were to be successful he m u st con­
sid er c e rta in n a tu r a l forces w hich he could not
balance u p an d w ork o u t in a m a th e m a tic a l sum
and so a rriv e a t a r ig h t v a lu a tio n of his risks.
I n those e arly days th e loam m oulders, th e men
responsible for th e lay in g o u t of th e bed and for
p u ttin g in th e r ig h t am o u n t of b ack in g to allow
th e gases to escape w hen a heavy ca stin g had to
be m ade, did th e ir w ork w ith calm confidence,
and in v ariab ly th e y w ere successful. B u t in
o rd er to achieve t h a t success th e y m u st have
had an idea as to th e am o u n t of pressure th a t
would be e x erte d u pon th e m ould sides by th e
escape of th e gases w hen th e m olten m etal was
poured in to th e m ould, a n d if th e walls had no t
th e stre n g th necessary, o r if th e boxes were no t
such as to afford a big m a rg in of safety, th e
resu lts would be d isastro u s, probably to th e
w orkm en, an d c erta in ly to th e em ployers, for th e
castings w ould be lost. B u t now adays th e diffi­
culties had been la rg e ly m inim ised by th e fa c t
th a t very o ften th e m en in charge had a
th o ro u g h know ledge of stresses and stra in s , a
good know ledge of th e erosion process in m etals,
a b e tte r know ledge of th e m ix in g of sands and of
th e ir solidity and of g e ttin g aw ay th e gases and
a ir t h a t m u st exude from th e mould in th e
process of castin g . H e was proud to know t h a t
such a trem endo u s advance h ad been m ade.
W hen a t th e M etro p o litan V ickers w orks
d u rin g th e previous week it had been his special
pleasure to go in to th e fo u n d ry and to ask M r.
Jolley th e e x te n t of th e im provem ents which
had been achieved since th e days w hen he him ­
self was closely associated w ith fo u n d ry w ork,
and had found t h a t th e re w ere v ery m ark ed
 37

differences. C hanges w ere being m ade perhaps

m ore rap id ly in th e fo u n d ry tra d e th a n in any
o th er section of th e en g in ee rin g tra d e . He
in stan ced th e developm ent of th e m etal mould,
th e m ore com plicated m oulds, and th e m ore
g en eral use of m ix tu re s of m etals. H e was in
possession of th re e o r fo u r of th e pocket books
which w ere k e p t by forem en in th e old days for
th e ir own p riv a te u se ; in those days th e correct
proportions of m etals for differen t purposes were
n o t ascertain ed g enerally, an d th e notebooks
k e p t by th e forem en allowed them to re ta in
w hat th ey had called th e secrets of th e success of
th e ir forem anship. T h a t a ttitu d e had ceased,
how ever, and we w ere developing processes satis­
facto rily by th e only su re m eans, i.e., by th e
ap p licatio n of science.
F in ally , th e L ord M ayor wished th e I n s titu te
every success in its efforts to develop th e in ­
d u stry , in th e in te re sts of both em ployers and
em ployed, to a high sta n d a rd of efficiency and
accuracy, so t h a t i t would continue to prosper
an d help G reat B rita in to uphold h e r tra d itio n s
of best w orkm anship an d of g re a te st satisfactio n
to h e r custom ers.
Presentation of Oliver Stubbs Medal
In p resen tin g to M r. V. C. F a u lk n e r th e Oliver
S tubbs Gold M edal, th e L o rd M ayor recalled th a t
he had had th e p leasure of know ing M r. Oliver
S tu b b s; he expressed th e hope t h a t M r. F a u lk n e r
w ould co n tin u e his labours on behalf of th e
In s titu te , whose influence would continue to
expand.
M b . F a u l k n e r said he was indeed proud t o
receive th e M edal, w hich com m em orated a nam e
fam ous an d honoured in th e an n als of iron
fo u n d in g ; an d he would n o t be reg ard ed as
conceited w hen he said t h a t if his old frie n d M r.
Stubbs w ere still liv in g he would' be exceedingly
pleased to see th e M edal presen ted to an old
frien d , fo r it form ed an o th e r concrete link
betw een them .
M r. F a u lk n e r also took th e o p p o rtu n ity to
acknow ledge his sincere g ra titu d e to his
 38

D irecto rs fo r th e ir e n th u sia sm in fa c ilita tin g

an y w ork he was able to do to help th e In s titu te ,
an d to h is staff, who w ere alw ays w illing to
u n d e rta k e w ork th ro w n u pon th em by reason of
his absence on I n s titu te business.
i
A Tribute to Mr. McClelland
As th e M edal w hich th e I n s titu te has aw arded
to M r. J . J . M cL elland, fo r h is co n tin u e d good
w ork on its b ehalf, was n o t a v ailab le for
p re se n ta tio n a t th e C onference, th e L ord M ayor
shook h an d s w ith him in c o n g ra tu la tio n and
wished him well in th e fu tu re .
M r . M c C l e l l a n d expressed h is g ra titu d e to
th e m em bers of th e I n s titu te as a whole for the
honour th ey had co n ferred u p o n him , and p a r­
tic u la rly to th e m em bers of th e S outh W ales
and M onm outhshire B ra n c h Council, who had
been m ost p e rsiste n t in th e ir efforts to ensure
t h a t he w as so h onoured. H is position a t th e
m om ent was som ew hat u n iq u e, fo r he recalled
t h a t he w as a p p re n tic e d to th e fo u n d ry tra d e in
M anchester m ore th a n 50 y ears ago. I t was
th e re t h a t he had first le a rn e d th e elem ents of
th e sa n d -ra t tra d e , an d he w as glad to h e a r th e
splendid com plim ent p a id by th e L ord M ayor to
those associated w ith him in t h a t tra d e . In d eed ,
he w as p ro u d to he described as a sa n d -rat, fo r
th e sa n d -ra t, so called, was engaged in a b u si­
ness which re q u ire d th e app licatio n of
intelligence as well as physique.

A Further Expression of Welcome

M r B. M o u a t J o n e s , D .S .O ., M.A. (P rin c ip a l
.
of th e M an ch ester College of Technology),
ex ten d ed a welcome on behalf of th e ed u ca tio n a l
in s titu tio n s of M an ch ester. I t was a p a rtic u la r
pleasure, he said, to be able to do so, fo r th e
I n s titu te of B ritis h F o u n d ry m en h ad shown g re a t
in te re s t in ed u catio n al affa irs; a n d if i t sh ared
th e experience of o th e r professional bodies its
ed u catio n al a c tiv itie s would e x te n d m ore an d
m ore an d w ould absorb a v ery g re a t d eal of its
energy. A n o th er reason why he w as p a rtic u la rly
 39

glad to offer a welcome to th e I n s titu te was th a t

th e local B ran ch had held its m eetings reg u la rly
over a period of 20 years a t th e College of
Technology— from 1913 u n til 1933. I t was a
m a tte r of some re g re t to him t h a t th e B ran ch
had found it necessary to change its h a b ita t;
b u t w hen he had been told th e reason fo r th e
change it h ad seemed to him so overw helm ingly
cogent t h a t he h a d n o t th e h e a rt to dem ur. The
College of Technology did n o t possess a licence for
th e sale of alcoholic liquors— an d th e m arvel was,
n o t t h a t th e B ran ch h ad decided to hold its
m eetings elsewhere, b u t t h a t it had rem ained a t
th e College fo r 20 y ears ! H ow ever, he was glad
t h a t th e J u n io r Section, which had commenced
to hold m eetin g s a t th e College in 1924, was
still m eeting th e re, and he hoped a very long
tim e would elapse before its mem bers co n tracted
th a t “ th ir s t ” fo r know ledge and experience
which had constrain ed th e ir elders and b e tte rs to
seek new p astu re s an d fresh w a te r holes !
A still fu r th e r reason why he was e x tr a ­
o rd in arily glad to welcome th e I n s titu te was
t h a t its new ly-elected P re sid e n t, M r. Roy Stubbs,
was, like th e L o rd M ayor, an old stu d e n t of th e
C ollege; i t was alw ays a source of very g re a t
p ride to be able to p o in t to old stu d e n ts who
had a tta in e d positions of em inence, an d to ta k e
all th e c re d it fo r th e ir h av in g go t t h e r e ! If
M r. S tubbs felt t h a t he owed any d ebt to th e
College he could be assured th a t t h a t d eb t had
been m ore th a n am ply rep a id by th e very g re a t
kindness an d generosity of his firm, Messrs.
Joseph Stubbs, L im ited , which had always been
an e x tra o rd in a rily good frie n d to th e College.
The College had always been in very close
co n tac t w ith th e fo undrym en of M anchester and
d istric t. In 1898—36 y ears ago—th e foundry-
m en’s classes were first s ta rte d , and th ey had
been ca rrie d on ev er sin ce; he hoped th e y would
continue to develop and to m a in ta in co n tact w ith
th e foum drymen. As th e L ord M ayor had
pointed o u t, in these days th e relationship
betw een th e a r t and p ractice of fou n d in g became
 40

more an d m ore an d day-by-day in te rlin k e d w ith

th e fu n d am en tals of m etallu rg y , an d one would
like to th in k t h a t th e local B ra n c h of th e
I n s titu te w ould m ake f u r th e r use of th e M etal­
lu rg ical D e p a rtm e n t of th e College.

A Vote of Thanks
On th e m otion o f M r . W i l l i a m s , seconded b y
M r . S t u b b s , a h e a rty vote of th a n k s was accorded
th e L ord M ayor an d th e P rin c ip a l of th e M an ­
ch ester College of Technology fo r th e ir expres­
sions of welcome an d goodwill, a f te r w hich th e
L ord M ayor and M r. Jo n es w ithdrew .

Installation of President and Vice-President

M r. W i l l i a m s th e n form ally in v ested M r. Roy
S tubbs w ith th e P re s id e n tia l C hain an d Badge
of office, an d also h an d ed to him th e new
co llarette and replica of th e badge to be w orn
on subsidiary occasions. H e wished M r. Stubbs
th e g re a te st success in his y e a r of office.
M r . S t u b b s th e n form ally occupied th e chair.
H e expressed th e hope t h a t he m ig h t c arry th e
chain and badge w ith th e same d ig n ity as had
M r. W illiam s, an d t h a t he w ould be able to add
lu stre to th e office.
I n p resen tin g th e P a s t-P re s id e n t’s badge to
M r. W illiam s, he said it was n o t only in finished
u n d e rta k in g s t h a t th e I n s titu te honoured him ,
b u t in th e p o rte n t of still f u r th e r achievem ents;
it was hoped t h a t th e possession of th e badge
would inspire him in w orking o u t f u r th e r benefits
for th e I n s titu te . The good th a t he h ad done
would live a fte r him , an d w ith cum u lativ e value
to th e fo u n d ry in d u stry . The m em bers hoped
th a t as th e years receded th is to k en w ould be
tre a su re d n o t alone fo r its significance ; i t ca rrie d
w ith it th e m em bers’ hopes for th e co n tin u ed
h ealth , hap p in ess and p ro sp e rity of M r.
W illiam s an d of those whom he h eld d ea r.
M r . W il l ia m s e x p re s s e d h is th a n k s , a n d a d d e d
jo c u la r ly th a t its p r e s e n ta tio n c a rrie d w ith it a
fe e lin g of g rea t re lie f.
 41

The c o llarette fo r th e use of th e w ife of th e

P re s id e n t was th e n form ally p resen ted by M rs.
W illiam s to M rs. S tubbs, to whom wishes fo r her
f u tu re happiness w ere expressed. M rs. Stubbs
very feelingly re tu rn e d th a n k s.
The P r e s i d e n t th e n in vested M r. J . E . H u rs t
w ith th e co llarette to be w orn by th e S enior
V ice-P resid en t, and in v ite d Mir. H u rs t an d M r.
H . W in te rto n form ally to occupy th e S enior and
J u n io r V ice-P resid en tial C hairs.

Greetings from Overseas

The follow ing cablegram s w ere received from
fo u n d ry m en ’s o rg a n isa tio n s overseas: —
F ro m th e A m erican F o u n d ry m en ’s Associa­
tio n :
“ Please convey h e a rtie s t good wishes,
A m erican F o u n d ry m e n ’s A ssociation, success
In s titu te of B ritish F o u n d ry m en Conference,.
M ay th e ir w ork fu rth e rin g w orld ad vancem ent
in fo u n d ry in d u s try be stim u la te d , an d fa r-
reach in g benefits be ex ten d ed th ro u g h p a rtic i­
p a tio n large n u m b e r B ritish fo undrym en in fifth
In te rn a tio n a l Congress in P h ila d e lp h ia , October.
A n ticip ate g re a t p leasu re in welcoming officers
a n d rep re se n ta tiv e m em bers of t h a t splendid
group th is fall.
F rank J. L anahan, P re s id e n t.”

F rom th e F ren c h F o u n d ry A ssociation :

A ssociation T echnique de F o n d erie send
cordial sa lu ta tio n s to B ritish colleagues and best
wishes fo r th e success of th e congress.
M. L. F . G i r a r d e t , P re s id e n t.”

Apologies for Absence

Apologies fo r absence, and expressions of good
wishes fo r th e success • of th e conference were
received from M r. F . P . W ilson and M r. S. H .
R ussell (P a st-P re sid e n ts), M r. F . W. Finch
(first S ecretary of th e In s titu te ) , M r. W alter
Flavell, M r. J . B. Johnson, D r. P . L ongm uir,
an d m any o th er m em bers.
 42

Visitors from Overseas

A h e a rty welcome was ex te n d e d to D r. Ing.
H e in ric h N ip p e r (of th e T echnical H ig h School,
A achen, G erm any), an d to Air. W illiam s, a steel
founder from C a lc u tta .
The P k e s id e n t th e n d e liv e re d h is a d d ress.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
M r. W illiam s an d G entlem en,— The m easure of
hum an progress, by which we gau g e th e differ­
ence betw een th e cen tu rie s ju s t passed and those
of a n c ie n t tim es, is n o t th e s ta tu s of th e isolated
in dividual, b u t ra th e r th e am o u n t by which the
condition of th e g re a t m u ltitu d e has been raised
by th e increase in p ro sp erity , leisure and oppor­
tu n ity for happiness—by th e in creased facility
the average m an h as for im proving th e position
of those whom he loves an d who are d ep en d en t
upon him . I f th is be th e m easure of progress,
th e n in d u stry , of w hich we a re all a p a rt, has
had m ore to do w ith progress th a n an y o th er
single facto r.
I f th is be tr u e , w h at is th e position of our own
calling in th is p ic tu re ?
W hen a m ould is m ade, c ast, th e castin g is
ta k e n down, fe ttle d , a n d a finished castin g p ro ­
duced, som ething absolutely new has been
created . The p a tte rn m ay be old, th e design
m ay be obsolete, b u t th e o b ject produced never
existed before. W hen o u r fou n d ries close
to -n ig h t, th e w orld is rich e r th a n i t was when
th e sun rose th is m o rn in g by th e p ro d u c t t h a t
has been m ade. The fo u n d ry is n o t re h a sh in g
t h a t w hich has been. I t is c re a tin g som ething
t h a t is new ; som ething to help th e fu tu re of th e
race.
N o tw ith sta n d in g t h a t i t is so old, we are
b eg in n in g to realise t h a t our in d u s try is so com­
plicated t h a t we know little or n o th in g a b o u t it.
Any m an who handles m olten m eta l is d aily con­
fro n ted w ith problems which ta x to th e u tm o st
his in g e n u ity . A few y ears ago we used to
judge pig-iron by its fra c tu re . T hen we called
in th e chem ist, only to find t h a t he d id n o t tell
us th e whole sto ry . S p u rre d on by th e dem ands
 43

of society foi a b e tte r a n d b e tte r pro d u ct, we

tu r n e d to th e m icroscope an d to in stru m e n ts of
which ou r fa th e rs knew n o th in g . W ith th em
we began to explore o u r sands, o u r facings and
our m etals, only to find u n d ream ed of' m ysteries
ch allenging ou r in te lle ct a n d d em anding o u r best
effort fo r th e ir solution.
This I n s titu te was born because i t was realised
t h a t i t is m uch b e tte r t h a t men in an in d u stry
should help each o th er, ra th e r th a n fight each
o th er. I t was born because m en began to see
t h a t no m a tte r how m uch an in d iv id u al th o u g h t
he knew ab o u t his own business, th e re was always
someone who could te ll him som ething which
w ould be of a d v a n ta g e to him . I t was born
because th e in d u s try realised t h a t w ith th e
trem endous problem s before it, solutions could
only be o b tain ed by m arsh allin g th e b est ab ility
an d th e best b ra in s fo r th e a tta c k . F o r a fte r
ev ery th in g else has been said, th e re a l o bject of
th is o rg an isatio n is sim ply to discover th e tr u th .
As is well know n, th e ca stin g in d u stry is an old
one, d a tin g back to p reh isto ric tim es. F rom
these b eginnings, castin g s of grey iron, of so-
called sem i-steel, chilled iro n , m alleable iron,
carbon a n d alloy c a st steels, an d a m u ltitu d e of
brasses an d bronzes, have been developed to a
high s ta te of p erfectio n . I n re c e n t y ears these
h ave been followed by th e new er nickel-copper
alloys, such as M onel m etal, tin-nickel-copper
alloys fo r g re a te r h ard n ess, silicon-copper, and
steels of nickel-chrom ium , chrom e-tungsten,
chrom e-m olybdem im , an d v arious o th ers of th e
m ore highly co rro sio n -resistan t ty p e.
W hile th e c astin g in d u s try h as developed com­
m ercially to g ig a n tic size, castin g s of a larg e
v a rie ty of shapes an d sizes being available for
various purposes, o th e r products-H forgings,
stam p in g s an d w elded p ro d u cts—some of th em
m ade by m ethods scarcely know n even te n years
ago—h av e come in to m eet th e m u ltitu d in o u s
needs of presen t-d ay in d u stry .
The revolution has n o t been confined to th is,
b u t has had a m uch b ro ad er scope, involving
also, a p p a re n tly to a m uch g re a te r e x te n t th a n
 44

before, th e a ttitu d e of people to w a rd life,

to w ard fulfilm en t of desires, p ersonal o r o th e r­
wise, an d especially in th e w illingness to pay
lib erally fo r th e fu lfilm en t of th ese desires. The
increased leisu re re s u ltin g from th e use of
m ach in ery w hich h as m inim ised th e need fo r
m a n u a l la b o u r h a s increased th e m eans fo r em ­
ploying leisure, such as th e m o to r c a r, th e
“ ta lk ie s ,” th e wireless, etc.

High-Temperature Demands
A new fa c to r, o r r a th e r one t h a t has become
m agnified, has h a ste n e d developm ents which
create u n c e rta in ty as to th e u ltim a te s ta tu s of
some of th ese p ro d u cts— castin g s, forgings,
welded assemblies, e tc. T his fa c to r is th e h ig h er
te m p e ra tu re desired fo r th e chem ical and
m echanical processes w hich to -d ay are so much
m ore efficiently m ak in g steam an d electrical
pow er, products fo r o u r m o to r cars, tra c to rs and
o th er m achines, coke fo r sm eltin g of m aterials,
etc.
U ndoubtedly, th e h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re s and
pressures have overaw ed desig n in g and o p e ra tin g
engineers, who, in a very p ro p er effort to en su re
safety in o p eratio n , h ave dem anded p erfection in
castings. The re c e n t developm ent of th e X -ray
m ethod of te s tin g , along w ith th e “ m arvellous ”
developm ent of w elding “ a d v e rtisin g ,” h ave
te m p o rarily p u t iro n a n d steel castin g s a t a
disad v an tag e.
I t w ould ap p e a r th a t, if an equally vigorous
cam paign h ad been p u rsu ed by th e p ro d u cers of
high-class casting s, th e advocates of fo rg in g s, of
rolled pro d u cts a n d of welded stru c tu re s, w ould
n o t have enjoyed all th e a d v a n ta g es th e ir p u b ­
licity m ethods have gain ed fo r th em .
W h ilst problem s due to m eta l cooling, solidifi­
catio n , shrinkage, g ra in fo rm a tio n , e tc ., still
ex ist, th e fou n d ry p ro d u c t of to -d ay h as been
b ro u g h t to a very high q u a lity fro m th e s ta n d ­
p o in t of o p e ra tin g p erm anence an d safety .
The welded p ro d u ct, too, is su b je ct to th e
w orking of n a tu r a l laws, an d th e w elding e x p e rt
 46

has his troubles, an d o ften his u n satisfa c to ry

product. F o rg in g s an d rolled p ro d u cts a re in
m uch th e same categ o ry as to th e possibilities of
flaws a n d w eakness.
T hus i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t th e castings
in d u stry a w aits a cham pion !
I t is n o t th e fu n c tio n of th is I n s titu te to con­
d u c t extensive research ; its fu n c tio n is to m ake
available to m em bers th e resu lts of th e research
of o thers. R esearch, as we know i t to-d ay , is
larg ely th e very care fu l stu d y of m in u te prob­
lem s. I t is in ten siv e, w hereas th e bro ad d iv er­
gence in th e in te re sts of o u r m em bers force us
to deal w ith m ore g en eral questions. I t is very
expensive ; b u t if we are to be of value to th e
sm all u n its of o u r in d u stry , o u r subscriptions
m u st be k e p t on a nom inal plane. W e have
o p p o rtu n itie s to jo in w ith o th e r o rg an isatio n s in
co-operative in v estig a tio n s fo r th e solution of
c e rta in problem s, and we can q u ite properly
avail ourselves of every such o p p o rtu n ity to be of
benefit to ou r m em bers, b u t we should n o t
assum e t h a t ev ery research problem in th e
in d u s try is ours, and t h a t anyone else who
assum es to solve one is u su rp in g o u r p rerogative.
B u t one of th e glorious th in g s ab o u t o u r g re a t
in d u s try is th e fa c t th a t , generally speaking,
those u n its w hich have th e resources o r th e
a b ility to discover new facts, o r im prove old
processes, a re m ore th a n w illing to share th a t
know ledge w ith those n o t so fo rtu n a te , conscious
th ey advance only as th e e n tire in d u stry ad ­
vances. There is no single problem of th e busi­
ness or economic w orld which does n o t have to
be m e t a t some tim e by one o r all of o u r
m em bers.
The Scope of the Institute
Should o u r I n s titu te assume th e responsibility
of solving all th e problem s of o u r in d u stry ,
which is eq u iv a le n t to solving all th e eco­
nomic problem s of in d u s tria l society? Is it
h um anly possible t h a t any one o rg an isatio n can
accom plish such a ta s k ? W ill we best serve
th e in te re sts of o u r m em bers by “ g a d d in g
 46

ab o u t ” all over th e place, or by co n c e n tra tin g

to secure solutions of p a rtic u la r problem s?
T here are m an y lines of en d eav o u r in which
th e in te re sts of all o u r classes a re fa irly id e n ti­
cal ; th e re a re some in which th e in te re sts of
com peting classes a re sh arp ly a n ta g o n istic . We
m u st agree t h a t e v e ry th in g which im proves th e
q u a lity of th e p ro d u ct of a fo u n d ry o r a class
of foundries by m ak in g t h a t p ro d u c t of g re a te r
use to th e h u m an race, is beneficial in th e long
ru n to th e e n tire in d u stry , even th o u g h it be
te m p o rarily d e trim e n ta l to th e w elfare of those
m em bers who refuse to change old m ethods in
th e lig h t of mew know ledge. B u t we m u st not
engage in an y a c tiv ity which seeks to increase
th e business, or th e in te re sts, o r th e prosperity
of any one of th e classes a t th e expense of any
of th e re s t of them . So f a r as possible we
m u st serve th e in te re sts of all jo in tly , if we are
to re ta in th e ir in te re s t a n d th e ir co-operation.
W e are, p rim arily , a tech n ical In s titu te , en ­
gaged in stu d y in g an d im p ro v in g th e pro d u ct
of o u r in d u s try by ta k in g some of th e “ guess ”
an d u n c e rta in ty o u t of fo u n d ry operations. We
are n o t a tr a d e association concerned w ith com­
m ercial consideratio n s, w ith m erchandising prob­
lems, successful larg ely as th e ir com petitors suc­
ceed. To m ake tech n ical in fo rm a tio n available
to all m em bers is th e p rim a ry fu n c tio n of th is
o rg an isatio n .
N or is th e ta s k to be lig h tly assumed. The
g re a te st m enace to th e success of th e fo u n d ry
in d u stry lies w ith in it, a n d does n o t come from
the outside. The successful castin g of m etals is
an exceedingly com plicated a r t ; th e difficulties
of m ak in g sound c astin g s a re g r e a t; th e v a ri­
ables in th e process, especially in m ak in g jo b b in g
work, are num erous an d h a rd to elim in a te . Too
often th e designer, o r th e custom er, considers
th e purchase of a ca stin g of any so rt as being
m ore or less of a. gam ble, to be avoided if pos­
sible. M any tim es a sales d e p a rtm e n t has
rep o rts t h a t a custom er who form erly used iro n
castings has been influenced by a low p rice or
o th e r considerations, an d h as p u rch ased fro m a
 47

com pany who fu rn ish e d an in fe rio r product,

w ith th e re su lt t h a t th e custom er re-designed
his m achines an d e lim in ated iro n castings. In
the long ru n society will use th a t p ro d u ct which
has best served its purpose. The real job of th is
In s titu te is to help th e in d u s try to fu rn ish a
p ro d u ct th a t will th e b e tte r serve society’s needs.

Kaleidoscopic Industry
I n th e foregoing I have no desire to he dog­
m atic. Problem s of business are full of con­
stan tly -ch an g in g variables. They ca n n o t he
solved e ith e r by slide ru les or formulae. I have
a tte m p te d to set down p rinciples which, to my
m ind, u n d erlie successful progress. As problems
arise these prin cip les m u st be in te rp re te d to
m eet them , fo r th e problem s are often com pli­
cate d an d lie so close to th e border-line betw een
w h at is wise an d w h a t is unw ise t h a t a sa tis­
factory solution can only be obtained by very
careful ju d g m e n t.
As. we review th e accom plishm ents of science
an d in d u s try d u rin g th e first p a r t of th is cen­
tu r y , we can only be g ratified to n o te t h a t th e
fo u n d ry in d u s try is k eeping pace w ith th e ra p id
strid es th a t have been m ade in th e ap plication
of th e developm ents in chem isty, in specialisation
—re s u ltin g in increased efficiency w ith its accom­
p anying lessening of th e s tra in on lab o u r—and
in th e elim in atio n of both physical and hum an
w aste.
We a re living in a m achine age, an age t h a t is
slowly h u t su rely u tilisin g th e resources of th is
g re a t n a tio n , th ro u g h th e ap p licatio n of im ­
proved techniqu e, in a w ay t h a t is g iving society
th e hig h est benefit fo r th e least e x p e n d itu re of
both tim e and m oney. Science has been applied
to all ty p es of in d u stry , re su ltin g in th e elim in a­
tio n of b lu n d erin g and m ism anagem ent.
Twenty-five y ears ago we would n o t have had
th e courage even to im agine th e changes th a t
have been w ro u g h t in both prod u ctio n an d dis­
trib u tio n m ethods.
I t was n o t so v ery long ago t h a t scientific
m ethods were considered too m uch in th e realm
 48

of th eo ry to serve as an aid to in d u s try . Y et

to-day science is th e chief ally, th e v ery basis
of in d u s tria l m ethods. B u t th e te c h n iq u e of
science h a s changed to a degree t h a t p arallels
th e changes in in d u stry .
In s te a d of in d iv id ualism in p ro d u ctio n , we
have co-operation. In s te a d of h a p h a z a rd tria l-
an d -erro r m ethods, we have a sound scientific
background. In s te a d of slow, ted io u s, h ard
w ork, we have m achines, developed to an
efficiency t h a t th e h u m a n fa c to r could never
a tta in .
V isualise a few of th e resu lts—th e telephone,
th e m otor car, th e aero p lan e, th e radio. These
com prise b u t a m ere h a n d fu l, im p o rta n t because
of th e ir commonness. The th o u san d s of im prove­
m ents in facto ry m ethods t h a t enable these and
hu n d red s of o th e r specialising elem ents to be con­
stru c te d so t h a t th e y can be placed w ith in th e
easy grasp of th e av erag e m an , c an n o t even be
considered here.
As m em bers of th e I n s titu te of B ritish Foun-
drym en, we can accept o u r share in these m a r­
vellous achievem ents. The fo u n d ry in d u stry is
keeping pace w ith th e tim es. A pplied science,
th ro u g h th e aid of th e chem ist and th e en g in eer,
is keeping ou r business on a p a r w ith all others.

Machinery for Advancement

New m ethods h ave been evolved to m eet th e
production req u irem en ts placed upon o u r in ­
d u stry by th e developm ent of th e autom obile and
o th er com m odities. Im proved alloys, sim plified
m ethods, new m ach in ery , concerted effort and
m any o th er facto rs— all have been co n sta n tly in
th e throes of change and developm ent to m eet
th e increasin g dem ands of th e tim es.
These exam ples m erely serve to in d ic a te how
we are answ ering th e dem ands of th e day. The
successful foundry m an is one who has th e ab ility
to assim ilate presen t-d ay know ledge an d p u t it
into practice in te rm s of p resen t-d ay needs. The
d etail m an is essen tial to business, b u t th e d e ta il
m an does n o t supply th e m o tiv e pow er t h a t lies
behind th e in d u stry .
 49

A pplied science is a m odern th o u g h t. I t is

still m ore m odern when applied to th e foundry
in d u stry , fo r in sp ite of th e progress we have
m ade, we are young in th e ap p licatio n of th e
p ractices of th is m achine age. W e a re h aving
o u r whole economic p lan alte re d . Those who can
m eet th is s itu a tio n will bu ild fo r them selves a
business raised upon a fo u n d atio n t h a t can
never crum ble.

New Tools Available

The g re a te st change in th e in d u stry has tak en
place in th e fo u n d ry d e p a rtm e n t, and th e end
is h a rd to foresee, because each new developm ent
seems to lead to new o p p o rtu n ities. The me­
chanical sand-han d lin g an d conditio n in g systems,
m ould conveyors and casting-cooling conveyors
have become fa irly established in th e m odern
fou n d ry , a n d i t ta k e s no p ro p h e t to fo retell th a t
w ith in a very few y ears even th e sm aller
foundries will find th e san d -h an d lin g system as
much a p a r t of th e ir equ ip m en t as th e cupola
itself.
On th e face of it, th is idea m ig h t seem im ­
p ra c tic a l to those who a re u sin g tw o o r th re e or
m ore g rades of m oulding san d to s u it th e ir
v a rie ty of castings. In tim e, co m petition may
force some of these fou n d ries in to m ore special­
ised lines, b u t exp erien ce shows t h a t one grade
of sand m ay su it a m uch g re a te r v a rie ty of c ast­
ings th a n is generally believed possible.
T here has been a g re a t im provem ent in o rd i­
n a ry c a st iron over th e la s t five or six years.
We have learn ed to produce iron consistently
w ith in very close lim its in resp ect to B rinell
hardness, tensile stre n g th and m achinability.
The ra p id m echanising of fo u n d ry op eratio n s
n a tu ra lly h ad a pronounced effect on m ain ten an ce
o rg an isatio n . W here m ain ten an ce could be
han d led a few y ears ago by fitte rs an d m ill­
w rights, to-day we req u ire a n en g in ee rin g de­
p a rtm e n t and th e leadership of tra in e d
engineers.
U nlike some o th e r branches of in d u stry , a
foundry occupying th e fro n t ra n k h as to develop
 50

th e g re a te r p a r t of its new e q u ip m en t, a t least

to th e p o in t w here i t can be tu rn e d over to some
equ ip m en t b uild er. To accom plish th is a
th o ro u g h know ledge of fo u n d ry o p e ra tio n s is
necessary.
D ue to th e sand, d u st an d h o t iro n t h a t are
ever p resen t, th e w ear on e q u ip m e n t is very
heavy. T hrough stre n g th e n in g of w eak p a rts
an d th e use of d u stp ro o f ball or ro ller hearings,
we a re co n sta n tly im p ro v in g o u r conditions.
M uch, how ever, rem ain s to be accom plished
before we g e t o u r e q u ip m e n t as free from b reak ­
downs an d in te rru p tio n s as some o th e r in d u stries.
Mechanisation
M ay I now fo r a m om ent o r tw o deal w ith th e
question of m ech a n isatio n ? W e often h ear
people deploring th e loss of craftsm an sh ip , a
loss w hich is supposed to be th e re s u lt of mass
pro d u ctio n . A n o th er s ta te m e n t t h a t is fre ­
quently m ade is t h a t th e m achine-m ade article,
which is rap id ly disp lacin g th e hand-m ade one,
has been th e m eans of low ering th e q u ality of
w orkm anship. M ay I ta k e th ese tw o points
an d review th em from c e rta in angles to show
how perfectly fu tile b o th views are.
I n th e first place, I w a n t to re p u d ia te th e idea
t h a t th e m achine-m ade a rtic le is in fe rio r to those
m ade by h an d . T his id ea is so en tirely opposed
to facts t h a t w herever i t p ersists, th e n you m ay
be sure th e re is an un b alan ced m en tality . Since
th e in tro d u c tio n of th e m achine th e re h a s been
a steady an d c o n tin u a l im provem ent in th e
sta n d a rd of o u tp u t of every com m odity t h a t
helps to m ake life b rig h te r. R u n n in g p arallel
w ith th is im proved o u tp u t we have h ad a t all
tim es an im proved s ta n d a rd of q u a lity ; a q u a lity
in th e m a jo rity of cases w hich can only be
achieved by th e use of th e m achine. W e have
th e well-known fa c t t h a t one of th e e a rlie s t diffi­
culties of W a tt in b rin g in g o u t his steam en g in e
was th e fa ilu re of h is a tte m p ts to bore th e cy lin ­
ders, an d it was n o t u n til W ilk in so n in v e n te d his
boring m achine t h a t W a tt was successful w ith
his steam enginfe. Since t h a t d ay th is co n d itio n
has been m u ltip lied in n u m e ra b le tim es. A nyone
 51

who knows th e fo u n d ry m a n ’s business know s th a t

ou r p resen t positio n could n e v e r have been
achieved a t all w ith o u t th e use of th e m achine,
an d in m any cases w here we could have go t
som ething of th e sam e k in d , th e cost w ould have
been so e x tra o rd in a rily high t h a t we should
nev er have progressed, sim ply because th e m a rk e t
would n o t have been th e re fo r o u r goods.
I t is a m istak e also to th in k t h a t m echanisa­
tio n te n d s to w ard s th e elim in atio n of e ith e r th e
a r t is t or th e c ra ftsm a n . F o r instan ce, m ost of
you h ave seen rec e n t rep ro d u ctio n s of th e w ork
of a rtis ts who h ave long b een dead. These
rep ro d u ctio n s m ay ta k e th e form of etch in g s, or
of coloured p ic tu re s done by th e th re e - o r five-
colour process. Now i t is a well-known fa c t t h a t
m any of these rep ro d u ctio n s a re m ore n early tr u e
to scale an d to colouring th a n w ere th e originals.
The m en who a re doing th e p relim in ary w ork for
these processes are a rtis ts in th e tr u e sense,
exactly as w ere those who m ade th e orig in al
d raw in g or p a in tin g , b u t th e m echanisation of
production has m ade i t possible to place copies
of these works in to th e homes of th e masses
in ste a d of confining th e w ork to e ith e r th e homes
of th e rich o r to p ic tu re galleries.
I n w h at w ay has m echanical process done any­
th in g to reduce th e im p o rtan ce of th e a rtis t?
Looked a t from th e p o in t of view of p aym ent
fo r w ork done, th e re n ev er has been a tim e when
th e a rtis tic sense of conception and execution
gave g re a te r m o n etary re tu rn s to th e a r t is t th a n
is th e case to-day. I f , th e n , th e w ork of th e
a r t is t is m ade available fo r m ore people to enjoy,
an d if, fu r th e r, th e a r t is t is b e tte r p aid th a n he
used to be, how can i t be said t h a t m echanisation
is g rad u ally e lim in a tin g both th e a r tis t an d th e
c ra ftsm a n ? I t is n o t tr u e , gentlem en, and th e
statem en ts, w hen th ey are m ade, arise from lack
of balance on th e p a r t of those who m ake such
statem en ts.
On craftsm an sh ip alone, an d confining i t to
o u r own business, th e re is no fo u n d atio n in th e
s ta te m e n t t h a t th e re is lack of craftsm an sh ip .
 52

T here is, how ever, a disp lacem en t of c ra ftsm a n ­

ship ow ing to th e re a rra n g e m e n ts in th e m ethods
of doing th e w ork. W e c a n now, w hen th e w ork
is of a re p e titio n c h a ra c te r, e lim in a te th e skill
of th e c ra ftsm a n in th e fo u n d ry , h u t in such
cases we need his help in th e to o l room . I w an t
everyone to realise th is fa c t, t h a t som ewhere in
o u r o rg a n isa tio n we o u g h t to be b u ild in g up
craftsm en all th e tim e . W e a re . W e ta k e an
u nskilled m a n ; we p u t him on a m oulding
m achine, if we a re wise we tr a in him along
c e rta in lines. E v e n tu a lly t h a t m an , who was
once a lab o u rer, w ill become a skilled m oulder.
Skilled probably along a n arro w lin e, b u t w ith
th e skill t h a t is h ig h e r th a n could possibly e x ist
if his tr a in in g w ere m ade m ore g eneral.
To-day is th e age of th e specialist, and while
th e r e are some people who a re foolish enough to
th in k t h a t specialisation in th e fo u n d ry deadens
th e m e n ta lity , such people a re back num bers,
an d if th ey w ould only exam ine th e ir own m en­
ta lity , th e y w ould be r a th e r su rp rised a t th e ir
lack of balance.

Recruitment Problems
I t is th e h a b it of fo u n d ry m en , as well as those
engaged in o th er in d u strie s, when a num ber of
th em g e t to g e th e r, to discuss th e ir tro u b les a t
len g th . They u sually begin by saying t h a t th e
in d u s try is going to seed in gen eral, an d th e n
tak e up th e ir problem s in d e tail. They re c o u n t
various tro u b les— a risin g from th e low prices
w hich p rev ail in th e in d u stry , th e in ten se com­
p e titio n am ongst them selves and th e c o m p lie s
tions b ro u g h t on by th e advance of com peting
processes—th ey b rin g up th e im possibility of
g e ttin g good m oulders, an d deplore th e p assing
of fo u n d ry craftsm an sh ip .
E ven those fou n d ry m en who h ave estab lish ed
th e ir p lan ts on a prod u ctio n basis, w ith a larg e
pro p o rtio n of m achine w ork, co n tin u e to be h a n ­
dicapped by th e lack of m en to supervise a n d lay
o u t th e work.
I t is commonly held t h a t m odern young m en
are w eak, lazy and effem inate, t h a t all of th e m
 53

w an t to w ork in b an k s or in su ran ce offices, or

do som ething w hich p erm its th e m to sit a t a
desk an d w ear a w hite collar. I t is p ointed o u t
t h a t all are a fra id to soil th e ir hands, and th a t
th ey th in k ab o u t n o th in g except am usem ent and
th e lig h te r form s of enjoym ent.
The so-called old-style young m an—sto u t,
b rig h t, a le rt— is said to have passed o u t of th e
p ictu re. I t would a p p e a r t h a t no young m an can
be induced to e n te r th e fo u n d ry tr a d e u n d er any
circum stances w hatsoever.
M uch of th is k in d of discussion is based on
facts. I t is tr u e t h a t very few boys are going
in to th e fo u n d ry in d u s try a t th e p resen t tim e.
I t is u n fo rtu n a te , of course, t h a t young men do
n o t ru sh in to fo u n d rie s ; b u t is it n o t equally
tr u e t h a t found rv m en as a rule m ake no effort to
a tt r a c t young m en P
I have seldom h ea rd any of th em m ake definite
plans for solving th e problem . They assume th a t
th e fa u lt lies en tire ly w ith th e young m en, and
few of them have conceived th e idea t h a t possibly
fo u n d ry m anag em en t is p a rtly a t fa u lt. And
yet, no in d u s try an d no o rg an isatio n can rem ain
secure which does n o t co n stan tly a ttr a c t young
blood to itself.
A stro n g h u m an elem ent m u st always be
fu n d a m e n ta l to every in d u stry . We m ay build
th e finest foun d ries in th e w orld, equipped w ith
th e new est an d b est fu rn aces and cupolas, th e
best of m oulding m achines, th e m ost efficient
san d -h an d lin g e q u ip m e n t; b u t unless th is won­
d erfu l p la n t is o p erated by first-class foundry men
it will n o t succeed.
I t is tr u e t h a t se lf-train ed m en have success­
fully operated old-fashioned fou n d ries in days
gone by, b u t th e very com plexity of o u r m odern
equipm en t, and th e m u ltip licity of our req u ire­
m ents, call fo r a tr a in in g unknow n in form er
tim es. W hile o u r fine m odern equ ip m en t is of
g re a t help to all of us in th e fo u n d ry in d u stry ,
it will n o t do aw ay wi^h th e necessity for careful
an d in te llig e n t tra in in g . M an is still su perior
to th e m achine—m an still controls th e m ac h in e ;
th e m achine does n o t con tro l th e m an.
 54

M odern en g in ee rin g , w ith its sa n d -h an d lin g

eq uipm ent, is co n stan tly lig h te n in g th e load, and
m odern th o u g h t is co n stan tly im p ro v in g condi­
tio n s of labour. W e have an in d u s try fu ll of
problem s and fu ll of in te re s t, w hich recognised
and properly in te rp re te d to y o u th , w ill do much
to c o u n te ra c t th is feeling.

Variables to be Reconciled
W here can you find an in d u s try whose roots
go back so f a r in to th e fo u n d a tio n of society
as th e c astin g of m etal ? W h a t o th e r in d u stry
presents so m any problem s to th e in q u irin g m ind
— problem s of m echanics, problem s of physics,
problem s of chem istry an d m eta llu rg y , problems
of gases, problem s of fluids, a n d problem s of
solids, an d of th e fo rm in g of one from th e
o th er P
W h a t o th e r in d u s try re ta in s so m uch of in d i­
v idualism ? The p ro d u ctio n of a job b in g castin g ,
a t least, is an a r t in ste a d of a stereotyped
process, m ore like th e p a in tin g of a p ictu re or
th e chiseling of a s ta tu e th a n th e dull m echani­
cal process ex istin g in some tra d e s. In w h at
o th e r in d u s try do we so easily feel th e pleasure
of c re a tin g t h a t which is new, th a t which be­
cause of ou r efforts ex ists now, b u t has never
existed before.
I f we who live by th e in d u s try have n ev er
ap p re c ia te d its ro m an tic side, why should we
feel su rp rised t h a t y o u th , which sees i t su p e r­
ficially, should m iss it? W hy should we blam e
th e young m an fo r o u r fa ilu re to p o in t o u t to
him th e w orth-w hile p a rts of th e in d u s try in
which we are en gaged P
I t is no d oub t tru e t h a t m odern m ethods of
m a n u fa c tu rin g , in clu d in g th e fo u n d ry , h ave sub­
s titu te d m achines fo r h an d skill in m an y d irec ­
tions. A t th e sam e tim e, i t is tr u e t h a t in
every in d u s try a n d in every fo u n d ry , h ig h -g ra d e
m en a re req u ire d to supervise, d ire c t a n d lead
th e work, an d th e need fo r such h ig h -g rad e m en
is even g re a te r now th a n it was in th e old-style
foundry.
 55

I t is also tr u e t h a t in o u r jobbing foundries

th e re will alw ays be q u a n titie s of w ork in which
th e m achine can he used only to lig h ten phy­
sical labour, an d w here th e skill of th e tra in e d
a rtis a n m u st alw ays be relied upon to produce
satisfacto ry resu lts. '

Dearth of Young Foundrymen

W here are o u r young foundrym en P There are
very few. The best fo undrym en are of m iddle
age or older, an d y e t no in d u s try can continue
unless i t builds up a g en eratio n of young men.
W e m u st b rin g larg e num bers of young men
in to th is in d u s try , we m u st show th em its a ttra c ­
tive fe a tu re s, we m u st tr a in th em in to th e
know ledge an d skill which we possess— or we
shall find ourselves fa llin g behind in o u r ab ility
to sa tisfy th e in creasin g dem ands necessary to
m eet society’s onw ard progress.
W h a t have we done to a tt r a c t young m en?
As an organised in d u stry , we have done little
or n o thing. I d o u b t w hether we have y et ap ­
p reciated th e necessity of doing an y th in g , nor
have we recognised th is as a definite obligation
on ourselves or o u r in d u stry . M oulders have
come to us, in th e p a st, as easily as th e a ir we
b reath e. W e have n o t realised t h a t th is con­
d itio n m ig h t n o t alw ays continue.
I gladly acknow ledge t h a t th e re are some
notable exceptions, some in d iv id u a l foundries
and local associations which have em barked upon
tr a in in g program m es t h a t are a d istin c t cred it
to them . As an in d u stry we h a v e , n o t ap ­
proached th e re a lisa tio n th a t th e public judges
th e value of a calling by th e tim e and effort
it ta k e s to m aste r it.
I do n o t believe t h a t th e y o u th of to-day is
essentially differen t from th e y o u th of any o th er
day. H e realises t h a t he m u st face different
conditions, an d he n a tu ra lly expects to face
th em in a differen t m an n er, b u t th e re are still
larg e num bers who realise t h a t they were n o t
born to be k ings—who are q u ite w illing tc
become good craftsm en if we b u t app ro ach th e n
 56

in th e p ro p er m a n n e r a n d show th e m an o p p o r­
tu n ity in accordance w ith m odern conditions.
I am n o t only u rg in g th e tr a in in g w hich will
q u a lify boys fo r positions as fo u n d ry executives,
b u t also t h a t w hich will produce good m echanics,
thoroughly-skilled m oulders, o r corem akers, or
p a tte rn m a k e rs, o r cupola o p erato rs. To accom­
plish th is, we m u st recognise th e need, we m u st
believe in th e w ork an d th e v alu e of th e re su lts
we a re going to a tta in , a n d we m u st really w an t
to do i t an d n o t feel t h a t we h a v e been pushed
in to it, o r we shall n o t be able to in te re s t th e
boys and m ake th e m e n th u s ia stic ab o u t it.
To be successful in th is w ork, a com pany m u st
organise on th e sam e p rin c ip le t h a t i t organises
to buy its raw m a te ria ls o r develop its cost
figures o r to han d le m e ta llu rg ic al research prob­
lem s. I t m u st se t as its goal th e tr a in in g of
c e rta in young m en, th e m ak in g in th is p a rtic u la r
d e p a rtm e n t, n o t of m oulds, b u t of m oulders.
J u s t how th e d e ta ils should be accom plished, I
leave to those who h ave devoted m ore tim e to
th e stu d y of th is su b je c t t h a t I have been able to
do. B u t I am q u ite su re th a t , in g en eral, th e tim e
has come w hen we m u st devote th o u g h t to th is
question, an d t h a t w hen we tack le i t w ith th e
energy an d th e intelligence of w hich th e in d u stry
is capable, we shall n o t have to ask “ W here are
th e young c ra ftsm e n ? ” in v ain .
H ow ever, I th in k we all a p p re c ia te t h a t a
y o u th in his teen s, u n d e r p ro p er g uidance, would
n a tu ra lly develop in to a b e tte r w orkm an. W e
believe th is, an d a re b ack in g u p th is belief. W e
have tra in e d a n u m b er of boys d u rin g th e
p a s t few years, we h ave a n u m b er now in tr a i n ­
ing, and we also em ploy a n u m b er who a re o u t of
th e ir “ tim e .”
W e som etim es h e a r men of intellig en ce ask th e
question “ W hy tr a in ap p ren tic e s to -d ay in th e
fo u n d ry w hen m achine m ethods d estro y th e
o p p o rtu n ity to absorb th e skilled m e n ? ” My
answ er is t h a t if we e v e r needed m en of
m echanical ab ility and p ra c tic a l tr a in in g in th e
fo u n d ry , we need th em now.
 57

C om petition was n ev er k een er th a n a t th e pre­

sen t tim e. N ew processes are m aking inroads
in to th e fo u n d ry in d u stry an d call fo r keen,
in te llig e n t m en to raise th e sta n d a rd s of th e
fo u n d ry in every p a rtic u la r, a n d place it in its
p ro p er place in th e m a n u fa c tu rin g group.
A fte r all, in o u r basic in d u stry , th e m anufac­
tu r in g cycle usu ally begins w ith castings. If we
can, by u sin g in te llig e n t m ethods, produce some­
th in g su p erio r to t h a t which was in tim es p ast
th e source of so m uch tro u b le and economic loss,
we shall a t le a s t h ave m ade o u r c o n trib u tio n to
th e progress of th e age.
Some of us, a fte r a n active c aree r in m any
d ifferen t d irectio n s, are in a position to advise
an d guide those who are s ta rtin g o u t w ith th e ir
fu tu re still to m ake, an d are w illing to help all
we can, by personal advice, anyone who is in ­
te re ste d in his own fu tu re . W hen, in retro sp ect,
I th in k of th e m an y changes t h a t th e average
young m an has to m ake before he finds his level
and becomes satisfied t h a t he has e n te re d upon
a n a c tiv ity w hich w a rra n ts th e app licatio n of
th e best t h a t is in him , I o ften w onder w hether
th e p resen t yo u n g er g en e ra tio n is w illing to
recognise, a t least in a g en eral way, th e value of
th e advice t h a t th e o lder g en eratio n is capable of
giving.
The Work of the Institute
I w an t to say ju s t a w ord on th e c h a ra cte r of
ou r In s titu te , fo r o rg an isatio n s of th is k in d do
have c h a racter, irresp ectiv e of p resid en ts who
come an d go, like th e ch an g in g seasons. I have
been a m em ber of a good m any organisations,
b u t never one th e m em bers of which were of a
h ig h er c h a ra c te r or so conscientiously devoting
th e ir tim e an d th e b est of th e ir ab ility to th e
in te re sts of th e o rg an isatio n . T here is a close
association betw een foundrym en and th e re p re ­
sen tativ es of th e eq u ip m en t m a n u fa c tu re rs, b u t
I have never h e a rd one of th e la tte r advocating
a policy w hich m ig h t be of d isad v an tag e to th e
fo u n d ry in d u stry . T h eir action has in d icated
t h a t th e y feel t h a t th e ir own in te re sts can best
be advanced by t h a t w hich best advances yours.
 58

I have never know n an o rg a n isa tio n in which

I fe lt t h a t those who re p re se n t th e m em bers in
ex ecu tin g th e ir w ork w ere fu n c tio n in g w ith
h ig h er ideals or w ith a m ore e a rn e s t desire f a i th ­
fully to discharge th e t r u s t placed in th em .
I n co nducting th e affairs of y o u r I n s titu te
th e re is a v a st a m o u n t of d e ta il to be accom­
plished. E ach P re s id e n t realises fully th e cor­
rectness of th is sta te m e n t. I c a n n o t re fra in
from expressing my sincere a d m ira tio n of th e
w ork of yo u r S e c re ta ry , M r. M akem son, an d his
very able staff. T his m ay seem like a form al
courtesy, b u t I am only voicing a sincere con­
viction re su ltin g from some y e a rs’ close co n tact
and observation of th is w ork. I h ave seen so
m any in stances of a d m in is tra tiv e ab ility , sound
business ju d g m e n t an d s tra ig h tfo rw a rd dealing
coupled w ith fine diplom acy t h a t I would be
rem iss if I did n o t d ire c t y o u r a tte n tio n to it.
I wish also to ta k e th is o p p o rtu n ity of express­
ing m y a p p reciatio n of th e in te re sts and co­
o p eratio n of all th e P a st-P re s id e n ts who have so
graciously given of th e ir tim e to help w henever
called upon, an d who are so well qualified by
th e ir b road business experience an d by th e ir in ti­
m ate know ledge of th e affairs of th is I n s titu te
to give advice a n d counsel. W e are indeed fo r­
tu n a te to have so m any P a st-P re s id e n ts who con­
tin u e to ta k e an active in te re st. I shall deem
i t a personal oblig atio n to co n tin u e an active
in te re s t an d h elp fu l p a rtic ip a tio n in th e affairs
of th e I n s titu te a fte r m y official co n tac t ceases
and I sincerely t r u s t t h a t such hum ble effort as
I m ay be able to m ake will be p ro d u ctiv e of a t
le a st a slig h t in c re m e n t of progress an d g ro w th .
The I n s titu te of B ritis h F o u n d ry m en h as con­
s ta n tly aided th e in d u s try in developing new
m ethods of m eetin g new conditions. I t has
enabled know ledge to be d issem inated fo r those
who w ould ta k e it. I t ,has been th e c lea rin g
house for a g ro u p in g of ideas to w hich a ll m ig h t
c o n trib u te and fro m w hich all m ig h t benefit.
O ur ta s k is a nev er-en d in g one. A lth o u g h
m arvellous changes have been w ro u g h t in p ro ­
d uctio n, alth o u g h u n im ag in ed re su lts a re being
 59

a tta in e d , altho u g h th e technique of d istrib u tio n

has reached a p eak n ev er before realised, a c tu ­
ally, only a s t a r t has been m ade along th e road
of in d u s tria l progress. T hrough carefu l and
keen observation, th ro u g h scientific ex p erim en t
a n d th e subsequent g a th e rin g of d a ta , th ro u g h
th e ap p licatio n to our in d u stry of th e im prove­
m ents th u s discovered, and above all th ro u g h
in te llig e n t co-operation, we m ay hope to achieve
in tim es y et to come a large m easure of th e
success t h a t should be ours.
C ivilisation will co n tin u e to progress. Science
will be for ever discovering new processes, and
p roduction an d d is trib u tio n techniques m ust
con tin u e to evolve.
To us falls th e b u rd e n of seeing t h a t th e
fo u n d ry in d u stry , fu n c tio n in g as i t now is upon
a solid economic basis, will continue to m eet th e
dem ands of th e tim es.
I t is a w onderful th in g to be connected w ith
in d u stry in th is g re a t in d u s tria l world, where
each m an is honestly striv in g to m ake money for
him self and those d ep en d en t upon him , conscious,
however, t h a t th e only way in which he can
a tta in th is goal is by re n d erin g to society a
service by w hich he gives i t m ore th a n he gets
hack. I t is a w onderful th in g to be connected
w ith an in d u s try w hich is so old th a t we cannot
find w here it began, and y et which is so young,
so inexperienced, so unknow n t h a t it challenges
th e best of ou r executive ability , th e best of our
en g in ee rin g skill,, th e best of o u r scientific
research. I t is a significant th in g to be connected
w ith a g re a t o rg a n isa tio n of th is kind, where
men are m eetin g to g e th e r, each one to help him ­
self by helping his com petitor, w here m en are
w illing to devote th e ir tim e, th e ir work and th e ir
money in an effort to m ake of th e ir in d u stry an
in s tru m e n t which shall be of g re a te r w orth to
th e w orld and produce m ore happiness for th e
ch ild ren of God.
On th e m otion of M r. C. E . W i l l i a m s (P ast-
P residem t), a h e a rty vote of th a n k s was accorded
th e P re sid e n t.
 60

The Foundry Course at Sheffield

The P r e s i d e n t , d ealin g w ith th e esta b lish m e n t
of th e D egree C ourse a t Sheffield, said t h a t th e
In s titu te had alw ays ta k e n a p ro m in e n t p a rt
in p rom oting tech n ical e d u c a tio n fo r th e
fo u n d ry m an , a n d suggestions h a d b een m ade
freq u en tly as to th e d esira b ility of esta b lish in g a
D egree Course in th e science an d tech n iq u e of
fo u n d ry p ractice. The Sub-C om m ittee of th e
In s titu te , which had been a t w ork fo r a con­
siderable period, h ad collected prom ises of
sufficient financial su p p o rt to en ab le such a
course to he in a u g u ra te d a t th e U n iv e rsity of
Sheffield. T h a t course was an estab lish ed fa c t,
and w ould commence n e x t a u tu m n .
I t consisted of a fo u r-y ears fu ll-tim e course
leading to th e D egree of B achelor of M etallu rg y
(F o u n d in g ). The in d u s try was ind eb ted to P ro f.
J . H , A ndrew (P ro f. of M eta llu rg y , Sheffield
U n iv ersity ), who was responsible fo r its
in a u g u ra tio n an d fo r th e p re p a ra tio n of th e
syllabuses, copies of w hich w ould be available for
d is trib u tio n a t th e C onference, an d he w ould be
in charge of th e course.
In c reasin g num bers of g ra d u a te s, continued
th e P re s id e n t, w ere bein g absorbed in to th e in ­
d u stry , b u t up to th e p re se n t th e y h ad usually
ta k e n th e ir degrees in M eta llu rg y o r E n g in e e r­
ing. In fu tu re th e y would be able to ta k e a
degree in F o u n d in g .
I t should be u n d ersto o d t h a t th is course w as
of a n a tio n a l c h a ra c te r, and was open to
stu d e n ts from all p a rts of th e c o u n try . I t was
hoped t h a t m em bers of th e I n s titu te would m ake
know n th e in a u g u ra tio n of th e course, en d e a v o u r
to a tt r a c t su itab le stu d e n ts to i t an d to increase
th e financial su p p o rt which had alread y been
prom ised.
Greetings to Original Members
Of th e 16 o rig in a l m em bers of th e I n s titu te
who are still living, 7 were p re se n t a t th e m eet­
ing, and th e P re s id e n t ex te n d e d to th e m th e
co n g ra tu latio n s of th e C onference. They w ere
M r. C. E . W illiam s, of C ardiff (P a s t-P r e s id e n t);
 61

M r. F . J . Cook, of B irm in g h am (P ast-P re si-

d e n t ) ; M r. J . T. Goodwin, of C hesterfield (P ast-
P r e s id e n t) ; M r. J . J . M cLelland, of B ilsto n ;
M r. T. W . M ark la n d , of B o lto n ; M r. K . M.
B u rd e r, of L ou g h borough; an d M r. W . H .
M eadow croft, of B urnley.
The rem ain in g o rig in a l m em bers, to whom
th e m eeting sen t messages of co n g ra tu latio n and
good wishes, in accordance w ith th e resolution
adopted a t th e A nnual G eneral M eeting, w ere: —
M r. F . W . F in ch , of G loucester (th e I n s titu te ’s
first S e c re ta ry ); P ro v o st Jam es G alt, of P aisley ;
M r. R . W . K enyon, of A c c rin g to n ; D r. P ercy
L ongm uir, of Sheffield; M r. D. A ston, of
London"; M r. J a s . Chadwick, of B o lto n ; M r.
Jam es S m ith, of S outh S h ield s; M r. W . H .
S h erb u rn , of W a rrin g to n ; and M r. W . R.
W ilson, of L iverpool.
The m eeting th e n proceeded w ith th e read in g
an d discussion of th e following P a p e rs : —
“ R e p o rt of th e W ork of th e C ast Iro n Sub-
C om m ittee of th e Technical C o m m ittee,” in tro ­
duced by M r. P . A. R ussell, Convener.
“ C o n trib u tio n to th e S tu d y of G rap h ite
F o rm a tio n and S tru c tu re in C ast Iro n , an d Its
Influence upon th e P ro p e rtie s of th e C ast
M e ta l,” by D r. In g . H ein rich N ip p er.— (G erm an
E xchange P a p e r.)
The C onference a d jo u rn ed a t 12 noon, and
m em bers an d ladies lunched to g e th e r a t th e
M idland H otel.
Works Visits
D u rin g th e aftern o o n p a rtie s of mem bers
visited th e following w orks : —
Messrs. Joseph Stubbs, L im ited, Openshaw.
The M etropolitan-V ickers E lectrical Company,
L im ited , T rafford P a rk .
The L ancashire Steel C orporation, L im ited,
Irlam .
P a rtie s of ladies v isited th e H an d k erch ief
W orks of Messrs. Tootal, B ro ad h u rst, Lee &
Com pany, L im ited , an d Messrs. R ich ard
H a w o rth ’s M ills, S alford.
 62

ANNUAL BANQUET AND DANCE

The I n s tit u te ’s a n n u a l b a n q u et an d d ance was
held on th e ev en in g of W ednesday, J u n e 6, a t
th e M idland H o tel. The P re s id e n t an d M rs.
S tubbs received tlie m em bers an d guests, who
included th e R t. H on. th e L ord M ay o r of M an ­
chester (A lderm an Jo sep h B in n s, M .B .E .) and
th e L ady M ayoress, th e R t. H on. th e Lord
S tan ley of A lderley, M r. J . S. P eck (M etropoli-
tan -V ick ers C om pany, L im ite d ), M r. S te rry B.
F reem an , C .B .B ., M .E n g . (ch airm an , N o rth-
W estern B ran ch , I n s titu tio n of M echanical E n ­
gineers), M rs. M. E . S tubbs (ch airm an of Messrs.
Jo sep h S tubbs, L im ite d ), M r. W . N . Cook, B..Sc.
(P re sid e n t of th e L an cash ire B ran ch ), M r. A.
P h illip s (ch airm a n of th e C onference Com m it­
tee), M r. J . E . Cooke (H on. C onference Secre­
ta r y ), M r. T. M akem son (G eneral S ecretary of
th e In s titu te ) , M r. C. E . W illiam s (Im m ed iate
P a st-P re s id e n t) a n d M rs. W illiam s, M r. F . J .
Cook (P a s t-P re sid e n t), M r. J . C am eron (P a st-
P re sid e n t) an d M rs. C am eron, M r. J . T. Good­
w in (P a s t-P re sid e n t) and M rs. Goodwin, M r.
V. C. F a u lk n e r (P a s t-P re sid e n t) an d M rs.
F a u lk n e r, M r. Y. S tobie (P a st-P re sid e n t) and
M rs. Stobie, M r. J . E . H u rs t (S en io r Vice-
P re sid e n t) an d M rs. H u rs t, M r. H . W in te rto n
(J u n io r V ice-P resid en t) and M rs. W in te rto n .
A num b er of re p re se n ta tiv e s of allied bodies w ere
also th e guests of th e I n s titu te .

The Toasts
The loyal to a s t h a v in g been honoured,
The R t. H o n . t h e L o r d S t a n l e y o f A l d e r l e y ,
proposing “ The C ity and T rad e of M a n c h e ste r,”
said i t would be in vidious to contend t h a t th e
to a s t was th e m ost im p o rta n t to be hon o u red
th a t evening, and he would n o t m ake th e con­
te n tio n , because by so doing he w ould invoke
serious rebuffs from subsequent sp e a k e rs; b u t if
it w ere n o t th e m ost im p o rta n t i t w as a t least
a very im p o rta n t to a st. W hen a sm all boy he
had been ta u g h t t h a t M an ch ester w as th e second
g re a te st c ity in th e B ritis h Isles. H e d id n o t
 63

know w h eth er t h a t w as still tr u e as re g ard s size,

b u t he h ad no h e sita tio n in saying th a t, fo r a
m u ltitu d e of reasons, M an ch ester was n e t th e
second g re a te st city in th e B ritis h Isles, h u t th e
g re a te st. Two of those reasons w ere im plied in
th e v ery marne of th e to a s t ; M anchester was th e
g re a te st from th e p o in t of view of a “ c ity ,” a
w ord w hich im plied civic p ride, and in m any
ways it w as th e g re a te st of o u r tr a d in g centres.
I t w as th e fo u rth la rg e st p o rt in th e K ingdom —
an d its seaborne tr a d e was b u t a tith e of the
whole of its tra d e . I f th e figures of th e to ta l
tr a d e of M anchester, both seaborne and in te rn a l,
w ere available, he believed i t would be found
t h a t M anchester was th e g re a te st tra d in g city
in th e c o u n try ; an d th a t, he would like to be­
lieve, m e a n t t h a t i t was th e g re a te st tr a d in g
city in th e world.
Trade and Tariffs
B u t, alas, th e tra d e of M anchester is n o t now
w h at it was. T here were m any reasons and
facto rs o p e ra tin g , some of th em being u n d er our
control. The city of M anchester w as perhaps
m ost rem arkable fo r its en te rp rise in h aving
b u ilt a t th e end of th e la st eemtury th e M an ­
chester Ship C anal, and its cost, he believed,
was upw ards of tw e n ty m illion pounds sterling.
Its object w as to enable u s to re n d e r goods, and
all th e necessities of life, as cheap a t th e p o in t
of consum ption as a t th e p o in t of production,
or alm ost as cheap, to b rin g w ealth (by which
he m e a n t goods) from th e fo u r corners of th e
w orld to M anchester as cheaply as possible. F o r
m any years th e M an ch ester Ship C anal had fu l­
filled t h a t object in th e m ost adm irable fashion.
B u t, alas, d u rin g th e la st few y ears tr a d e in
th is co u n try , as, indeed, all over th e w orld, had
been slipping from us, w ith th e re s u lt t h a t th e
sound common sense, th a t rock bottom of com­
m ercial in te g rity which h ad e x isted in M an­
chester, began to seek anew fo r differen t gods
to w orship, an d we had th e m elancholy spectacle
of goods being m ade cheap a t th e p o in t of pro­
duction—w hich in th is case was M anchester, th e
 64

c e n tre of one of th e la rg e st in d u s tria l a re a s of

th is in d u s tria l n a tio n — an d th e n re n d ere d m ore
expensive by a rtific ia l m eans. W e h a d set up
a ro u n d o u r shores an arm y of officials, of red
ta p e , m en who, fo r a u g h t he knew , h ad bayonets,
swords, revolvers an d g u n s—th e In sp ecto rs of
H is M a je sty ’s C ustom s—an d on e v e ry th in g t h a t
cam e th ro u g h th e M an ch ester S h ip C anal, and
w hich th e citizen s of M an ch ester wished to m ake
cheap, we raised a rtificia l h a rrie rs to m ake th em
ag ain m ore expensive. W e h ad , indeed, over­
come th e g re a t obstacles of n a tu r e . W e had
b u ilt railw ays a n d g re a t roads, we h ad tu n n elled
th ro u g h m o u n tain s, we had im proved o u r fuel
an d had m ade m ore efficient ships, w ith th e end
of ch eapening goods a n d re n d e rin g w ealth m ore
available to o u r p e o p le ; an d a t th e sam e tim e we
placed m an-m ade artific ia l b a rrie rs in th e way.
T h a t was w hy th e tr a d e of M an ch ester was n o t
so h e a lth y as he w ished to see it.

The Foundry Industry and Cotton

M anchester was th e c e n tre of th e co tto n in ­
d u stry '; b u t i t w as also f a r m ore th a n th a t .
M anchester an d th e co u n try aro u n d i t w as, to
use a v u lg a r p hrase, th e g u ts of th e whole w orks,
an d th e foun d ry m en an d en g in eers were re p re ­
se n tativ e of t h a t g u ts. H ow could we sp in
co tto n w ith o u t looms an d o th e r m ach in ery , an d
how could we c re a te m ach in ery w ith o u t th e
fo u n d ry m an to c a st it? The fa c t t h a t th e first
m eeting of th e I n s titu te was held in M anches­
te r , in 1904, in d ica te d t h a t M an c h e ste r th e n , as
now, was in th e fo re fro n t of in d u s tria l develop­
m e n t in th is c o u n try . M an ch ester h a d realised
w h at a fu tu r e lay before h e r in th e fo u n d ry
business. I t w as tr u e to say th a t, w ith o u t th e
foundrym en, in d u s try w ould fo u n d e r; in d eed , i t
could be said t h a t th e fo u n d ry m e n ’s b usiness was
th e fo u n d a tio n of all in d u stry .
I n short, one found in M an c h e ster a n active-
m inded body of citizens, th in k in g c o n sta n tly of
th e benefit of th e g re a te st n u m b e r of th e in h a b i­
ta n ts . They w ere well to th e fo re in a ll m odern
 65

developm ents. C o n stan tly he had cause to th a n k

M anchester for its fo resig h t in estab lish in g an
adm irable a irp o rt.
F in ally , L ord S tan ley coupled w ith the to a st
th e nam e of th e L ord M ayor, and comm ented
upon th e g re a t ab ility w ith which he led th e
progress and th e civic p rid e of th e city.
The R i g h t H o n . t h e L o r d M a y o r o f M a n ­
c h e s t e r , responding, first voiced th e pleasure it
afforded him to welcome th e m em bers of th e
In s titu te to th e C ity of M anchester, for they
rep resen ted an in d u stry w hich rendered con­
siderable service in th e city, and it was th e
in d u stry in which he h ad first endeavoured to
m ake his fo rtu n e . U n fo rtu n a te ly , he had
become a L ord M ayor in stead , and th e disastrous
consequences of personal am bition would be
ap p reciated .
As a M anchester-born m an, however, he was
proud of th e achievem ents of th e men of th a t
city. The founder of th e atom ic th eo ry was .John
D alton, who was a teac h er a t Owen’s College and
a respected m em ber of th e M anchester L ite ra ry
and P hilosophical S ociety; Jo h n D alton had fixed
a basis upon which scien tists could calculate to a
closer degree th a n th ey h ad ever done before th e
possibilities of n a tu ra l resources and th e powers
th a t came ab o u t by tru e chem ical com bination
an d dissection. A gain, .Joule h ad laid down a
m echanical law which stood to-day. A t th e U n i­
v ersity and Owen’s College th e re was p rid e in the
achievem ents of th e long line of m en who had
been pioneers—m en such as P ro f. L ord
R u th e rfo rd , who was endeav o u rin g to find an
even sm aller fu n d a m e n ta l th a n th e electron.
B u t he reg ard ed M anchester also from an o th er
po in t of view. H e believed, as did L ord Stanley,
th a t M anchester would go forw ard ag ain , and he
was n o t so despondent ab o u t th e p resen t situ atio n
as w ere m any people. A few of th e in d u stries
of M anchester w ere fa irly active. The en g in eer­
ing in d u stry had become considerably b e tte r th a n
it was six m onths ag o ; th e te x tile in d u stry was
not slum ping te rrib ly a t th e m om ent, th o u g h it
was bad. T here were o th er in d u strie s which were
n
doing fa irly well, an d , given an o p p o rtu n ity , by
th e rem oval of some of th e re s tric tio n s which had
been m entioned, ho claim ed t h a t M anchester
would very largely come in to its own ag ain
d u rin g th e period of th e n e x t th re e y ears ; a t
least, he hoped so.
Sheffield University Foundry Course
T here w ere m any reasons why he w as g lad to
be p resen t a t th e I n s titu te ’s d in n e r. H e recalled
th a t in 1898 he was a s tu d e n t a t th e College
of Technology, w here th e re w ere classes on iron-
fo u n d in g —th e first in G re a t B rita in , he believed.
H e was proud to be able to say t h a t since th en
th e I n s titu te h a d come in to being, an d t h a t
sim ilar in s titu tio n s h ad been in a u g u ra te d in th e
various sections of th e en g in ee rin g and o th e r
in d u stries. The re s u lt w as t h a t to -day we w ere
becoming th e m ost scientifically o rganised people
in th e w orld. In fo rm a tio n o b ta in e d in one d irec­
tio n was commonly d is trib u te d to those in te re ste d
fo r th e purpose of ra isin g o u r in d u strie s to a
h igher level th a n th e y h a d occupied before. The
o p p o rtu n itie s fo r u sin g th e u n iv e rsitie s h a d be­
come m ore common in all scientific in d u strie s,
and he was proud t h a t th e I n s titu te h a d decided
to set up a D egree Course in F o u n d in g a t S hef­
field, because in his opinion th e fo u n d ry c r a f t
was a h igh scientific profession. The d an g ers
th a t h ad existed a t th e tim e he h ad s ta rte d in
th e in d u stry nad been larg ely d im inished by
reason of scientific in v e stig atio n , an d fo u n d ry -
m en u n d erto o k th e ir w ork w ith a m easu re of
know ledge w hich led to th e finest resu lts and
raised ev ery th in g to a much h ig h er p itc h of p e r­
fection th a n form erly. M an ch ester, as a la rg e
fo u n d ry cen tre, w as pleased to welcome th e
I n s titu te , p a rtic u la rly w ith M r. R oy S tu b b s as
P re s id e n t. H e was a m em ber of one of th e
oldest fo undry fam ilies in M an ch ester— an d th e
L ord M ayor recalled t h a t he h a d know n th e
th ree bro th ers for m any y ears. M essrs. Jo sep h
Stubbs, L im ited , h a d alw ays h a d th e resp ect of
the m en when n e g o tia tin g , an d w hen th e re was
any trouble th ey h ad fo u g h t th e m a tte r o u t and
h ad shaken h an d s a fte rw a rd s.
 67

F in ally , th e L ord M ayor expressed th e hope

t h a t th e I n s titu te would c o n tin u e to help for­
w ard th e ed u catio n of fu tu re foundrym en, so
t h a t th e co u n try w ould rise to g re a te r skill and
g re a te r em inence an d m a in ta in its g re a t share
in th e control of th e w orld’s w ork.
M r. J . S. P e c k , who h ad accepted a t short
notice th e ta s k of proposing th e to a s t to th e
I n s titu te , owing to th e fa c t th a t M r. E . J .
F ox , who had in ten d e d to propose it, was p re­
vented by illness, suggested th a t th e g a th e rin g
m ig h t send to M r. F ox a w ord of goodwill and
an expression of th e hope t h a t he would soon
be restored to h ealth .
(T his suggestion was h e a rtily approved.)
C on tin u in g , M r. P eck said t h a t as he looked
a ro u n d a t th e prosperous people seated a t th e
tables he felt t h a t he had m ade a m istake in
his choice of p ro fessio n ! As an engineer, he
had alw ays been in close p roxim ity to a foundry.
T hus he could a p p re c ia te th e troubles an d diffi­
culties of th e fou n d ry m an , an d he could also
a p p reciate the difficulties, th e expense and the
delays to which th e en g in eer was p u t when th e
foundry delivered defective castin g s to th e
m achine shop ! B u t so seldom did th e m achine
shop receive castin g s filled w ith blowholes th a t
perhaps, when such castin g s were received, th e
people in th e m achine shop were a little m ore
c ritical th a n th ey should be when th ey rem em ­
bered th e m oulders’ difficulties.

Competition from Weldings

B u t a serious com p etito r to th e foundrym en
had a r is e n ; those who had visited th e M etro­
politan-V ickers w orks t h a t day and had seen the
enorm ous progress t h a t was being m ade w ith
fab ric a te d steelw ork would ap p re c ia te it. I t was
developing a t a very ra p id ra te indeed, and if
he owned a fou n d ry he w ould find a co rn er in
which to p u t down a fa b ric a tin g d ep a rtm en t,
a sm all one to s t a r t w ith, so t h a t he could te st
o u t th e possibilities of fa b ric a tio n , an d , if it
did develop to th e e x te n t t h a t a p p eared probable
to-day he w ould be able to sh are in th e develop­
m ent. H e did n o t consider for a m om ent, of
d2
 68

course, t h a t th e fo u n d ry h a d finished, because

th e re w ould alw ays be a dem and fo r c e rta in
types of castin g s, w h atev er developm ents were
m ade in w eldings. I t h ad been his experience
th a t no in d u s try so firmly estab lish ed as was th e
fo undry in d u s try ever succum bed quickly. F o r
exam ple, we h a d been to ld t h a t th e electric loco­
m otive w ould soon supersede th e steam loco­
m otive ; y e t th e in tro d u c tio n of th e electric loco­
m otive h ad acted m erely as an in cen tiv e to th e
designer of th e steam locom otive to effect im ­
provem ents, an d he h ad im proved th e steam
locom otive alm ost beyond recognition. The
steam tu rb in e h ad to a c e rta in e x te n t superseded
o th er ty p es of p rim e m over, b u t th e recip ro ­
ca tin g engin e was still being b u ilt in larg e
n u m b e rs; an d he was told also t h a t m ore candles
were being m a n u fa c tu re d to -d ay th a n was th e
case a h u n d re d y ears ago. C om petition te n d ed
to increase efficiency. H e believed th a t, w h a t­
ever th e com petition m ig h t be, a stro n g and
virile o rg a n isa tio n such as th e I n s titu te of
B ritish F ou n d ry m en would rise to m eet it, no
m a tte r from w h at p a r t of th e w orld i t m ig h t
arise.
W e were e n te rin g on a period of b e tte r tim es,
and he ended by w ishing p ro sp erity to all, an d
to th e I n s titu te in p a rtic u la r. H e coupled w ith
th e to a s t th e nam e of th e P re sid e n t.
The P r e s i d e n t , who was g reeted w ith p ro ­
longed applau se when he rose to respond to th e
to ast, first expressed th e I n s tit u te ’s th a n k s to
M r. P eck fo r h a v in g suggested sending a message
of goodwill to M r. F o x ; indeed, it w as th e in te n ­
tio n to do so. The P re s id e n t ad d ed t h a t he had
been looking fo rw ard to h ea rin g M r. F o x say
th a t he cam e to th is fu n ctio n n o t as an iron-
founder b u t as a m a n u fa c tu re r of p ig -iro n . H e
was d isappoin ted , also, t h a t he h a d n o t th e op p o r­
tu n ity to tell M r. Fox t h a t M essrs. Jo sep h
Stubbs, L im ited, had b o u g h t p ig-iron from his
com pany in 1896 a t 47s. a to n , or to tr y to
convince him th a t if he could offer sim ilar iron
to-day a t th e sam e price th e m iserable iron-
founder could m ake some profit, a n d th e S tarlto n
Iro n C om pany would treb le its profits w ith in th e
n e x t twelve m onths.
 69

One was im pressed w ith th e th o u g h t th a t all

th o u g h ts for th e fu tu re were based on helping
th e in d u stry , an d he believed th e 31 y ears of
service ren d e re d by th e I n s titu te to B ritish
foundrym en placed an obligation of mem bership
upon any m an who expected to m ake founding
his life work. All w ere w elcom e; th e members
realised t h a t th e In s titu te h ad a proud 'record
of accom plishm ent, an d if th is fa c t were broad­
ca st m any of th e th o u g h tless ones would realise
t h a t th e In s titu te w as e n title d to th e ir support.
I t seemed t h a t th e re should be an increased
m em bership in th e fu tu re , an d th a t th e In s titu te
would th e n accom plish even fa r more th a n in
th e past. All th e ex istin g mem bers, by th e ir
w illingness to give of them selves w ith o u t s tin t
an d by th e ir unselfish devotion to th e in terests
of th e I n s titu te an d of th e in d u stry , h ad made
association w ith th em a very g re a t privilege.
H is plea w as t h a t th ey should avail them selves
fully of th e facilities which th e I n s titu te had to
offer, an d help it to grow and become more
useful by th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n , in te re st an d effort.
I t would be churlish on his p a rt if he did not
express very sincere g ra titu d e to th e chairm an
of th e com pany, w ith which he h ad th e honour
to be associated, and also to his co-directors, for
th e ir kindness to him , because w ith o u t th e ir
su p p o rt, both m oral an d physical, he would not
have been able to occupy th e proud position of
P re s id e n t of th e In s titu te . T herefore, he paid
tr ib u te to them , and he also expressed g ratefu l
th a n k s to th e m em bers of th e staff, because th e
periodical absences from th e business, which his
P re sid e n tia l office would e n ta il, would throw
e x tr a work upon them .
F in ally , th e P re sid e n t voiced his personal
th a n k s an d those of th e In s titu te to M r. Peck
fo r th e kind m an n e r in which he had proposed
th e to ast.
The Visitors
M r. W . N. C o o k , B . S c . (P re sid en t of th e
L ancashire B ranch) proposed a to a s t to “ The
G uests,” and spoke of his good fo rtu n e in occupy­
ing th e p resid en tia l ch air of th e B ran ch a t th is
 70

tim e, for it ca rrie d w ith it th e privilege of p ro ­

posing th e to a st. A conference such as th is, he
con tinued, w ould be im possible w ith o u t th e
co-operation of m any people, n o t th e le a st of
whom were th e L ord M ayor and o th e r lead in g
citizens of th e city an d th e executives of th e
p rin cip al works in th e d is tric t. I t was a pleasure
to e n te r ta in these gentlem en an d th e ir ladies and
to convey to th e m in person th e I n s tit u te ’s
deepest th a n k s fo r th e ir valuable co-operation.
The I n s titu te h ad been h onoured b o th in th e
m orning an d in th e evening by th e presence of
th e L ord M ayor, in sp ite of his m u ltitu d in o u s
d uties, an d it was an added p leasu re t h a t th e
Lady M ayoress was able to accom pany him . The
L ord M ayor un d ersto o d th e in d u s try th o ro u g h ly ,
an d p erh ap s one m ig h t ta k e th e o p p o rtu n ity to
p o in t o u t t h a t th e I n s titu te w ould he delig h ted
indeed to enrol him as a m em ber if a t any tim e
he should decide to re tu r n to th e in d u stry .
M r. Oook also p a id a tr ib u te to L ord S tan ley ,
whose d istin g u ish ed fa th e r an d illu strio u s g ra n d ­
fa th e r w ere hon o u red n o t only in th e M an ch ester
d is tric t, w ith w hich th e y w ere so in tim a te ly
associated, b u t th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try , fo r th e ir
services h ad ea rn ed th e m th e resp ect of th e
co u n try as a whole. E veryone was g lad t h a t
L ord S tanley was follow ing so w o rth ily in th e ir
footsteps, and i t was fittin g t h a t he should have
proposed th e to a s t to th e city , for he h ad a lread y
shown him self w illing to ta k e an activ e p a r t in
th e governing th ereo f, and it was hoped t h a t his
services, so w illingly offered, w ould be w illingly
accepted.
A gain, th e I n s titu te was deeply in d e b te d to
M r. P eck, who h a d a t sh o rt notice accepted th e
ta s k of proposing a to a st. H e was a n o ted elec­
tr ic a l engineer, an d a d irec to r of th e b ran c h of
th e M etropolitan -V ick ers E lec trica l C om pany,
L im ited, a t which some of th e m em bers h ad been
e n te rta in e d so m agnificently. A n o th er hon o u red
g u est was M r. S te rry B. F re e m a n , re p re se n tin g
th e I n s titu tio n of M echanical E n g in e e rs, one of
th e la rg e st an d m ost im p o rta n t of all th e e n g i­
neering and scientific societies. H e h a d achieved
 71

no m ean fam e as a m a rin e engineer. I t was also

a pleasure to welcome th e rep rese n ta tiv es of
v arious firms w hich had co-operated to m ake th e
conference so g re a t a success, and th ey included
M rs. M. E. Stubbs, th e c h airm an of Messrs.
Jo sep h Stubbs, L im ite d ; and th e rep resen tativ es
of k in d re d associations and societies.
The nam e of M r. F ree m a n was coupled w ith
th e to ast.
M r. S t e r i î y B. F r e e m a n , C .B .E ., M .E ng.,
M .I.M ech .E . (C hairm an, N o rth -W estern B ranch,
In s titu tio n of M echanical E n g in eers), responding
to th e to a st, said he was speaking, for th e first
tim e in his life, to a “ m ixed c o n stitu en cy .”
S peaking of th e I n s titu te , he com m ented on th e
fa c t th a t it was rem ark ab ly well ru n , and said
t h a t w hereas th in g s which were le ft to ru n th em ­
selves ra n dow n-hill, th is body was going up-hill,
u n d er th e care of its officials. Its guests would
carry aw ay h ap p y recollections of th e d elig h tfu l
m an n er in which th e y h ad been en te rta in e d .
I t was said th a t th e raw m a te ria l of th e
fo undrym en was liquid iron, b u t i t was obvious
th a t an o th er raw m a te ria l th ey d ea lt in was
b rain s ; and, as th e ladies w ere p resen t, he would
like to add t h a t an o th e r raw m a te ria l was sense.
W e had seen a good deal of b rain s, sometimes
ra th e r over-developed, am ong th e in tellig en tsia,
th e people h av in g all b ra in s and no sense ;
inasm uch as th e ladies were p resen t on th is occa­
sion, one fe lt th e re was a balance which was
som etim es lacking.
This concluded th e speeches, and th e rem ain d er
of th e evening was devoted to d ancing, which
continued u n til a la te hour.

Thursday, June 7
The Conference was resum ed a t 9.15 a.m . and
th e follow ing P a p e rs were re a d and discussed: —
S e s s io n A, u n d e r th e ch airm anship of th e
P re sid e n t.
R esum ed discussion on D r. N ip p e r’s P a p e r.
“ O ven-D rying of Cores and M oulds,” by
E . G. Fiegehen.
 72

“ R ecen t D evelopm ents in B ritish S y n th e tic

M oulding S a n d s,” hv J . J . Sheehan.
“ The Use of H ig h -D u ty C ast Iro n in th e
M an u factu re of T ex tile M a ch in e ry ," by M.
R o ed er.— (F ren ch E xch an g e P a p e r.)
S e s s i o n B, u n d e r th e ch airm an sh ip of th e Senior
V ice-P resident, M r. J . E. H u rst.
“ S tu d ies on C ast R ed B rass fo r th e E sta b lish ­
m en t of a Basic Classification of N on -F erro u s
in g o t M etals for S pecification P u rp o se s,” by
C. M. S aeger.— (A m erican E xchange P a p e r.)
‘‘ S tu d ies in C ast B ro n zes,” by F . W . Rowe.
The C onference ad jo u rn ed a t 12 noon, m em bers
lu nching to g e th e r a t th e M idland H otel.
D u rin g th e aftern o o n , p a rtie s of m em bers
visited th e follow ing w o rks: —
M essrs. Tweedales & Smalley, L im ited ,
C astleton.
M essrs. C raven B ros., L im ited , R eddish.
Messrs. L eyland M otors, L im ited, L eyland.
The ladies took p a r t in a whole-day ex cursion
to S o u th p o rt.
SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
On T h u rsd ay evening, J u n e 7, a d ance w as
held a t th e G ran d H o tel, a t w hich o v er 200
m em bers and ladies w ere p resen t. A t in te rv a ls,
M r. G raham A dam s, th e M anchester e n te r ta in e r,
perform ed am using c o n ju rin g tric k s, an d gave a
w onderful m em ory exh ib itio n .
D u rin g an in te rv a l, th e P re s id e n t, M r. R oy
Stubbs, took th e o p p o rtu n ity of acknow ledging
th e services which had been ren d e re d in connec­
tio n w ith th e o rg a n isa tio n of th e C onference.
H e said th a t, in fo rm in g a C onference E x ec u tiv e
C om m ittee, i t was very im p o rta n t to h ave th e
rig h t m an as ch a irm a n , a n d th e y h a d been fo r­
tu n a te in t h a t M r. A. P h illip s h a d served in
th is cap acity . S plendid service h ad been given
by o th er m em bers of th e C om m ittee, M essrs.
W. N. Cook and R . A. M iles, an d th e y w ere
p a rtic u la rly in d eb ted to M r. J . S. G. P rim ro se ,
who had p rep ared th e ex;cellent so u v en ir booklet.
 73

Work of the Ladies* Committee

I he L adies C om m ittee had worked assidu-
ously, an d had had com plete charge of th e ladies*
program m e. F u rth e rm o re , th ey h ad m ade a
very g racefu l ge stu re in p resen tin g th e badge
fo r th e use of th e w ife of th e P resid en t. Con­
siderable assistance had been ren d ered by th e
g en eral secretary and his staff, and th e y were
also in d eb ted to M r. B en H aig h , who had de­
voted a po rtio n of his holidays to re n d erin g
se c re ta ria l assistance. H e also felt t h a t he m ust
pay tr ib u te to th e devoted w ork of his wife,
M rs. Stubbs had been an adm irable ch airm an
of th e L ad ies’ C om m ittee, and he, personally,
owed very m uch to th e encouragem ent and sup­
p o rt w hich she h ad given to him d u rin g th e
period of p re p a ra tio n of th e Conference.

Presentation to Mr. and Mrs. Cooke

F in ally , it was w ith th e g re a te st pleasure
th a t he ex ten d ed th e th a n k s of everyone presen t,
to M r. J . E . Cooke, th e C onference secretary,
M rs. Cooke an d M iss Joyce Cooke. M r. Cooke,
his w ife and d au g h te r, had carrie d o u t th e secre­
ta r ia l w ork, m uch of which was unseen. They
had done it w ith p raisew orthy devotion, and it
had been carried o u t exceedingly efficiently. No
one could express th e I n s titu te ’s indebtedness to
them fo r th e valuable p a r t th e y played in th e
o rg an isatio n of th e C onference. On behalf of
th e C onference C om m ittee, th e P re sid e n t th e n
presented a clock to M r. and M rs. Cooke as a
slig h t recognition of th e a p p reciatio n t h a t was
felt fo r th e ir services, and as a m em ento of the
C onference.
M r. J . E . C o o k e , who was received w ith loud
applause, th a n k e d M r. Stubbs for his very kind
rem arks re g a rd in g th e w ork of him self, wife
and d a u g h te r, an d th a n k e d th e Conference Com­
m ittee fo r th e very handsom e m em ento. Such
work as th ey h ad been able to do fo r th e Con­
ference had been a real pleasure, and th e Con­
ference would alw ays be a very h appy memory.
M r . R . A. M i l e s proposed a vote of th a n k s
 74

to M rs. Stubbs fo r th e w ork w hich she h a d done

as ch airm an of th e L ad ies’ C om m ittee, an d to
all connected w ith th e o rg a n isa tio n of th e Con­
ference. M rs. H ogg seconded th e vote of
th a n k s , an d re m a rk e d u pon th e in te re s t M rs.
Stubbs had alw ays shown in th e w ork of th e
L ancashire B ran ch , a n d also of th e B urnley
Section of th e B ran ch .
In respond in g to th e vote o f th a n k s, M r s .
S t u b b s paid a special tr ib u te to th e assistance
a n d co-operation t h a t she h ad received from
M rs. J . E . Cooke, se c re ta ry of th e L a d ies’ Com­
m ittee.
Whole-Day Excursion to Llangollen
F rid a y , J u n e 8, w as devoted to a whole-day
excursion. The p a rty le ft M an ch ester by m otor-
coach, an d trav elled by w ay of N o rth w ich , T ar-
porley an d W h itch u rch , to L langollen in N o rth
W ales, luncheon being served a t th e H a n d H o tel.
A fte r luncheon, th e p a rty m ade th e ir w ay to
th e bo at lan d in g s on th e can al, an d proceeded to
th e source of th e ca n a l a t B erw yn, a d istan ce
of about tw o m iles, in horse-draw n b arges. The
can al a t L langollen is c erta in ly an artific ia l
w aterw ay, b u t bears no resem blance to th e ty p e
of w aterw ay t h a t one u su ally v isualises as a
canal. I t is c u t o u t of th e hillside, is lin ed w ith
trees, an d com m ands m ost e n tra n c in g views of
th e V alley of th e Dee. A fte r leav in g th e b arges,
a short w alk b ro u g h t th e p a rty to an a rtificia l
w aterfall, know n as th e H orse Shoe F alls, w hich
is situ a te d in one of th e m ost b e a u tifu l p a rts
of th e Dee V alley. The coach jo u rn e y w as r e ­
sum ed a t th is p o in t, an d g ra d u a lly clim bed u p
th e H orse Shoe P ass, th e su m m it of w hich is
about 1,100 ft. above sea level, th e n comm enced
th e long g ra d u a l descent over th e m oors to th e
city of C hester. On a rriv a l a t C h ester, te a was
served a t B olland’s Cafe.
M r . C. E . W i l l i a m s , E x -P re s id e n t, said th a t,
as th e im m ediate P a st-P re s id e n t of th e I n s ti­
tu te , he probably bad a cle a re r recollection th a n
th e o th er P a st-P re s id e n ts of th e w ork involved
in th e p re p a ra tio n of a la rg e conference, a n d on
 75

behalf of th e v isito rs he wished to te n d e r to th e

C onference C om m ittee a n d to th e L ancashire
B ranch th e sincere th a n k s fo r all th ey had done
in o rg an isin g th e C onference, and h e a rty con­
g ra tu la tio n s upon th e success of th e ir work.
The L an cash ire B ran ch as a whole, an d th e ir
ladies, had co-operated in an ad m irab le m anner.
Bte felt, how ever, th a t special th a n k s w ere due
to th e P re sid e n t, M r. Roy Stubbs, to th e P re si­
d e n t of th e L an cash ire B ranch, M r. W . N.
Cook, to th e secreta ry of th e L ancashire B ranch,
M r. J . E . Cooke, and to his w ife a n d d au g h te r.
H e also acknow ledged th e valuable w ork which
had been done by M r. M akem son, th e G eneral
S ecretary , an d by Miss Crook and Miss W alms-
ley of th e g en eral office.
The vote of th a n k s was ca rrie d en th u siastically
w ith loud applause, and M r. W . N. Cook re­
sponded on behalf of th e L ancashire B ranch.
A fte r te a a sh o rt tim e was sp en t in explor­
ing th e a n cie n t city of C hester, and th e p a rty
th en re tu rn e d to M anchester.
 76

PA PER S PRESENTED AT THE

MANCHESTER CONFERENCE

A REPORT OF THE WORK OF THE

CAST IRON SUB-COMMITTEE OF THE
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
The C ast Iro n Sub-C om m ittee of th e T echnical
C om m ittee is th e only sub-com m ittee t h a t has
had any com parativ e predecessor in th e I n s titu te ,
for it followed th e T est-B ar C om m ittee, w hich
had so ably d raw n up th e B .S .I. Specification
321128 fo r grey-iron castin g s in v olving th e use
of ro u n d te st-b a rs, v a ry in g in d ia m e te r w ith th e
section of th e c astin g rep rese n te d , a n d h a d also
investigated an d re p o rte d upon th e F re m o n t
Test.
On th e fo rm a tio n of th e T echnical C om m ittee,
the first n a tu r a l actio n w as to ta k e up th e
question of specifications a n d te s ts. D u rin g its
first y ear of a c tiv ity th is sub-com m ittee devoted
its a tte n tio n m ainly to th e collection a n d co-rela­
tio n of ex istin g specifications. The collection of
specifications proved a difficult m a tte r, b u t from
those t h a t w ere collected i t was e v id e n t t h a t th e
adoption of th e th e n co m p arativ ely new B .S .I.
321/28 specification w as f a r fro m g en eral.
S everal specifying a u th o ritie s w ere p ersu ad ed
e ith e r to change th e ir specification to conform
w ith th e B .S .I. 321 /28 or to sa n c tio n th is as an
a lte rn a tiv e to th e ir own specification. Since
th e n th e question of specifications h as n o t
received m uch a tte n tio n from th e sub-com ­
m ittee, b u t th is su b je c t will be re v erte d to a t
th e end of th is R ep o rt.
D u rin g its early days th e sub-com m ittee drew
up a list of th e published physical p ro p e rtie s of
cast iron, in clud in g specific g ra v ity , specific h e a t,
th erm al co nductiv ity , coefficient of expan sio n and
electrical co nd u ctiv ity . In J u n e , 1932, th is
re p o rt was m ade available to m em bers.*
* Available to Members on application to the General S ecretary
 77

On com pletion of th e first y e a r's work th e

sub-com m ittee was en larged and proceeded to
ask itself in w h at directions it m ig h t prove of
most value to th e grey-iron in d u stry . I t was
decided to pursue in v estig atio n s on th e following
four su b je c ts: —
(1) To in v estig a te th e theory th a t had been
expressed in various q u a rte rs t h a t th e pro p erties
of cast iron in relatio n to stre n g th and soundness
were a t th e ir w orst when th e phosphorus con ten t
was ap p roxim ately 0.4 to 0.6 per cen t., or, in
o th e r words, a “ dangerous ran g e ” existed a t
th is com position.
T his’ subject opened up th e very g eneral one
of porosity and stre n g th of cast iron in relatio n
to its co n stitu en ts, and th is has occupied m ost
of th e a tte n tio n of th e sub-com m ittee, th u s
form ing th e m ajo r p a r t of th e rep o rt.
(2) To compile a series of photom icrographs
re p re se n ta tiv e of various grades of cast iron
w hich m ig h t be used as a reference sta n d a rd by
m e tallu rg ists th ro u g h o u t th e In d u stry .
The first p a r t of th is w ork has been completed
in collaboration w ith th e B ritish C ast Iro n
R esearch A ssociation, and th e “ Typical M icro­
s tru c tu re s of C ast Iro n , Series I , ” was issued
to m em bers of th e In s titu te in D ecember, 1933.*
P rio r to th e publicatio n of th is booklet, a g re a t
deal of discussion took place in th e Technical
C om m ittee as to th e d esirab ility , o r otherw ise,
of issuing d etails of th e analyses and physical
p ro p erties of th e specimens illu stra te d . The
com m ittee decided t h a t i t would be very mis­
leading to s ta te any p a rtic u la r com position or
s tre n g th fo r any one stru c tu re , as th e stru c tu re
is also depen d en t upon th e h isto ry of th e sample
w ith reference to o rig in al m a terials, m elting
m ethods, section of castin g , etc.
(3) To a tte m p t to evolve rules for th e con­
tra c tio n of oast iron according to composition,
section an d p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re .
I t was found t h a t th e re was g re a t difficulty in
accu rately m easurin g slig h t differences in con­
tra c tio n and, w ith th e exception of w ork on long
* Available to Members on application to the General Secretary.
 78

bars re fe rre d to in th e body of th is re p o rt, th is

su b ject could n o t be c a rrie d any f u r th e r a t
present.
(4) To exam ine e x istin g m ethods of w ear
te s tin g w ith a view to recom m ending a sta n d a rd
form of te s t.
The sub-com m ittee have given c o n sta n t
th o u g h t to th is problem , th e p rin cip a l obstacle
to its solution being th e lack of an e x a c t defini­
tio n of w ear, w hich w ord covers a m u ltitu d e of
phenom ena differin g in essen tial details.
A p relim in ary e x a m in a tio n of e x istin g m ethods
revealed t h a t so m an y fac to rs w ere involved,
an d t h a t conditions of w ear w ere so v a rie d , t h a t
a s ta n d a rd te s t was n o t d esirab le o r p ra c tic a b le
a t th e p resen t tim e. The d a ta collected fo r th is
ex a m in a tio n were published in th e fo rm of a
P a p e r .1
The sub-com m ittee feels t h a t th e difficulty of
im ita tin g p ra c tic a l con d itio n s in la b o ra to ry te sts,
and th e le n g th of tim e necessary to o b ta in
results, m ake th e problem of w ear te s tin g m ore
difficult th a n a first c o n sid eratio n w ould seem to
in d icate. I t h as been sug g ested t h a t a d e ta ile d
co n sid eratio n of th e stre ss co n d itio n s betw een
w earing faces will be necessary b efore m uch p ro ­
gress can be m ad e in e x p la in in g th e v a ry in g
resu lts w hich a re o b ta in e d , an d t h a t a tte n tio n
will h ave to be p a id to th e d efin itio n of w ear.
(5) R ecen tly a n in v e stig a tio n h as been s ta rte d
on th e su b ject of carbon pick-up in th e cupola.
T his is still in its p re lim in a ry stages, b u t su f­
ficient d a ta h a s alre ad y been p roduced to open
up a very useful lin e of w ork. D etails of th e
ex p erim en ts so f a r c a rrie d o u t are given in th is
re p o rt.
Porosity and Strength of Cast Iron—
Preliminary Work
A p relim in ary e x a m in a tio n of th e q uestion as
to th e existence of a “ d an g ero u s ra n g e ” of
phosphorus failed to reveal any published ex ­
pression of opinion on th e su b ject. The w orks
of W rist,2 M ackenzie3 a n d H a m a su m i4 all reveal
t h a t th e s tre n g th of c a st iro n is m a in ta in e d u p
 79

to 0.3 p e r cent. P , a fte r which th e re is a g ra d u al

falling-off of stre n g th . B olton,“ in his sum­
m ary of th e effect of phosphorus on cast iron,
does n o t give any in d icatio n of a dangerous
ran g e. M olineux,5 when discussing c a st iron
fo r cylinders, s ta te d t h a t he h as h ad satis­
facto ry resu lts in cylinders w ith chilled bores
w ith irons of th e following co m p o sitio n :—T .C .,
ab out 3.2; Si, 1.4 to 2.0; M n, 0.5; S, 0.1 m a x .;
and P , 0.4 to 0.5 p er cen t. In th e discussion
on th is P a p e r it was ag reed t h a t P 0.4 to 0.5
p er cent, had been successfully used, b u t th a t
th e norm al C o n tin e n ta l p ractice was to use 1.2
p e r cent. P a n d A m erican p ractice to use 0.2 per
cent. P . T his la tte r sta te m e n t is confirmed by
B olto n.5
P . J . Cook, however, asked by th e sub-com­
m itte e fo r his views, gave some exam ples of
fa u lty castings t h a t h ad been cu red by raisin g
th e phosphorus from 0.5 p er cent, u p to 0.7 or
1.0 p er c e n t., o r by red u cin g i t to 0.3 p er cent.
These troubles were p rin cip ally concerned w ith
h a ir cracks, and he was u n ab le to s ta te w hether
th e carbon had been au to m atically v aried w ith
th e phosphorus or no t. H e also sta te d th a t in
some crucible-m elted te s ts on s tra ig h t b last­
fu rn ace iron, a drop in th e p ro p erties occurred
a t 0.5 p er cent. P , q u ite o u t of line w ith th e
rest of th e series, th o u g h th is phenom enon did
not show when th e te sts were rep eated w ith a
refined pig-iron.
I t was decided t h a t e x p e rim e n ta l work should
be o arried o u t to d eterm in e th e relatio n sh ip be­
tw een com position and stre n g th and porosity.
In th is connection it m u st be sta te d t h a t th e
porosity in v estig ated w as t h a t which occurs as
irre g u la r in te rn a l voids in a castin g , of th e type
illu stra te d in F ig . 6, and m u st n o t be confused
w ith o th er phenom ena which are som etimes
loosely classified as e ith e r d raw ing o r porosity,
viz., gas holes (as illu s tra te d in F ig . 2, top
specim en), e x te rn a l sh rin k ag e or p ip in g (as illus­
tr a te d in F ig . 3), gas g e n e ra ted from e n tra in e d
slag, or general openness of g ra in due to th e
 80

presence of very coarse g ra p h ite th ro u g h o u t th e

casting.
The first necessity in c a rry in g o u t th ese te sts
was to find a sa tisfa c to ry p o rosity te s t. The
first ex p erim en t was w ith a double cylinder, c ast
solid and bored so as to leave a sta n d a rd th ic k ­
ness of m etal betw een th e bores a t a sp o t w here
porosity was m ost likely to o c c u r / as i t did.
I t w as hoped t h a t a q u a n tita tiv e m easu re of
porosity m ig h t be o b tain ed by observing th e ra te
of leakage from one bore to a n o th e r. F ro m th is
p o in t of view i t proved to be a fa ilu re , as all th e
sam ples tr ie d e ith e r gave no leak a t 500 lbs.
p e r sq. in. pressure or leaked so ra p id ly a t low
pressures t h a t it was im possible to o b ta in com­
p a ra tiv e m easurem ents.
I t was re p o rte d to th e sub-com m ittee th a t
a tte m p ts to m easure porosity by m easu rin g th e
ra te of flow of gas th ro u g h a disc of m eta l failed
in a sim ilar way, th e discs bein g com pletely gas-
tig h t if observable porosity was ab sen t, alth o u g h
w ith exceptionally th in sections leak ag e of gas
via th e g ra p h ite flakes was obtainable.* This
la tte r, however, was n o t w ith in th e scope of th e
presen t in v estig atio n . E ffo rts to explore
porosity by specific-gravity te s ts on g rey cast
iron also proved fru itless.
The fa m ilia r K test-p iec e ” was fo u n d to be
insufficient as m ost sam ples failed to show any
porosity on fra c tu re , an d an e n la rg e d form of
th is was used in th e shape of a T castin g . This
was ado p ted as th e sta n d a rd porosity te s t
th ro u g h o u t th e ex p e rim e n ts d etailed below,
tho u g h it has th e d isa d v a n tag e t h a t th e porosity
can only be m easured by co m p arativ e observa­
tio n and can n o t be q u a n tita tiv e ly d eterm in ed .
The dim ensions of th is test-p iece a re given in
F ig . 1. A fu r th e r porosity te s t was evolved by
sectioning a c tu a l castin g s of c y lin d er heads, and,
fo r cla rity of resu lts, th is m ethod has proved to
be th e m ost satisfa cto ry of all, an d , w here a v a il­
able, these are illu s tra te d in p referen ce to th e
T -tests.
The in v estig atio n s of th e sub-com m ittee have
followed two definite lines, one se t of e x p e ri­
m ents being m ade on irons w here all th e
 ¿1

elem ents w ere fixed, w ith th e exception of th e

one u n d e r in v estig atio n , w h ilst o th er series were
in v estig ated in w hich th e to ta l carbon was in ­
creased as th e phosphorus was decreased, which
is th e norm al effect when m ixing h e m a tite irons
an d phosphoric irons in d ifferen t proportions.
The conclusions to be draw n from th e form er
m ethod a re n a tu ra lly m ore easy to follow.
A tte n tio n was draw n to th e risk of conflict­
ing results »eing ob tain ed on account of v ary in g
castin g te m p e ra tu re s an d m ould conditions.
T h ro u g h o u t th e ex perim en ts these were k e p t as

PLAN VIEW AS U OULDED

-X- T
vz

i
F ig . 1.— T est fo r P o r o s it y

c o n stan t as possible in any one series, th e c ast­

in g te m p e ra tu re s in S eries I to V II being con­
trolled a t a c o n sta n t figure by an optical pyro­
m eter read by th e sam e o p e ra to r th ro u g h o u t.
To a sc ertain th e seriousness of th e risk of
th e ex p erim en ts being v itia te d by v ary in g c ast­
ing te m p e ra tu re , a set of fo u r cylinder heads
were c ast from th e sam e ladle of m etal a t
decreasing te m p e ra tu re . These are shown sec­
tioned in F ig . 2. The specim en cast a t th e
low est te m p e ra tu re (so low t h a t th e castin g
would h ard ly ru n ) shows a bubble of e n tra in e d
 62

gas, b u t otherw ise th e difference betw een th e

observable porosity is insufficient to u p se t th e
d a ta o btained from th is te s t.
T ests m ade on th e usu al cone test-piece showed
t h a t th e p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re affected th e ex ­
te rn a l sin k in g of th e m etal, b u t n o t th e in te rn a l

Fig. 2.—I n f l u e n c e o f P o o l in g T e m p e r a t u r e o n t h e
P o r o s it y of Cy l in d e r H e a d s . T.C. 3 .2 ; Si 2 .0 ;
Mn 0.46 ; S 0.08 and P 0.40 per cent. T h e tem pera­
tures given were read on an optical pyrometer and
no correction factor has been applied.

porosity, an d T -tests confirm ed th is. These

results a re shown in F igs. 3 an d 4. The cones,
when sectioned, showed no signs of in te rn a l
porosity. In c id e n ta lly , th is se t of ex p erim e n ts
shows t h a t th e cone te s t is u n sa tisfa c to ry for
ro u tin e fo u n d ry control, as th e volum e of sin k
varies m ore w ith th e p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re (which
 83

F i g . 3 .— E f f e c t o f P o u r i n g T e m p e r a t u r e on S h r in k ­
age. The samples have been cast at decreasing
temperatures and (above) is a sectional casting of No. 4.
 84

is so difficult to co ntrol exactly) th a n w ith th e

changes in com position of th e m etal.
A close e x am in a tio n of H a ils to n e ’s work" on
th e influence of p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re revealed
t h a t th e re was little evidence of low p o u rin g
te m p e ra tu re s g iving increased porosity as i t is
defined in th is R e p o rt, b u t t h a t th e incidence of
gas-holes becam e very pronounced. All porosity
tests, w hether T -bars o r cy linder-head castin g s,
in these series of ex p erim en ts were m ade w ith o u t
feeder heads so t h a t no com plication occurs in
th a t respect.
Experimental Work
A t th e in itia tio n of these in v e stig atio n s th e
sub-com m ittee found t h a t one of its m em bers was
engaged on a research in to th e effect of phos­
phorus in c a st iron, now com pleted an d p u b ­
lished.7 The sub-com rpittee w ere in touch w ith
the progress of th is research an d p a rtic u la r
a tte n tio n was paid to such p a rts of i t as m ig h t
throw lig h t on th e problem in h a n d . P a r ts of
th is research a re re fe rre d to in th is re p o r t as : -—
Series I, th e g en eral com position of w hich was
T.C. 3.3, Si 2.1, C r 0.3 a n d phosphorus v a ry in g
from 0.07 to 1.1 p er cent.
On com pletion of th is w ork th e sam'e m em ber
u ndertook th e p re p a ra tio n an d e x a m in a tio n of
a fu r th e r six series (th is tim e w ith o u t th e p re ­
sence of chrom ium ) as follow s: —
Series I I . —T.C. 3.6, Si 2.0, phosphorus v a ry in g
from 0.25 to 1.0 p e r cent.
Series I I I . —T.C. 2.6, S i 1.9, phosphorus v a ry ­
ing from 0.18 to 0.75 p e r cent.
Series I V .—T.C. 2.6, P 0.8, silicon v ary in g
from 2.0 to 3.2 p er cent.
Series V .— T.C. 2.6, P 0.06, silicon v ary in g
from 2.0 to 3.2 p er cen t.
Series V I .—Si 1.9, P 0.86, to ta l carbon v a ry ­
ing from 2.8 to 4.0 p e r cen t.
Series V I I .— Si 1.9, P 0.16, to ta l carb o n v a ry ­
ing from 2.8 to 4.0 p er cen t.
On each of these series porosity te s ts in th e
form of cylinder heads an d T -bars w ere ta k e n ,
 85

TEST' WS?

WOT A i CO O L i i
P O SSIBL E PO SSIBLE

SHRINKAGE OF CONE TESTS

WITH VARYING CASTING TEMPERATURES
F i g . 4 .— E ffec t o f P o u r in g T e m p e r a ­
ture or S h r in k a g e . Graphs of
S h r in k a g e o f C o r e T e s t s w it h
F o u r d if f e r e n t T y p e s o f I r o n .
 86

also tra n sv e rse a n d ten sile te s ts on “ S ,” “ M ”

and “ L ” bars. The m etals fo r Series I, I I
and I I I w ere cupola-m elted in a sm all e x p e ri­
m en tal cupola, ferro-phosphorus being ad d ed to
a su itab le base iro n . Series IV , V, V I an d V II
were crucible-m elted, IV a n d V by th e a d d itio n
of ferro-silicon to a su itab le base iro n , V I and
V II by m ix tu re of a low- an d a h igh-carbon
h em atite, th e same q u a lity low -carbon h e m a tite
being used th ro u g h o u t. The an aly sis of each
c a st was ta k e n and cam e very closely w ith in th e
common sta n d a rd , and need n o t be given in
extenso.
Some of th e resu lts on S eries I I a n d I I I w ere
given in a P a p e r 10 to th e F ren c h F o u n d ry Con­
ference in N ovem ber, 1933, b u t th e re su lts on
th e o th er series h av e n o t h ith e rto been published.
A t th e sam e tim e, a n o th e r m em ber w as c a rry ­
ing o u t a research in to “ T he Influ en ce of P h o s­
phorus on th e P ro p e rtie s of H a rd e n e d a n d Tem ­
pered C ast I r o n .” T his w ork has also been
com pleted an d p u b lish ed .11 A g ain th e sub-com ­
m ittee w ere in to u ch w ith th e a u th o r d u rin g th e
progress of his ex p erim en ts, a n d such of th e d a ta
o b tain ed t h a t is included in th is re p o rt is classed
as
Series V I I I , h av in g Si 2.4, Cr 0.6, w ith phos­
phorus in creasin g from 0.04 to 1.6 a n d to ta l
carbon decreasing from 3.8 to 3.4 p e r c en t.
O ther m em bers of th e Sub-com m ittee m ade
fu rth e r series as follow s: —
Series I X . — T.C. 3.0, Si 1.2, N i 2.0, phosphorus
v ary in g from 0.17 to 1.0 p e r cen t.
Series X .— Si 2.35, to ta l carb o n d ecreasin g
from 3.7 to 3.2 p er c e n t., w hile phosphorus in ­
creased from 0.06 to 1.13 p er c en t. All th ese
series w ere crucible-m elted, Series V I I I bein g
m ade by th e m eltin g of h e m a tite an d phosphoric
irons in se p a ra te crucibles an d m ix in g th e
m etal in v ary in g p ro p o rtio n s. S eries I X was
m ade by th e a d d itio n of ferro -p h o sp h o ru s to
a su itab le base iro n , a n d S eries X by m e ltin g
to g e th e r su itab le am o u n ts of h e m a tite and
phosphoric iro n s of know n com position, each
set of te s ts being p oured from a se p a ra te po t.
F i g . 5 .— S e r i e s , I . T - T e s t s S h o w in g t h e I nfluence
o f P ho sph o ru s on F r a c tu r e.
 88

Porosity Tests
The resu lts of p o rosity te s ts on th e above
series w ere as fo llo w : —
Series I .— These te s ts showed soundness up to
0.3 p er cent. P an d a g ra d u a l increase in
porosity beyond (F ig . 5).
Series I I . — The T -tests showed soundness up to
0.3 p e r cent. P an d a g ra d u a l increase of
p orosity beyond.
The sectioned cy lin d er heads all showed slig h t
porosity, increasin g w ith rise in phosphorus,
th o u g h th e re seem ed to be a d efinite step in th e
increase as th e phosphorus was increased from
0.42 to 0.52 p er cen t. (F ig . 6).
Series I I I . — The T -tests showed soundness up
to 0.73 p er cent. P . S lig h t p o rosity ap p eared
a fte r th is, increasin g w ith phosphorus.
T he sectioned cylinder heads w ere all sound
(F ig . 7).
Series I V .—The T -tests showed slig h t
porosity w ith 2.40 per cen t. Si an d above, w hilst
th e cylinder-heads h ad very slig h t p o rosity w ith
2.4, 2.62, an d 2.88 p e r cen t. Si, w hilst th e o th ers
w ere all sound (F ig . 8).
Series V .—B oth th e T -tests an d th e cy lin d er
heads w ere all sound (F ig . 9).
Series V I .—The T -tests showed in cre a sin g
porosity, w hich w as v ery slig h t w ith 2.8 and
3.08 p er cent. T,.C., w hilst th e cy lin d er heads
w ith 2.8 per cent. T .C. showed slig h t p o ro sity ;
t h a t w ith 3.08 p er cent. T.C. was sound, b u t
th e re was increasin g p o rosity th e r e a fte r
(F ig. 10).
Series V I I .—The T -tests showed in creasin g
porosity. The cylin d er heads w ith 2.81 p e r cen t.
T.C. w ere sound, b u t th e re w as in creasin g
porosity th e re a fte r, b u t m uch less th a n w as ex ­
h ib ited by Series V I (F ig . 11).
Series V I I I .—No porosity te s ts ta k e n on th is
series.
 89

Fig. 6.—S e r i e s II. S e c t io n e d C y l in d e r H e a d s .

T.C. 3 .6 ; Si 2 .0 ; Mn 1.9 and S 0.045 with increasing
Phosphorus.

Series I X .—In th e T -tests no porosity was

ex h ib ited by any of th e samples.
Series X .—In th e T -tests porosity was p resent
in sam ples 3, 4 and 5, b u t absent in sam ples 1,
2 and 6 (F ig . 12).
 90

Conclusions from Porosity Tests

The evidence of all these te s ts is t h a t to ta l
carbon and phosphorus a re v ery im p o rta n t
fa cto rs in contro llin g porosity, a n d a re in te r-

III. S e c t i o n e d C y l i n d e r H e a d s
F i g . 7 .— S e r i e s
T.C. 2 .6 ; Si 1.9 ■ Mn 0 .9 ; S 0.04 with increasing
Phosphorus.

re la te d . I f a perfectly sound c a stin g be th e

only consideration , i t is a p p a re n t t h a t th e b est
way is to em plo; low to ta l carbon (ab o u t 2.6
p e r c e n t.), in which case th e phosphorus and
silicon m ay v ary w ith in fa irly wide ran g es w ith ­
o u t in c u rrin g porosity. Low to ta l carbon irons
 91

are, how ever, notoriously difficult to handle in

th e fou n d ry , th e ir high freezin g p o in ts an d g re a t
liquid sh rinkage g iving difficulty in o b tain in g
castin g s t h a t are sound in o th e r resp ects.13 The
high sh rin k ag e of th e irons employed in Series I I
as a g a in st Series I I I is illu s tra te d in F ig . 13.
The evidence of all th e te sts shows t h a t sound­
ness can be m ain ta in e d if to ta l carbon be in ­
creased up to ab o u t 3.3 p er cen t., p roviding th a t
th e phosphorus be k e p t below 0.3 per cent.
Iro n s of th is ty p e a re much m ore easy to handle
in th e fou n d ry , an d th u s provide a m uch more
sa tisfacto ry way of overcom ing porosity. Only
slig h t porosity is in c u rred if carbon is increased
up to 4 p er cent, w ith phosphorus below 0.2
p e r cent. The effect of silicon from 2.0 to 3.2
p e r cent, on low carbon irons has been demon­
s tra te d to have little effect on porosity, p a rtic u ­
larly in com bination w ith low phosphorus.
The sub-com m ittee does n o t wish these s ta te ­
m ents to be ta k e n as m eaning t h a t th e only way
to e lim in ate porosity is to use m aterials of th e
com positions given, for i t is well aw are of th e
fa c t t h a t castings free from porosity are pro­
duced daily in o th e r com positions. The sub­
com m ittee is, however, unable to resist th e
conclusion from th is an d o th er experim ental
w ork, t h a t th e com position, in so f a r as to ta l
carbon an d phosphorus are concerned, is of th e
u tm o st im portance in controlling porosity, and
th a t a g re a te r ra n g e of silicon and carbon
v a ria tio n is perm issible when using low phos­
phorus irons th a n when using h ig h phosphorus
iro n s.'
I t is pointed o u t t h a t in th e above conclusions
porosity has been th e sole consideration, and
such facto rs as hardness, etc., m ay sometimes
ru le o u t th e em ploym ent of irons of th e type
suggested.
W ith re g a rd to th e “ dangerous ra n g e ,” so
f a r as porosity is concerned, th e ad v an ta g es of
phosphorus being below 0.4 p er cent, are ab u n ­
d a n tly illu stra te d , b u t th e only evidence of an
im provem ent w ith phosphorus risin g above 0.6
p er cent, is in Series X , in which th e re is a
F ig . 8.— S e r i e s IV. S e c t i o n e d C y l i n d e r H eads .
T.C. 2 .6 ; M n 0 .9 ; S 0.025 and P 0 .8 with increasing
silicon.
 93

Si

3-20

V •
2-60

2-50

n m

2-30

W n M

* •
210

1 -9G

l i e . 9.—S e b t e s V. S e c t io n e d C t u c s d e b . H e a d s T.C
2.6 ; Ain 0.90 ; S 0.025 and P 0.06 with increasing
silicon.
 94

re d u ctio n in to ta l carbon w ith th e increase of

phosphorus, an d i t is alm ost c e rta in t h a t th e
im provem ent is due to th e fall in carbon m ore
th a n co u n te ra c tin g th e rise of phosphorus.

F i g . 1 0 .— S e r i e s V I . S e c t io n e d Cy l in d e r H e a d s .
S i 1 . 9 ; M n 1 . 0 ; S 0 . 0 2 a n d P 0 . 8 6 w it h in c r e a s in g
T o ta l C arbon.

Physical Tests
The physical te s ts w ere c a rrie d o u t as a sub­
sid iary p a r t of th e porosity in v estig atio n s, so
th a t th e ex p erim en ts w ere n o t necessarily con­
ducted on lines b e st c alc u lated to produce th e
m ost in fo rm ativ e resu lts.
 95

The resu lts of th e physical tests on all these

series are shown g rap h ically in P igs. 14 to 23.
The tra n sv e rse te s ts a re expressed as tran sv erse
ru p tu re stress th ro u g h o u t, an d have in all cases
T.C.

4-00

3-76

3-55

314

2-81

P ig .11.— S e r i e s VII. S e c t i o n a l C y l i n d e r H e a d s .
Si 1 .9 ; Mn 1 .0 ; S 0.022; P 0.16 with increasing
Total Carbon.

been corrected for b a r size. N early all th e

resu lts p lo tted a re th e average of duplicate
tests, an d th e points in th e g rap h s are linked
fo r th e sake of identificatio n . The sam e n o ta­
tio n is used th ro u g h o u t, and all g rap h s a re
96

Of
H
tío
rO

^ ci
.O
o n.

"O
tí
cá
cc O
Ö^
H

H
Ei
Eh

«-
M

H
 97

plo tted to th e sam e scale so t h a t one set of

resu lts can be read ily com pared w ith another.
I n Series V I I I , th e ten sile stre n g th was calcu­
lated from rin g te sts, and th e B rinell hardness
was ta k e n w ith a F ir th h a rd o m e ter 2 mm. ball
30 kg. load, all o th e r B rin ell te s ts being ta k e n
on th e cen tre of th e broken te s t-b a r using a
10 mm. ball w ith 3,000 kg. load.
The sub-com m ittee c a n n o t ex p lain th e high
values obtain ed in th e tra n sv e rse te s ts of
Series I fo r th e “ M ” b ars w ith phosphorus
P 0-27 PO-93

P 0-25 PO-98
13.— B l o c k s s h o w i n g L i q u i d S h r i n k a g e . Top.—
F ig .
T.C. 2 .6 ; Si 1 .9 ; Mn 0.9 and S 0.045 per cent.
Bottom.—T.C. 3 .6 ; Si 2 .0 ; Mn 1.9 and S 0.04 per cent

above 1 p e r cent. These p a rtic u la r resu lts were

confirm ed by re p e titio n , b u t no corresponding
increase is observed in th e S. & L. tran sv erse
bars o r in an y of th e ten sile bars.

Conclusions from Physical Tests

Tensile S tr e n g th .—T o tal carbon is th e most
im p o rta n t fac to r in co n trolling ten sile stre n g th ,
an d figures ta k e n from th e g rap h s a t a co n sta n t
phosphorus show appreciable red u ctio n s in
s tre n g th as th e carbon increases from 2.6 to 3.6
p e r c e n t., th o u g h th e re d u ctio n is n o t so m arked
E
in th e h ig h er phosphorus irons as i t is in th e
low phosphorus irons. S im ilarly th e effect of
increasing phosphorus is to decrease th e s tre n g th
of th e iron, th is effect becom ing less w ith in ­
creased carb o n u n til, w ith carbon ab o u t 3.6 per
cen t., phosphorus has little effect on th e
s tre n g th . T hus iro n s h a v in g th e g re a te s t ten sile
stre n g th a re those h a v in g low carb o n a n d phos­
phorus, carbon bein g th e m ore im p o rta n t.
Transverse S tr e n g th .— In th e tra n sv e rse te s ts
a very sim ilar effect is n o ted w ith in creasin g
to ta l carb o n a n d sim ila r red u ctio n s occur. I n
these te s ts th e effect of phosphorus is, how ever,
m ore m ark ed . T a k in g a b ro ad view of th e
resu lts, low phosphorus irons h av e a h ig h er
tra n sv e rse ru p tu re stre n g th th a n th e h ig h er
phosphorus iron s irresp ectiv e of th e carb o n ,
th o u g h th e low er th e carbon th e g re a te r th e
difference. T hus a g ain , low carbon, low phos­
phorus irons h av e th e g re a te s t tra n sv e rse
s tre n g th , b u t in th is case phosphorus is a ra th e r
m ore im p o rta n t fa c to r th a n carbon.
D eflection in T ra n sverse.— P h o sp h o ru s ap p e a rs
to be th e deciding fa c to r in th is connection,
deflection decreasing w ith in creasin g phosphorus
in all cases. T o tal carbon a p p e a rs to h av e little
effect.
BrineU H a rd n e ss.— B rin ell h ard n e ss rises w ith
decreasing to ta l carb o n , an d also, th o u g h to a
lesser e x te n t, w ith in cre asin g p h o sp h o ru s.13
I t is obvious t h a t th e g ra p h itis a tio n of th e
iron plays an im p o rta n t p a r t in th e stre n g th ,
etc ., of irons, an d th is is influenced to some
e x te n t by fa c to rs o th e r th a n those disclosed by
analysis, differin g re su lts b ein g o b tain ed w ith
irons of th e same analysis. T he sub-com m ittee
has had evidence in th e se te s ts t h a t w here a
d ifferen t b ran d of p ig -iro n was accid en tally
in tro d u ced , re su lts w ere o b ta in e d q u ite o u t of
step w ith th e re m a in d e r of th e series, alth o u g h
analysis disclosed no difference. T hus in ex ­
p erim en ts involving th e m ix tu re of tw o d iffe re n t
ty p es of pig-irons, th e effect of th e in tro d u c tio n
of a second pig w ith d ifferen t g ra p h itisa tio n
 FIC . 15 FIC . 16. FIC. 17. FIC . IS F IC . 19 FIC. 20.

% PH O S PH O R U S. % PHOSPHORUS % PHOSPHORUS % SILICO N % SILIC O N . % TOTAL CARBON . X TOTAL CARBON .

SERIES I SERIES u SERIES 1 SERIES I SERIES Ï SERIES 0 SERIES ffl
T.C. 3 .3 ; Si 2 .1 ; M n 0 .8 7 ; T.C. 3 .6 ; Si 2 .0 ; T.C. 2 .6 ; Si 1 .9 ; T .C .2.6; M n 0 .9 ; S 0.025; T.C. 2 .6 ; Mn 0 .9 ; S 0 .0 2 5 ; Si 1 .1 .9 ; M n l .0 ; SO .022; Si 1 .9 ; Mn 1.0; S 0.022;
S 0.046 ; Cr 0 .3 with increas­ Mn 1 .9 ; S 0.045 Mn 0 .9 ; S 0.066 P 0.8 with increasing Silicon, P 0.06 with increasing Silicon. P 0 .9 .8 6 with increasing Total P 0.16 with increasing Total
ing Phosphorus. with increasing PhoB- with increasing Carbon. Carbon.
phorus. Phosphorus.
F i g s . 14 t o 20.— I n f l u e n c e o f I n c r e a s i n g P e r c e n t a g e s o f C o n s t i t u e n t s o n t h e M e c h a n i c a l P roperties e s o f C a s t I r o n .
T o fa c e p a g e 98.
 99

p ro p ertie s m ay e n tire ly offset an y resu lts

a n tic ip a te d from th e change of analysis. (See
Series X .)
In th e above conclusions it m u st be borne in
m ind th a t , on th e whole, irons w ith silicon
ab o u t 2 p e r cent, have been u n d e r ex am in atio n ,

% PHOSPHORUS . cam on

S E R I E S 2m ASSTAIED
Si 2 .4 ; Mn 1 .0 ; Cr 0.6 with increasing Phosphorus.
F i g . 2 1 .— I n f l u e n c e o f P h o s p h o r u s o n t h e T e n s i l e
S t r e n g t h a n d B r in e l l H a r d n e s s o f C h r o m e Ca st
I r o n (C e n t r i f u g a l l y o a s t ).

an d so these conclusions do n o t necessarily apply

to irons of differen t silicon c o n ten t, e tc ., except
th a t i t has been d em o n strated th a t silicon from
2.0 to 3.2 p er cent, h as little effect on low
carbon irons.. (Series IV and V .)
W ith re g a rd to th e “ dan g ero u s ran g e ” an d
physical p ro p ertie s, it is agreed t h a t w ith c e rta in
e2
 100

carbon contents th e stre n g th of c a st iro n is

m ain ta in e d ,up to 0.3 p er cen t. P w ith a fallin g
off th e re a fte r. There is some slig h t evidence of
a slig h t increase of s tre n g th w ith p hosphorus
above ab o u t 0.8 per cent.

\S)
KTi AO
a
>—
•-
35
b. _ s'BARS
as?
\ >

z
<1

O
h-
U

% PHOSPHORUS

SERIES jX
T.C. 3 .0 ; Si 1 .2 0 ; Mn 1 .1 ; Ni 2 .0
with increasing Phosphorus.
F ig. 2 2 .— I n f l u e n c e of P h o sph o ru s
on the T ra n sv erse Stren g th of
N ic k e l Ca s t I r o n .

I t is obvious t h a t in any discussion as to th e

existen ce of a d an g ero u s ra n g e , to ta l carbon
m u st be borne in m ind, an d th e sub-com m ittee is
of th e opinion t h a t any ex p erien ces of bad
resu lts h av in g been ob tain ed by red u cin g
phosphorus from 0,7 to 0.5 p e r c en t, a re due
 101

to th e in c id e n ta l increase of carbon induced

by th e em ploym ent of low phosphorus irons,
an d w here these tro u b les have been obviated by
still f u r th e r red u cin g th e phosphorus to 0.3 p er
c e n t., th e im provem ent is due to th e phosphorus
p e r se.
T he com m ittee have n o t in v estig ated th e h a ir
crack tro u b les re fe rre d to by Cook, b u t no diffi­
culty w ith th is was experienced in an y of th e ir
ex p erim en ts. The experience of mem bers of
the sub-com m ittee has been t h a t these troubles
a re m ore re la te d to castin g stra in s, p a rtic u la rly
those produced by th in flashes, and a re no t
m a terially affected by th e com position of th e
m etal except to th e e x te n t t h a t if th e composi­
tio n is such t h a t th e iron will_ chill w hite in th e
th in section of th e flash, th is tro u b le is g reatly
increased. The evidence w ith re g a rd to th e
effect of phosphorus on chill is ra th e r conflict­
in g .7- 15. H ow ever, in view of th e fa c t th a t
n e ith e r h ig h carbon h em a tite s n o r th in flashes
w ere concerned in th e instan ces given by Cook,
it is difficult to give any ex p lan atio n of th is
evidence of a “ d angerous ra n g e .”

Contraction
The sub-com m ittee came to th e conclusion th a t
it was im practicab le to stu d y ,tke influence of
analysis, section and p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s on
th e lin e a r co n tra c tio n of c ast iro n for th e follow­
ing re a s o n s :— (1) V a ria tio n s of c o n tractio n are
so slig h t t h a t i t is impossible a ccu rately to
m easure differences in b ars of ab o u t 12 in.
len g th , and longer b a rs are difficult to m ake as
ro u tin e.
(2) U nless te s ts m ade in differen t foundries
a re m ade u n d e r ex actly sim ilar conditions of
m oulding, such as sand m oisture, ram m ing
density, section of chill yoke used, e tc ., th e
resu lts will v ary .
(3) The p rin cip a l elem en t in co n trolling con­
tra c tio n is th e g ra p h ite , an d it is well known
t h a t sim ilar analyses an d m oulding conditions
do n o t produce th e sam e g ra p h itisa tio n of raw
m a terials of d ifferen t histo ry .
 102

A m em ber u nderto o k to in v e s tig a te th e con­

tra c tio n of b a rs 4 ft. and 12 ft. long a t differ-
img p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s an d w ith d ifferen t
com positions. T his was done by ra m m in g up
p a tte rn s of 1 in. sq. steel b a r betw een m ach in ed

20
*

16

T.C.
14. 3 37 ,
/
S^BARS
/
12 i c '* '
340
-
X .c .
3M
10 • -----
_ T.C, T.C.3 21
T.C. i-jd
361

150

•2 -4 -6 -a 10

% PHOSPHORUS. JO™,
SERIES X 4SSTATED
Si 2 .3 5 ; M n 0 .7 ; S 0.05 with increasing
Phosphorus.
F i g . 23.— I n f l u e n c e of P ho sph orus
and Ca r b o n o n the T e n s il e S t r e n g t h
of Cast I r o n .

chills 12 in . X 4 in. X 2 in .. tw o p a tte rn s in a

box. The b a rs w ere ru n d ire c t in th e c e n tre
w ith relief risers n e a r each end. T he c o n tra c ­
tio n w as m easured b o th by wedge before w ith ­
draw in g from th e m ould, a n d by co m p arin g w ith
th e len g th of th e o rig in a l p a tte rn , only a slig h t
 108

difference bein g n o ted betw een tb e readings

obtain ed by b o th m ethods.
The re su lts a re set o u t in Table I.
I t w ould appeair t h a t te m p e ra tu re influences
are n o t too m ark ed u n til a very low p o in t is
reached. W hen m etal was po u red a t a te m p e ra ­
tu r e b o rd erin g on freezin g , a badly d isto rted
castin g resu lted .
F ro m th e v a ria tio n s in th e figures, th e sub­
co m m ittee’s difficulties in o b ta in in g a ccu rate
m easurem ents on sh o rte r b a rs w ill be
ap p reciated .
Carbon Pick-Up
To explore th e effect of d ifferen t q u alities of
coke on carbon pick-up, c e rta in exp erim ents
have been m ade. T hree differen t grades of iron
were m elted in a sm all ex p e rim e n ta l cupola w ith
th re e d ifferen t g rad es of coke. C upola condi­
tio n s w ere k e p t c o n sta n t in each m elt, a co n stan t
w eight of coke being used an d th e re tu r n coke
deducted to a rriv e a t th e consum ption. F ive
cwts. of pig-iro n w ere m elted in each te s t, th e
m etal being ta p p e d in th re e ta p s and each ta p
analysed. T here was little v a ria tio n betw een
th e analyses of th e ta p s , and th e average gains
and losses are given.
The resu lts of these ex p erim en ts are set out
in Table I I . The sub-com m ittee does n o t wish
to com m ent on th em a t p resen t, as th ey feel
t h a t f u r th e r confirm atory w ork is req u ired w ith
o th e r types of cupolas before definite conclusions
can be draw n, b u t th ey publish th em to show
t h a t a very useful lin e of in v estig atio n is being
pursu ed an d t h a t th e re a re possibilities of d e te r­
m in in g th e re la tio n of carb o n pick-up to th e
s h a tte r value an d re a c tiv ity of coke.

B.S.I. Specification 321/28

This specification h av in g been in force more
th a n five years, th e sub-com m ittee feels t h a t th e
tim e is now rip e fo r review ing its position. The
sub-com m ittee has done no work in connection
w ith th is, b u t i t is suggested t h a t th is is th e
n ex t problem th a t should be u n d e rta k e n , and
 104

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a <
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CÖ O O C O O O O t- O O iN

&§
O O O O O O O O
I .— Contraction related to Composition and Casting Temperature.

S .s o o » o ooo oo
Ł 3 I ti) O IO (N'lO >0 io ic O
Tt^COCOCOCOCOfOfO 2
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oo
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PH. r"! ®^ ~ ° °
oooooooo o
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o
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o
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C Î
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 105

c e rta in points are included in th is re p o rt in th e

hope t h a t th e discussion will express th e feeling
of foundrym en in g eneral, an d give th e sub­
com m ittee a lead as to th e prosecution of its
fu tu re w ork.
T able I I .— Analysis Variation with Different Cokes.
Gains or losses with coke.
Original pig-iron.
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.
T.C. 2.50 .. + 0.417 + 0.320 + 0.183
Si 2.54 - 0.107 - 0.114 - 0.187
M n0.94 .. - 0.170 - 0.147 — 0.214
S 0.05 4 - 0 .0 2 1 + 0.017 + 0 .0 1 0
Coke consumption,
lbs. 158 156 138
Time of blow, mins. 36 30 25
T.C. 3.00 .. + 0.080 + 0.103 + 0.050
Si 2.35 - 0.284 - 0.124 - 0.264
Mn 1.00 - 0.214 - 0 .2 1 0 - 0.27
S 0.054 + 0.017 + 0.019 + 0.013
Coke Consumption
lbs. 166 158 136
Time of blow, mins. 30 27 30
T.C. 3.21 .. + 0 .1 1 0 + 0.040 + 0.016
Si 2.47 - 0.130 - 0.184 - 0 .2 1
Mn 1 .20 .. - 0.183 - 0.174 - 0.23
S 0.048 + 0.006 + 0.006 + 0.004
Coke consumption
lbs. 164 166 136
Time of blow, mins. 32 30 30

The p rin cip al com m ents t h a t th e sub-com-

m ittee wishes to m ake, and upon which i t desires
discussion, a r e : —
(1) The sub-com m ittee w holeheartedly approves
of th e princip le of varying-size te st-b ars to
rep resen t v ary in g sections of castin g s, an d notes
w ith g ratificatio n t h a t th e new A m erican specifi­
cation has adop ted th is prin cip le.
(2) C ertain p ra c tic al difficulties have arisen in
b reak in g th e b ars. I n th e tran sv erse te s t,
tro u b le is experienced th ro u g h th e ro u n d bars
rolling if n o t perfectly s tra ig h t o r ro u n d , and
 106

fa u lty deflection read in g s a re o b tain ed by th e

high loads necessary lo r th e larg e b ars, cau sin g
th e k n ife edges to dig in to th e b ar. D ifficulties
a re enco u n tered in b rea k in g th e “ L ” ten sile
b ars, as n o t m any m achines a re equip p ed w ith
su itab le g rip s fo r holding la rg e b ars, an d w ith
th e a d v e n t of h ig h -stre n g th irons m an y m achines
are incapable of ap p ly in g th e necessary stress.
(3) The sub-com m ittee feel t h a t th e tim e has
now come fo r a f u r th e r g rad e of h ig h e r stre n g th
to be included.
I t is u n fo rtu n a te t h a t th e g rad es have
been labelled “ A ” a n d “ C ,” fo r i t is difficult
to see how a su itab le d esig n atio n fo r a n im ­
proved g rad e can be in tro d u ced in to th e p re se n t
specification. The A m erican an d G erm an speci­
fications provide fo r irons of m uch h ig h er
s tre n g th , an d th e d esig n atio n of th e v ario u s
grades p e rm it of f u r th e r a d d itio n s as and w hen
necessary.
(4) The e x te n t to w hich th e specification has
been adopted is d isa p p o in tin g , an d p ro p ag an d a
m u st be developed to en co u rag e its use.
(5) The sub-com m ittee have definitely adopted
th e m ethod of ex p ressin g tra n sv e rse stre n g th as
tra n sv erse r u p tu re stress (m odulus of r u p tu r e ) , 1 4
an d hopes t h a t th is w ill u ltim a te ly become
common am ongst specifying a u th o ritie s. In
o rd e r to fa c ilita te th e conversion of tra n sv e rse
te s t re su lts in to tra n sv e rse r u p tu r e stress,
facto rs have been calc u lated to give th e co rrect
figure fo r b a rs w hich v a ry w ith in + 0 . 1 in . of
th e correct size, and a re se t o u t in A p pendix I.
T his A ppendix also gives th e fa c to rs fo r calcu­
la tin g th e ru p tu re stress of re c ta n g u la r b ars.
(6 ) The physical te s ts given e a rlie r in th is
re p o rt a re in te re s tin g in t h a t th e y g ive ten sile
and tra n sv e rse re su lts fo r all sizes of b a r on a
wide ra n g e of irons. The low v alu e fo r th e
tra n sv e rse r u p tu r e stress of “ S ” b a rs as com­
p ared w ith th e “ M ” a n d “ L ” b a rs w hich is
b ro u g h t o u t in th ese g rap h s w ill h ave to be
in v estig ated .
 107

In conclusion, th e com m ittee wish to th a n k th e

following film s fo r g iv in g facilities fo r c arry in g
o u t th e ex p erim en ts, e tc ., d etailed in th is
re p o rt : —
B radley & F o ste r, L im ited.
C raven B ros., L im ited .
K eighley L ab o rato ries, L im ited.
L eyland M otors, L im ited .
M ond N ickel Com pany, L im ited.
S. R ussell & Sons, L im ited.
S heepbridge Stokes C e n trifu g a l C astings Com­
pany, L im ited .
T hey are also in d eb ted to th e R ngby College
of Technology fo r c a rry in g o u t some of th e
ten sile te s ts on th e “ L ” bars, and to th e
B ritish C ast Iro n R esearch A ssociation for access
to th e ir L ib ra ry fo r c e rta in published d ata .

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 N e a th , I .B .P . " P r o c e e d in g s ,” v o l. x x v i , p . 526.
2 W iis t a n d S to tz , “ F e r iu m ,” v o l. 12, 1 9 1 4 -1 5 , p. 89.
3 M ack en zie, “ T r a n sa c tio n s A .F .A .,” v o l. 3 4 , 1926, p. 986.
4 H a m a s u m i, “ T o k io U n iv e r s ity S cien tific E e p o r t ,” v o l .x i i i ,
1924.
5 B o lto n , “ T h e F o u n d r y ,” A u g u st and Septem ber, 1933.
6 M o lin e u x , I .B .F . “ P r o c e e d in g s ,” v o l. x x , p. 427.
7 West, I.B .F . “ Proceedings,” vol. xxvi, p. 392.
8 P iw o w a r sk y a n d E sser, “ D ie G ie sser e i,” 1929, 16, 838.
9 H a ilsto n e , “ I .S .I . C arnegie S ch o la rsh ip M em o irs,” P a r t 1,
1913, v , 51 ; P a r t 2, 1916, v ii, 55.
10 W e s t, “ B u lle tin de l ’A s s o c ia tio n T ech n iq u e d e F o n d er ie ,”
D e c e m b e r, 1933, p. 514.
11 H u r st, J .I .S .I ., N o . 1, 1933.
12 W e s t, I .B .F . “ P r o c e e d in g s ,” v o l. x x v , p . 409.
13 E v e r e s t a n d H a n so n , J .I .S .I ., v o l. c x v ii, N o . 1, 1929.
14 P e a r c e, J . I . S .I . , N o . 2, 1 9 2 8 .

APPENDIX

Factors for determining Transverse Rupture Stress

from Breaking Load on Round Test-Bars according to
B.S.I. Specification 321/28.
Rupture Stress =
Breaking load X Distance between supports
0.392 X Diameter3
 108

The factors given below are for the three sizes of

test-bar and the rupture stress is determined as follows:—
Breaking load in tons X Factor = Rupture stress
in tons per sq. in.

L bar. Nominal M bar. Nominal S bar. Nominal

dia. 2 . 2 in. dia. 1 . 2 in. dia. 0.875 in.
tested on 18 in. tested on 18 in. tested on 1 2 in.
centres. centres. centres.

Actual Actual Actual

dia­ dia­ dia­
meter Factor. meter Factor. meter Factor.
at at at
fracture fracture fracture
in ins. in ins. in ins.

2 .1 0 0 4.96 1 .1 0 0 34.4 0.775 65.7

2 .1 1 0 4.89 1 .1 1 0 33.6 0.785 63.2
2 .1 2 0 4.82 1 .1 2 0 32.7 0.795 60.8
2.130 4.76 1.130 31.9 0.805 58.5
2.140 4.69 1.140 31.0 0.815 56.3
2.150 4.62 1.150 30.2 0.825 54.2
2.160 4.55 1.160 29.4 0.835 52.4
2.170 4.48 1.170 28.7 0.845 50.7
2.180 4.42 1.180 28.0 0.855 49.0
2.190 4.36 1.190 27.3 0.865 47.3
2 .2 0 4.30 1 .2 0 26.6 0.875 45.7
2 .2 1 0 4.24 1 .2 1 0 25.9 0.885 44.2
2 .2 2 0 4.19 1 .2 2 0 25.3 0.895 42.8
2.230 4.14 1.230 24.7 0.905 41.4
2.240 4.08 1.240 24.1 0.915 40.0
2.250 4.03 1.250 23.5 0.925 38.7
2.260 3.98 1.260 22.9 0.935 37.5
2.270 3.92 1.270 22.4 0.945 36.3
2.280 3.86 1.280 2 1 .8 0.955 35.2
2.290 3.81 1.290 21.4 0.965 34.1
2.300 3.77 1.300 20.9 0.975 33.1

For square or rectangular test-hars the formulae for

the conversion of breaking load into rupture stress are :—
For 2 in. X 1 in. bars on 36 in. centres :
Corrected load (in cwts.) X 0.675 =
Rupture stress (tons per sq. in.).
For 1 in. X 1 in. bars on 12 in. centres :
Corrected load ( in cwts.) X 0.9 =
Rupture stress (tons per sq. in.).
 1U9

The breaking load should be corrected for actual

size of bar a t fracture in accordance with the following
formulae :—-
For 2 in. X 1 in. bars on 36 in. centres :
Corrected breaking load =
4 X Actual breaking load,
width a t fracture in in. x (depth a t fracture in in . ) 2
For 1 in. x 1 in. bars on 12 in. centres:
Corrected breaking load —
1 X Actual breaking load,
width a t fracture in in. X (depth a t fracture in in . ) 2

C ast I ron S ub-C o m m it t e e op the T e c h n ic a l

Com m it t e e op the I n s t it u t e op
B r it is h F oundrym en .

P . A. R ussell, B .S c., Convener.

L. W . B olton, E . Longden.
A .M .I.M ech.E .
A. B. E v erest, P h .D . F . K . N eath , B.Sc.
B. H ird . W. W est.
•J. E . H u rs t. A. S. W orcester.
J . W . G ardom , Convener, Technical C om m ittee.

DISCUSSION
M r. A. C a m p i o n , a fte r an expression of com­
m en d atio n of th e rep o rt, said i t d e a lt w ith a
large nu m b er of subjects, th o u g h some were no t
d e a lt w ith c o m p le te ^ ; i t was all to th e good,
however, t h a t th e C om m ittee should publish in ­
fo rm atio n from tim e to tim e in o rd er to stim u late
in te re st, and should subm it its w ork to discus­
sion w ith a view to o b tain in g tip s and sug­
g estions fo r fu r th e r work. M r. C am pion’s
object in speaking was n o t to criticise th e re p o rt
b u t to m ake a few suggestions to th e C om m ittee
as to directions in which i t m ig h t am plify its
presen t findings and perh ap s in o th er cases
review them .
H e su p p o rted h e a rtily th e suggestion, w ith
re g a rd to tests, t h a t th e B ritish S ta n d a rd Speci­
fications should be ad opted in all cases as fa r as
 110

possible. R eference was m ade in th e re p o rt to

the difficulties experienced w ith th e la rg e r size
of b a rs ; b u t, as one who h ad c a rrie d o u t m an y
h u n d red s of te sts on such b ars a n d h a d done
some of th e o rig in al T est-B a r C om m ittee w ork, he
h ad n o t experienced difficulties due to th e k n ife
edges digging in to th e bars, a n d he suggested
t h a t i t was sim ply a question of th e ra d iu s of
th e su p p o rts an d of th e presser foot. N e ith e r
had he experienced th e difficulty of b a rs rollin g
o u t of position w hen placed on th e su p p o rts.

Phosphorus in Light Castings

The m ain p o rtio n of th e re p o rt d e a lt w ith th e
question of phosphorus in iron, a n d alth o u g h
th e re w as m uch t h a t was beyond d isp u te , some
f u r th e r w ork was req u ired in c e rta in d irectio n s
to confirm some of th e sta te m e n ts m ade. In th e
first place, th e q uestio n of phosphorus h a d to be
considered in re latio n to th e castin g s bein g m ade.
I n lig h t castings, such as g u tte rs an d ra in -w a te r
goods, phosphorus- did n o t m a tte r, a n d a very
h ig h phosphorus co n te n t was p e rm issib le ; b u t
in heavy castings, w hich h ad to w ith s ta n d high-
p ressu re w a te r or a ir te sts, phosphorus becam e
a serious problem , an d i t was necessary to lim it
th e co n ten t to a low figure if th e castin g s w ere
to be sound. There w as m ore in i t th a n m erely
the re la tio n betw een th e to ta l carbon an d th e
phosphorus; one should consider all th e elem ents
p re se n t in any p a rtic u la r iro n an d th e re la tio n
of one to th e o th er. The C om m ittee h a d d e alt
w ith carbon an d phosphorus chiefly, b u t had
m entioned only th e to ta l c a rb o n ; b u t i t was
necessary to consider n o t only th e to ta l am o u n t
b u t th e con dition a n d th e d is trib u tio n of th e
carbon p resen t, especially th e g ra p h ite .

Low-Carbon Content and Rotary Furnaces

M r. C am pion did n o t agree t h a t th e re was
necessarily difficulty in h an d lin g low to ta l-c a rb o n
irons. In cupola m eltin g th e re m ig h t be some
tro u b le, ow ing to th e difficulty of su p e rh e a tin g
to a sufficiently h ig h te m p e ra tu re a n d fo r a
 I ll

sufficient le n g th of ti m e ; b u t we w ere n o t con­

fined to cupolas fo r m eltin g now adays. W ith
th e a d v e n t of th e ro ta ry fu rn aces of th e Sesci
an d B rackelsberg ty p e one could su p e rh e a t th e
m etal very h ig h ly , a n d su b m it i t to t h a t su p er­
h e a t fo r alm ost any len g th of tim e. H e h ad
h ad m ore th a n tw o y e a rs’ experience of w orking
a fu rn a c e of th e B rackelsberg ty p e, an d th e re
was n o t th e slig h te st difficulty in h a n d lin g irons
w ith a carbon c o n te n t as low as 2 p e r cen t. This
m a tte r h a d to be considered seriously as affecting
th e physical an d m olecular co ndition of th e
m etal. H e was c a rry in g o u t an extensive re­
search in to th e q u alitie s a n d p ro p ertie s of ro ta ry -
fu rn a c e m elted a n d cupola-m elted m e ta l; th e
resu lts w ere n o t y e t com plete, b u t he hoped to
publish th e m in a P a p e r before th e S cottish
B ran ch of th e In s titu te d u rin g th e com ing
session. T hro u g h th e kindness of Glasgow
frien d s, facilitie s h a d been placed a t his dis­
posal, a n d th e re su lts o b tain ed alread y in d icated
th a t i t w as necessary to m odify o u r views as
to th e effect of th e elem ents p re se n t in cast iro n ,
both on th e phvsical p ro p ertie s an d th e soundness
of th e m etal.

Short Freezing Range Materials

A p a ra g ra p h in th e re p o rt, to th e effect th a t
if a perfectly sound c astin g w ere th e only con­
sid eratio n th e low to ta l carbon irons could be
em ployed, was ra th e r puzzling. H e h a d th o u g h t
th e id eal in all cases w hen m ak in g a c astin g
was to secure th e g re a te st possible soundness.
T herefore, he asked fo r some fu r th e r e x p lan a ­
tio n of t h a t re su lt. T hen i t w as s ta te d in th e
re p o rt t h a t th e low to ta l carbon irons were
notoriously difficult to h andle, on acco u n t of th e ir
h ig h freezing p oints. T h a t, he suggested, was
a m is-s ta te m e n t; th e tro u b le in dealing w ith
these irons was n ot due to th e h ig h freezing
p o in ts b u t th e sh o rt freezin g ran g es. The
m odern tre n d in secu rin g h ig h stre n g th s and
sounder m etals was in th e d irectio n of sh o rter
freezing ranges, a n d in o rd e r to be a b le to
han d le th em one m u st secure th e req u ired
flu id ity by su p erh e a tin g .
 112

Phosphorus Limit for Soundness

M e. J . G. P e a r o e (D irec to r, B ritis h C a st Iro n
R esearch A ssociation) c o n g ra tu la te d th e Com­
m itte e on its extrem ely com prehensive re p o rt.
D iscussing th e so-called d an g ero u s ra n g e for
phosphorus, h e said th e r e n e v e r h ad been any
real th e o re tic a l reason to suppose t h a t any
dangerous ra n g e ex isted , an d he p ersonally had
alw ays a ttrib u te d such tro u b le s as h a d arisen
in th is connection to th e difficulty of m e ltin g
to g e th e r, say, h e m a tite s a n d high-p h o sp h o ru s
irons to give a m edium -phosphorus c o n te n t,
especially in in d iffe re n t m e ltin g fu rn aces. The
p o in t was, he suggested, t h a t i t was very difficult
u n d e r those conditions to secure hom ogeneity.
B u t t h a t w as no e x p la n a tio n of th e p o in ts w hich
M r. Cook h ad raised o rig in ally , a n d w hich u n ­
doubtedly w ere im p o rta n t. T h ere alw ays h a d
been cases in w hich q u ite successful m edium -
phosphorua irons h a d been m ad e w ith o u t an y of
these difficulties. The conclusions from th e te s ts
suggested t h a t in o rd er to secure soundness, i.e.,
th e freedom from in te r-g r a n u la r porosity, th e
carbon c o n te n t should be below th e e u te c tic
v a lu e ; an d in th ese p a rtic u la r iro n s, w hich of
necessity re q u ired ab o u t 2 p e r c en t, silicon, t h a t
p ractically fixed, th e phosphorus lim it fo r so und­
ness. I n th e low er-silicon irons, w hich could be
used q u ite safely in th ic k e r sections, th e phos­
phorus c o n te n t could be in creased w ith o u t in ­
volving th e risk of porosity. Som etim es in p ra c­
tic a l problem s some v ery ro u g h ru le was adopted
in o rd e r to keep th is p o in t in m in d . One such
exam ple was t h a t th e phosphorus a n d silicon
to g e th e r should n o t exceed 2-J p er c e n t. T hat
ag ain em phasised th e fa c t t h a t if th e silicon con­
te n t increased, th e phosphorus c o n te n t m u st be
decreased, an d vice versa. The d a n g e r lay, in
fa c t, in h av in g carbon in excess of th e e u te c tic
value fo r th e silicon a n d phosphorus .1 c o n te n t.

Carbon Pick-up
W ith re g a rd to carbon pick-up an d re a c tiv ity
tests, in 1929 a very capable G erm an in v e stig a to r
h ad found very little re la tio n betw een coke
 113

re a c tiv ity values an d th e resu lts of gas analyses

from th e cu p o la ; in fa c t, h e h ad fo u n d th a t
cokes of differing re a c tiv ity values b u t of sim ilar
com position an d p ro p ertie s had given p ractically
th e sam e m eltin g resu lts in th e cupola an d th e
sam e re su lts w ith resp ect to gas analysis.
The cau tio n displayed in th e re p o rt in m any
cases, p a rtic u la rly w ith respect to co n traction
an d carbon pick-up, eloquently em phasised th e
difficulty which in v estig a tio n s of th e k in d d ealt
w ith presented. The difficulty was ren d ered still
g re a te r when such w ork was done in in dividual
p lan ts w here th e conditions in ev itab ly varied
from p o in t to p o in t th ro u g h o u t th e in d u stry .
The C om m ittee was fully ju stified in ad o p tin g its
very cau tio u s a ttitu d e .

The 321/28 Specification

D iscussing th e 321/28 Specification, M r.
P earce said t h a t in te s tin g th e 2.2-in. b a r he
had found th e su p p o rts an d th e loading p o in t,
even w hen very fully roun d ed , d igging in to th e
b a r. B u t very c a re fu l m easu rem en t h a d shown
t h a t th e am o u n t of e rro r in tro d u ced by t h a t in to
th e deflection m easu rem en t was n o t very con­
sid erab le ; he had in v e stig a te d th e m a tte r in con­
nection w ith a nu m b er of larg e b ars a n d had
found t h a t i t was n o t really serious. W h ilst he
would n o t re g a rd t h a t as an a rg u m e n t for a b a n ­
doning th e ro u n d b a r, he d id consider t h a t th e
use of th e big b a r was one of th e m a tte rs which
should have first a tte n tio n when th e Specification
was reconsidered. T he o rig in a l te s t-b a r Com­
m ittee h ad always re g ard ed i t as anom alous, and
h ad recognised t h a t sooner o r la te r i t would
have to be modified radically.

Phosphorus Content and National Resources

M r . J o h n S h a w , who also c o n g ratu la te d th e
C om m ittee on its very valuable w ork, said th e re
was little dou b t th a t, u n d e r th e conditions
o b tain in g and w ith th e ty p e of castin g exam ined,
to ta l carbon an d phosphorus were th e d om inat­
ing elem ents to control th e form of porosity
in v estig ated . I t m u st be rem em bered, however,
 114

th a t th e g re a te r p a r t of B ritis h pig -iro n s con­

ta in e d phosphorus fro m 0.8 p e r c en t, to 1.5 p e r
cent. W ere we to accep t i t as proved t h a t cast­
ings of un eq u al th ick n ess could n o t be m ade from
these irons, free from porosity, e x c e p t by
m ak in g larg e ad d itio n s of e ith e r steel scrap or
h e m a tite an d so red u cin g th e phosphorus to
ap p ro x im ately 0.3 p e r c e n t.? In o rd e r to reduce
the phosphorus co n te n t from 1 to 0.3 p e r cen t,
th e re m u st be an a d d itio n of a b o u t 60 p er c en t,
of steel or h e m a tite to th e ch arg e. E ith e r w ould
have a larg e effect on th e to ta l carbon. M any
castings w ith irre g u la r sections h a d to w ith ­
sta n d a w a te r te s t, b u t th e price p ro h ib ite d th e
use of refined pig-irons th e re in . I n an y case,
all castin g s should be sound. I f th e C om m ittee
would in v e stig a te th e possibilities on th is p o in t
i t w ould be very helpfu l.
T u rn in g to th e physical te sts, he d ep re c ate d
strongly th e common p ra c tic e of c a stin g th e
la rg e L b a r from a m ix tu re w hich w as su ita b le
only fo r th in castin g s. No o th e r single fa c to r
had done m ore to p reju d ice e n g in ee rs a g a in s t
th e use of ca st iro n th a n h ad th e supposed
abnorm al drop in s tre n g th p e r sq. in . w ith in ­
crease in section. As an exam ple, h e re fe rre d
to F ig . 14, w here th e re w as a decrease from
19 to n s on th e S b a r to below 10 to n s on th e
L b ar. I t w ould be ju s t as tr u th f u l to say t h a t
w hen using a m ix tu re su ita b le fo r a 3-in. th ic k
castin g t h a t w ould give e ith e r a m o ttle d o r
w hite S b ar, w ith a co nsequent drop in physical
p ro p e rtie s; t h a t c a st iro n increased in s tre n g th
p er sq. in. w ith increased th ick n ess a n d was
u n su ita b le fo r th in castin g s, because i t was
b rittle a n d unm 'achinable. I f one w ished to
in v estig ate th e effect of phosphorus on a n iro n
for th ick castin g s, one should use a su itab le
base m a te ria l to s t a r t w ith . H e u tte re d a w a rn ­
ing, also, a g a in st d raw in g d efinite conclusions
from th e use of ferro -p h o sp h o ru s to m ak e th e
ad d itio n s, because i t was his p ersonal ex perience
t h a t a d ifferen t stru c tu re was o b ta in e d by th is
m ethod.
 115

Problem of Carbon Pick-up

In ta c k lin g th e problem of carbon pick-up th e
C om m ittee was doing u seful w ork, b u t th e
problem was fu ll of difficulty. M acK enzie, in
his P a p e r before th e I n s titu te in 1927, h a d sta te d
t h a t te m p e ra tu re an d tim e of co n ta c t w ith
carbon were tw o of th e p rin c ip a l points in con­
nection w ith carbon pick-up. T here was a
ten dency fo r all m ix tu res to come to th e same
carbon co n ten t, d e p en d en t on ty p e of coke and
b last. Also, dep en d in g on th e ty p e of coke,
carbon pick-up would co n tin u e a fte r each suc­
cessive m eltin g u n til eq u ilib riu m was reached.
W ith high-carbon pig-iron an a ctu a l loss was
su stain ed u n til eq u ilib riu m was arriv e d a t. The
question of a h o t h e a rth w as of v ita l im p o rt­
ance. The bed m ig h t he well b u rn ed th ro u g h ,
b u t th e h e a rth m ig h t rem ain com paratively cool,
due, say, to being idle o v er th e week-end, e x tra
d au b in g o r w et bottom sand.

Foreign Specifications of Cast Iron

Coming to Specification 321, he said t h a t w hilst
th e re m ig h t be a d esire to ad d a n o th e r g rad e of
h igher s tre n g th , th e w eakness of th e Specifica­
tio n , in th e opinion of m any people, was th e
large v a ria tio n of thickness covered by th e 1 . 2 -in.
d iam eter b ar. This was th e re s u lt of a com pro­
mise to m eet th e c ap acity of th e m any te stin g
m achines in use a t th e tim e th e Specification
was d ra fte d . M any now fe lt t h a t th e in tro d u c ­
tio n of a b a r of lf - in . d ia. would give a more
correct id ea of th e s tru c tu re and stre n g th of
castin g ab o u t t h a t thickness. A dm ittedly, it
was foolish to sacrifice th e p rin cip le to th e
m achine. D ealing w ith th e references to G erm an
and A m erican specifications, h e said th e form er,
w hilst recognising th e p rin cip le of fixing th e
d ia m e te r of th e te s t-b a r so t h a t i t would bear
some n ear relatio n to th e thickness of castin g it
rep resen ted , stopped sh o rt a t th e 1 .2 -in. dia. b ar.
This rep resen ted all castin g s m ore th a n 1 in.
th ick . The A m erican te n ta tiv e specification A48-
32T v a ried from th e B ritish , fo r th e larg e b ar
was fixed a t 2-in. d ia. a n d te ste d a t 24-in.
 116

centres. The span was in creased to give a tr u e r

m easure of th e deflection. B u t some re c e n t w ork
by M acK enzie on th e effect of difference in sp a n
had shown t h a t th e re was little difference on th e
2-in. b a r betw een th e 18-in. a n d 24-in. sp a n , an d
i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t th e A m ericans h ad m erely
h arassed them selves by using a m ore cum bersom e
bar.
A gain, th e A m ericans h a d g ra d e d th e ir
m a te ria l in term s of m inim um ten sile s tre n g th .
S ta r tin g a t 20,000 lbs. per sq. in ., th e y h a d
ru n up, w ith in crem en ts of 1 0 , 0 0 0 lbs., to
60,000 lbs. p er sq. in . No difference w as m ade
betw een th e S an d L b ars in th is resp ect. The
tran sv erse te s ts w ere o p tio n al, b u t m ig h t be
specified. The idea b ehind th e a lte ra tio n was
t h a t th e custom er m ig h t specify a definite
stre n g th , fo r which a price w ould be q uoted
accordingly. How fa r th is w ould w ork o u t in
p ractice rem ain ed to be seen, h o w e v e r; probably
th e en g in ee r w ould re q u ire th e h ig h -te st
m a te ria l, w hilst th e b u y er w ould w a n t to pay th e
low er price.
The C om m ittee h a d definitely ad o p ted th e
m ethod of expressin g tra n sv e rse s tre n g th as
tra n sv e rse r u p tu re stress. How f a r th is w ould
be acceptable to inspectors an d en g in ee rs was
open to q u e s tio n ; th e y g en erally w ished to see
th e a c tu a l b reak in g load, w ith o u t going to th e
tro u b le of co n v ertin g i t in to som ething else.
T here was an exam ple of th is k in d in th e
re c e n tly -a tte m p te d in tro d u c tio n of th e 24-hr.
clock. A n o th er objection to th e m ethod was th e
possibility of th e same m odulus figure being
asked fo r from th e L b a r as from th e S b a r. I f
c a st iron were a hom ogeneous m a te ria l, t h a t
would be reasonable.

The Danger Range in Phosphorus Content

M r . F . J . Cook (P a s t-P re sid e n t), a f te r com­
m ending th e w ork of th e Sub-C om m ittee, said
he h ad never s ta te d d o g m atically t h a t th e re was
a d an g er ran g e a t ab o u t 0.5 p er c e n t, phosphorus
c o n ten t because he h a d n ev er been able to satisfy
him self t h a t i t existed o r t h a t th e r e w as a reason
 117

fo r it. B u t d u rin g th e la s t fo rty y ears he had

experienced very rem ark ab le tro u b les w ith c a st­
ings, p a rtic u la rly in th e developm ent of h a ir
cracks, w here th e re was 0 . 5 p e r cen t, of phos­
phorus in th e com position, an d th ey h ad been
e lim in ated , so f a r as he could ju d g e a t th e tim e,
by ra isin g th e phosphorus co n te n t. The a rg u ­
m e n t he h a d h a d in m in d w as t h a t th e tro u b les
were due to co n tra c tio n stra in s, an d t h a t by
in creasin g th e phosphorus one decreased stra in s
of t h a t descrip tio n . Those experiences he had
re fe rre d to th e C om m ittee, an d he h a d no fa u lt
to find w ith th e conclusions a rriv e d a t, t h a t no
reason could be fo u n d as to why th is p a rtic u la r
tro u b le should occur. H e also did n o t know th e
reason. B u t when th e re were m any exam ples,
over a period, which h ad e x h ib ited th is p a r­
tic u la r tro u b le an d w here i t h ad been m ade to
d isa p p e a r im m ediately, one h a d to see how fa r
th e re was a n y th in g in it. The q uestion had
arisen in tw o w ays—how f a r phosphorus affected
th e porosity of a ca stin g an d how f a r i t affected
th e physical stre n g th . H e h a d m erely sta te d
th e fa cts an d h a d suggested t h a t th e re was prob­
ably some definite reason fo r th e p a rtic u la r
change re fe rre d to. H e believed i t was B olton,
in A m erica, who h a d p o in te d o u t t h a t th e re was
a d is tin c t change a t 0.5 p e r cent, phosphorus,
t h a t a t below 0.5 p e r cen t, i t was m ainly as a
solid solution, b u t some of i t w as as a com­
pound, w hereas above 0.5 p e r cen t, i t existed
e n tire ly as a com pound. I f t h a t w ere tru e —
an d M r. Cook could n o t believe i t alto g e th e r—
i t in d icated t h a t th e re was some change a t th a t
p a rtic u la r p o in t. H e did n o t believe t h a t phos­
phorus p er se was wholly responsible fo r th e
v a ria tio n s in th e s tre n g th of a c a s tin g ; th e
fa c to r t h a t m a tte re d w as th e to ta l carbon, i.e .,
th e balance of th e to ta l carbon an d th e silicon,
or how n e a r was th e app ro ach to th e e u tec tic
p o in t. H e believed he h ad proved m any tim es
t h a t ro u n d ab o u t, o r ju s t below, th e eu tec tic
p o in t i t did n o t m a tte r a t all how m uch phos­
phorus w as p re s e n t; he h a d proved i t in larg e
D iesol-engine pistons, of 22 a n d 24 in . d ia .,
 118

in w hich, it was usually considered, phosphorus

was absolutely d etrim e n ta l. The phosphorus was
only d etrim e n ta l, he believed, when th e carbon
was off th e ra n g e of th e eu tec tic , o r w hen th e re
was n o t a balance betw een th e carb o n a n d phos­
phorus, an d he h a d proved i t by ra isin g th e
phosphorus c o n te n t in th e pisto n s re fe rre d to.
H e h ad aim ed a t 1.5 p e r c e n t., b u t h a d o b tain ed
ab o u t 1.4 p e r cent. I f th e th e o ry w ith re g a rd
to h ig h phosphorus c o n te n t w ere tr u e , th e n those
pistons o u g h t to hav e cracked w ith in ab o u t h a lf
a n hour, b u t in fa c t th ey h a d been a t w ork
since a b o u t th e m iddle of th e w ar period.
A g ain, he h a d proved t h a t w ith 1 p er c e n t, of
phosphorus in th e m ix tu re one could produce
c astin g s of 18 o r 19 to n s ten sile if one m ain ­
ta in e d th e balance re fe rre d to ; otherw ise, th e
phosphorus becam e d angerous. T herefore, he
suggested t h a t th e C om m ittee should consider
fu r th e r th e carb o n c o n te n t as well as th e phos­
phorus co ntent.
Convener’s Reply
M b. P . A. R u s s e l l (C onvener of th e Sub-Com ­
m ittee), rep ly in g to th e discussion, assu red M r.
C am pion t h a t th e Sub-Com m itte© h a d been
thoro u g h ly aw are of th e im p o rtan ce of th e size
an d d is trib u tio n of th e g ra p h ite , a n d h ad e n ­
deavoured to overcome difficulties in th is resp ect
by m a in ta in in g th e co n d itio n s as s ta n d a rd as
possible, by u sin g th e sam e g ra d e of p ig -iro n an d
th e sam e m eltin g processes as f a r a s possible.
In d ic a tio n s w ere given as to w here iro n s w ere
cupola-m elted a n d w here th e y w ere crucible-
m elted, an d i t was a fa c t t h a t th e ten d en c ies
exh ib ited w ere very m uch less m a rk e d in th e
crucible-m elted series th a n in th e cupola-m elted
s e rie s ; th e cu rv e was very m uch ste e p e r in th e
case of th e cupola-m elted th a n th e crucible-
m elted iron. I n th e section of th e re p o rt d ealin g
w ith conclusions from physical te sts, th e S ub­
co m m ittee bad covered th e p o in t p a rtic u la rly
w ith re g a rd to physical p ro p ertie s.
W ith re g a rd to th e req u est fo r a d e fin itio n of
“ p o ro sity ,” he said th e S ub-C om m ittee h ad
h ad to define i t larg ely by w h at i t was n o t, an d
 119

he believed th e definition given was th e best

th a t could be a rriv e d a t for th e form of porosity
exam ined—t h a t which occurred as irre g u la r
in te rn a l voids in a castin g , of th e ty p e illus­
tr a te d in F ig . 6 .
The Sub-C om m ittee had done no m acro-etching.
H e agreed w ith M r. Cam pion ab o u t th e im ­
p ortance of su p e rh e a t a n d th e im portance of th e
low -total-carbon irons. The rem ark s of M r.
C am pion bore o u t th e Sub-C om m ittee’s co n ten ­
tio n t h a t if th e to tal-carb o n c o n te n t were low,
one need n o t b o th er a b o u t phosphorus, an d t h a t
a t well below th e eu te c tic th e phosphorus did no t
m a tte r.
W ith re g a rd to th e s ta te m e n t in th e re p o rt,
t h a t if a perfectly sound castin g were th e only
co nsideration th e low -total-carbon irons could be
em ployed, an d M r. C am pion’s criticism t h a t a
p erfectly sound c a stin g should be th e only aim ,
M r. R ussell said t h a t surely th e re w ere con­
sid eratio n s o th e r th a n p erfe c t soundness in cer­
ta in classes of castin g s, p a rtic u la rly those which
w ere n o t exposed to severe conditions. Some
castings, th o u g h n o t definitely free from porosity,
were q u ite good enough fo r th e ir d u ty . The Sub-
C om m ittee’s p o in t was t h a t i t was useless in tro ­
ducing a num b er of difficulties for th e foundry
by in sistin g u pon perfectly sound castin g s in
every case if soundness were n o t definitely
necessary.
R ep ly in g to M r. P earce, h e said th e Sub-Com­
m ittee h ad h a d in m ind all along th e im portance
of th e eu tec tic p o in t, an d he h ad been to much
tro u b le in an endeavour to c o rrelate all th e d a ta
to th e eu tec tic p o in t, b u t i t h ad resu lted in a
hopeless ta n g le , an d th e Sub-C om m ittee could
not co rrelate i t definitely to th e eu te c tic p o in t
a lo n e ; th e re seem ed a definite b reak a t 0.3 which
was n o t connected solely w ith th e eu tec tic.
The rem arks concerning carbon pick-up would
be re fe rre d to th e Sub-C om m ittee fo r considera­
tio n , an d th e references to th e specifications had
also been very helpful.
The reference by M r. Shaw to th e predom in­
ance of high-phosphorus pig-irons in B rita in
 120

T able A.— Initial Pouring

Green sand.

Casting section : \ in. 1 in. 2 in.

Temperature of test section immediately

after pouring deg. C. — 1 ,1 0 0 1,140 1,160

Temperature of solidification, deg. C.—

Beginning 1 ,1 0 0 1,125 1 ,1 1 0

Final 1,085 1 ,1 0 0 1 ,1 0 0

Time of solidification after pouring in minutes—

Beginning Nil * 1

ç
Final H 4 9

Cooling time in minutes to reach carbide

change point—
Beginning m 16* 33

Final 18 m 43

Temperature of carbide change point, deg. C. 720 750 730

Cooling time in minutes to reach 600 deg. C. 24 32* 58*

Analysis—
T.C..................................................................... 3.46 3.53 3.53

C.C..................................................................... 0.60 0.65 0.55

Si........................................................................ 1.69 1.41 1.64

Mn...................................................................... 0.87 1.24 0 .8 6

S......................................................................... 0.125 0 .1 0 1 0.129

P ......................................................................... 0.40 0.27 0.28

N o t e .— A ll g a t e s a n d r i s e r s n o r m a l
’*( Temperature, 1,340 (leg. C.

Dry sand.
3 in. 4 in. i in. 1 in. 2 in. 3 in. 4 in.

1,180 1,190 1 ,1 0 0 1,150 1,160 1 ,2 0 0 1 ,2 1 0

1 ,1 1 0 1 ,1 2 0 1,090 1 ,1 2 0 1,130 1,150 1 ,1 2 0

1 ,1 0 0 1 ,1 0 0 1,070 1 ,1 0 0 1 ,1 0 0 1 ,1 0 0 1 ,1 0 0

2 2 * 1 1 2 3
13* 2 0 3 4 8 * 13 18

72 16* 30 51 63
•

*
00

12

61* 81 17* 2 2 * 41 65 92

730 740 718 750 740 740 745

86 115 24 35* 57 100 138

3.55 3.20 3.53 3.48 3.64 3.54 3.49

0.55 0.53 0.65 0.58 0.55 0.55 0.67

1.5 1.83 1.69 1.50 1.36 1.55 1.73

1.09 1.16 0.90 1.16 1.36 1 .2 2 1.17

0.185 0 .1 0 2 0.125 0.115 0.093 0.137 0.092

0.28 0.30 0.49 0.47 0.27 0.33 0.24

gij to general foundry practice.
 122

was a p p reciated , an d i t w as necessary to b e a r in

m ind t h a t we m u st use th e high-phosphorus iro n s
if we could. H e believed th e solution lay in
em ploying low -carbon c o n te n ts w ith th e high-
phosphorus co n ten ts.
One was inclined to a g re e w ith M r. Cook t h a t
possibly th e developm ent of h a ir cracks was
re la te d to c o n tractio n , th e phosphorus h av in g
some effect upon t h a t c o n tra c tio n ; b u t th e Sub-
C om m ittee had been un ab le to in v e s tig a te th e
point.
Vote of Thanks
M r . J. E . H u r s t (S en io r V ice -P re sid e n t),
speaking as an in d iv id u a l m em ber of th e Sub-
C om m ittee, expressed ap p re c ia tio n of M r.
R ussell’s convenership. No one who w as n o t a
m em ber of th e S ub-C om m ittee, he sa id , could
really ap p re c ia te th e e x tra o rd in a ry am o u n t of
w ork t h a t M r. R ussell h ad done, n o t only in
org an isin g m eetings in all p a rts of th e c o u n try ,
b u t also in sum m arisin g th e w ork an d in p re p a r­
ing th e p resen t re p o rt. I t was hoped t h a t th e
production of th e re p o rt w ould be re g ard e d by
him as some com pensation for his w ork.
M r . W . W e s t (also a m em ber of th e Sub-
C om m ittee), who seconded, said t h a t M r. R ussell
had a tte n d e d every m eetin g , a n d , ju d g in g by
th e volum e of correspondence betw een him self
a n d th e m em bers, he m u st h ave sp e n t a g re a t
deal of tim e in th e com pilation of th e in fo rm a ­
tio n forw arded to him .
The vote of th a n k s w as accorded w ith
acclam ation.
Effect of Pouring Temperature
M r . F . H u d s o n (m em ber) w rote t h a t th e re
w ere tw o points in th is ex cellen t rep o i't u pon
which he wished to com m ent. I n th e first place,
re g a rd in g th e effect of p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re on
sh rin k ag e, he h ad been in te re ste d in th is m a tte r
fo r some tim e, a n d th e ex p e rim e n ta l resu lts
published in T able A m ig h t help to shed a d d i­
tio n a l lig h t on th is su b ject. I n c o n d u ctin g these
te s ts th e o bject w as to o b ta in some id ea as to
th e effect of green- a n d dry -san d m o u ld in g upon
the p ro p ertie s of v ario u s sectioned castin g s.
 123

A p a rt from th e resu lts ob tain ed in th is d irection,

i t is in te re stin g to observe t h a t when using an
in itia l p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re of 1,340 deg. C. th e
a c tu a l te m p e ra tu re of th e green-sand castin g
w ith f-in . section is 1,100 deg. C., th e b eginning
of solidification fo r iron of th e com position used.
T his re s u lt was q u ite unexpected an d illu stra te s
th e larg e te m p e ra tu re drop betw een p ouring te m ­
p e ra tu re an d tr u e c astin g te m p e ra tu re . He
suggested t h a t th is p o in t should receive fu rth e r
co nsideration in any f u tu r e stu d y of th is ques­
tio n . I t clearly in d ic a te d th e fu tility of resu lts
based on p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re alone.
The second p o in t concerned te st-b a rs and
B .S .I. S pecification 321/28. In th e tran sv erse
te s t on th e la rg e s t size b a r th e cap acity of m any
m achines was insufficient to effect fra c tu re , and
i t would be a good th in g if th e b reak in g cen tres
could be ex ten d e d to p erm it of lower b reak in g
loads being ap p lied , an d a correction facto r
d eterm in ed fo r th e co rrection of such resu lts for
d ire c t com parison w ith th e e x istin g stan d ard s.
I f such a fa c to r could n o t be arra n g e d , th e n he
would suggest a definite a lte ra tio n in th e specifi­
cation on th is point.
The L-Bar Deemed Unsuitable
M b . R . G. T tjckek w rote th a t he had read
th e re p o rt w ith considerable in te re st, p a rtic u larly
as he had been a m em ber of th e C ast Iro n Sub-
C om m ittee in its e a rlie r stages. H e was g lad to
see how th e w ork h a d developed and he wished to
co n g ra tu la te th e m em bers on th is re p o rt of th e ir
work.
The bulk of th e re p o rt was occupied by w ork on
th e porosity an d stre n g th of c a st iron in relatio n
to th e to tal-carb o n an d phosphorus contents. H e
was pleased to n ote t h a t so f a r as porosity was
concerned th e C om m ittee had come to th e conclu­
sion t h a t com position was of im portance and th a t
a g re a te r ran g e of silicon and carbon was p er­
m issible, when using low phosphorus. H e was
p a rtic u la rly in te re ste d in iro n s for D iesel-engine
w ork an d a t one tim e considered th a t, if th e
phosphorus co n te n t did no t exceed 0.7 p er cent,
such irons were satisfacto ry . As th e re s u lt of
experience, however, he now favoured irons
 124

w hich had a low -phosphorus c o n te n t a n d seldom

specified m ore th a n 0.3 p e r c e n t, in iro n s con­
ta in in g 3.30 p e r cent, to ta l carb o n a n d 0.85 to
1.3 p er cent, silicon.
W ith re g a rd to th e influence of phosphorus on
th e stre n g th , he was g lad th e Sub-C om m ittee h ad
em phasised th e necessity of co n sid erin g th e to ta l
carbon, when discussing th e ex isten ce of a d a n ­
gerous ran g e an d th e phosphorus c o n te n t. This
was a p o in t w hich was of im p o rtan c e a n d was
som etim es inclined to be overlooked.
The S ub-C om m ittee h a d re fe rre d to th e B .S .I.
Specification 321/28. H e a p p ro v ed of th e S peci­
fication in g en eral a n d h ad no difficulty in th e
b reak in g of ro u n d b ars. H e ag reed , how ever,
t h a t th e “ L ” ten sile b a r was u n su ita b le .
R e g a rd in g th e grad es, he could n ev er u n d e rs ta n d
why these w ere labelled “ A ” a n d “ C ,” an d
c e rta in ly th o u g h t t h a t specifications of h ig h er
stre n g th should be ad o p ted , m ore in lin e w ith th e
p re se n t A d m iralty S pecification. H e considered
t h a t th e presen t g rad es w ere p erh a p s one of th e
reasons why th e specification was n o t m o re g e n e r­
ally adopted. As re g a rd s e x p ressin g th e tr a n s ­
verse stre n g th as tra n sv e rse r u p tu re stress, he
was in fu ll ag reem en t, b u t realised t h a t consider­
able difficulties e x is t in p e rsu a d in g designers and
users to a d o p t such a te rm .
Condition of Phosphorus Content
I n th e re p o rt, tw o M b ars w ith h ig h phos­
phorus give very h ig h tra n sv e rse figures, an d
th e re is som etim es a d angerous ra n g e w ith 0.5 to
0.7 p er cent, phosphorus. These fa c ts b rin g o u t
very clearly t h a t phosphorus is like g ra p h ite .
The form is a ll-im p o rta n t (or alm o st so) a n d th e
a m o u n t of secondary im p o rtan ce.
Phosphide can occur as tw o e u te c tic s— as n e t­
w ork e ith e r fine a n d co n tin u o u s o r coarse an d
irre g u la r, or even liq u a te d an d “ b alled u p .”
Silicon has a g re a t influence on th e form ' of th e
phosphide. I t is n o t u n til c a re fu l m icro g ra p h ic
com parison of th e form s of phosphide a re ta k e n
in to acco u n t t h a t these resu lts will be clarified.
Tt is alread y done for g ra p h ite — why n o t
phosphide?
 125

SUB-COMMITTEE’S WRITTEN REPLY

The Sub-C om m ittee of th e In s titu te of B ritish
F o u n d ry m en on C ast Iro n has now h a d an oppor­
tu n ity of consid erin g th e discussion on its re p o rt
an d replies as follows : —
i The ap p re c ia tiv e way in which th is R e p o rt
has been received is g re a tly valued by th e Sub-
C om m ittee an d is an in cen tiv e to i t to proceed
w ith its w ork. The C onvener’s rep ly to th e dis­
cussion is endorsed, b u t th is req u ires am plifi­
catio n a n d to be ex te n d e d to cover th e w ritte n
discussion.
W ith re g a rd to th e effect of to ta l carbon and
phosphorus on porosity a n d th e physical pro­
p erties of c ast iron, th e Sub-C om m ittee is pleased
to n o te t h a t its conclusions a re endorsed by
several of th e speakers, b u t would em phasise its
opinion th a t, for th e average fo under, th e o b tain ­
ing of soundness by a red u ctio n of phosphorus to
below 0.3 p er cen t, is sim pler th a n by a red u c­
tio n of carbon below 3.0 p er cen t. The p o in t
raised by M essrs. P ea rc e an d Cook w ith reg ard
to th e eu tectic has been very closely w atched and
all th e evidence ob tain ed in th e ex p erim en tal
w ork p o in ted to th e existence of some facto r
aro u n d 0.3 p er cen t. P , w hich is d is tin c t from
th e norm al effect of v a ria tio n s in th e carbon
e u tec tic p o in t. As p o in ted o u t by M essrs. Cook
an d T ucker, th is m ay be due to th e form of th e
phosphide e u tec tic , b u t a fte r discussion th e Sub-
C om m ittee decided t h a t in th e p resen t s ta te of
know ledge of th is su b ject i t could n o t offer an
opinion on th e th e o re tic a l aspects. W ith re g a rd
to M r. C am pion’s p o in t t h a t th e sh o rt freezing
ran g e of low -carbon irons is th e m ain source of
difficulty in h an d lin g th e se m a te ria ls, th e Sub-
C om m ittee agree t h a t th is is one p a r t of th e
difficulty, b u t m a in ta in t h a t th e h ig h freezing
p o in t is also an essen tial fa cto r. This is a p o in t
th a t requires f u r th e r in v estig atio n .
The rem ain d e r of th e discussion larg ely centred
ro u n d th e B .S .I. Specification a n d th e Sub-Com­
m itte e notes t h a t th e “ L ” b a r is considered
u n sa tisfa c to ry by m ost of th e speakers. There
 126

should be no difficulty in a rra n g in g fo r an a lte r ­

n a tiv e b re a k in g c e n tre fo r a lo n g er “ L ” tr a n s ­
verse b a r, b u t as M r. .Shaw p o in ted o u t, th is
would be r a th e r cum bersom e. T he Sub-C em -
m itte e feels t h a t w ith th e su p p o rt received in
th is discussion it ca n now go ah ead w ith th e
p re p a ra tio n of suggestions to lay before th e
a p p ro p ria te B .S .I. C om m ittee. The Sub-Com ­
m itte e c a n n o t a g re e w ith M r. Shaw t h a t th e
“ S .M .” a n d “ L ” b a rs should n ev e r be cast
to g e th e r, as i t feels t h a t th is is th e m ost effective
way of in v e s tig a tin g th e effect of v a ry in g section
on th e physical p ro p e rtie s on an y com position of
iro n t h a t is u n d e r in v estig a tio n . On th e q u estio n
of th e use of tra n sv e rse ru p tu re stress th e Sub-
C om m ittee is definitely of th e o pinion t h a t th ese
d a ta are m uch m ore v alu ab le th a n th e m ere ex ­
pression of b reak in g stress on a b a r, p a rtic u la rly
in view of th e v a rie ty of te s t-b a rs now in use.
I t also considers t h a t a sim ilar expression for
deflection in tra n sv e rse , w hich ta k e s in to account
v a ria tio n s in sp an an d d e p th of test-p iece and
reduces th e m to a common level, should be
evolved.
The p o in ts raised in connection w ith carb o n
pick-up w ill be b orne in m in d by th e Sub-Com ­
m ittee in its fu tu r e d elib eratio n s on th e su b ject.
The Sub-C om m ittee th a n k M r. H u d so n fo r th e
d a ta co n tain ed in T able A, w hich a re v ery
in te re s tin g from m an y p o in ts of view .
P . A. R u s s e l l ,
C onvener.
 127

CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF GRAPHITE

FORMATION AND STRUCTURE IN CAST IRON
AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON THE PROPERTIES
OF THE CAST METAL

By Heinrich Nipper, Dr. Ing.

(Communication from the, Giesserei-Institut of the

Aachen Technical High School)
[G e r m an E xchange P aper ]

The cry stallisatio n of a m elt is determ ined,

according to th e w ork c a rrie d o u t by T am m ann , 1
by th e facto rs “ nuclei num ber, K Z ,” and “ th e
velocity of cry stallisatio n , K G .” The mode of
undercooling of a m elt depends upon th e values
of K Z and K G , and th e ir prop o rtio n to each
other. Above all, undercooling is d ep en d en t upon
th e value of th e p receding m eltin g te m p eratu re ,
th e d u ra tio n of th is, th e presence of solid, liquid
or gaseous c o n stitu en ts liable to cause inocula­
tio n , th e r a te a t which cooling tak es place,
p o te n tia l inoculatio n due to th e fu rn ace or con­
ta in e r walls, th e jo ltin g of th e m elt, and so fo rth .
W ith reference to th e influence which these
facto rs have upon th e ra te of freezing of grey
cast-iron m elts of v ary in g com position, th e fol­
lowing gen eral rem ark s m ay be p u t fo rw a rd :'—
The first effect of high su p erh ea tin g is
to decrease viscosity. Im p u ritie s in th e
m elts, consisting of coarse or of more or less
dispersed oxides, silicates, etc., coagulate and
are sep a ra te d o u t. E ven in th e case of hyper-
eu tec tic m elts, all p articles of g ra p h ite a re en ­
tire ly dissolved. The high degree of p u rity th u s
arriv ed a t allows of an extensive undercooling of
th e m elt. I t has no t so fa r been possible to
a sc ertain ex p erim en tally to w h at e x te n t mole­
cu lar changes in th e m elt, due to th e high su p er­
h e a tin g , m ay fav o u r o r m ay cause th e m arked
tendency fo r undercooling. In th is connection,
F ig . 2 . — Tw o G r a p h it e F lakes (K is h )
IN . LO NG, W IT H F lN E E U T E C T IC
Gr a p h it e . X 100.
 129

th e very com plete researches by P iw o w a rsk y / by

v. K eil, M itsche, L o g at an d T re n k le r , 3 and A.
R e in h a r d t / m ay be re ferre d to.

Low Temperatures
H e a tin g over a long period a t com paratively
low er te m p e ra tu re s has also, in th e first place,
a p u rify in g effect, m ak in g for a coalescence of
im p u rities and, a p p a re n tly , fo r th e c ritic a l p a r­
ticle size favourab le to n u clea r fo rm atio n . The
cap acity for undercooling th u s increases. The
e x p lan a tio n given by H a n e m a n n / w here he
refers to th e break -u p of th e g ra p h ite nucleus,
is very im probable fo r norm al w orking tem p e ra ­
tu re s, according to th e la te r researches by
P iw ow arsky . 5 P iw ow arsky has been able to show
t h a t in soaking te s ts a few seconds are fully
sufficient to break -u p even coarse g ra p h ite flakes
a t m eltin g te m p e ra tu re .
Solid an d liq u id im p u ritie s p resen t in an iron
m elt, according to th e ir k in d an d th e size of
th e p articles, can largely lower th e undercool­
ing cap acity on freezing. I t is sufficient a t th is
p o in t to re fe r to new researches in th is con­
nection, nam ely, those of R ein h ard t and v.
K eil above m entioned. The after-siliconising
effect and its g ra d u a l fad in g aw ay by long
s ta n d in g m ay also come in to play. (In reg ard
to th is, th e researches by E . P iw ow arsky' should
be re fe rre d to .) A tr e a tm e n t of th e m elt
w ith a su itab le slag o r d ire c t refining have for
effect largely to increase th e undercooling
capacity.
Gases in p a rtic u la r, when p resen t in large
q u a n titie s, an d given o u t by th e liq u id m elt and
also in th e freezing ra n g e , can g re atly h in d er
undercooling. (W ith reference to th is, th e work
by Piw ow arsky 8 and by B ard e n h eu e r an d Z eyen 9
can be consulted, as also t h a t by W a g n e r.1“)
The effect of m eltin g in vacuo is d e a lt w ith
f u r th e r on, when personal researches are
detailed.
By g re a tly in creasin g th e ra te of th e cooling,
th e iron can be obtained w h ite ; it is b ro u g h t
down to freezing p o in t subsequently to th e
r
 F i g . 3. x 100.

F ig s . 3 and 4 sh o w w e l l -d e f in e d D e n d r it e s
of P r im a r y C rysta ls in H yper -
 F ig . 6 . x 100.
F ig s . 5 and 6 sh ow w e l l - d e f in e d D e n d r it e s
of P r im a r y C rystals in H yper -
E u t e c t ic M elts f 2
 132

m etastable ran g e, an d is th e re fo re com pletely

undercooled.
The very m arked effect which fu rn a c e walls
have u pon th e g ra p h ite fo rm atio n m ay a g a in be
re fe rre d to. F ig . 1 shows, u n d e r a m agnifica­
tio n of 1 0 0 diam eters, th e long g ra p h ite lam ellæ
which proceed fro m th e walls of a g ra p h ite

F i g . 7. — S h o w s C o a rs e G r a p h ite r a d ia tin g
p ro m a N u c le u s , x 100.

crucible. The sh ak in g of th e m elt m ate ria lly

h in d ers undercooling.
H a v in g s ta te d in th e above in a g e n eral way
th e m ost im p o rta n t fac to rs w hich fa v o u r or
h in d e r undercooling, i t is now proposed to deal
w ith th e question as to how freezin g w ith o u t
an d w ith undercooling o p e ra te s u pon th e
g ra p h ite fo rm atio n in c a st iron. The q uestion is
divided u n d e r th re e m ain h eadings, nam ely, hypo-
eu tectic, eu tectic, and h y p er-eu tectic alloys.
 F i g . 8. x 100.

F i g . 9. x 100.
F ig s. 8 and 9 sh owG r a p h it e F l a k e s pr a c -
TD RED IN TH E M E L T D U R IN G F R E E Z IN G .
 134

Hypo-eutectic Alloys
(1) W hen a h ypo-eutectic iro n alloy freezes
w ith o u t m arked undercooling th e n , in th e first
place, a p rim a ry solid solution will se p a ra te o u t
in conform ity w ith th e lines of th e eq u ilib riu m
d iag ram . W hen th e resid u al m elt h a s reached
th e e u tec tic com position th e n m ore o r less larg e
g ra p h ite lamellae will be form ed, besides f u r th e r
solid solution, according to th e q u a n tity of
resid u al h e a t a n d th e freezin g tim e th is re ­
quires. I n such in stan ces, th e s tru c tu r e h a rd ly
reveals a p rim a ry d e n d ritic fo rm atio n , a n d th is
all th e less th e n e a re r th e com position of th e
m elt approaches to th e eu tectic.
(2) W hen a hypo -eu tectic alloy freezes w ith
m arked undercooling, th e n also w ill a p rim a ry
solid solution se p a ra te o u t in th e first place, in
conform ity w ith th e lines of th e eq u ilib riu m
d iag ram . This se p a ra tio n co n tin u es also
when th e eu tec tic com position of th e - resid u al
m elt is reached, since th e se p a ra tio n of th e
g ra p h ite sets in w ith a h ig h e r u ndercooling.
The resid u al h e a t becomes first h y p er-e u te ctic,
and w ith a g re a te r n u m b er of nuclei freezes
suddenly to am ex trem ely fine m ix tu re of fine
g ra p h ite and solid solution. T hus, in isolated
portions of th e m elt a t w hich un d erco o lin g has
first been a rre ste d , th e re m ay grow in th e m elt
g ra p h ite cry stals in th e form of ra d ia tin g sta rs.
The d e n d ritic s tru c tu re increases m ark ed ly w ith
a decrease in to ta l carbon p e rcen tag e. The fine
g ra in g ra p h ite is a rra n g e d an d in te rle a v e d in
a decided re tic u la r s tru c tu re . T he m echanical
p ro p ertie s of these alloys correspond to th e h ig h e r
carbon p ercentag es, th e fe a tu re in th is in stan ce
being a lam ellar irre g u la r em bedded g ra p h ite
eu tec tic, w hich c h aracterises alloys of th is com­
position frozen w ith o u t an y m ark ed u n d e r­
cooling.
Eutectic Cast Iron
(3) E u te c tic cast-iro n alloys w hich freeze w ith ­
o u t an y m arked u n dercooling show, in accord­
ance w ith th e lo n g er p erio d of g ro w th , m ore or
less coarse g ra p h ite lamellae irre g u la rly a rra n g e d .
 F i g . 10. xlOO.

F ig . 11. x 100.
F ig s . 10 and 11 sh o w T h in G r a p h it e F lakes
BROKEN AND A FTERW ARDS SKH I-CO ALESCED .
\

136

(4) The e u tec tic g ra p h ite can become fine and

extrem ely fine by a heavy u n dercooling. W hen
th e re is a larg e n u m b e r of nuclei, c ry sta llisatio n
which commences suddenly an d en d s ra p id ly does
n o t allow a grow th of th e g ra p h ite nuclei. This
condition is illu s tra te d f u r th e r on, w hen show ing
th e s tru c tu re s of th e h y p er-eu tectic m elts ex p e ri­
m en tally m ade.

F ig . 1 2 .— S h o w in g G r a p h it e w it h L ateral
A g g r e g a t io n s c o n f o r m in g to C rysta llo-
g r a p h ic D ir e c t io n s , x 100.

(5) H y p er-eu te c tic m elts which freeze w ith o u t

m arked undercooling first se p a ra te o u t coarse
g ra p h ite (it is proposed to deal solely w ith
freezin g in re g a rd to' th e stable system ). W hen
th e re sid u a l h e a t a tta in s th e e u te c tic com posi­
tio n , th e n th e case is one fo r n o rm al a n d m ore
or less coarse g ra p h ite fo rm a tio n —to g e th e r w ith
s a tu ra te d solid so lu tio n —d eterm in ed by th e d u ra ­
tio n of grow th. The g ra p h ite flakes a re q u ite
irre g u la rly arra n g e d .
 F i g . 13. x 100.

Graphite F ormation.
F igs. 1 3 a n d 1 4 s h o w N o v e l T y p e o p
F ig . 1 4 . x 100
 138

Undercooled Hyper-eutectic Action

(6 ) W hen th e c ry sta llisa tio n of h y p er-eu tectic
m elts ta k e s place w ith heavy u ndercooling, th e
p rim ary g ra p h ite lamellae can grow very
m ark edly. The e u te c tic com position of th e
resid u al h e a t is m ade to fall an d th e re m ay even
occur th e fo rm atio n of p rim a ry solid-solution
d en d rites. These, in m any cases, s t a r t from th e
p rim ary g ra p h ite flakes. T he resid u e th e n
freezes very ra p id ly to exceedingly fine g ra p h ite
and s a tu ra te d solid solution.

F ig . 15.— Guaphite L amina.

x 30.

Micro-Structure of Graphite
The m icropho tog rap h s rep ro d u ced h ere ap p ly
to a series of cast-iro n m elts produced a t a te m ­
p e ra tu re of ab o u t 1,640 deg. C. in a high
vacuum (below 0 . 0 0 0 1 mm. p ressu re) in carbon
crucibles (m elting tim e 2 0 m in. an d over, cooling
tim e ab o u t 2) h rs.). The m elts w ere su p e r­
h eate d a n d very clean, w ere specially free from
gas, an d hence inclined to heavy undercooling.
The illu s tra tio n s h ave a m ag n ificatio n of 100
d iam eters, a n d F ig . 2 shows p a rts of tw o larg e
g ra p h ite lamellae (K ish ). Some of th e lamellae
reach a le n g th of 8 mm. (-^ in .). The eu tec tic
g ra p h ite se p a ra tio n is e x tra o rd in a rily fine and
g ra n u la r, corresponding to th e h ig h undercool­
ing. The haloes su rro u n d in g th e g ra p h ite
lamellae, a re lam ellar p earlite .
 139

1 igs. 3 to 6 show well-defined d en d rites of,

p rim ary cry stals in h y p er-eu tectic m elts, which,
m p a rt, clearly ta k e th e ir s t a r t from th e K ish
g ra p h ite flakes.
F ig . 7 shows course g ra p h ite (K ish) which has
grow n ra d ia tin g from a nucleus in th e m elt.
F igs. 8 an d 9 illu s tra te K ish g ra p h ite lamellae
w ith p ecu liar fra c tu re phenom ena. These fra c ­
tu re s have been caused by b ending an d pressure
stresses occurrin g in th e m elt when liquid and

F ig . 16.—Graphite L amina, x 30.

when freezing. The g ra p h ite flakes here seen

have a len g th of 6 to 8 mm. (7% in. to 7 % in .).
F igs. 10 an d 11 show th in coarse g ra p h ite
lamellae (K ish) which have been broken up by
w orking th e m elt, an d have been th r u s t aside
a n d collected to g e th e r a g a in like drift-w ood.
F ig . 12 shows coarse g ra p h ite lamellae w ith
la te ra l ag g reg atio n s w hich correspond to crys-
ta llo g rap h ic axes and enclose definite
angles.
F igs. 13 an d 14 are m ost in te re stin g from the
cry stallo g rap h ic sta n d p o in t. The lon g itu d in ally -
sectioned sm all g ra p h ite flakes have som ewhat
 140

th e shape of double tu n in g forks. O wing to th e

im poverishing of th e m o ther-liquor in carbon and
to insufficient diffusion, th e g ra p h ite flakes have
quickly grow n superficially a t th e ends, w h ilst th e
nucleus has n o t moved. T his fo rm atio n of a
b o rd er a p p a re n tly cleaved all ro u n d is of fre q u e n t

F ig . 17.—Coarse Graphite shown in F igs . 10

AND 11 VIEWED UNDER POLARISED LlGHT.

occurrence in th e case of m in erals h a v in g a

sim ilar c ry stallisatio n , to g e th e r w ith a ra p id ity
of grow th largely p rev a ilin g in one d ire ctio n .
This phenom enon h ad n o t been observed so fa r
in re g a rd to g ra p h ite in c a st iron.
 141

Examination of Graphite p e r se
W ith reference to th e s tru c tu re of th e g ra p h ite
lamellse in ca st iron, th is also will be d e a lt w ith
in a g en eral way only. G ra p h ite is a wholly
opaque, hexagonal m in eral h av in g a good reflect­
ing pow er. A ccording to th e w ork by

F ig . 1 8 .— C o a r s e G r a p h it e F lakes correspon d­
in g to F i g . 7 , v ie w ed betw een C ro ssed
N ic o l s .

P . R a m d o h r,“ th e ex am in atio n of g ra p h ite can

easily be e a rn e d o u t in polarised lig h t. W ith
finely -g ran u lar g ra p h ite , th e re is no difficulty in
m ak in g th e polished section. I t is sufficient to
give th e specim en a p relim in ary polish by hand,
w et, on a sta tio n a ry glass disc, an d to finish
 142

polishing by ru b b in g ro u n d g en tly on a cloth-

covered block. C oarse g ra p h ite , also in th e case
of polished sections of cast iro n , have rep eated ly
to be tr e a te d h o t w ith kollolith or a n o th e r sim ilar
sealing-w ax p re p a ra tio n . S lip p in g on th e h e x a ­
gonal basis (0 0 0 1 ) occurs so very easily t h a t th e
g rin d in g of a b asal section of cast iro n is alm ost
im possible and produces ex fo liatio n . The sm all
an d m ostly peculiar-sh ap ed g ra p h ite p la tes and
g ra p h ite flakes in c a st iro n , w hen ex am in ed w ith
a p o larisin g system ,, show a decided reflex pleo-
chroism . W hen in th e case of th e g ra p h ite
lam ella; th e ru n of th e basis is in th e lo n g itu d in a l
d irectio n of th e strip -sh ap ed sectio n p ara lle l
to th e plane of v ib ra tio n of th e nicols, th e ir
lum inosity is as g re a t as w ith b asal sections.
L um inosity is low est p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e plane
of v ib ra tio n of th e nicols. On tu r n in g th e
section betw een crossed nicols, a fo u rfold
e x tin c tio n is observed.
F ig . 15 shows a coarse g ra p h ite la m in a u n d e r
a m agnification of ab o u t 30 d iam eters. The
hexagonal shape is shown to have been well
m a in tain ed . R eflectiv ity , as a lread y m en tio n ed ,
is good, an d w ith referen ce to o rie n ta tio n is in ­
d ep en d en t of th e rev o lu tio n of th e specim en.
A n o th er g ra p h ite la m in a is illu s tra te d in
F ig . 16; th is is of la rg e r p ro p o rtio n s, b u t is in
poorer condition. The o u tlin e of th e u p p e r s u r­
face and of th e edges is very d istin c t.
The rad io g rap h ic researches m ade by W ever
show t h a t th e c ry sta l size of th e g ra p h ite lam in a
in ca st iro n is of ab o u t 100 A n g stro m u n its,
corresponding to ab o u t h alf t h a t of te m p er
carbon. W hen view ing th e strip -sh a p e d sec­
tio n s th ro u g h th e g ra p h ite laminae w ith crossed
nicols, sm all g ra p h ite lines becam e u n ifo rm ly
ex tin g u ish ed . The coarse g ra p h ite fra g m e n ts r e ­
produced in F ig . 17, w hich correspond to those
of F igs. 10 an d 11, b u t ta k e n in polarised lig h t,
also show— a p a r t from fa u lty polished p a rts —
ap p ro x im ately th e sam e beh av io u r. The circu m ­
stan ce m ay be due to th e fa c t t h a t in d iv id u a l
lamellae a re b u ilt-u p of p arallel, m icroscopically
sm all p articles g iv in g th e im pression of u n i­
form ity.
 143

F ig . 18 sliows coarse g ra p h ite between the

crossed nicols, co rresponding to F ig . 7.
F igs. 19 an d 20 illu s tra te betw een th e crossed
nicols th e frag m en ts on coarse g ra p h ite flakes,
already re fe rre d to , also th e peculiar-shaped end

F ig . 19.—Shows F ractured Graphite F lake

VIEWED BETWEEN CROSSED NlOOLS.

of a g ra p h ite lam ella. The pressure an d bending

stresses in th e g ra p h ite g en erate d d u rin g th e
cooling of th e cast iron (th ere arisin g a
su b stan tially sm all shrin k ag e) cause an u p set­
tin g an d crum p lin g of th e in d iv id u al g ra p h ite
 F ig . 26.—Characteristic Structures o i T h re e Cit
Corrosion R esistance E xperiments. T he letpî

T a b le I .— Summary of Chemical Composition, Mechanical Properties,mi

Properties of dry cast bars F

Composition. 1 of 33 mm. diam. 1

Melt
No. Tensile Trans­
Ni strength. verse Brinell Specif
C Si Gravit;.
kg./mm . 2 strength hardness.
kg./m m . 2

(a) . . 3,08 0,94 — 25,9 42,7 2 1 2 7,3976

(6 ) .. 3,03 1,74 24,2 37,8 196 —
(c) .. 3,07 2,52 19,8 33,5 199 7,3312

(d) 2,90 1,77 0,90 25,1 37,2 199 7,4037

(«) •• 2,92 1,25 1,85 27,1 — — 7,4423

(/) •• 3,10 0,73 3,70 27,0 42,7 2 2 2 7,4380
(9) ■■ 3,09 0,32 5,63 27,9 43,2 225 7,4721
(h) . . 3,06 0,38 3,95 29,6 42,5 237 7,4848

1 Average Mn 0.03 ; P 0.02 and S 0.015 per cent, Bars as Series an

for 1 hr. a t 1,050 deg. C., and several times between 600 and 800 deg. C. r=
denote the diameter of the cast bars in mm.
£ Iro n Tests by Nipper and P iwowarsky for their
MS IN D IC A T E CORRESPONDING SAMPLES IN F l G . 2 7 .

¿ Structure of various Cast Irons studied by Bornhofen and Piwowarsky.

Series I. Series II. Series III. Series IV.

Pearlite with fine Pearlite with Ferrite with Graphite like
lamellar graphite coarser graphite coarse graphite . 2 temper carbon3.
3.002 to 0 . 2 mm. 0.03 to 0.2 mm.

Carbide Carbide Carbide Carbide

Bar. 4 Bar. Bar. Bar.
content. content. content. content.

T 33 1,52 T 50 1,50 T 50 0,04 K 33 0,04

N 33 1,29 T 50 1 ,2 0 T 50 0,04 K 33 0,04
JK 20]
N 20 1 ,2 2 N 50 1,18 N 50 0 ,0 0
\K 33 f 0 ,0 2

0.03 fK 201 0.04

: N 20 1,23 N 50 1,26 N 50 \K 33J
0,04 ÍK 2 0 1
0,06
T 20 1,32 N 50 1,29 N 50 \K 33/
N 33 1,24 N 50 1 ,2 0 N 50 0,03 K 33 0,06
N 33 1,26 N 50 1,28 N 50 0,06 K 33 0,34
N 33 1,46 T 50 1,42 T 50 0 ,0 2 K 20 0,08

«nnealed between 650 and 800 deg. C. 3 Bars annealed in coal-sand mixture
' = Dry sand casting ; N = Green sand casting ; K = Chill casting. The figures
 14(5

lam ella?; hence th e ir wavy c h a ra c te r. W hile

lam ellar g ra p h ite in c ast iron alw ays con­
sists of sm all basal p la te s, th e m icroscopic
e x a m in a tio n of te m p e r c arb o n showed t h a t here
was a rev elatio n of a conglom eration of fine
g ra p h ite layers, ro u n d fibrous a g g reg ates, in
which th e basis of th e sm all lam inse is o rie n te d
p erp en d icu lar to th e ra d iu s of th e sphere. This
is d ealt w ith in d e ta il la te r.
Influence of Graphite on the Properties of Cast Iron
W ith reference to th e influence w hich th e
am o u n t, form a n d a rra n g e m e n t of th e g ra p h ite
have upon th e p ro p ertie s of c a st iro n , th e fol­
lowing g en eral observations m ay be m ade : —
The difficulties in th e c a stin g tech n iq u e and
in m ach in in g increase m ark ed ly w ith a low ering
of th e carbon a n d g ra p h ite p ercen tag es. As
f a r as possible, th ere fo re , th e carb o n c o n te n t of
cast iron m u st n o t go below a d eterm in ed value.
G rap h ite in globular fo rm a tio n is th e m ost
favourable. The “ n o tch ” effect is of th e le ast
im p o rtan ce in such cases, an d th e superficial
are a corresponds to a m inim um . A sm all
num ber of larg e spheres w ould w eaken th e m a te ­
rial a t isolated p a rts to such an e x te n t t h a t
fra c tu re s w ould easily occur. A n exceedingly
large num ber of th e sm allest spheres, hence a
highly-dispersed d is trib u tio n , w ould m ean a
m uch too g re a t superficial lack of c o n tin u ity in
th e m a te ria l. The best solu tio n lies betw een th e
tw o extrem es. The superficial a re a of th e
g ra p h ite has to be in th e m ost fa v o u rab le pro­
p o rtio n to th e q u a n tity p re se n t in th e m ass.
S h o rt, t h i t k lam ella;, n o t connected too closely
to one a n o th er, a n d n o t too n um erous, a re th e
m ost fav o u rab le fo rm (th e g lo b u lar form of
carbon deposition can only be a rriv e d a t in th e
case of m alleable c a st iro n ). A n u n fa v o u ra b le
g ra p h ite fo rm atio n , of fine, connected shapes,
th e superficial area being larg e, even w hen occur­
rin g in th e w ide meshes of a n etw o rk , as, fo r
instance, in highly undercooled, h ighly hypo-
eu tec tic m elts, is of a n a tu re fu lly to d eterm in e
th e m echanical p ro p ertie s. F ra c tu re proceeds
along th e m eshes an d goes fro m one g ra p h ite
flake to an o th er.
 147
R eference m ay now be m ade to a few, mostly
recent, researches dealin g w ith th e influence
w hich th e form an d am o u n t of g ra p h ite have
upon th e p ro p ertie s of grey c a st iron, researches

F ig . 2 0 .— X ovee F o r m a t io n o r G r a p h it e v ie w e d
betw een Crossed îs ic o l s .

w h ic h f o r t h e m o s t p a r t h a v e b e e n c a r r ie d o u t
i n A a c h e n .*
» O pportunity is here taken to state th a t when in th e course
of this paper reference is made to a few research results m ostly
proceeding from Aachen, th e au th o r in no wise loses sight
of the im portance of the exceedingly numerous other researches
in the same field, carried out both in foreign countries and in
Germany. The present short paper can only cover a p a rt of
th e su b ject; th e references made are simply those which concern
this same part.
 148

A. K och an d E . P iw ow arsky ' 2 c a rrie d o u t a

very com plete in v e stig a tio n on th e influence of
th e carbon co n te n t upon th e s tru c tu re and
s tre n g th p ro p ertie s of grey cast iron, w ith re fe r­
ence to v ary in g silicon c o n ten ts, te m p e ra tu re s
a n d w all thicknesses.
T hey w ere able, generally, to confirm fo rm er
results. The g ra p h ite c o n te n t rose, a n d its
fo rm atio n was coarser w ith an in crea sin g wall
th ic k n e ss; th e tra n sv e rse an d ten sile stre n g th s

N
S/~e% &- 3- s. JY=£e%
0/-7,7% 07= 0,0%
O o
7SOO
A '■ }~r
Casf/ng 1 -1
lemp.A
ß —"I---9---?--- -- 9i— /,
^7700
| Cast/n i Tenip l r /
'X •+-
■On 1
//V
a 7000
o'
iXN 7/
s' 1
s 7
: 7000 ■‘t
1
1— 1-- w
1
1
O'
7700, I i
0,0 0,7 0 ,0 0 ,2 0 ,0 7 ,0 7 ,7
Carbon Percenrage
F ig . 2 1 .— P o s it io n o r C a s t in g T em pera tu res in
E x p e r im e n t s by K och and P iw o w a r s k y
WITH RESPECT TO LIQUID AS LlNES OF VARIOUS
Fe-C -Si A lloys (con structed on C' D ' L in e s
DETERMINED BY PlWOWARSKY AND SCHICHTEI
FOR DIFFERENT Si CONTENTS).

also fell in som ew hat th e sam e p ro p o rtio n s. F o r

th e sam e su p e rh e a t, alloys th e poorer in carbon
could, n a tu ra lly , be less u n d e rc o o le d ; in th e
eu te c tic g ra p h ite c ry sta llisatio n , th e fo rm atio n
of a re tic u la r, exceedingh' fine g ra n u la r g ra p h ite
stru c tu re h av in g a to o -larg e superficial a re a did
n o t occur, b u t, ow ing to th e lesser undercooling,
th e re ensued th e fo rm atio n of m ore o r less
irre g u la rly divided, highly-grow n fine g ra p h ite
lamellae. The im p ac t s tre n g th , in p a rtic u la r, of
several alloys was found to have in creased e ig h t
to te n tim es.
 .»r ■ N "T l. ' C s ~V
■h v - 'í n f" * ''sb i

y Wallichs and
All the
Divergent Graphite
v ¿ V ¿N -v. ?> : ' x ’" x .v & >

* A-l'" W * •' *“ , ' - O ' ' ’* i'/

■ w . '.W ' -* • ; < / * ; % . • ->:< -

(a) Sample No. 22; (6 ) Sample No. 32, and (c) Sample No. 41.
{V c¿ - < 3 r ' ' )■

n C.I. for Automobile Cylinders b

*— •- * *- s ■'» " r M V

widely
5 ¡£t . I T ^ V • »y

yV- % •** '} \ ***' v'.K

x 75.
p Three Different Cast I rons with
" ; : - '■ V A a V :A \

,
rV V V A A V

unetched
: l ■
,V 7 ' ' ■ - 'V A "v/V-*- 'v \ \ —
•' -ó ■ .v _ ^ - l ' A* a w r. r h \*
A..x a x u '■ . x V ' V ' A ¿A ' a ■ ;
* .

are
■ ł / • - ■ l " f * S . ' ■• .••'
Formation obtained in Wear Tests o

..A ') (, . , ; - r \ -•, A' M ic r o s

> , *- ' , v v \ A ' 1; ; -

s - •- ■ , 'I Y \ > •
- x i _ V ' '/ . - J\ 7 .A
o

'V A A
Fig. 22.—Structures

v a -—

\
v V ! > - /
wVW /
Gregor.

x
1 - 1 ' '/ ,
■ v r , ^ ,

* \¡
^ . /
j
 150

F ig . 21 shows th e c a stin g te m p e ra tu re worked

to by K och an d P iw ow arsky, along th e lines
established by P iw ow arsky a n d S ch ich tel 13 in
th e iron-carbon-silioon d iag ram .
INall Thickness : Mould Temp
(cast) in M.M. 75

R o c k w e ll 7)
Hardness
7j M e a su re d on W ear
Samp/e_____
Alloy added in
% NforHiKr. 0,57 0,23 0,57

Linear Graphite 25,7

Penetration 73,5
7,3

737

Wear Values (Loss

oh Weight in M G-
after 5ooo revs.
35,7

1
3,20 3 ,3 7 3,25
2, VO 2,8V 2,53
0,80 0,73, 0 ,57
0,83 7.53 2,73
ChemicalAnalysis
0,V2 0,7V 0,87
0,78 0,23 0,28
0,70 0,09
0,53 0,20 0,70
0 ,0 8 0,0 3 0,77

F ig . 23.—W ear V alues of T hbee

A utomobile C ylinder I rons
O B T A IN E D BY W a L L IC H S AND
Gregor w it h a W ear-T esting
M achine .

Wear Tests
T he re p o rts by H eim es a n d P iw o w arsk y 1 4 on
researches on c a st iro n , u sin g a new ty p e of
w ear-testin g m achine, clearly show t h a t w ith
g ra p h ite of in creasin g fineness, th e s tru c tu r a l
 151

com position being generally th e sam e, w ear

largely increases in all classes of w ear tests,
nam ely, rolling a n d slid in g fric tio n , fric tio n by
ro ta tio n in an em ery bush, and frictio n by
c u ttin g -in w ith a m ild-steel disc. The stru c tu re
becomes g rad u ally m ore broken up , a n d in rolling
fric tio n especially fric tio n a l o x id atio n (F in k )1*
is g re a tly increased. I n th e case of dry sliding
fric tio n th e g ra p h ite acts as a lu b r ic a n t; in th is
instance, th e re occurs a m ost favourable g ra p h ite
co n ten t an d a m ost fav o u rab le g ra p h ite fo rm a­
tion. W hen th e g ra p h ite c o n te n t is too high and
also too fine, th e s tru c tu re b reak s up . Of all th e
g ra p h ite arra n g e m e n ts, w ell-form ed an d re la­
tively coarse tem p er carbon showed th e lowest
w ear values. A fe rritic stru c tu re , to g e th e r w ith
a relativ ely largely increased g ra p h ite segrega­
tio n w ears aw ay m uch m ore th a n a purely
p earlitic one. The influence of o th e r alloy
elem ents, a p a r t from t h a t which th e y have upon
th e carbon co n te n t a n d th e s tru c tu re , was not
clearly ascertain ed .
L ike H eim es a n d P iw ow arsky, W allichs and
G regor , 1 6 in th e ir w ear te s ts of vario u s classes of
c ast iron fo r m o to r-car cylinders, u sin g w ear-
te s tin g m achines an d heavy tra c tio n engines,
found t h a t w ear d irectly increases w ith increas­
ing lin ear g ra p h ite dissem ination. Following
exten sive ascerta in m e n ts by W allichs and his co­
w orkers, h ard n ess influences th e resistance to
w ear of th e te s t specim ens, an d can rem ain
co n stan t.
F ig . 22 shows th e stru c tu re of th re e p e arlitic
b rands of cast i r o n ; i t is u n etch ed . F ig . 23
illu s tra te s th e re su lts of w ear fo r th e same class
of m a terial. The w ork in th is connection shows
t h a t a m etal e x h ib itin g definitely good lam ellar
p e a rlite w ith, in itself, a low carbon c o n ten t,
an d a m oderate lin e a r g ra p h ite d issem ination,
gives th e low est w ear valves an d is easy to
m achine. The req u ired s tru c tu re can be arriv ed
a t by h o t p o u rin g in p re-h eated m oulds, th e
percentages of carbon an d silicon being low.
I n th e course of th e ir w ork, B ornhofen and
P iw ow arsky 11 have c a rrie d o u t researches to
 162

a sc e rta in th e influence of nickel an d silicon, also

of th e g ra p h ite c o n te n t an d fo rm a tio n u pon th e
g row th of cast iron. H e a tin g -u p fo r 60 h rs. to
650 deg. C., th e re fo re , u n d e r th e A p o in t
showed very clearly t h a t an n ealed chill-cast bars,
h aving well-developed te m p e r carbon, behaved
th e best. The m ain s tru c tu r e w as fe rritic .
P e a rlitic specim ens, especially those show ing a
coarse g ra p h ite fo rm a tio n , e x h ib ited by f a r th e
g re a te st grow th (see Table I a n d F ig s. 24 and
25). Silicon influences g ro w th by th e m a n n e r in
which th e g ra p h ite fo rm a tio n ta k e s place. Ac­
cording to B ard e n h e u e r , 18 follow ing his researches
w ith silicon steels, silicon h as a g re a tly re ta rd in g
action upon grow th. I t has q u ite th e sam e effect
in th e case of chill castin g s, w h ilst in t h a t of a
p e a rlitic s tru c tu r e an d , to a sm aller e x te n t, in
t h a t of a fe rritic -g ra p h itic s tru c tu re , i t fav o u rs
grow th. The fo rm atio n of S i0 2, p rom oted by
m ore or less deep p e n e tra tio n of gases along th e
coarse g ra p h ite plates, can here be ta k e n into
account an d m ade responsible for th e ex ten siv e
grow th. F igs. 26 and 27 show from th e work
by N ip p er an d P iw o w arsk y 1 9 th e c h a ra c te ristic
s tru c tu re of th re e c ast-iro n b ra n d s (u n etch ed ).
B oth in a sem i-norm al hydrochloric-acid solution
an d in dam p e a rth a h ig h lin e a r g ra p h ite dis­
sem ination, in c o n tra s t to te m p e r carbon, and
also to sh o rt an d th ic k g ra p h ite flakes, b rin g s
ab o u t corrosion. In dam p e a rth , th e difference
is somewrh a t less m ark ed .
I n conclusion, th e re su lts of q u ite re c e n t re ­
searches m ade by E . Sohnchen in th e G iesserei-
I n s titu t, which are destin ed to show th e influence
of th e g ra p h ite fo rm atio n u pon some physical
p ro p erties, are shortly d e a lt w ith.
F ig . 28 gives th e s tru c tu r e an d an aly sis of a
te s t specim en ca st in san d a n d of one chill c ast.
The m a te ria l is fe rritic an n ealed . Table I I gives
th e m ag n etic p ro p e rtie s, figures fo r h e a t and
ele c tric ity co n d u c tiv ity , also a few corrosion
results. The follow ing m ay be added, briefly,
in th is connection.
T he coercivity, which is c o m p arativ ely high
ow ing to th e Cu c o n te n t of th e m elt, is still
 15 ; !

q>
1 ° 7M
B
JO vl
e
<o
¥
B
4= 0
S en e s IM M W
M a te ria / a.

F ig . 2 4 .— E ffect of V a r io u s T ypes of G r a p h it e
F rom B ornhofen and P iw o w a r s k y .

'St

S e rie s JM M JF IM M JF IM M W IM M W IM M W
Materia/ c d e f if

F ig . 2 5 .— F o r m a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d by C o m p o s i­
tio n o f th e M e lts on th e G ro w th of
V a rio u s C a s t I r o n s .
F rom B ornhofen and P iw o w a r s k y .

T able I I .— Effect of Graphite Formation in two Cast

Irons of a similar Composition on various Properties,
according to Sohnchen.
Sand Chill
Properties. Casting. Casting.
Reheated. Reheated.
Graphite form ation: Coarse Fine
Coercivity (Oersted) 5,6 7,2
Remanence (Gauss) 6,360 8,400
Saturation (Gauss) 18,900 18,700
Thermal conductivity (N i= l) .. 0,94 0,69
Electrical conductivity . . 1,39.1c - 4 1,71.10“ *
(ß -1. cm-1)
Percentage loss in weight :
N /5 H N 0 3 (10 days) .. 1 1 ,0 12,4
N/5 acetic acid (10 days) 9,5 1 0 ,2
Air (50 days) .. 0,62 0,81
 154

F i g . 27.—Corrosion
Attack by Normal Hydrochloric Acid and
Wet Soil related to Graphite Condition oe V arious Types or
Cast I rons of the following Compositions : —

Melt
No. T.C. Gr. Si. Mn. S. P.

6 2 .8 2.80 3.56 0.41 0.025 0.059

1 3.05 3.03 2.70 0.40 0.024 0.053
2 3.04 3.02 2.22 0.40 0.024 0.058
3 3.02 3.00 1.80 0.40 0.024 0.058
4 3.03 3.02 1.28 0.41 0.024 0.054

fu r th e r increased by th e very fine h eterogeneous

com ponents w hich are p re c ip ita te d (g ra p h ite in
chill castin g ), which conform s com pletely w ith
observations m ade w ith vario u s m a g n e t steels.
The rem anence is also m uch h ig h e r w ith fine
g ra p h itic fo rm atio n s, while th e s a tu ra tio n is n o t
affected, w hich agrees w ith th e observed effect
of v arious carbide fo rm atio n s in steels. The
th e rm a l co n d u ctiv ity , which is affected to a m uch
 .V
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F ig . 28.—Graphite Structure o f Tw o Cast I rons o

f Similar Composition (C 3.04, Si 2 .28,
A
ND Cu 1.92) EXAMINED B Y SoHNCHEN FOR THEIR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. (if) SAND CAST, HeAT
Treated, Unetched. x 100. (6) Chill Cast, Heat Treated, Unetched, x 100.
 156

g re a te r degree by th e p a rtic le size th a n th e elec­

tric a l co n d u ctiv ity , on th e o th e r h a n d , de­
creases, w hich is evid en tly m ain ly due to th e finer
n a tu re of th e fe rrite g ra in s, th e e lec trical con­
d u c tiv ity increases w ith th e fineness of th e p re ­
c ip ita te d com ponents, in line w ith common
observation.
Corrosion te s ts ca rrie d o u t on laminae 20 mm.
d ia. an d 5 mm. th ic k confirm th e re su lts of
N ip p er and Piw ow arsky. C orrosion increases
w ith an increase in th e fineness m odulus of th e
g rap h ites.

REFER EN CES.
1 T a m m a n n : K r is ta llis ie r e n a n d S c h m e lz e n , L e ip z ig , J o h .
A m b r o siu s B a r th , 1 9 0 3 , p. 13 1 .
2 P i w o w a r s k y : B e r ic h t W e r k s to ffa u s s c h u s s V .D .E . N o . 6 3 ,
1 9 2 5 . S t. u . E is , 19 2 5 , p p . 1 4 5 5 /6 1 . G ie sser e i. 1 9 2 5 , p p . 8 3 6 /3 7 .
3 v . K e il, M its c h e , L e g a t, T r e n k le r : A r c h . f .d . E is e n h iit te n w e s ,
1 9 3 3 /3 4 , v o l. 1 0 , p p . 5 7 9 /5 8 4 .
4 A . R e in h a r d t, D is s e r t a t io n A a c h e n , 1 9 3 3 .
5 H . H a n e m a n n , M o n a tsb lä tte r d e s B e z ir k sv e r e in s D e u ts c h e r
I n g e n ie u r e , 1 9 2 6 , p p . 3 1 /3 6 .
6 E . P iw o w a r s k y : A r c h . f .d . E is e n h iit te n w e s , 1 9 3 3 /3 4 , v o l. 7.
pp . 4 3 1 /3 2 .
7 E . P iw o w a r s k y : S t. u . E ., 1 9 3 4 , p p . 8 2 /8 4 .
8 E . P iw o w a r s k y : G ie ss. Z tg ., 1 9 2 6 , p p . 3 7 9 /8 5 , 4 1 4 /2 1 .
H o c h w e r tig e r G ra u g u ss, J u l. S p r in g e r , B e r lin . 1 9 2 9 , p p . 1 3 4 a n d
2 7 6 . G ie ss. 14 (1 9 2 7 ), p p . 2 5 3 /5 7 , 2 7 3 /7 6 , 2 9 0 /9 5 . S t. u . E ,
47 (1 9 2 7 ), p p . 3 0 8 /1 0 .
9 P . B a r d e n h e u e r a n d K . L . Z e y e n : G ie ss., 1 9 2 8 , p p . 3 5 4 /6 5 ,
3 8 5 /9 7 , 4 1 1 /2 0 . S t. u . E .. 48 ( 1 9 2 8 ), p . 51 5 .
10 A . W a g n e r : S t. u . E ., 1 9 2 7 , p p . 1 0 8 1 /8 2 . G ie s s ., 1 9 2 8 ,
p .9 2 1 . S t. u . E . (1 9 3 0 ), p p . 6 5 5 /6 8 .
H P . R a m d o h r : A r c h . f .d . E is e n h iit te n w e s . 1, 1 9 2 7 /2 8 ,
p p . 6 6 9 /7 2 .
12 A . K o c h a n d E . P iw o w a r s k y : D ie G ie sser e i, 1 9 3 3 , v o ls . 1 a n d
2, 3 a n d 4, p p . 1 - 1 3 .
13 K . S c h ic h te i a n d E . P iw o w a r s k y : A r c h . f.d . E is e n h iit te n w e s .
3 , 1 9 2 9 /3 0 , v o l. 2 , p p . 1 3 9 /1 4 7 .
14 F . H e im e s a n d E . P i w o w a r s k y : A r c h . f .d . E is e n h iit te n w e s .
6 , 1 9 3 2 /3 3 , v o l. 11, p p . 5 0 1 /5 .
15 M. F in k : O rg. F o r tsc h . E is e n b a h n w e s. 8 4 ( 1 9 2 9 ), p p . 4 0 5 /1 2 .
A r c h . E is e n h iit te n w e s . 6 ( 1 9 3 2 /3 3 ) , pp. 1 6 1 /6 4 .
16 A . W a llic h s a n d J . G re g o r : D ie G ie sser e i, 1 9 3 3 , N o . 4 7 /4 8
a n d 4 9 /5 0 , p p . 5 1 7 /5 2 3 a n d 5 4 8 /5 5 5 .
17 O. B o r n h o fe n a n d E . P iw o w a r s k y : A r c h . f .d . E is e n h iit t e n ­
w e s. 7 ( 1 9 3 3 /3 4 ) , v o l. 4 , p p . 2 6 9 /7 4 .
18 P . B a r d e n h e u e r : S t. u . E is . 50 (1 9 3 0 ), p . 7 4.
19 H . N ip p e r an d E . P iw o w a r s k y : T h e F o u n d r y , D e c ., 19 3 2 .

A very w arm welcome was e x ten d e d to D r.

N ip p er by th e P re s id e n t (M r. R oy S tu b b s) and
sincere th a n k s w ere expressed to him fo r h av in g
trav elled from G erm any to p re se n t th e P a p e r
in person. D r. N ip p er ex ten d e d th e g re e t­
ings of G erm an fo u n d ry m en a n d th e ir good
 157

wishes for th e success of th e conference. He

was asked to convey a reciprocal message to th e
G erm an Iro n fo u n d e rs’ A ssociation.

DISCUSSION
Mb . A. H ablby (P a st-P re sid e n t), who
welcomed th e P a p e r as a b rillia n t c o n trib u tio n to
c u rr e n t know ledge of g ra p h ite fo rm atio n in cast
iron, an d expressed g ra titu d e to D r. N ip p er, said
t h a t one of th e m icrographs seemed to prove th a t
the fine g ra p h ite flakes were less re s ista n t to cor­
rosion th a n w ere th e la rg e r ones. T h a t was very
significant, because in autom obile work one was
very largely concerned w ith w ear, and th e sub­
je c t of w ear in cy lin d er b a rre ls was closely related
to corrosion. One could m ake sound castings w ith
various com positions, b u t if th e re were w ear in a
b arrel it was a bad c astin g —or should be. A
special research by th e A utom obile Association
had shown t h a t w ear in cy lin d er barrels was
alm ost e n tire ly a m a tte r of corrosion. Therefore,
th e in d u s try h a d to find an iro n which no t only
w ould give a sound c astin g , b u t which would
resist corrosion. Sm all g ra p h ite flakes were n ot
necessarily good in cylinder iron if th ey were
m ore liable th a n la rg e r flakes to oxid atio n and
corrosion d u rin g th e w orking of th e en g in e ; so
th a t he em phasised th e p o in t, which was a new
one, an d which should claim special a tte n tio n .
M r. H arley also asked if D r. N ip p e r h ad in fo r­
m atio n as to th e effect of sm all p ercentages of
copper in cast iron, in re la tio n to its resistance
to corrosion.

Factors Influencing Wear Resistance

D b . N ippe b rep lied th a t he h ad n o t y e t carried
o u t exp erim en ts on th e influence of copper in
oast iron by te s tin g sam ples w ith an d w ith o u t
copper from th e p o in t of view of corrosion, b u t
had m erely considered i t from th e p o in t of view
of th e am o u n t of g rap h ite .
D iscussing th e influence of th e size of g ra p h ite
flakes upon resistance to w ear and corrosion, he
p ointed o u t t h a t a c e rta in a m o u n t of g ra p h ite
m u st be presen t in all c a st irons in o rd er to
 158

fa c ilita te p o u rin g an d m ach in in g . I f th e to ta l

carbon were all b ro u g h t to one p o in t only th e re
w ould be a very big ball of carb o n , and th e iron
would break a t t h a t p oint. The o th e r ex tre m e
was to d is trib u te th e carbon as finely as possible
by h av in g a com pletely undercooled m a te ria l ; b u t
th a t also was n o t a good th in g . B etw een these
tw o extrem es th e re m u s t be th e o p tim u m condi­
tio n . T he chief co n sid eratio n was t h a t th e su r­
face are a of th e g ra p h ite m u st be very sm all as
com pared w ith th e to ta l q u a n tity of g ra p h ite
presen t, a n d u n d e r those circu m stan ces th e w ear­
ing p ro p ertie s of th e m a te ria l w ere very good.
T here were d ifferen t k in d s of w e a r; fo r in stan ce,
depending on w heth er th e m a te ria l was rubbed
or rolled, th e w ear was differen t. I n m ost cases
su rface o x id atio n caused th e tro u b le . The best
w earing m a te ria l was one co n ta in in g n o t too
much g ra p h ite an d n o t too m uch silicon, b u t
hav in g a very well-developed p e a rlite a n d sh o rt
b u t fa irly stro n g g ra p h ite flakes in th is p e a rlite .
One could n o t produce te m p e r carbon in itia lly ,
b u t only by an n ealin g a fte rw a rd s. I f one s ta rte d
from th e fluid s ta te th e b est one could do was
to produce sh o rt b u t fa irly heavy g ra p h ite
flakes, so t h a t th e su rfa c e a re a of th e g ra p h ite
was very sm all as com pared w ith th e to ta l
q u a n tity p resen t.

Importance of Melting Conditions

M r . J . G. P earce (D irecto r, B ritis h C a st Iro n
R esearch A ssociation) c o n trib u te d , n o t m erely
because of his own, personal frien d sh ip w ith D r.
N ip p e r, b u t also because th e a u th o r rep re se n ted
one of th e lead in g m e ta llu rg ic a l schools on th e
C o n tin en t ; undo u b ted ly th e lead in g school on
th e C o n tin e n t in re sp ect of research in to fo u n d ry
work.
The P a p e r m ig h t seem to be very highly te c h ­
nical, b u t i t was v aluable. F o u n d e rs w ere v itally
in terested in th e s tre n g th a n d m echanical pro­
p erties of c ast iro n , an d th e stre n g th w as very
largely governed by th e stru c tu re . A t one tim e
it was th o u g h t t h a t th e s tre n g th was governed
m ainly by th e com p o sitio n ; b u t th e com position
 159

was only one of several facto rs affecting this

m a tte r. I n th is connection he recalled a P a p e r
presented some y ears ago by D r. N o rb u ry , in
which was dem o n strated very clearly th e effect
of m eltin g co n d itio n s; by chan g in g those con­
ditions, D r. N o rb u ry h ad produced, from th e
sam e com position, irons of to ta lly different stru c ­
tu re s, a n d he h ad produced m icrographs n o t dis­
sim ilar from some of those shown by D r. N ip p er.
T he fin e-g rap h ite stru c tu re s th e n produced were
re fe rre d to by D r. N o rb u ry as supercooled-
g ra p h ite stru c tu re s, being th e re s u lt of a su p er­
cooling action in th e m elt itself. In v a ria b ly
th e re was a te m p e ra tu re (or ran g e of te m p era­
tu re ) over which a m elt norm ally solidified, and
it was well know n th a t, if th e conditions p er­
m itted , a m elt would fall below t h a t te m p e ra tu re
or t h a t ra n g e before i t solidified, th e e x te n t of
th e drop being th e e x te n t of w h at was called
“ supercooling.” The s tru c tu re altered w ith th e
e x te n t of th e supercooling, so th a t th e m echanical
p ro p erties an d th e stre n g th altered correspond­
ingly, and t h a t was why th e conditions described
by D r. N ip p e r concerned th e fo u n d ry so much.

Factors Governing Supercooling

The law due to T am m ann, an d refe rre d to a t
th e b eginning of th e P a p e r, was th a t th e num ber
of cen tres of cry stallisatio n which form ed in u n it
volum e in u n it tim e m easured th e tendency to
spontaneous cry stallisatio n , and i t was called
th e “ nuclei, n u m b e r,” rep resen ted by th e letters
“ K Z ,” from th e G erm an “ k e rn z a h l.” The
lin e a r cry stallisa tio n velocity was a m easure of
th e speed of fo rm atio n of these nuclei, an d i t was
know n in G erm an as “ K G ” —•“ k rista llisa tio n
geschw indigkeit.” I t was on th e m ag n itu d e of
these two an d th e ir ra tio to each o th er t h a t th e
e x te n t of supercooling depended. An o rd in ary
iron which did n o t need to be m elted to a very
high te m p e ra tu re before it was poured—an ingot-
mould iron, fo r exam ple, going in to a th ic k sec­
tio n did not need to be m elted to very high tem -
• p e ra tu re —supercooled very l i t t l e ; b u t if an iron
had to be sup erh eated , th en th e tendency to
 160

supercooling, i.e., fo r th e solidification te m p e ra ­

tu re to fall below th e n orm al solid ify in g te m p e ra ­
tu r e , increased, because su p e rh e a tin g te n d e d to
rid th e m e lt of inclusions of g ra p h ite an d p a r­
ticles of slaggy m a tte r which in th e o rd in a ry way
w ould prom ote cry sta llisa tio n . I f th is su p e r­
cooling action w ere pushed to its lim it, a n d if
th e m etal w ere q u ie t a n d free from eb u llitio n
(p a rtic u la rly o b tain ed u n d e r th e co n d itio n of D r.
N ip p e r’s vacuum m elts), one o b tain ed th e fine
sooty s tru c tu r e w hich h a d been called su p e r­
cooled g ra p h ite .

Utility of Supercooled Graphite

I t had been shown, from th e p o in t of view of
corrosion a n d w ear, t h a t th is s tru c tu r e was n o t
very desirable. I t was curious t h a t i t should be
bad to have e ith e r a n ex tre m ely coarse g ra p h ite
or an ex trem ely fine g ra p h ite . T h a t fine g ra p h ite
was useful fo r some purposes, b u t n o t fo r m ost
of th e purposes fo r w hich c a s t iro n was used, and
i t was to overcome th e ten d en c y to w ard s su p e r­
cooled g ra p h ite th a t th e id ea of in o cu latio n was
developed. I t was illu s tra te d in such iro n s as
N iten sy l, which w as nickel in o cu lated , a n d M ee-
h a n ite , which w as calcium -silicide in o cu lated ,
giving tensile s tre n g th s from 25 to 30 to n s p er
sq. in.
The Inoculation Process
The essen tial fe a tu re w as th e in o cu latio n of
th e w hite or m o ttled iro n w hile still m olten, and
inoculation, w hich th e G erm ans called “ a fte r-
silico n isatio n ,” w as of g r e a t th e o re tic a l in te re st.
I n th is co u n try th e re h ad been a te n d en c y to
re g a rd after-silic o n isa tio n , o r in o cu latio n , as
destroying th e effects of su p e rc o o lin g ; in o th e r
words, we h ad reg a rd ed su p e rh e a tin g as prom ote
ing supercooling, which te n d e d to produce th is
un d esirab ly fine g ra p h ite , an d in o c u la tio n was a
com m ercial an d practicab le rem edy a g a in s t its
effects. On th e o th e r h a n d , th e G erm ans
reg ard ed after-silico n isatio n , o r in o cu latio n , as
prom oting supercooling. I t was q u ite possible
t h a t both th e G erm ans a n d ourselves w ere rig h t,
i.e., t h a t in th e irons w ith w hich we h ad been
 161

w orking th e inocu latio n destroyed th e supercool­

ing effect, w hereas in th e case of th e irons w ith
w hich th e y w ere w orking, in th e conditions in
which he w as w orking, an d w ith his p la n t and
resources, th e reverse was th e case. Possibly we
w ere converging on th e tr u th , an d should be
able la te r com pletely to exp lain th is extrem ely
com plicated problem . In th is co u n try we had
s ta te d all along t h a t th e in oculation th eo ry did
n o t q u ite ex p lain e v e ry th in g t h a t h ap p en ed in
these irons. F u n d a m e n ta l w ork of th is very
im p o rta n t k in d , however rem ote i t m ig h t a p p ear
to be from everyday p ractice, w ould re s u lt in a
fu ller an d tr u e r u n d e rsta n d in g of an extrem ely
com plex a n d very rem ark ab le m ate rial, an d a
d eb t of g ra titu d e was due to D r. N ip p er, n ot
only fo r h av in g p re p a red th e P a p e r, b u t also
fo r h av in g come to th is c o u n try to p resen t i t in
person.
The Nature of “ Kish ”
D r. A. B. E verest , a fte r an expression of
a p p reciatio n of th e P a p e r, said th e re were one
or tw o p o in ts which he found a little puzzling,
an d in connection w ith which he would like
f u r th e r in fo rm atio n . I n th e first place, re fe rrin g
to th e co arse-g rap h ite flakes which D r. N ip p er
had called “ K is h ,” h e g a th ere d t h a t these were
flakes of hyper-eu tectic g ra p h ite of a peculiarly-
coarse form , an d which m u st th ere fo re have
form ed in th e iron p rio r to solidification. As
shown in th e photom icrographs, th ese flakes were
all s tra ig h t an d well developed, an d D r. E v erest
asked, th erefo re, why th e g ra p h ite in o rd in ary
c ast iron, some of w hich was generally con­
sidered to be hyp er-eu tectic, was always curly and
d isto rte d an d showed no evidence of a c ry sta l­
line form such as in d ica ted by th e flakes shown
by D r. N ip p er, even a f te r th ey h a d been broken
up.
D ealing f u r th e r w ith th e form of th e g ra p h ite
flakes, D r. E v ere st expressed p a rtic u la r in te re st
in th e photograp h s ta k e n by polarised lig h t. H e
h ad understood t h a t th e o rd in a ry g ra p h ite flakes
in ca st iron, alth o u g h u ltim a te ly cry stallin e, were
 162

of such fine s tru c tu re t h a t th e y could be con­

sidered as am orphous. H e recalled th e e x p e ri­
m en ts c a rrie d o u t some tim e ago by M oissan in
w hich, by fo rcin g cry sta llisatio n to ta k e place
u n d e r g re a t pressure, th e carbon se p a ra te d as
sm all diam onds, an d he g a th e re d t h a t these
diam onds w ere of a d ifferen t atom ic s tru c tu re
from o rd in a ry g ra p h ite . One w ould e x p e c t a
diam ond to respond to polarised lig h t a n d to
show cry stallo g rap h ic effects such as illu s tra te d
in th e P a p e r. One w ould n o t ex p ect, how ever,
t h a t th e o rd in a ry g ra p h ite flakes in iro n would
show th is effect, an d he would th e re fo re like to
ask D r. N ip p e r w h e th er th e “ K ish ” g ra p h ite
shown could be considered as s tru c tu ra lly sim ila r
to th e o rd in a ry g ra p h ite flakes since, if so, th e n
th e r e was definite evidence here of th e g ra n n ite
in c ast iron being m ore definitely c ry sta llin e th a n
is norm ally supposed.
C om m enting u pon th e w h ite b an d s a ro u n d th e
g ra p h ite flakes, shown p a rtic u la rly in F ig . 2,
D r. E v erest said t h a t usually, w hen e x a m in in g
o rd in a ry com m ercial iro n u n d e r th e m icroscope,
one found b an ds of f e r rite a n d n o t p e a rlite
aro u n d th e g ra p h ite flakes. One could see, how­
ever, in th e p a rtic u la r in sta n c e shown in F ig . 2,
t h a t th e p e a rlite h ad been form ed th e r e in p re ­
ference to f e r r ite ; b u t a p o in t which D r. N ip p e r
had n o t re fe rre d to , to an y g re a t e x te n t, w as th e
fa c t th a t, by supercooling, one v ery o fte n ob­
ta in e d fe rritic stru c tu re s, ra th e r th a n p e a rlitic .
I n some e x p e rim en tal w ork D r. E v e re st h ad
found th a t , w ith an iro n which w ould give an
all-p earlitic s tru c tu r e in a |- i n . section, one
ob tain ed , in a J-in . section, nests of g ra p h ite -
fe r rite stru c tu re s, a n d in some c e n trifu g a l c a st­
ings and o th er chill castin g s, one o b tain ed th e
sam e s tru c tu re w here n orm ally one would ex p e c t
to g e t th e m ore o rd in a ry chilled s tru c tu re . P ro f.
H anson h ad suggested th e th e o ry t h a t fe r rite
s ta rte d life, as D elta iro n in th e to p le ft-h a n d
corner of th e iron-carbon d iag ram . D r. E v e re st
m entioned t h a t D r. N ip p e r h ad n o t a p p a re n tly
re fe rre d to th is effect on supercooling, a n d he
asked w hether th is phenom enon h a d come u n d e r
D r. N ip p e r’s experience an d , if so, w h a t w ere
 103

th e conditions and in w h at way th e y h ad differed

from those involved in th e p re se n t experim ents.
In th is connection he re fe rre d to some ex p eri­
m en ts he h ad ca rrie d o u t w ith iro n developed by
S chütz, in which a h y p er-eu tectic com position was
cast in to a chill m ould. By c astin g w h a t would
norm ally be a very soft iron in th is m an n er, one
could g e t a very dense iron showing th e fe rrite -
g ra p h ite s tru c tu re such as t h a t in F ig . 6.

Structural Strains and Strength

H e h ad been looking for a h ig h -stre n g th re su lt,
hoping to g e t an iro n of som ething like 25 tons,
b u t he h ad fou n d t h a t th e s tre n g th was only
ab o u t 13 o r 14 tons, which was d isap p o in t­
ing. I t h ad been s ta te d both by M r. P earce and
D r. N ip p e r t h a t these fe rrite -g ra p h ite stru c tu res
were n o t desirable, t h a t th e y h a d no good corro­
sion resistance, t h a t th e y w ere weak, a n d so on ;
D r. E v e re st asked w h eth er th e reason was th a t
th e s tru c tu re was atom ically stra in ed . He
believed his own resu lts h ad shown t h a t one
o b tain ed a h ard n ess of a b o u t 200 B rin ell w ith
t h a t stru c tu re , w hereas, ju d g in g from th e consti­
tu tio n , th e figure should be m uch less. Sim i­
larly , if th e s tru c tu re h ad been som ew hat akin
to m alleable iron a n d th e re was fine g ra p h ite , one
w ould ex p ect m uch h ig h er stre n g th s. . Therefore,
he suggested t h a t th e change was due to th e
s tra in in th e s tru c tu re re su ltin g from super­
cooling, an d he asked if ex p erim en ts h ad been
m ade on th e effect of an n ealin g in o rd er to find
o u t w hether, by rem oving th e stra in , one
o b tain ed b e tte r p ro p ertie s in th e iron.
M r . J . S. G. P r i m r o s e , re fe rrin g to th e im ­
p o rtan ce of th e e x am in atio n of stru c tu re s by
polarised lig h t, w hich was com paratively new
in th is co u n try , said he had had to use th a t
m ethod in d istin g u ish in g betw een basic a n d acid
steels ; an d he em phasised t h a t one was n o t using
th e u su al form , tra n s m itte d polarised lig h t, but-
reflected polarised lig h t, which was very d if­
fe re n t ; and y e t i t h ad been capable of giving
ind icatio n s of s tra in in a m a te ria l. W hen the
m aterial was u n stra in e d one obtained a
g2
 164

unifo rm ly-re fleeted p o larised -lig h t im age, b u t

w hen th e m a te ria l w as s tra in e d i t g av e an
irreg u la rly -sh ad ed im age, w hich w as v ery im p o r­
t a n t as show ing t h a t th e g ra p h ite in th e kish
was cry stallin e. H e h ad h a d th e idea t h a t th e
v ery fine n o d u la r g ra p h ite w hich w as called
“ sooty ” g ra p h ite , as i t resem bled soot or d u st
in size, w ould be n o n -cry stallin e, b u t, of course,
th e polarised lig h t w ould be able to rev eal th e
tr u th . H e g a th e re d t h a t undercooling really
m e a n t th e sam e as supercooling, a n d he asked
w hether th e g ra p h ite w hich cam e o u t u n d e r those
conditions was tr u ly cry stallin e. T he p o in t was
th a t D r. N ip p e r h a d been able to secure a very
fine p re c ip ita tio n by m eans of m e ltin g in vacuum .
This “ sooty ” g ra p h ite could be b ro u g h t a b o u t
by o th er m e a n s ; for in stan ce, th e presence of
tita n iu m in th e pig -iro n h a d occasionally given
irons in th e pig form w hich w ere com pletely
m alleable. One did n o t associate t h a t w ith o rd i­
n a ry p rim a ry o r secondary g ra p h ite , a n d u su ally
when one obtain ed a m alleable p ig a n d ex am in ed
i t one fo u n d th e “ sooty ” g ra p h ite H e asked
if D r. N ip p e r could confirm t h a t all form s of
g ra p h ite —th e p rim a ry (kish), th e secondary
(e ith e r s tra ig h t o r cu rly g ra p h ite flakes) or th e
te r tia r y form (supercooled)—w ere cry stallin e.
D r . A. L . N orbury (B ritish C a st Iro n R e ­
search A ssociation), who welcomed th e p h oto­
m icrographs in th e P a p e r as bein g am ong th e
m ost in s tru c tiv e a n d in te re s tin g e v er published
in connection w ith grey c a st iro n , discussed some
w ork w hich h ad been c a rrie d o u t by th e C ast
Iro n R esearch A ssociation in B irm in g h am d u rin g
th e p a st 18 m onths. The e n d eav o u r was to find
o u t w h a t caused th e difference, n o t rev ealed by
chem ical analysis, betw een tw o p ig -iro n s from
two d ifferen t fu rn aces. T his fa c t h a d long been
recognised by fo u n d ry m en —-and in cid en ta lly th ey
were n o t alw ays believed. M ak ers of chilled rolls
had in sisted t h a t iro n from h o t-b last as a g a in s t
cold-blast fu rn aces gave d ifferen t chills a n d d if­
fe re n t q u a lity to th e rolls, even th o u g h th e
chem ical analysis was a p p a re n tly id en tic a l.
Sim ilarly, M r. F . J . Cook, in a P a p e r p resen ted
 165

to th e I n s titu te several years ago, had. shown

t h a t tw o pigs from differen t fu rn aces gave con­
siderably d ifferen t stre n g th s in en g in ee rin g cast­
ings, alth o u g h th e analyses were a g a in a p p a re n tly
id en tical. I t had now been accepted t h a t such
differences exist, an d th e w ork by D r. N ip p er
an d P ro f. Piw ow arsky a t A achen, to g e th e r w ith
t h a t of o th e r in v e stig a to rs elsewhere, h ad shown
th a t th e su p e rh e a tin g of th e m elt could produce
such differences a n d could produce th e very fine
g ra p h ite flakes shown in D r. N ip p e r’s P a p e r.
T he w ork a t B irm in g h am , however, h ad shown
t h a t th e sam e fine g ra p h ite flakes could be pro­
duced in o th e r ways w ith o u t su p erh eatin g . The
in v estig ato rs produced a t will these very fine
g ra p h ite flakes on q u ite heavy sections w ith o u t
su p e rh e a tin g or ch illin g , an d could also change
th e s tru c tu r e back in to very coarse g ra p h ite
flakes w ith o u t a lte rin g th e o rd in ary chemical
analysis. They now knew th e reasons fo r th e
difference betw een irons of th e same o rd in ary
chem ical analysis. D r. N o rb u ry re g re tte d th a t
he could n o t give a d etailed account of th e
resu lts y et, b u t he hoped t h a t t h a t m ig h t be
possible in th e n e a r fu tu re .
D r. N ip p e r’s P a p e r co n tain ed m ostly facts, and
it was difficult to find a n y th in g in i t w ith which
one could disagree ; b u t he took th e o p p o rtu n ity
to express his g re a t ap p reciatio n of it.

Process and Structure

M r. A. C am pion , who recalled t h a t D r. N ip p er
h ad a tte n d e d th e I n s tit u te ’s Conference in Shef­
field in 1927 w ith P ro f. Piw ow arsky, a n d "com­
m ented upon th e p leasure of seeing him again,
said th e P a p e r was of ex trem e in te re st, and he
was n o t sure t h a t i t was q u ite so purely scientific
as some speakers w ere a p t to t h i n k ; i t had
c e rta in p ra c tic a l ap p licatio n s. Some references
he had m ade on th e previous day to view ing cast
iron from a d ifferen t angle u n d e r differen t m elt­
ing conditions w ere b o rn e o u t by D r. N ip p e r’s
P a p e r. T he effect which h ad been refe rre d to as
supercooling or undercooling was n o t q u ite cor­
rectly called supercooling o r even undercooling.
 166

In th e course of his p ra c tic a l ex p erien ce w ith

ro ta ry fu rn aces i t h a d led to some v ery cu rio u s
re s u lts ; an d he believed he h a d seen th e r e a con­
firm ation of w h a t M r. P e a rc e h a d said a b o u t
siliconisation, t h a t i t was a c tin g in b o th wayS,
an d t h a t som etim es th e sooty k in d of g ra p h ite
produced u n d esira b le resu lts, w hereas in o th e r
cases th is p a rtic u la rly fine g ra p h ite gave re m a rk ­
ably good re su lts fro m th e p o in t of view of
stre n g th .
AUTHOR’S REPLY
D r . N ippe r rep lied to th e discussion. A fte r
expressing his a p p re cia tio n of th e m a n n e r in
which his P a p e r had been received, he d e a lt w ith
th e question as to why th e g ra p h ite in pig-iron
o r in grey c ast iro n was n o t c ry stallised very
well. The kish was p roduced c ry stallised in th e
fluid m a te ria l, so t h a t th e kish g ra p h ite would
have considerable c ry sta l s iz e ; b u t th e g ra p h ite
t h a t was produced in th e m ore o r less liq u id
s ta te in th e sm all solid ify in g te m p e ra tu re ra n g e
had to find a place betw een th e a u ste n ite cry stals
a n d acquired th e shapes of th o se spaces.
D r . E verest said some of th e g ra p h ite which
form ed in o rd in a ry ca st iro n was very o ften hypo-
eu tectic, as was th e kish g ra p h ite , a n d he was
asking why th e fo rm e r did n o t come o u t in th e
s tra ig h t form , because i t form ed w hen th e
m a te ria l was solidified o r was p a rtly m olten. H e
m ig h t he w rong as to th e w ay in w hich th e
g ra p h ite se p arate d .
Factors Influencing Crystal Shapes
D r . N ip p e r said he believed th e shape of th e
g ra p h ite cry stals depended on th e tim e in which
i t was produced, th e tim e in w hich th e m etal
rem ain ed fluid. H e h a d n o t c a rrie d o u t e x p e ri­
m en tal w ork to discover w h e th e r o r n o t th e very
fine g ra p h ite was really cry sta llin e , th o u g h in
his own m ind he fe lt su re t h a t i t w as. I n th e
case of coke, one found th e sam e th in g . P ro f.
R am dohr, a t A achen, h ad c a rrie d o u t e x p e ri­
m ents to find th e difference in cokes of d ifferen t
re a c tiv ity , an d he h ad fo u n d t h a t i t was ju s t a
q uestion of th e size of th e g ra p h ite cry stals in
 167

them . One foun d very sm all an d very large

g ra p h ite cry stals in coke, d epending on th e te m ­
p e ra tu re an d th e tim e of coking, and th a t m ig h t
be responsible, in th e first place, fo r th e differen t
re a c tiv ities of th e cokes. H e fe lt c e rta in th a t
th e re would be a sim ilar ex perience in connec­
tio n w ith ir o n ; t h a t th e kish an d th e very sooty
g ra p h ite w ere both cry stallin e. The expression
sooty ” was a very good o n e; in G erm any th e
expression “ R u ssa rtig ” was used, a n d it m ean t
resem bling soot. W hen th e m a te ria l was broken
th e fra c tu re was absolutely black. The ex p e ri­
m en tal work would have to be contin u ed , though
th e polishing a n d ex a m in a tio n of th e very small
g ra p h ite was n o t very easy. The te m p e r carbon
was b u ilt up som ew hat differently. T here was a
p o in t in th e m iddle w here th e first tem p er carbon
came o u t, a n d th e o th e r te m p er carbon was
b ro u g h t th e re from th e side. The stru c tu re of
th e g ra p h ite p a rts was p e rp en d icu lar to th e
ra d iu s of th e tem p e r carbon ball, and one had
to d eterm in e w heth er th e g ra p h ite was form ed
when in th e fluid s ta te or when in th e solid state.

Conditions Appertaining to “ Sooty ” Graphite

I n m ost cases, if th e re w ere a very sooty
g ra p h ite , th e m a trix was fe rritic , and he
believed th e reason was t h a t th e re were large
nuclei fo r th e b reak up of th e p e arlite, and th e
carbon could very easily g e t to th e g ra p h ite ,
which, by reason of its sm all size, exposed g re a te r
su rface a rea. H e h ad n o t carried o u t m uch
e x p erim en tal w ork on th is m a tte r, b u t he
believed m uch depended on th e am o u n t of silicon
presen t, an d on th e r a te of cooling. A t first he
was astonished, b u t h e h ad found t h a t th e whole
m a trix of m ost of his sam ples was definitely
p earlitic.
W ith reg ard to th e q u alities of th e m a teria l,
he believed an ex p la n a tio n h ad been given th a t
th e p rim a ry d en d rite s grew first a n d continued
grow ing w hen th e rem ain in g solution was already
e u te c tic ; th e n th e m a te ria l becam e hypo-eutectic
an d was b ro u g h t to a sm all netw ork, an d a fte r­
w ards th e whole m a te ria l h ad th e q u a lity of th e
 168

spaces betw een th e a u ste n itic d en d rite s, w here th e

m a te ria l was in re a lity hypo -eu tectic a n d th e
q u a lity was very poor. So t h a t one h a d n o t th e
whole of th e m a te ria l of the q u ality w hich one
w ould expect according to th e com position, b u t
h ad th e q u a lity only of th e sm all netw orks w here
i t was hypo-eutectic.
H e had n o t been able to c a rry o u t e x p erim en tal
w ork as to stresses in th e sm all sam ples d e a lt
w ith, w hich w eighed only a few h u n d re d
gram m es, an d which w ere m ade in a sm all carbon
crucible. They w ere n o t m ade purposely fo r th e
in v estig atio n of s tre n g th a n d h ard n e ss o r stresses,
b u t fo r d e te rm in a tio n of gases, such as h ydrogen,
n itro g en an d oxygen. In c id e n ta lly , he h a d c u t
th em open a n d polished th e m in o rd er to see th e
in te rn a l stru c tu re .
 169

OVEN-DRYING OF CORES AND MOULDS

By E. G. Fiegehen, M.I.Mech.E. (Longueil, P.Q.,

Canada)
Cores an d m oulds, as m oulded read y for
baking, co n tain sand, w a te r an d binders. Of
these, th e w a te r is essen tial fo r m ixing w ith
th e bonding m a te ria l, such as clay, com binders,
starch , e tc ., in to a p lastic condition, so th a t,
when m illed w ith th e p ro p er am o u n t of sand, a
m ix tu re is produced t h a t is sufficiently p lastic
to be used fo r m oulding and sufficiently stro n g ,
before b ak in g (green bond), to r e ta in its shape
a n d to w ith sta n d h a n d lin g on its way to th e
oven. The process of blending sand w ith
binders and w a te r is called “ te m p e rin g ” th e
sand, a n d th e p ro p er p ercen tag e of com ponents
and in tim a te m ix in g , in an efficient m ill, is
essen tial to success.
The object sou g h t in m illing and tem p erin g
sand is to cover each in d iv id u al g ra in of sand
w ith a th in co atin g of th e b in d er. The binders
have a tendency , in b ak in g , to co n cen trate a t
th e p o in ts of co n tac t of a d ja c e n t sand g rain s,
cem enting these to g e th e r an d leaving a ir spaces
betw een th e g ra in s, g iving th e desired porosity
to th e finished core to p e rm it of th e escape of
steam and gases form ed d u rin g th e p o u rin g of
th e mould.
I f too m uch b in d er be used, o r a b in d e r u n ­
su ited to th e purpose, i t w ill wholly o r p a rtia lly
fill up these necessary voids betw een th e g rain s,
and th u s reduce th e porosity of th e c o re ; if th e
sand be insufficiently m illed th e d istrib u tio n of
th e b in d er will n o t be u n ifo rm an d some portions
will have low porosity, due to co n cen tratio n of
b inder, w hilst o th e r p o rtio n s will be insufficiently
b o n d e d ; in any case defective castin g s will be
produced.
Water as Aid to Baking
The tem p erin g w a te r also serves a fu rth e r
useful fu n ctio n as a co nductor of h e a t to th e
 170

in te rio r of a core o r m ould, in th e b a k in g p ro ­

cess, fo r w hen h e a t is app lied to th e o utside
of th e core by th e h o t gases in th e oven, i t
passes th ro u g h th e w a te r in th e core tw ice as
easily as i t does th ro u g h th e san d g ra in s ow ing
to its su p erio r h eat-c o n d u c tiv ity . I n G .G .S.
u n its th e av erag e co n d u c tiv ity of still w a te r is
0.0014 w h ilst th e c o n d u ctiv ity of san d is 0.0006,
g iving a ra tio of co n d u ctiv ity in fa v o u r of w a te r
of 2.33 to I.
The presence of th e h in d e r will probably m odify
th e co n d u ctiv ity of th e san d b u t, to illu s tra te
th is p o in t, i t m ay be said t h a t th e co n d u ctiv ity
of w a te r in a core is a t le ast tw ice t h a t of th e
sand. The presence of core-rods o r core-arhors
in a sand core provides an excellent m edium for
th e ra p id tran sm issio n of h e a t in to th e in te rio r,
fo r th e co n d u ctiv ity of steel is v ery m uch g re a te r
th a n w ater. I t is th e re fo re desirable to re ta in
th e w a te r in th e core d u rin g th e p relim in a ry
stages of d ry in g so t h a t th e te m p e ra tu re a t th e
c en tre of th e core m ay rise to th e boilin g p o in t
of w ater.
Types of Binders Used
T he h in d ers used are gum m y o r adhesive
substances such as clay, a m ix tu re of co rn -starch ,
flour, molasses, etc., o r v ario u s core-oils, d ep en d ­
in g upon th e ap p lic a tio n of th e core. The h in d ers
a re in ten d ed to cem ent th e g ra in s of sand
to g e th e r a t th e ir p o in ts of c o n ta c t; b a k in g
g re a tly increases th is cem en tin g effect a n d p ro ­
duces stro n g cores t h a t m ay he easily h an d led
an d fitted in place an d w hich w ill re s ist th e
stresses im posed u pon th e m in c a stin g as well
as th e scour of th e m olten m etal, w h ilst being
of such a n a tu re th a t, a f te r ca stin g , th e y may­
be broken u p and re a d ily rem oved in th e clean
ing o p eratio n , leav in g a sm ooth su rface on th e
casting.
I t will be obvious t h a t upon th e p ro p e r selec­
tio n of sand an d b in d ers for cores a n d m oulds
m uch of th e success of th e fo u n d ry o p eratio n s
will depend. P itc h has been used as a b in d er,
b u t i t does n o t give a “ g reen b o n d ,” n e ith e /
does i t m ix w ith w ater, an d consequently i t does
 171

n o t become a re a l b in d e r u n til m elted by th e

h e a t of th e oven.
How Linseed Oil Acts
R aw linseed oil is an excellent b in d e r and is
extensively used. I f linseed oil be k e p t in a
closed b o ttle i t will n o t dry up o r “ s e t,” b u t
if i t is sp read o u t, th in ly , an d exposed to th e
a ir, p a rtic u la rly h o t a ir, i t will d ry up slowly
by o x idation, w h ilst if h o t a ir is blown u pon it,
i t will d ry u p m ore rap id ly .
A ccording to th e A m erican F o u n d ry m en ’s
A ssociation— o x id atio n of linseed oil is slow up
to 350 deg. F a h . (176 deg. C.) b u t very m uch
fa s te r from 350 to 450 deg. F a h . (176 to 232 deg.
C .). A t 500 deg. F a h . (260 deg. C.) th e qualities
of th e oil a re destroyed. F o r oil cores (baking
te m p e ra tu re 350 to 450 deg. F a h . (176 to 232 deg.
C.) i t has been fo u n d t h a t a m inim um of 1,000
cub. in. of a ir is necessary to oxidise th e oil and
produce m axim um stre n g th in cores w eighing
1 lb. a n d c o n ta in in g 2 p e r c en t, by volume of
linseed oil. A b ak in g tim e of 90 m in ., a t 425
deg. F a h . (218 deg. C .), produces m axim um
s tre n g th of core 1 in. th ick .
H o t a ir is used fo r d ry in g moulds an d cores,
since it has a g re a t cap acity fo r absorbing w a te r ;
a t atm ospheric p ressu re a n d 200 deg. F a h .
(93 deg. C.) 1 lb. of bone-dry a ir will absorb
ab o u t 2.3 lbs. of w ate r v a p o u r before reach in g its
s a tu ra tio n p o in t. The te m p e ra tu re of th e a ir
m u st be re g u la te d to p re v e n t ov er-h eatin g an d
th e d estru ctio n of th e binders used an d no d irec t
flame or in ten se ra d ia n t h e a t should come in con­
ta c t w ith th e cores in th e oven. W hen th e
cores have been h eate d by th e h o t a ir, to th e boil­
ing p o in t of w a te r of atm ospheric pressu re ( 2 1 2
deg. F a h . or 100 deg. C .), th e m o istu re in th e
cores is converted in to steam which escapes
th ro u g h th e pores of th e sand core to th e surface
an d o u t of th e oven th ro u g h th e vents.
H o t a ir is especially useful in th e dry in g of
cores since, owing to its cap acity fo r absorbing
w ater, a c u rre n t of h o t a ir acts like a sponge pass­
ing over th e w et su rface of th e m ould o r core,
c a rry in g th e w a te r aw ay w ith it, to be followed
 172

by th e passage of fresh d ry a ir to c o n tin u e th e

process. T hick cores ta k e longer to d ry th a n
th in ones, fo r th e reaso n t h a t th e h e a t has
fu r th e r to p e n e tra te to th e c e n tre a n d th e
e v a p o rated w a te r ta k e s longer to reach th e su r­
face ; an increased te m p e ra tu re c a n n o t he used
to h u rr y th e o p era tio n , otherw ise th e b in d ers
will be b u r n t an d th e core will be useless.

Mould and Core-Drying Compared

N early th e whole su rface of a san d core, if
properly loaded in th e oven so as to en su re
efficient c irc u latio n , is exposed to th e oven
gases, w hereas a m ould being p a rtly enclosed in
a flask generally exposes, freely , only one face.
C onsequently, i t ta k e s ap p reciab ly lo n g er to d ry
a m ould th a n a core of th e sam e w eig h t an d
thickness of sand , fo r a g a in th e h e a tin g c a n n o t
be h u rrie d fo r fe a r of d am ag in g th e m ould.
U n til th e b in d ers h ave “ s e t,” cem e n tin g th e
g ra in s of sand to g e th e r firm ly, a core has very
little m echanical stre n g th , a n d w ill re a d ily crack
on th e sudden ap p lic a tio n of h e a t, ow ing to u n ­
equal expansion of th e h o t su rface a n d cold in ­
te r io r or, possibly, ow ing to th e e x p an sio n of
w a te r o r ste a m tra p p e d betw een th e san d g ra in s
of a dense core, fo rcin g th e m a p a r t ; b o th th ese
evils m ay be caused by too ra p id h e a tin g .
To dry cores an d m oulds successfully, w ith o u t
surface crack in g , a m o d erate oven te m p e ra tu re ,
d eterm in ed by ex p erien ce an d c arefu lly con­
tro lled , is essen tial, a n d i t is now recognised t h a t
th ree d istin ctiv e stag es of d ry in g have to be
a rra n g e d , as set o u t below.
Period I.—Constant Rate Drying
D u rin g th is first p erio d of d ry in g , th e su rface
of th e core is w et an d th e effect of h e a tin g from
th e outside is to cause some of th e w a te r in th e
in te rio r of th e core to tra v e l to th e su rface,
w here th e surfac e ten sio n has been low ered by
h e a tin g . T he h e a t of th e oven gases causes th is
surface w a te r to e v a p o ra te, b u t so long as any
w a te r rem ain s on th e su rface, th e te m p e ra tu re
of th e w et su rface c a n n o t rise above th e boiling
 173

p o in t of w a te r (212 deg. F a h .— 100 deg. C.),

how ever h o t th e oven gases m ay be.
This m ay be difficult to realise, b u t it is m ost
im p o rta n t a n d can be proved by an ex p erim en t
of placing a p a p e r bag co n ta in in g w a te r over a
gas flame. So long as any w a te r rem ains in the
bag th e p a p e r will n o t be b u rn t, b u t when all
th e w a te r has been ev ap o rated , th e bag b u rn s
im m ediately. I n th e sam e way th e w et surface
of a core acts as a h e a t shield to it, p rev en tin g
th e te m p e ra tu re risin g above 212 deg. F ah . (100
deg. C .), a t w hich te m p e ra tu re crack in g is n o t
to be feared . A t th is stag e it is desired to g et
h e a t in to th e body of th e core b u t to m ake no
a tte m p t to dry it.
The w a te r in th e core is a m uch b e tte r
conductor of h e a t th a n e ith e r sand or a ir, and
consequently th e p ro p er m ethod is to m ake use
of th is p ro p erty of w a te r by re ta in in g it in th e
core u n til i t is h eate d th ro u g h o u t. To th is end,
it is best n o t to allow th e m oisture-laden a ir in
th e oven to escape, a t th is stage, b u t re ta in
it an d circu late it, from to p to bottom of th e
oven, to ensure a u n ifo rm te m p e ra tu re of all
cores in th e oven and to preserve a dam p atm o­
sphere, which will re ta rd ev ap o ratio n of th e
su rface-w ater on th e cores.
I f th e re w ere no circu latio n , th e h o t a ir would
rise an d rem ain a t th e to p of th e oven, as it
does in a heate d room, leav in g th e cores on th e
lower shelves com p arativ ely cold, an d if th e
m oist a ir in th e oven be allowed to escape, th e
w ater-shield on th e surface of th e cores would
d isap p ear. W hen th e cores are h eate d evenly to
th e cen tre, which can be a scertain ed by a tr ia l
of dum m y cores, th e re is no f u r th e r need for th e
in te rn a l w a te r in th e cores an d th e process is
ready fo r th e second stage.

Period II.—Saturated Surface Drying

In th e first period no a tte m p t was m ade to
d ry th e cores, b u t su itab le conditions were
a rra n g e d for h e a tin g them , th ro u g h o u t, rap id ly
an d safely by th e aid of th e ir con tain ed w ater
and w hilst they w ere shielded from overheatin«
 174

by th e ir w et surfaces. In th is second period th e

real d ry in g is to he effected. T he flues a re
opened now to allow th e m o istu re-lad en a ir to
escape, an d th e c irc u la tin g fa n draw s in fresh
a ir, to be heated and to absorb m o istu re from
th e surface of th e cores an d pass o u t th ro u g h
th e pipe w ith th is m oisture.
The e v ap o ratio n of w a te r, in c o n ta c t w ith
m oving a ir a t a given te m p e ra tu re , v aries alm ost
directly as th e velocity of th e a ir, a n d i t is
fo u n d t h a t an a ir-c u rre n t s trik in g a su rface a t
rig h t angles is ab o u t tw ice as.efficient, in evapo­
ra tin g w ater, as a c u rre n t p assing lo n g itu d in a lly
over th e surface. The p ro te c tin g film of mois­
tu re will g ra d u a lly d isa p p ea r a n d th e te m p e ra ­
tu r e of th e oven m u st consequently be reduced,
d u rin g th is period, fo r fe a r of b u rn in g th e
binders an d causing cracks in th e now u n p ro ­
tected cores.
I t is fo u n d t h a t th e c irc u la tio n of a larg e
volum e of a ir a t a m o d erate te m p e ra tu re is m ore
effective an d sa fe r th a n th e use of a sm all q u a n ­
t i ty of very h o t a ir. As th e m o istu re is evapo­
ra te d from th e su rface of th e cores, fre sh m ois­
tu r e from th e ir in te rio r tra v e ls to th e su rface,
is evaporat-ed, an d passes o u t of th e oven.
E v en tu ally th e su rface d ries u p a n d th e n , th e
w ater-film in su latio n effect being rem oved, th e
whole core rises in te m p e ra tu re n early to th a t
of th e h o t gases. T his rise in te m p e ra tu re ,
to g e th e r w ith th e presence of fresh h o t a ir—
c o n tain in g oxygen—which can now p e n e tra te th e
pores of th e d ry core, causes th e b in d e r to d ry
and oxidise an d cem ent th e g ra in s of san d firmly
to g e th e r, g iving th e necessary d ry stre n g th to
th e core.
T here will still rem ain a sm all p ro p o rtio n of
m oisture in th e in te rio r of th e core, a n d to
ev ap o rate an d rem ove th is th e re is a th ir d stag e.

Period III.—Sub-surface Drying

T he whole body of th e cores a re now well
above th e te m p e ra tu re c o rresp o n d in g to th e
boiling-point of w a te r, so th a t , in th is period,
th e h e a t in th e cores them selves is sufficient to
ev a p o ra te th e sm all am o u n t of m o istu re re ­
m ain in g in th e in te rio r, w hich passes o u t of th e
core th ro u g h th e pores in th e sand. Conse­
qu en tly only sufficient a ir c ircu latio n is now
req u ired to c a rry off th is reduced flow of steam ,
an d only a sm all a m o u n t of h e a t need be sup­
plied, by th e fu rn a ce , to m a in ta in th e tem p e ra ­
tu r e of th e o v e n ; th e flues m u st still be open
sufficiently to allow th e steam to escape. R e­
c irc u latio n m ay be stopped in th is period, for
all th e cores are now u n ifo rm ly h e ate d , an d th e
b in d ers are “ set ” by th e oxygen in th e a ir
supplied in th e previous period.

Summary of Operations
P eriod I . —R a p id h e atin g —V igorous recircu ­
la tio n w ith fa n —A ir-in le t flues closed—Con­
tin u e d u n til th e in te rio r of all cores reaches
ap p ro x im ately 212 deg. F a h . (100 deg. C.).
P eriod I I . —R educed h e a tin g —M oderate re­
circu latio n — A ir-in le t flues open — C ontinued
u n til th e surface of cores is th o roughly dry and
binders are set.
Period I I I . —M inim um h e a tin g —No recircu ­
la tio n —A ir-in le t flues p a rtly open.

Core Ovens
The e a rlie r exam ples of core ovens were con­
stru c te d of build in g -b rick , an d generally coal-
fired, w ith p rim itiv e flue a rra n g e m e n ts and con­
tro l, an d no provision for recircu latio n to speed
th e d ry in g an d equalise th e te m p e ra tu re in all
p a rts of th e oven. C om paratively high tem ­
p e ra tu re s w ere used, and th e to p of th e oven
was m uch h o tte r th a n th e bottom . The loss
from crack in g and b u rn in g was n a tu ra lly high,
an d to com plete th e b ak in g th e low er cores had
to be tra n s fe rre d to th e u p p e r shelves.
I n all m odern (C anadian) steel foundries
new er ty p es of ovens, em bodying th e principles
o u tlin ed above, a re being installed w ith m ost
sa tisfacto ry resu lts. The shell of such ovens
generally consists of steel p la tin g , in panel con­
stru c tio n , betw een w hich in su la tin g m attresses
 176

of rock-wool, o r in su la tin g bricks, a re in se rte d

to m inim ise loss of h e a t from th e e x te rn a l su r­
faces. The economical th ick n ess of in su latio n
can be d eterm in ed by co m p arin g its cost, sp read
over its useful life, w ith th e fu el sav in g effected
by its use over th e sam e period.
I n av erag e p ractice, a th ick n ess of 4 in . of
in su latio n is fo u n d sa tisfa c to ry . Such ovens a re
m ost freq u en tly fired by oil or gas as being m ore
easily controlled a n d involving less la b o u r th a n
coal f ir in g ; th e com bustion cham bers of fire­
brick a re p referab ly lo cated below th e oven, th u s
saving valuable floor space.
The flues from th e com bustion cham ber to th e
in te rio r of th e oven a re located an d dim ensioned
so as to en su re a u n ifo rm d is trib u tio n of th e com­
bustion gases. To each oven a n e x h a u stin g fan
is fitted , d riv en by a m otor a n d a rra n g e d to
draw , th ro u g h ducts, th e h o t a ir an d gases from
th e top of th e oven an d d ischarge th e m a t th e
bottom of th e oven, eq u alisin g th e te m p e ra tu re
in th e cham ber effectively. By th is m eans a c ir­
cu latio n of from te n to tw e n ty tim es th e n e t
volum e of th e oven is secured acco rd in g to
req u irem en ts. Owing to th e h ig h te m p e ra tu re of
th e gases passing th ro u g h th e fa n , w ater-cooled
bearings are necessary.
As an a lte rn a tiv e to a fa n , a series of a ir-
blowers of th e e je c to r ty p e have been tr ie d , an d
have given satisfa c to ry re su lts w hen o p e rate d by
com pressed a ir from th e shop m ain s. As a g a in s t
th e som ew hat g re a te r cost of pow er w ith th is
m ethod m ay be set th e low c a p ita l cost and
reduced m ain ten a n c e . A sim ple ty p e of sin g le­
cone blower used for th is p urpose w as fo u n d , on
te s t, to induce ab o u t 1 0 cub. f t of oven gases
for each cubic foot of free a ir, com pressed to
60 lbs. p er sq. in. B e tte r resu lts m ay be expected
from a m ulti-cone design of blow er.

Loading Considerations
M ost of th e core an d m ould-ovens in sta lle d in
C an ad ian steel fo u n d ries a re of th e c ar-ty p e,
th e core p lates being placed on core rac k s, w hich,
in tu r n , are loaded on w heeled ca rs and ru n
 177

in to th e oven. By th e use of tw o cars p e r oven,

one can be loaded w hilst th e o th e r is in th e oven,
in th e case of large-m ould ovens th e car-type
is extrem ely desirable to p e rm it loading by a
crane, although , in some instances, a rem ovable
oven-roof p erm its th is to be done an d saves th e
space occupied by c a r tra c k s. The car-type
design h as th e d isad v a n ta g e t h a t th e c a r itself
occupies an ap p reciable volum e of oven space
an d absorbs a q u a n tity of h eat, unprofitably.
Som etim es core rack s are loaded in to th e oven
by electric— or p etro l—lif t tru c k s, and th e n th e
u tilisa tio n of oven space is m uch b e tte r, and
cran e-h an d lin g of rack s is elim in ated .

Core Plates
M odern core p lates are of welded steel, ribbed
an d p e rfo ra te d co n stru ctio n , an d a re equally as
stro n g as th e old-fashioned th ick cast-iro n plates,
b u t weigh m uch less and consequently absorb
less h e a t. F o r c e rta in cores, alu m in iu m holders,
c a rrie rs or “ d riers ” are provided, in which
th e core is m oulded an d in which th ey rem ain
w hilst b a k in g ; th is m akes i t unnecessary to con­
sid er th e “ green stre n g th ” of such cores, th e
binders in w hich can be chosen w ith m ore p a r­
tic u la r re g a rd to final stre n g th an d porosity.
S u b sta n tia l savings m ay be effected by a care­
fu l consideratio n of th e h a n d lin g an d loading
of cores; w ith re g a rd to th e la tte r i t is q u ite
obvious t h a t th e a rra n g e m e n t of th e oven-car,
core-plates an d cores in a n oven h as an im por­
ta n t effect upon th e m ovem ent of th e gases
th e re in , all being o b stru ctio n s in th e flow of th e
c irc u la tin g gases.
Control Experiments
A survey of te m p eratu re s, a t various points
in a c tu a l o p eratio n , m ay in d ic a te obstructed
circu latio n an d suggest some re-location of d uct
openings or re a rra n g e m e n t of th e cores on th e
tra y s. U seful in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g th e flow
of th e gases m ay be ob tain ed by illu m in atin g th e
in te rio r of the oven w ith electric lam ps a rran g ed
to p ro ject th e ir lig h t th ro u g h openings and th e n
 178

observing, th ro u g h o th e r openings, th e m ovem ent

of smoke, in tro d u c ed in to th e com bustion cham ­
ber fo r th e purpose.
I n th is m a tte r of u n ifo rm ity of te m p e ra tu re ,
i t is im p o rta n t t h a t oven doors should he close-
fittin g , fo r, ow ing to th e ir la rg e p e rim e te r, a
sm all opening will a d m it a la rg e q u a n tity of
cold a ir.
D oors should be fa irly flexible, la te ra lly , to
reduce th e ten d en c y to w arp, due to th e differ­
ence in in te rn a l a n d e x te rn a l te m p e ra tu re ; th e
forces set u p by u n e q u al exp an sio n a re la rg e , b u t
th e y cause little d is to rtio n of a door d elib erately
m ade w eak in th e b e n d in g plane.
The provision of num erous h inges, p ro p erly
aligned, an d w ell-designed la tc h in g g e a r which
will force th e flexible door to its seat, is essen­
tia l, an d th e sealin g of th e b o tto m of th e doors
should n o t be overlooked. I t is useless to tr y
to co n tro l th e flow of gases a n d te m p e ra tu re -
eq u alisatio n in th e oven if th e leak a g e p a s t th e
door v aries in q u a n tity a n d lo catio n w ith each
b a tc h of cores bak ed .

Temperature Control
All core ovens should be p ro v id ed w ith in d i­
c a tin g an d record in g th e rm o m e te rs; th e records
properly num bered a n d d a te d , a re m ost u sefu l
in in d ic a tin g th e efficiency of th e o p e ra to r an d
in tra c in g subsequent tro u b le to its source. I t
is d esirable to have several th erm o m eters, located
a t v arious p o in ts in th e oven, even if, as u su a l,
one only, a t a selected sp o t, is relied u p o n fo r
n o rm al records an d p erh a p s contro l. The com­
p arison of th e te m p e ra tu re s a t v a rio u s p o in ts will
in d ic a te th e efficiency of th e c irc u la tio n in th e
oven. W here a u to m a tic te m p e ra tu re co n tro l is
fitted to a n oven, m eans m u st be pro v id ed to
give th e te m p e ra tu re a p p ro p ria te to each period
of d ry in g , as previously in d ic a te d above.

Continuous Core Ovens

C ontinuous core ovens h a v e been fo u n d very
satisfacto ry a n d u n ifo rm in p erfo rm an ce fo r th e
 179

d ry in g of larg e q u a n titie s of sm all- and medium-

size cores, all re q u irin g th e same period of
b ak in g . The cores a re placed upon tra y s sus­
pended from a slowly-moving ch ain conveyor,
a rra n g e d h orizo n tally or v ertically an d are baked
w hilst passing th ro u g h a h eate d cham ber to th e
u n loading sta tio n .
The tim e of b ak in g is re g u la te d by th e speed
of th e chain, which is ad ju sta b le ; re-circulation
and th e necessary v a ria tio n in te m p e ra tu re and
v en tin g , as req u ired , can be a rra n g e d and th e
a d d itio n of a good conveyor service, fo r loading
an d u n loading, m akes a very efficient in sta lla ­
tio n , and, in th e case of th e v e rtic al ty p e, very
little floor space is occupied.

Heat Supply
The am o u n t of h e a t to be supplied to a given
oven will depend upon th e w eig h t of th e cores,
core plates, car, etc., th a t have to be h eated,
th e m oisture co n te n t of th e cores, b in d ers used,
an d a num ber of o th er factors. I n providing
h e a tin g a p p a ra tu s on th e in sta lla tio n of th e
oven, a loading will have to be assum ed t h a t will
call fo r th e m axim um dem and fo r h e a t and a ir
circu latio n . The v ariab les e n te rin g in to th is
problem a re num erous, and i t is h ard ly to be
expected t h a t th e re su lt of calcu latio n will be
ex act, b u t if care is ta k e n to o b tain accu rate
in fo rm atio n re g a rd in g th e loading of th e oven
an d ju d g m e n t is exercised in th e selection of
coefficients an d th e ap p licatio n of a fa c to r to
cover th e effect of leakage, v ariab le room tem ­
p e ra tu re an d a ir h u m id ity , th e re s u lt should be
reasonably close to th e a c tu a l p erform ance.
I n calc u latin g th e h e a t req u ired to bake a
given ch a rg e of cores o r m oulds, we m ay sum­
m arise th e follow ing m a jo r ite m s: —
Assume t h a t th e cores, as m oulded c o n tain by
w eight : —
P e r C ent.
S an d an d b in d e r .................................87
W a te r ... ... ... ... ... 8

Core rods ... ... ... ... 6

 180

Oven T em peratu res.

P e rio d L — 450 deg. F a h . (232 deg. C .).
P erio d I I . — 300 deg. F a h . (149 deg. C .).
P e rio d I I I . —450 deg. F a h . (232 deg. C .).
Room te m p e ra tu re , 60 deg. F a h . (15 deg. C .).
I te m 1.—-H eat re q u ire d fo r sand.
T e m p e ra tu re rise, 450-60 = 390 deg. F a h .
(217 deg. C.).
A p p ro x im ate w eig h t of d ry sand, as ram m ed,
125 lbs. pe<r cub. ft.
A p p ro x im ate specific h e a t, 0.195.
B .T .U . = W eig h t of cores (lbs.) x 0.87 x 390
deg. x 0.195.
I te m 2.— H e a t re q u ire d to e v a p o ra te m o istu re
iu sand.
B .T .U . = W eig h t of cores x 0.08 x 1122.
Ite m 3.— H e a t re q u ired fo r core rods.
T em p eratu re rise 450 — 60 = 390 deg. F a h .
Specific h e a t of steel = 0.165.
B .T .U . = W e ig h t of cores x 0.05 X 390 deg.
X 0.165.
Ite m 4.—H e a t re q u ire d fo r core p la te s and
racks, oven tr u c k a n d ra ils, in te rn a l du cts, etc.
T em p eratu re rise 450 — 60 = 390.
B .T .U . = T o tal w eig h t of steel a n d iro n X 390
deg. x 0.165.
I te m 5.-—-H eat re q u ire d fo r oven s tru c tu re
(steel p la tin g w ith enclosed in su la tio n ). M ean
te m p e ra tu re a t eq u ilib riu m w ill d epend u p o n con­
stru c tio n a n d can be fo u n d fro m ta b le s of ex­
te rn a l te m p e ra tu re a n d su rface loss.
B .T.U . = [W t. of steelw ork X (m ean tem p era­
tu re — 60) X 0.165] + [W t. of in su latio n X (mean
tem perature — 60) X 0.20].
Item , 6 .—H e a t re q u ire d fo r b rickw ork of com­
bustion cham ber a n d du cts to oven.
T his is a really difficult item , ow ing to th e
g re a t w eight a n d h ig h cap a city fo r h e a t of th e
brickw ork.
 181

T his is f u r th e r com plicated by a v a ria tio n of

both its specific h e a t an d co n d u ctiv ity w ith te m ­
p e ra tu re .
O wing to ab so rp tio n of h e a t, i t m ay be 4 or
5 hrs. before th e h e a t from th e com bustion cham ­
ber p e n e tra te s to th e ou tsid e of its firebrick wall.
The consequence is t h a t th e re is a g re a te r
dem and fo r h e a t in th e first h e atin g of th e oven
th a n fo r succeeding h eatin g s. As a g a in st th is,
th ere is less loss from th e e x te rn a l surfaces of th e
brickw ork on th e first h e a tin g th a n in subsequent
h eatin g s.
H ow ever, some a p p ro x im atio n m u st be m ade,
an d i t w ill be assum ed t h a t th e m ean tem p era­
tu re of th e brickw ork, d u rin g th e first h eatin g ,
is | (450 — 60) = 130, g iving a te m p e ra tu re rise
of 130 - 60 = 70 deg. F ah . Then B .T .B .
(approx.) = w eig h t of brickw ork (lbs.) x 70 deg.
F a h . x 0.20 (average). F o r those desirin g a
closer ap p ro x im atio n of th e h e a t absorbed by a
brick stru c tu re , th e re exists a fa irly simple
g rap h ical m ethod of p lo ttin g tim e -te m p era tu re
curves a n d hence th e h e a t dem and on a tim e
basis.*
T he relativ e m ag n itu d e of th e above rough
ap p ro x im atio n to th e to ta l h e a t dem and of th e
oven w ill in d ic a te w h eth er th is refinem ent of
calcu latio n is ju stified , b e a rin g in m in d th a t, for
its first oven h eats, considerable la titu d e , in oil
supply an d tim e of b ak in g , can generally be
obtained.
Item, 7.—H e a t re q u ire d to replace ra d ia tio n
an d convection losses from e x te rn a l surfaces of
oven an d ducts.
The e x te rn a l loss coefficient in B .T .U . p er
sq. ft. p e r h r. can be found ap p ro x im ately from
tables when th e w all co n stru ctio n a n d th e in ­
te r n a l a n d e x te rn a l te m p e ra tu re s are know n.
The h e a t loss from h o rizo n tal surfaces, such as
th e roof, facin g upw ard s, is generally ta k e n as
1 0 p er cent, g re a te r th a n fo r th e v ertic al faces.
If a c u rr e n t of a ir be blowing on th e surfaces,
th e loss will be increased.
• W. Trinks—Industrial Furnaces. J . Wiley & Sons.
 182

I te m 8 .—-H eat to replace losses from e x te rio r

of com bustion cham ber walls. As n o ted above,
th is loss for th e first 4 or 5 h rs. w ill be nil.
A fte r t h a t tim e, a n allow ance of one-half th e
loss p er sq. f t. p er h r. of th e oven w alls will be
am ple.
Ite m 9.—H e a t to raise th e te m p e ra tu re of th e
c irc u la tin g a ir. T e m p e ra tu re rise, 300 to 60 =
240 deg. F a h . C hanges of oven volum e p e r h r. =
20. Specific h e a t of a ir, a t c o n sta n t p ressu re =
0.24 (ap p ro x im ately ).
B .T .U . = 20 x n e t volum e of oven (cub. f t.) x
hours
re c ircu latio n in o p e ra tio n x 240 deg. x 0.24
19.6 (cub. ft. p er lb. a t 300 deg. F a h .)
I te m 10.— H e a t req u ire d fo r h e a tin g th e a ir
fo r com bustion a t th e b u rn e rs (w hich leaves th e
oven a t ap p ro x im ately 450 deg. F a h .).
T his is a com parativ ely sm all item , since only
ab o u t 2 2 lbs. of a ir a re re q u ire d fo r th e com­
bu stio n of 1 lb. of fu el oil.
In th e case of oil-fired oven, w here th e p ro ­
ducts of com bustion pass d ire c t in to th e oven,
give up a larg e p ro p o rtio n of th e ir h e a t th e re
an d pass o u t a t th e v en ts a t, say, 450 deg. F a h .,
th e “ stack loss ” is m uch sm aller th a n in th e
case of, say, an n ealin g fu rn aces w here, ow ing
to th e conditions, th e gases have to leave th e
fu rn ace cham ber p erh a p s a t 1,850 deg. F a h .
(1,010 deg. C .) ; consequently, th e efficiency of
com bustion in oil-fired ovens is h ig h e r th a n in
annealers, th e oven a ctin g , in fa c t, as a h e a t
re c u p e ra to r fo r th e com bustion gases.
R e fe rrin g a g ain to Ite m 9, i t m ay be rem ark ed
th a t th e h e a t req u ire d fo r ra isin g th e te m ­
p e ra tu re of th e circ u la tin g a ir in P e rio d I I ,
to g e th e r w ith th e h e a tin g of a c e rta in am o u n t
of cold a ir leak in g in to th e oven in P e rio d I,
m ay b ften equal th e h e a t ac tu a lly re q u ire d for
h e a tin g th e cores a n d d riv in g off th e ir m o istu re.
I t is im p o rta n t, th e re fo re , to a sc e rta in , by tr ia l,
w h a t volum e of c irc u la tio n is a c tu a lly needed for
satisfacto ry resu lts, in b a k in g a n d h a rd e n in g th e
cores t h a t th e oven is designed to h an d le.
 183

A ny excess of circu latio n would c ertain ly do no

harm , b u t i t obviously re p resen ts a w asteful
ex p e n d itu re of h e a t an d pow er to drive th e fan .
Only com parativ ely sm all cores need to be baked
bone-dry th ro u g h o u t. I n cores of appreciable
thickness (say, over 2 in. th ic k ), only 2 or 3 in.
below th e su rface need be bone-dry, for th e
g en eral ru n of w o rk ; a t 6 in . deep th e re m ay be,
p erhaps, 1 p er c e n t m o istu re an d a t 1 0 in. deep,
say, 3 p er cen t, m o istu re w ith o u t d etrim en t.
Such cores, however, should be used shortly
a f te r leaving th e oven, for, if th ey are stored
th e re is th e obvious risk of th e co ntained
m oisture tra v e llin g o u tw ard s to th e surface, by
ca p illa rity . Any cores k e p t in stock will be
baked p ractically d ry an d m u st be stored in a
dry, h eate d space, generally above th e core ovens,
to p re v e n t absorbtion of m o istu re t h a t is always
p resen t in th e a ir.
Electric Core Ovens
W hen electric ity can be o b tained a t a very low
ra te , core ovens m ay be h ea te d by resistors
placed, generally, on th e sides of th e oven itself.
The h e a t from th ese resisto rs m u st, however, be
tra n s m itte d to th e cores by a ir c ircu lated by a
fa n , since a b u n d a n t a ir is req u ired , any way,
as an ab sorben t of m oisture, an d d ire c t-ra d ia n t
h e a tin g is inadm issible, owing to th e to a stin g
effect, w hich causes cracks an d d e stru ctio n of th e
binders.
The q u a lity of th e cores used is one of th e
m ajor facto rs in th e p ro d u ctio n of good castings,
free from blow-holes, scabs an d o th e r defects,
easy to clean, tr u e to size an d of a good finish.
W ith high-class m aterials, good equipm ent, tech ­
nique an d supervision good cores are n o t difficult
to produce.
The cost of cores, re late d to th e to ta l produc­
tion cost per to n of finished castings, is not
excessive. I t is clear, th en , t h a t c arefu l a tte n ­
tio n to all aspects of th is problem , th e in sta l­
latio n of up-to -d ate ovens, a tte n tio n to loading,
te stin g , te m p e ra tu re control and h an d lin g will
be well re p aid in th e red u ctio n of rejected cast­
ings an d th e p ro d u ctio n of a b e tte r g rad e of
product.
 184

DISCUSSION
Humidity Driers
The discussion was opened by D r . J . G. A.
S k e r l (B .C .I.R . A . ) , who, a fte r com m enting on
th e d e a rth of P a p e rs on th e e q u ip m en t necessary
for th e efficient d ry in g of cores an d m oulds and
t h a t know ledge of th e processes e n ta ile d was
m ainly em pirical, said th e ovens described in th e
P a p e r w ere know n as h u m id ity d riers. These
d rie rs had been developed m ain ly for th e elim i­
n a tio n of m oisture, in ceram ic w are, such as
porcelain, an d also fo r fireclay a n d o th e r
re fra c to ry goods w here th e closeness of th e
m a te ria l and th e h ig h p erc e n ta g e of w a te r re n ­
dered i t im p erativ e t h a t d ry in g should proceed
evenly and slowly th ro u g h o u t th e whole m ass of
th e artic le if crazin g an d c rack in g w ere to be
avoided on th e surface. W h eth e r th ese h u m id ity
ty p es of d riers a n d stoves would he as a d v a n ­
tag eo u s for m oulding-sand p ra c tic e was a m a tte r
upon w hich m ore in fo rm a tio n w ould be desirable.
In a core or m ould openness w as alm ost e sse n tia l
in o rd er to g et rid of gases form ed d u rin g
eastin g , a n d th e re was also a c e rta in a m o u n t of
ela stic ity or give in th e san d due to th e fa c t t h a t
i t was never in p ractice ram m ed to th e fu lle st
e x te n t, so t h a t th e re was every o p p o rtu n ity fo r
th e w a te r v ap o u r to leave th e core w ith o u t
s tra in in g it to give crack in g tro u b les. W h en a
m ould or core does crack th e f a u lt can read ily
be tra c e d an d cured by referen ce to th e am o u n t
ol bonding m a te ria l p resen t, th e m o istu re
co n te n t of th e dam p san d an d th e g e n eral com­
position of th e m ix tu re w ith o u t c o n sid eratio n of
th e stoves or d e trim e n t to th e castin g s produced.
I t w ould ap p e a r t h a t from th e crac k in g s ta n d ­
p o in t th e h u m id ity d rie r w ould only be of a d v a n ­
ta g e fo r m oulds an d cores in w hich th e re w ere
ra p id changes of section w here th e d ry in g s tra in s
7 /ould he g re a te r th a n u sually en co u n te red .

Synthetic Sand Practice

The sand conditions described in th e P a p e r
w ere alm ost e n tire ly A m erican an d C an a d ia n ,
in th e m ix tu re s of silica san d , clay a n d th e
 185

farin aceo u s or oil ty p e of bin d er, a m ix tu re which

he (D r. Skerl) h ad n o t h eard of being used in
th is co u n try . I t would have been of g re a te r
in te re s t to B ritish foundrym en if th e P a p e r had
been p a rtly sub-divided to deal in one section
w ith th e n a tu r a l sand or even silica sand and
clay ty p e of core and mould, and in th e o th er
section w ith oil-sand core p ractice. I n th e case
of an oil-sand m ould or core m ix tu re in which
no n a tu r a l sand was used th e necessity of a tta in ­
in g a te m p e ra tu re a t which th e w ater could be
driv en off w ith o u t crack in g th e core or mould
was n o t so ev id en t, alth o u g h i t m u st be rem em ­
bered t h a t m any core com pounds co n tain w ater.
The P a p e r w ould have been enhanced if a tim e
schedule of a h u m id ity d rie r w orking on a sta te d
load of m oulds or cores h ad been given, so th a t
a com parison could read ily be m ade w ith w h at
m ig h t be considered norm al stove p ractice in th is
co untry. F ireclay an d o th er ceram ic w are was
dried m uch m ore efficiently and quickly in
h u m id ity driers, p a rtic u la rly if th ey a te of th e
tu n n e l ty p e, th a n u n d e r o rd in ary stove conditions
w here th e te m p e ra tu re an d th e c ircu latio n of th e
a ir is controlled w ith o u t reference to th e
h u m id ity . Tim e, te m p e ra tu re and hum idity
curves of a h u m id ity d rie r a t w ork on foundry
m oulds a n d cores would be of g re a t in te re st.
I n conclusion, D r. S kerl sta te d th a t th e P a p e r
abounded in suggestions as to m ethods of
ad equately stu d y in g core-oven p ractice, m ethods
which could be app lied to th e norm al stove
p ractice as c a rrie d o u t in th is country.

Two Distinct Problems

M r . W . H . S m it h su p p o rted D r. S k erl’s sug­
gestion t h a t it would have been u seful to have
had a clea/r d iv id in g lin e draw n betw een w ater-
bonded cores a n d oil-sand cores, fo r th e reason
t h a t w ater-bonded cores w ould commence to dry
a t a te m p e ra tu re slig h tly above 200 deg. F ah .
( 9 3 deg. C .), a te m p e ra tu re w hich h a d p rac­
tically no influence on oil-sand cores; a tem p e ra ­
tu r e of ap p rox im ately 350 deg. F a h . ( 1 7 5 deg. 0 . )
 186

m u st be a tta in e d before oil-sand cores b eg an to

dryj
One of th e essentials, w hich th e a u th o r h a d n o t
m ade clear, w as th e ty p e of fu el used.
A p p aren tly he was u sin g gas or oil, b u t th e
P a p e r seemed to suggest t h a t gas was p re ­
d o m in an t. A c e r ta in , a m o u n t of core d ry in g was
done by th e use of gas in th is co u n try , b u t in
th e in te re sts of economy m ost of th e core and
m ould d ry in g was done by. coke fuel, w hich was
a m uch m ore econom ical p roposition. W hen
u sin g gas, th e re was n o t th e slig h te st difficulty
in m a in ta in in g an even te m p e ra tu re , even w ith ­
o u t re -c irc u la tio n ; he knew of gas stoves w hich
had been b u ilt, n o t fo r core d ry in g , b u t fo r th e
second h e a t-tre a tm e n t of alu m in iu m alloys, w here
th e te m p e ra tu re did n o t v a ry m ore th a n one
degree in an y p a r t of th e stoves over th e p eriod
of '24 hrs. T h a t re s u lt was o b ta in e d by u sin g a
special m ix in g cham ber, forced c irc u la tio n and
a th e rm o sta t, an d th e te m p e ra tu re s w ere re ­
corded a t various p a rts of th e stoves th ro u g h o u t
th e day.
The Burnt Core Troubles
I t ap p eared t h a t th e a u th o r h ad h ad consider­
able tro u b le in connection w ith th e b u rn in g of
cores an d moulds. H a v in g conducted e x p e ri­
m ents on stoves an d h av in g had som ething to do
w ith th e b u ild in g of th em , M r. S m ith was of
opinion t h a t th e tro u b le was due m ore to th e
co n stru ctio n of th e stoves th a n to a n y th in g else.
One did n o t need lim its a n y th in g like so fine as
one degree of v a ria tio n , u p o r down, fo r core o r
m ould d ry in g , b u t one d id n eed a reasonably
even te m p e ra tu re an d a c e rta in a m o u n t of p res­
sure. H e bad proved beyond q u estio n by m an y
ex p erim en ts th a t , if one im posed a stro n g in ­
duced d r a f t on a stove, th e te m p e ra tu re would
be Uneven. I f th e re w ere a stro n g pull on th e
chim ney, or if th e re w ere a fa n on th e o u tle t,
th e h o t gases would follow a m ore o r less s tra ig h t
line from th e in le t to th e o u tle t of th e stove,
an d in t h a t line th e re w ould be b u rn in g , w hereas
in o th er p a rts of th e stove th e re would he in ­
 187

effective d ry in g . A n o th er a d v a n ta g e of th e pres­
sure system w as t h a t th e resistance set up in
th e stove caused a d istrib u tio n of th e h e a t e n te r­
ing th e sto v e ; th e re w as also to some e x te n t a
m ixing of th e h o t gases e n te rin g w ith those
alread y in th e stove, an d t h a t p rev en ted th e tem ­
p e ra tu re risin g sufficiently to b u m th e contents.
A gain, th e re w as a p e n e tra tin g effect on th e
cores o r moulds, w hich was ab sen t if a p a rtia l
vacuum was crea te d by a n in d u ced d ra ft. W ith
reg ard to th e possibilities of b u rn in g m oulds or
cores, th e re w ere stoves w orking in M anchester
w hich had d ried th re e batches of m edium -size
m oulds a t a te m p e ra tu re ap proaching 600 . deg.
F ah . (316 deg. C.) in 8 hrs.

Pressure System of Drying

D ealing w ith oil-sand cores, he said th a t, w ith
a p ro p er p ressu re system an d reasonably good
alig n m en t of in le t an d o u tle t, it was possible to
d ry cores of sizes v ary in g over a very wide ran g e
w ith o u t dam ag in g th e sm aller cores, w h ilst a t
th e same tim e d ry in g th e la rg e r ones perfectly.
E v id en tly th e ty p e of co ntinuous stove used in
th is co u n try was d ifferen t from t h a t re fe rre d to
by th e au th o r. N o t only had we no re-circu la­
tio n , b u t we actu ally divided th e d ry in g period
took aw ay th e s a tu ra te d a ir, and took th e cores
in to a second cham ber,' an d re in tro d u c ed fresh
a ir, so t h a t we ob tain ed a re s u lt absolutely
opposite to t h a t of re-circu latio n . T heoretically,
i t would a p p e a r th a t , by re-circu latio n , one was
ta k in g th e a ir hack to do w h a t it h ad om itted
to do in th e first p la c e ; i t seemed b e tte r to
m ake th e a ir do its w ork th e first tim e, how­
ever, an d to finish th e w ork w ith a fresh supply
of a ir if necessary. I n th e co ntinuous stove we
could go still f u r th e r th a n in th e sta tio n a ry
stove in reg ard to v a ria tio n of sizes of core, and
i t had been d em o n strated t h a t a core w eighing
| oz. o r less an d a core w eighing | cwt. could
be d ried sa tisfa c to rily on th e sam e shelf, in a
continuous sitove; he did n o t th in k t h a t was pos­
sible in a sta tio n a ry stove.
 1ti6

Clay, Water and Oil-Sand Cores

D r . H . N ip p e r (T echnical H ig h School,
A achen, Germany.) re fe rre d to some e x p e rim e n ta l
w ork he h a d ca rrie d o u t to a sc e rta in w h eth e r or
n o t th e a d d itio n of a c e rta in a m o u n t of clay
an d of w a te r to oil-sand cores w ould be u sefu l,
because som etim es clay a n d w a te r w ere a d d ed to
oil-sand cores in th e fo u n d ry , w ith th e id ea, he
believed, of m ak in g th e cores stro n g e r. H e h a d
found t h a t in th e d ry s ta te th e s tre n g th w as very
m uch reduced, to n e a rly h alf as m uch as w ith o u t
clay a n d w a te r; i t d id n o t decrease so v ery
m uch in s tre n g th w ith w a te r alone as w ith w a te r
a n d clay. T his, he believed, was easy to ex p la in ,
because w hen one d rie d a core, one drove o u t th e
w a te r an d a fte rw a rd s oxidised th e oil, a n d th e
oil bound th e g ra in s to g e th e r. W hen th e w a te r
was d riv en o u t, how ever, a t a tim e w hen 'ohe
outside of th e core h a d alre a d y been oxidised an d
th e core possessed a c e rta in s tre n g th , th e steam
com ing o u t w ould b re a k u p th e connection
betw een th e little g ra in s, an d so th e s tre n g th was
reduced a g ain . I t m ig h t be t h a t in some cases
w here i t was n o t necessary to have a v ery stro n g
core in th e dry sta te , b u t w here c e rta in stre n g th s
w ere necessary in th e g reen sta te , i t m ig h t bo
advisable to add a c e rta in a m o u n t of clay, fo r it
was fo u n d t h a t in a g reen s ta te th e oil cores
m ixed w ith w a te r or especially w hen m ixed w ith
w a te r an d clay w ere m uch stro n g e r th a n p u re oil-
sand cores.

Optimum Strength related to Water Content

M r . A. T ip p e r , com m enting on D r. N ip p e r’s
rem ark s as to th e effect of w a te r, a n d possibly
clay, on oil-sand cores a f te r b a k in g , suggested
t h a t th e fine clay m a te ria l absorbed th e oil, and
fo r th is reason one did n o t g e t a n y th in g lik e th e
sam e am o u n t of oil av ailab le fo r b o n d in g th e
sand g ra in s to g e th e r as w hen u sin g a clean
silica sand. T his has been proved ex p e rim e n ta lly
in v ario u s P a p e rs on th e su b ject, a n d w ould
m ask th e tr u e effect of w a te r ad d itio n s.
The sp eak er h a d c a rrie d o u t a n u m b er of te sts,
u sin g an oil-bonded, clean silica san d , w ith in ­
 189

creasing w a te r ad d itio n s. The bak ed stre n g th

increased to a m axim um an d th e n decreased
ag ain w ith f u r th e r w a te r additio n s. T h a t, of
course, was n o t “ g reen bond ” b u t dry stren g th .
The essen tial facto rs in d ry in g a p p e a r to he :■—
(1) T em p eratu re c o n tro l; (2) circu latio n of ho t
a ir, a n d (3) an ad eq u ate supply of oxygen in th e
core stove.
The a u th o r h ad n o t d e a lt w ith th e fa c t t h a t
d ifferen t m a te ria ls re q u ire d ifferen t percentages
of oxygen d u rin g b ak in g , in o rd e r to o b tain th e
best re s u lts ; v a ria tio n in degree of oxidation
required was a m a tte r which m u st be considered.
The a u th o r’s rem a rk s concerning th e effect of
w a te r d u rin g b ak in g w ere m ost in te re stin g , b u t
needed co n sid eratio n w ith discretion, and prob­
ably th e re w ould be f u r th e r developm ents of th e
th eo ry t h a t th e d ry in g o r b ak in g of moulds' and
cores occurred in th re e stages.

Size>of>Mould Factor
M b . W . J . M olineux suggested t h a t th e
points w ith re g a rd to th e rela tiv e con d u ctiv ity
of w ater a n d sand, an d also iron reinforcem ent,
h ad n o t been fully ap p re c iate d by foundrym en.
P erh ap s, how ever, in a c tu a l p ractice one did n ot
reap such ad v an tag es as one w ould im agine from
a glance a t th e P a p e r. I t was ra th e r u n fo r­
tu n a te t h a t some co m p arativ e resu lts obtained
from th e ty p e of stove o u tlin ed in th e P a p e r,
an d from th e s ta n d a rd ty p e of h o t-a ir d rie r, were
n o t given. A lthough th e prin cip le m ig h t apply
to m oulds of th ick section, in which th e m oisture
was encouraged to m ig ra te to th e surface of th e
m ould an d to become ev ap o ra ted , one could n o t
q u ite im ag in e t h a t t h a t occurred in th e oil-sand
core, a n d th e a u th o r should have d ifferen tiated
betw een th e tw o typ es of m a te ria l being
tre a te d . In m any fo u n d ries m oulds of very widely
vary in g thicknesses of section h ad to be tre a te d
sim ultaneously, an d one would im agine th a t it
was p re tty well im possible to economise in drying
tim e w here such larg e v a ria tio n s in thicknesses
of section h ad to be d e a lt w ith a t one tim e,
th o u g h i t m ig h t be possible on m any occasions,
 190

or in some p a rtic u la r fo u n d ries w here specialised

work was d e a lt w ith , to effect some little economy
in tim e.
I t was m entioned in th e P a p e r t h a t co n tin u o u s-
dry in g ovens had achieved success. B u t one could
n o t visualise a ty p e of c o n tin u o u s oven in which
th e thrC e-stage d ry in g system could be app lied
w ith o u t considerable com plications.

Water and Oil>Sand Practice

M r. J . H . C ooper , com m enting on D r. N ip p e r’s
rem ark s concerning w a te r in core sand, said t h a t
w et san d was n o t used in G erm any if i t could be
avoided, because th e re w ere so m an y com posi­
tio n s of core oil— d e x trin e , linseed oil a n d a
h u n d re d an d one o th ers— an d th e system was to
d ry all th e sand if possible, u sin g th e larg e sand
in o rd er to m inim ise th e a m o u n t of core oil to
be used. I f one used a bond to give g reen -san d
bond, u sin g loam o r a n y th in g else, th e a m o u n t of
core oil necessary increased by leaps an d bounds.
H e believed G erm an fo u n d ry m en objected to
w ater because i t boiled on th e edge, so t h a t
one did n o t g e t a sm ooth su rface. They used
dry silica sand, as little fine san d as possible,
an d secured very easy a n d quick c le a n in g ; th e
finish was definitely good. W hen w a te r was
used, in stead of g e ttin g a s tr a ig h t bond, one
obtain ed an em ulsion, w hich caused endless
tro u b le.
D r . N i p p e r said t h a t w a te r m ig h t help to
g ive b e tte r d is trib u tio n of th e oil if th e re w ere
a very sm all am o u n t of oil, b u t t h a t was ab o u t
th e only good i t could do. H e ag reed t h a t clay
absorbed a c e rta in a m o u n t of th e oil a n d p re ­
vented very u nifo rm d is trib u tio n of oil.

Higher Drying Temperatures Advocated

M r . W . W est (L eyland M otors, L im ited ) asked
w h at th e a u th o r h ad m e a n t to convey by his
sta te m e n t t h a t a t 500 deg. P a h . (260 deg. C.) th e
q u alities of linseed oil w ere destroyed. I n th is
connection M r. W est re fe rre d to some d ire c t w ork
ca rrie d o u t by D r. J . N ew ton F rie n d a n d him self
fo u r y ears ago on linseed oil, in w hich i t was
 191

found t h a t a t 500 dog. F all, th e linseed oil poly­

m erised a n d th e m olecular w eight was increased
12 tim es. A pplying t h a t in p ractice, a foundry-
m an w ould find t h a t d ry in g was very g reatly
accelerated. So t h a t th e sta te m e n t in th e P a p e r
w ith re g a rd to th e d e stru ctio n of th e qualities
of linseed oil a t 260 deg. C. m ig h t he somewhat
m isleading to foundrym en, inasm uch as i t was,
or should be, a fu n d a m e n tal principle among
foundrym en t h a t th e g re a te r th e a m o u n t of vola­
tile m a tte r t h a t cam e off in th e core stove th e less
rem ained to come aw ay in th e m ould. F o u n d ry ­
m en need not be so diffident ab o u t raisin g drying
te m p e ra tu re s ; if good linseed oil were used th e
cores w ould n o t d isin te g ra te , b u t would he more
perm eable th a n cores d ried a t lower te m p era­
tu re s ; fu rth e rm o re , th e re would be less blowing
of th e m etal in th e moulds. H e asked, th erefo re,
fo r some ex p lan a tio n or am plification of th e
a u th o r’s statem en t.
On th e proposition of th e P r e s i d e n t , a h e arty
vote of th a n k s w as accorded to th e a u th o r.

AUTHOR’S REPLY
I n rep ly in g to th e discussion upon th is P ap e r,
th e a u th o r wishes to m ake it clear t h a t his
ap proach to th is su b ject has been purely th a t
of a m echanical en g in ee r, w ith no special know­
ledge of fo undry p ractice.
The necessity fo r im proved core an d mould
d ry in g m ethods becam e acu te in connection w ith
a c o n tra c t fo r a q u a n tity of cast steel ru n n e rs,
fo r F ran cis-ty p e h y d rau lic tu rb in e s of 50,000
h .p . The m ould fo r such ru n n e rs is m ade by
g ro u p in g a n u m b er of in terlo ck in g m oulds or
cores, on a base-plate in a castin g -p it, th e group
being su rro u n d e d by a steel-plate su p p o rtin g
shell betw een w hich and th e cores sand is
ram m ed.
The cores o r m ould-segm ents m u st be tr u e to
dim ensions and u n d isto rte d . Owing to th e laTge
dim ensions of these cores, it became necessary to
co n stru ct a special d uplex drying-oven, consist­
in g of tw o cham bers, each ap p ro x im ately 15 ft.
cube.
 192

The co n stru ctio n consisted of steel p la te shells

enclosing 4 in. of rock-wool in su latio n . The
roofs were rem ovable, fo r cran e service, an d a
com bustion cham ber fo r oil-firing w as located
below each oven.
One core, such as those shown in F ig . A.
form ed a charge fo r each cham ber, an d w as b u ilt
u pon a special b ase-plate. These cores w ere
m oulded in a built-U p core box, to w hich sections
were added as th e w ork proceeded in h eig h t.
The m a trix was a special c o re-arb o u r, b u ilt
up to th e ap p ro x im a te c o n to u r an d held rig id
by a b ra ck et, t h a t can be seen in th e pho to ­
g rap h (F ig . A) bolted to th e base-p late.
M oulding w as done w ith th e aid of a ir-ram m ers,
u sin g sh arp O ttaw a san d . A c h a ra c te ristic
sand m ix is as u n d e r : —1,600 lbs. sh a rp O ttaw a
s a n d ; 5 8 | lbs. fireclay ; 9 lbs. “ E e x ” corn
b in d e r; 1 gall, of m olasses; i gall, of fu el oil.
This was m illed for 10 m in . a n d h ad a m o istu re
co n te n t of 4 to 6 p e r cent.
P a rtic u la rs of a set of cores a r e as u n d e r : —

W eight of
Weight Average Drying coke in
Core no. each. thickness. time. centre.

Lbs. Ins. Hrs. Lbs.

1 46.000 30 70 1,500
2, 3 & 4 24,000 21 60 500
5 60,000 6 6 80 2 ,0 0 0

The cost of th ese cores, w hen re a d y fo r th e

oven, was very considerable, a n d a re g u la r
supply to th e m oulders was essen tial. They
w ere to be baked w ith o u t crac k in g a n d dis­
to rtio n , w ith a reasonable fuel cost a n d w ith fu ll
control of th e process.
A search w as m ade th ro u g h tech n ic al lite r a ­
tu r e , fo r g u idan ce , an d a d e scrip tio n of th e
dry in g of w et w h itin g , by th e th re e -sta g e
“ h u m id ity -d ry in g ” m ethod was fo u n d in th e
handbook of th e A m erican Society of H e a tin g
an d V e n tila tin g E n g in eers.
 193

F ig . A.— C ores for F r a n c i s - type H y d r a u l ic T u r b in e W heels of 50,000 h .p .

 194

T he problem in h an d differed, in m an y re ­
spects, from th is, h u t th e p rin cip le of re-c ircu la­
tio n and th e “ w ater-shield ” m ethod o f p ro ­
te c tin g cores an d e lim in a tin g c rack in g seem ed to
be sound an d m uch in advance of c u rre n t
p ractice. C rackin g and d isto rtio n w ere th e chief
risks to be overcome.
E ach d ry in g cham ber was th e re fo re provided
w ith a m otor-driv en fa n , connected to th e
in te rio r by sheet-m etal du cts, a rra n g e d to draw
th e a ir from th e to p of th e oven a n d re -in tro d u c e
i t a t th e bottom . E a c h fa n w as of sufficient
cap acity to ensu re ab o u t 2 0 changes of a ir
p er h r., and th e d u cts w ere designed fo r a low
velocity an d shaped to e n su re a n even d is tri­
b u tio n of a ir ; v e n ts an d dam pers w ere also
provided.
T here was some a n x ie ty over th e fa te of th e
first tw o cores, fo r tim e did n o t p e rm it of p re­
lim in ary ex p erim en ts, b u t, fo rtu n a te ly , th e
re su lts th ro u g h o u t were very sa tisfa c to ry .
The oven te m p e ra tu re s, as reco rd ed , w ere
su b stan tially th e sam e as those described in th e
P a p e r, fo r each stag e of d ry in g . B ased upon
th is experience, th e old-style ovens in th e p la n t
are being equipp ed fo r re-circulation"; all use
oil-fuel, w hich is cheap in C an ad a a n d needs
little a tte n tio n . T his p la n t produces steel cast­
ings only, has a com plete san d -co n d itio n in g and
h an d lin g eq u ip m en t, and m ost of th e cores are
m oulded on jo lt m achines.
R e fe rrin g to D r. S k e r l ’ s re m ark s, i t w ill be
e v id en t th a t, th e sand g ra in s bein g im perm eable,
all th e w a te r co n te n t of th e g reen core m u st be
located e n tire ly in th e voids of th e core, an d
th u s th e p erm eab ility of a h a rd -ram m ed core,
fo r steel castin g , when in th e g reen s ta te , m u st
be very low, an d th e reduced h e a tin g in th e
th ird period m ay lessen th e risk of crack in g , by
p re v en tin g th e accum ulation of steam pressure.
I n th e first period, th e a u to m a tic lim ita tio n
of th e surface te m p e ra tu re to 212 deg. F . keeps
th e te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t in th e core m o d erate
(as com pared w ith “ to a s tin g ” m ethods), an d
th u s te n d s to p re v e n t c rack in g , due to
 195

d ifferen tial expansion, especially a t ra^jid change

of section.
In q u iries were circu lated fo r a h u m id ity in d i­
c a to r and recorder, suitable fo r core-oven use,
b u t none was offered fo r a h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re
th a n 212 deg. F ., ex cep t by th e in d ire c t m ethod
of e x tra c tin g a m easured sam ple of th e a ir,
cooling it, m easu rin g th e h u m id ity a t th e
reduced te m p e ra tu re , and calc u latin g , from th is,
th e h u m id ity in th e o v e n ; th is could n o t be
a tte m p te d u n d e r fo u n d ry conditions.
L arg e cores, such as those described, are n o t
dried th ro u g h o u t, and it was desired to have a
m eans of m easu rin g th e percentage m oisture
co n ten t a t differen t depths. An electric m oisture
d e tec to r was secured, designed fo r lum ber
g rad in g , and its needle-point contacts were re ­
placed by contacts, a t th e end of an insu lated
probe, which w as th r u s t into th e core.
The resu lts w ere n o t sufficiently en couraging
to place any relian ce u p o n th em , b u t i t was
th o u g h t t h a t by re -a rra n g in g th e d etec to r
circ u its fo r th e sm all ran g e of h u m id ity req u ired
and by devising some m eans of p ro te c tin g th e
electrodes from m o istu re, u n til th e desired d ep th
was reached, and especially of en su rin g uniform
co n tac t conditions, such an in stru m e n t could
become of g re a t value.
M r. S m ith will u n d e rsta n d t h a t th e a u th o r is
only qualified to discuss th e m echanical aspects
of th e points he has raised , b u t he is able to
agree w ith him th a t, to secure u n ifo rm te m ­
p e ra tu re d is trib u tio n in ovens an d furnaces,
carefu l a tte n tio n to th e c ircu latio n of th e h eated
gases is essential.
The a c tu a l flow of th e gases, p a st th e obstruc­
tio n of th e co n te n ts of an oven or fu rn ace, is
by no m eans easy to p red ict. In th e case of
th e special core-ovens described, we w ere able
to secure useful in fo rm atio n and guidance, on
th is p o in t, by in je c tin g smoke, th ro u g h th e
b u rn e r p o rt, in to th e com bustion cham ber, and
observing its m ovem ent, in th e oven, th ro u g h
sight-holes provided in th e w all, th e in te rio r of
 196

th e ovendbeing illu m in a te d , fo r th e p urpose, bv

electric lam ps.
M r. S m ith is c o rrect in s ta tin g t h a t consider­
able core loss was involved in th e days w hen
cores w ere baked, in a h u rry , a t te m p e ra tu re s of
315 deg. C. or m ore w ith o u t c ir c u la tio n ; i t is
tr u e t h a t fo u n d ry m en developed m ix tu re s t h a t
w ould sta n d u p , fa irly , to such h arsh tr e a tm e n t,
b u t th e tr u e rem edy is co ntrolled c ircu latio n .
All o u r ovens h ad an oil-fired com bustion-
cham ber below th e floor, an d th e escape of th e
h o t gases, u p w ard s to th e oven cham ber, was
m ade u n ifo rm by a rra n g in g th e lin e of flue
openings, along each side w all, of in creasin g
a re a , from th e b u rn e r to th e la s t o pening, th e
in te n tio n being to m ake th e to ta l fric tio n up
to each o u tle t, and consequently th e flow of gas,
co n sta n t a t all openings.
P ressu res in th ese ovens w ere alw ays slightly
above atm ospheric to p re v e n t inflow of cold a ir.
This p ressure is due to th e in je c to r actio n of th e
o il-b u rn e rs; th e c irc u la tin g flow is p ractically
balanced.
The p e n e tra tio n of h o t a ir in to cores, due to
pressure, to which M r. S m ith re fe rs, can only
ta k e place fo r a m om ent, u n til th e e x te rn a l
p ressure is balanced, w hen i t ceases.
The best m ethod of h e a tin g th e ce n tre of
cores is by conduction th ro u g h th e co n tain ed
w ater, as a rra n g e d in th e first period described
in th e P a p e r.
The fu n ctio n of re-circu latio n , in th e first
period, is solely to equalise th e te m p e ra tu re in
th e oven, th e d am pers a re closed so t h a t th e
sam e a ir is used over an d over a g a in ; i t does
n o t m a tte r how s a tu ra te d i t is w ith m o istu re —
we w an t i t so to p ro te c t th e su rfac e of th e cores
w hilst h e a t is p e n e tra tin g , conducted by th e
in te rn a l m oisture.
I t would a p p e a r to be very uneconom ical to
dry large an d sm all cores in th e sam e b atc h ,
undo u b ted ly it can be done.
To M r. T ip p e r’s th re e essen tial fa cto rs in
d ry in g , th e a u th o r would add a fo u rth —m o istu re
control.
 H is th ird item ap p ears to have Been in­
correctly rep o rted ; th e oxygen in th e core stove
is needed fo r com bustion of th e fuel, w hilst in
th e oven it is available fo r oxidising th e
binders.
W ith an a ir supply corresponding to 20
changes of oven c ap acity p er h r., am ple oxygen
should be available, an d it is p a rtly fo r th is
purpose th a t th e air-d am p ers a re opened, in
the second period.
R ep ly in g to M r. M olineux, i t would a p p e a r
t h a t th e successful d ry in g of over 60 very large
cores, w ith o u t d e trim e n ta l crack in g or dis­
to rtio n , was evidence t h a t th e re m u st be some
m e rit in th e w et-surface theo ry , applied to th e
first period of drying.
Obviously, th e d ry in g of a w ater-b eatin g core
depends upon ev ap o ratio n , w hilst th e d ry in g of
an oil-sand core is m ainly a m a tte r of oxidation
—both dem and re-circu latio n of a ir, b u t only
in th e form er is th e w ater-shield idea
applicable.
C ontinuous ovens are re stric te d , chiefly by
considerations of len g th , to th e d ry in g of small
and m edium cores, re q u irin g a m o derate tim e
for baking.
T he com bustion cham ber is usually located
betw een th e conveyor passes and th e core-tray
c a rrie rs pass th ro u g h constrictions or
“ th r o a ts ,” ra th e r lo n g er th a n th e p itch of th e
c a rrie rs ; th e sealing effect of th e th ro a ts, owing
to sm all clearances, is fa irly good.
P a r t of th e p a th of th e conveyor is some­
tim es devoted to a cooling a rea, and th e heated
a ir, from th is, is used as com bustion aiir to th e
b u rn ers, th u s im proving th e th erm al efficiency
som ewhat.
A m erican m akers now offer re-circu latio n in
these ovens and, h av in g re g ard to th e possibility
of d ividing th e p a th of th e conveyor into
sealed com p artm en ts a n d to th e ex trem e slow­
ness of m ovem ent, i t would a p p e a r m echanically
possible to provide fo r all th re e h e a tin g periods
in sequence. C ontinuous ovens show to best
 198

a d v an ta g e, of course, in m ass-produetion fo u n d ry
program m es.
M r. W est’s rem ark s, re g a rd in g linseed oil, a re
very in te re stin g , possibly th e observ atio n s
published by th e A m erican F o u n d ry m e n ’s
A ssociation, s ta tin g t h a t o x id a tio n is v ery m uch
fa s te r betw een 175 a n d 2.30 deg. C. th a n a t
lower te m p e ra tu re s, is an in d ic a tio n of
p o lym erisation in th e sam ples u n d e r te s t, a n d it
is know n t h a t linseed oil sam ples v a ry g re a tly .
F u rth e r, one w ould assum e t h a t th e s ta te ­
m en t, “ a t 260 deg. C. th e q u alitie s of th e oil
a re d estro y ed ,” refers to its b o n ding p ro p ertie s,
w hich m ay reaso n ab ly h av e some re la tio n to its
volatile co n stitu e n ts, w hich w ith in creasin g
te m p e ra tu re a re d riv en off.
 199

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN BRITISH

SYNTHETIC MOULDING SAND PRACTICE

By J. J. Sheehan, A.R.C.Sc.I., A.I.C. (Member)

The title of th is P a p e r is based on experience
gain ed m ainly in co n v ertin g th e sand systems of
a m echanised foun d ry from n a tu r a l m oulding
sands to th e use of synthetic-m oulding sand.
The fo u n d ry operates a fully-m echanised grey-
iron system m akin g autom obile cylinders and
heads, a partially -m ech an ised steel system
m aking autom obile p a rts an d a jobbing floor.
The su b je c t-m a tte r of th e P a p e r m ay be con­
veniently d e a lt w ith by considering i t th e solu­
tio n of th e problem of th is “ change over " and
th e a d a p ta tio n of th e change to th e th ree
system s. The problem , s ta te d m ore specifically,
was to develop a m oulding sand t h a t would
o p erate successfully as a grey iron, a steel and
a jobbing floor sand, a n d fu r th e r to m ake th e
basis of th is sand, b u r n t sand which has already
fu n ctio n ed in oil-sand cores.
A p a rt from th e economy suggested by th is
scheme, th e tro u b le experienced in th e use of
n a tu r a l m oulding sands dem anded thorough in ­
v estig atio n an d rectification, a n d was an addi­
tio n a l in cen tive to change.
The conditions e x istin g p rio r to th e change
m ay be sum m arised briefly in Table I.
A tte n tio n was of necessity cen tred on th e grey-
iron system an d in v estig atio n s begun in to th e
sand system as such and in to th e sands used,
keeping in view th e needs of th e o th er systems
a n d possible economies.
As previously sta te d , th e g rey-iron system is
fully m echanised. The sand p re p a ra tio n an d dis­
trib u tio n “ lay-out ” is d etailed diag ram m atic-
ally in P ig . 1.
The sa n d -p rep ara tio n p la n t consists of two
raised roller m ixers, a d is tin te g ra to r an d a m ag­
n e tic pulley. The d istrib u tio n is by ru b her-belt
201
 202

conveyors an d th e sto rag e by overhead hoppers,

one larg e ho p p er fo r sp e n t san d over th e m ix ers
an d a series of sm aller h oppers over th e m oulding
m achines fo r th e p re p a re d sand. T his system is
sim ple an d looks effective, h u t failed absolutely
to p re p a re a n d d eliver n a tu r a l m o u ld in g san d s
in a co ndition su itab le fo r good m oulding, m ore
p a rtic u la rly fo r good m achine-m oulding.
T he scrap, due to san d defects a t th is p a r­
tic u la r period, was excessive a n d c e rta in ly d iv e r­
sified—-dirty castin g s, b roken m oulds, d ro p p ed
m oulds, leak in g castin g s, due to san d inclusions
on th in sections, scabbed castin g s, swollen c a st­
ings— a n d an ex h au stiv e e x a m in a tio n of th e san d
as delivered by th is system revealed th e cause
an d led u ltim a te ly to th e curé.
The s ta te m e n t “ th e san d as delivered by th is
system ” is delib erate, an d is used to avoid a t
th is stage a p p o rtio n in g th e re sp o n sib ility fo r th e
d efective co nd itio n of th e m o ulding san d , as
betw een th e system an d th e chem ical an d physical
com position of th e san d as received.
I t is m ore co n ven ien t first to ta b u la te th e
defects an d th e co nditions cau sin g th em
(Table I I ) .
General Remarks on Table II
T here are m an y m ore ty p es of d efectiv e c a st­
ings associated w ith san d co n d itio n , such as
pulled tops, ra t-ta ils , rip p les, b u t as th ese a re
m ore nearly re la te d to coal-dust c o n te n t and
q u a lity ra th e r th a n to basic san d c o n d itio n , a
discussion of th e m is n o t included.
As th e ta b u la te d possible conditions g iv in g rise
to th e defects m entio n ed could n o t e x ist a t one
an d th e sam e tim e in th e san d , th o se t h a t a c tu ­
ally obtain ed a t th e tim e of th e in v estig a tio n
are italicised, a n d to sim plify th e referen ce th e
physical c o n sta n ts of th e m oulding san d th en
in use a re given below.
S tre n g th , 13 to 15 lbs. p er sq. in .
P erm eab ility , 30 to 32.
M oisture, 4 to 5 p e r cent.
The o u tsta n d in g deficiencies of th is san d are
low perm eability an d high stre n g th , th e low
 203

p erm eab ility affecting th e san d co ndition d irectly

a n d th e s tre n g th in d irec tly in t h a t th e h ig h clay
co n te n t g iving th is stre n g th com pacted th e sand
so th o ro u g h ly t h a t it caked a t th e bottom of th e
m ill an d th e rollers rode over th e com pacted mass.
Inefficient m ixing was th e re su lt. Inefficient or
irre g u la r a e ra tio n also resu lted as th e d isin te ­
g ra to r was unable to b reak u p th is caked mass.
The sand was composed of 18 p a rts red sand
and 14 p a rts of B elgian, 22 p a rts of old s a n d ;
th is m ix tu re is obviously w rong, and, briefly,
fo r th e follow ing re a s o n s: — (o) Excessive
am ounts of new sand, and (61 th e sm aller g rain s
of th e red sand fittin g betw een th e g ra in s of th e
B elgian and giving an alm ost im perm eable mass.
I t would be u n fa ir to th e san d -p rep aratio n
system to consider i t inefficient when un ab le to
p rep are satisfacto rily such a m ix tu re .
H ow ever, o p e ra tin g th e system on a single
n atu rally -b o n d ed m oulding sand was also u n sa tis­
facto ry , th o u g h n o t to th e same e x te n t. The
m ixers w ere incapable of b re a k in g up th e coarser
clay pellets in th e sh o rt tim e dem anded by th e
m echanised m oulding equipm ent. T his is illus­
tr a te d by F ig . 7, showing th e co ndition of
unbroken clay pellets fused in th e san d mass.
A ctually 50 to n s of b acking sand p er 8 -hour
day are req u ired by th e m oulding section, and
th e m ixers are capable of holding 644 lbs. per
batch, allow ing only 2 -| m in u tes for m ixing each
batch.
The in a b ility of th e raised -ro ller ty p e faster-
w orking m ixers to h an d le a heavily-bonded
n a tu ra l m oulding sand is also d em o n strated by
th e figures in Table I I I an d gives a com parison
also w ith th e older ty p e heavy-roller m ix er used
on floor m oulding.
The increase in s tre n g th a fte r 4 m in u te s’
m illing in th e old-type heavy-roller m ill was
53 p er cent, a g a in st an increase of 43 p e r cent,
fo r th e new er m ixer. E vidence of incom plete
m ixing is also strik in g ly shown, th e stre n g th
figures fo r th e average from th e m ill being con­
siderably less th a n t h a t p o rtio n of sand com­
pacted u n d e r th e rollers.
 204

II.—Sand Condition causing these Defects and Expressed in Physical Constants as measured on the A .F .A . Cmoo
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In Fine­ In Perme­ Strength.
Sample.
Mois­ Perme­ Strength. Clay. Sand. ness Clay. ability.
ture. ability. pan. pan.
No.

Per Per Per Per­ Per

Q®
en g
cent. cent. cent. cent. cent.

1
1

1
u| gC 105
Untreated 4.6 87.7

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1
1
1 0 0 .2

1
05
206

Lab. treated . . 6.9

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105.6 + 75 + 34 - 25 + 53

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Milled 4 min. . .
Raised Roller Mixer.
4.7 95.3 4.7 104.8
1

Untreated
1

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Lab. treated .. 4.6 7.0 8 .1 91.9 4.3 104.8

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Aver, from mill 4.6 1 0 .0 11.9 8 8 .1 4.3 104.5 Nil -

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rollers 4.7

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 207

The rectificatio n of these two m a jo r defects,

th e sand condition and th e in ab ility of th e
m ixers to fu n ctio n rap id ly was m ade possible by
a sim ple a d ju stm e n t to th e sand m ix tu re, using
one to tw o p a rts B elgian sand and one p a rt
S o u th p o rt s a n d ; th is gave th e following physical
co n stan ts : —
Facing Sand. Backing Sand.
Permeability .. 46.0 Permeability . . 57.0
Strength . . .. 8 .6 Strength .. .. 5.7
Moisture .. .. 5.0 Moisture . . .. 4.0

T his a lte ra tio n raised th e perm eability, lowered

th e s tre n g th an d th u s allowed th e m ixers to
fu n ctio n w ith o u t com pacting th e m a s s; in fact,
th e ru b b in g of th e g rain s of S o u th p o rt th ro u gh
th e B elgian sand efficiently broke up th e w hitish
clay pellets n a tu ra lly occurring in th e la tte r
s a n d ; th e d is in te g ra to r also fu n ctio n ed excel­
lently, no choking-up o ccurring. The raised-
ro ller m ixers now w'orked m ost efficiently and
rap id ly . I n fact, th e y w ere ideally su ited for
th e high-speed q u an tity -p ro d u c tio n sand
system .
T his sem i-synthetic sand fu nctioned in th e
system excellently, and th e im provem ent in th e
scrap from sand defects was m ost m arked, as is
shown in Table IV . This concluded the
first stage of developm ent, and while m a in ta in ­
ing these good conditions w ith th is sem i-synthetic
sand, in vestigatio n s were contin u ed , to d e te r­
m ine th e a ttrib u te s necessary to good m oulding
sands fo r steel, grey iron and jobbing-floor work.
N o effort was m ade fu rth e r to u tilise th e red
sand in th e systems. A th o ro u g h analysis of th is
sand revealed its u n su ita b ility , b u t undoubtedly
also yielded m uch in te re stin g in fo rm atio n which
m ay be u ltim a te ly u tilised in synthetic-sand
p ractice.
The red sand u n d e r discussion is Bromsgrove
red, an d is ty p ical of th e sands of th e B u n te r
 208
T able IV .— Cylinder Crankcase. Details
C
CM
ci ©M i> r-i 0 0 id ci id ci
to C CM CM - 00 M <N
Week ending,
r* a ts £> x> -d ,u a ci
1933. ci eS ca3 ctS a S a a
*"3 ► "5 si * a

Cause of scrap and * *

number scrapped * * * * * * * * * * *
Dirt 17 1 2 1 2 4 4 7 6 8 6 4 2 2 5
Broken moulds 5 3 4 2 4 — 1 11 1 4 — 3 6

Leaking 23 15 23 4 2 3 4 6 24 7 1 0 9 10

Scabbed 16 6 6 8 3 13 15 19 1 — 9 1 0 12

Swollen 3 1 1 3 2 2 5 ■
— 12 — —

Total scrap sand

defects . . 64 37 46 21 15 25 31 44 44 15 21 24 33

Sept. 27.
Sept. 20.
Sept. 13.
Aug. 30.
Aug. 23.
Aug. 16.

Oct. 18.
1 Oct. 25.
Oct. 11.
.
Aug. 9.
Aug. 2.

Oct. 4.
6

Week ending,
Sept.

1933 & 1934.

Cause of scrap and

number scrapped t t t t t t t t t t t t t
Dirt --- —. •—- --- ■
— --- — --- 13 — —
Broken moulds 4 --- 1 1 8 8 2 7 1 15 1 2
Leaking 1 -- 1 1 — 2 — --- 3 — 2 1

Scabbed 1

Swollen
Total scrap sand
defects . . — 2
6 2 8 10 2 8 1 5 9 3 3
* Red Sand Mixture was in operation up to week ending April 5.
ending December 13. t Synthetic Sand in oper

deposits. The chem ical analysis of th is san d is

as follows : ■
—
Ignition loss 1 . 0 0 per cent.

Silica (Si02) . . . .. 86.70

Iron oxide (Fe 2 0 3) .. 1.60
Alumina (A12 0 3) .. 6.3
Titania (T i02) .. 0 . 2
Lime (CaO) .. 0.3
Magnesia (MgO) . . 0.3
Alkalies (Na 20 K.,0) . . . . 3.4
 209
of Scrap Caused by Sand Defects.

July 26. 1
Apr. 12.
Apr. 19.
Apr. 26.

June 14.
June 21.
June 28.
May 10.
May 17.
May 24.
May 31.

July 12.
July 19.
j Apr. 5.

June 7.
May 3.

July 5.
* t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t
— 1 1 4 2 — I 1 4 --- 1 5 3 2 2 1 2
ti 5 8 5 2 8 11 19 3 --- 1 2 1 5 1 6
6 13 7 8 2 2 3 10 5 2 1 2 2 4
1 1 3
17 8 6 12 5 8 2 1 3 --- 3 1 — —
— --- — -- — — — —■ — — —
__ __ “

29 27 2 2 29 11 18 17 31 11 1 10 10 5 9 4 4 12
Nov. 15.
Nov. 22.
Nov. 29.

ń
Dec. 20.
Dec. 27.
.

Jan. 10.
Jan. 17.

Feb. 14.
Jan. 24.

Feb. 21.
Jan. 31.
.

Jan. 3.
8

Feb. 7.
6

>
Nov.

V
Dec.

0 OJ
£ fi

t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t
— 1 2 1 1 I 6 3 — 1 4 2 4 2 2 1
11 1 8 8 7 6
1 3 — 1 1 1 — 1 1
1 1 1 1 -- - -- —

13 5 10 10 9 9 6 5 2 2 4 2 4 _ 2 2 1

t Semi-Synthetic Sand Mixture was in operation up to week

ation from week ending December 20, 1933.

an d th e m echanical analysis (T ylor screen) : —

+ 35 mesh . . 0 . 2 per c
+ ,, 1 .2
+ 65 „ .. 8 .6
+ 100 „ .. 34.0
+ 150 „ .. 26.2
+ 2 0 0 .................... .. 14.9
+ 250 „ .. 5.2
- 270 .................... 3.2
C l a y ........................ 6.5
 210

F ig . 2 .— D i r t y C a s t i n g — C y lin d e r H ead.
 211

F ig . -3.— B rok en M ould or D r o pped M ould.

 212

The chem ical analysis of sim ilar sands from

th e -sa m e B u n te r d ep o sit (T able V) is included
to illu s tra te th e ty p e (figures ta k e n from
Table I I I of a M em oir on “ B ritis h R esources an
R efra c to ry S a n d s,” by P . G. H . Boswell, O .B .E .,
D .S c.).
The value of these san d s lies in th e ir re g u la r
occurrence. F o r high-tem pera-ture w ork, such
as autom obile ca st iro n s an d steels, th e ir dis­
ad v an ta g es a re num erous, because (1 ) th e y con­
ta in betw een 2 an d 3 per cent, of po tash , th u s
re n d erin g th em easily fusible a t elev a ted te m ­
p e ra tu re s, form in g silicates of th e alk alies and
alk alin e e a rth s. In th e best m oulding sands
th e potash and soda co n te n ts com bined do n o t
exceed 0.7 per c e n t.; (2) th e B u n te r san d s a re
peculiar am ong m oulding sands, in t h a t th e p o t­
ash an d soda p ersists even in th e c o a rser g rad es
of th e sand, an d e x ist as po tash a n d soda-fel-
spars. W hile th e little p o tash o ccu rrin g in th e
b e tte r steel m oulding sands ex ists in th e finer
g rad es only, and th e n m ain ly as th e less fusible
m icas (th is p e c u lia rity is a consequence of th e
mode of fo rm atio n of th e B u n te r deposits, and
th ey were form ed u n d e r d e se rt conditions w here
decom position of th e re lativ e ly soluble po tash
m inerals was in h ib ite d fo r w a n t of w a te r ) ; and
(3 ) an e x am in atio n of th e figures in th e m echani­
cal analysis reveals th e cause of th e low p e r­
m eability figures o b tain ed u sin g th ese sands.
The m ost perm eable sands a re those w ith th e
g re a te s t p ro p o rtio n of th e ir b u lk of th e sam e
g ra in size, and w ith th e g re a te st p ro p o rtio n of
rounded g rain s. I t w ill be seen t h a t th is red
sand has its bulk d is trib u te d over m an y sizes.
The microscope reveals also th a t , w hile th e
coarser g ra in s a re alm ost p e rfe c t spheres, th e
finger g ra in s are su b -an g u la r a n d p ack on ra m ­
m ing betw een th e la rg e r g ra in s. T his co ndition
is illu s tra te d by F ig . 3, w h erein (a) re p re se n ts
th e coarser g ra in s, (b) th e finer ro u n d e d g ra in s,
an d (c) th e su b -a n g u la r g ra in s, packed by ra m ­
m ing.
The microscope, however, also revealed an in ­
te re stin g a d v a n ta g e possessed by th ese deposits.
 213

The su rface of th e m edium an d fine-sand g ra in s

is covered w ith a co atin g of fe rric h y d ro x id e;
th is fe rru g in o u s bond holds m ost tenaciously
even a fte r rep eated w ashings w ith w ater.
T h ere is some evidence th a t th is ferru g in o u s
bond is b u r n t on to th e sand g ra in . F e rric
hydroxide m ixed w ith sim ilar sand g ra in s is
read ily w ashed o u t, while fe rric hydroxide pre­
c ip ita te d on th e sand g ra in s an d b u r n t on re­
sists rep eated w ashings.
T his co atin g gives a g rip to th e clay bond and
assists i t in m aking th e sand th a t m uch stro n g er.
B u t w h at is m uch m ore in te re stin g an d im por­
ta n t, p a rtic u la rly in jobbing floor w ork, is th a t

F i g . 4 .— L e a k i n g C a s t i n g d u e t o
S and In c lu s io n . P o rtio n of
B o re .

th is co ating g rip s th e d rie r bond a t th e mould

surface, while on sm ooth, rounded, uncoated
g ra in s th e clay bond d ries, cracks and read ily
falls off, th u s allow ing th e sand to f r i t aw ay
and expose a n o th e r lay er of san d to th e same
action (th is effect is enhanced when u sin g highly-
perm eable sands, which allow fre e r a ir passage
an d consequently m ore ra p id d ry in g ).
I t is difficult to over-stress th e im portance of
th is phenom enon. I t has been th e m a in cause
of th e opposition to sy n th etic san d by th e h an d
m oulders. The sy n th etic sands b u ilt u p from
rounded, sm ooth-grained sands using a w ater-
washed deposit an d a clay bond, crum bled away
 214

F ig . 5. S cabbed C a s t in g s . C y l in d e r - H ead C o m b u s t io n S pa ces.

 215

a t th e surface of th e m ould, p a rtic u la rly when

th e m ould is open for some tim e, and w ere in ­
capable of being p atch ed o r “ sleeked.”
T his assum ption is confirmed by th e follow­
ing exp erim en ts : -—(a) The bond was ta k e n from
th e red sand and tra n s fe rre d to a ro u n d , g rain ed ,
sm ooth sand surface. The new sand was lower
in s tre n g th th a n th e o rig in al red s a n d ; (b) a
clay bond was m illed w ith th e sand g rain s from
a washed red san d an d a sm ooth-grained silica
sand of ap p ro x im ately th e sam e g ra in size (the
re d sand was a g a in stro n g e r; and (c) th e bond
from red sand was tra n s fe rre d to th e sand g ra in s
of B elgian m oulding sand, and th e bond of
B elgian w as tra n s fe rre d to th e g ra in s of red
sand (in each case th e stre n g th of th e red sand
w as 2 0 p e r cen t, h ig h er).
E x p erim en ts (c) a re rep resen ted by th e fol­
low ing : —
Bond ("Belgian grain + Red bond = Strength x
kept -I
constant Red grain + Red bond = x + | strength
Bond f Belgian grain + Belgian bond = strength y
+ Belgian bond = strength y + y
kept
constant (_Red grain -

The base g rain s of B elgian sand a re no t coated

w ith fe rric hydroxide.
A t th is stage th e ex p erim en ts narrow ed th e
in v estig atio n of th is a d v a n ta g e of red sand to
a co nsideration of th e su rface ten sio n betw een
(a) sm ooth q u a rtz and w a ter, inclu d in g smooth
q u a rtz an d w ater-c a rry in g clay b o n d ; (b) rough
q u a rtz an d w ater, an d w ate r-c a rry in g clay b o n d ;
and (c) q u a rtz on which fe rric hydro x id e has
been p re c ip ita te d an d b u rn t on as fe rric oxide
a n d w a te r a n d w ate r-ca rry in g clay bond.
I t w as n o t found possible w ith th e eq u ip m en t
available to m easu re these su rface tensions
d irectly an d express th e m num erically, b u t i t was
found possible to d em o n strate th e difference in
surface ten sio n s betw een th e w ate r-ca rry in g clay
bond an d sand g ra in s re p re se n tin g th e q u a rtz
conditions m entioned.
I n a n effort to d e m o n strate th e difference
betw een (a) an d (b), silica sands from L eighton
 216
T able V.— Chemical Analyses
Percentage

Page. S i0 2. A12 0 3. Fe 2 0 3. FeO. MgO. CaO. Na20

167 Aughton Park, Ormskirk 92.30 3.94 0.34 0.15 0.16 0 . 1 2 0.03
y
169 Belfast, Knockvale 81.47 8.84 1.84 0.81 0 . 8 6 1.50
171 „ Lagan Vale 74.80 7.70 1.13 0.56 1.33 4.55 1.34
155 Birmingham, Hockley
Cemetery, close 84-86 6.69 1.08 0.35 0.43 0.29 0.40
160 Compton, near Wolver­
hampton (bulk) 86.37 6.40 0.96 0.25 0.42 0.26 0.36
160 Compton, medium sand- * ' J
grade (MS) 94.37 2.82 0.46 0.17 0.16 0 .1 2

160 Compton, fine sand-

grade (FS) 89.10 5.32 0 . 8 8 0.28 0.24 0.15
160 Compton, coarse silt- ,-------*------ ,
grade (cs) 85.31 6.95 1.23 0 . 2 2 0.37 0.41 0.49
160 Compton, fine silt-
grade (fs) 69.05 14.15 2.70 0.53 1.05 1.27 0.56

160 Compton, clay-grade (c) 58.17 19.58 5.47 0.55 1.78 1.34 0.38

149 Heck, near Selby 87.14 5.89 1 .0 0 0.29 0.41 0.25 0.14
164 Kidderminster, Station
P i t .......................... 85.66 6.59 0 .8 6 0.36 0.55 0.26 0.16
65 Mansfield, pig-bed sand 88.60 5.40 1.08 0 .2 2 0.28 0.18 0.06
65 „ lower medium 82.51 4.96 0.97 0.30 1.56 2.39 0 . 1 0

B uzzard an d E r ith silica san d of selected g ra in

sizes w ere sim ilarly bonded an d m illed, b u t no
differences in bond s tre n g th w ere ev id en t.
I t was decided th e n artificially to ro u g h e n th e
silica g ra in s, an d th is w as m ost conv en ien tly
done by exposing some san d to th e v ap o u rs of
hydrofluoric acid. T he a c id -tre a te d g ra in s gave
th e h ig h e r s tre n g th figures illu s tra te d by th e
fo llo w in g : —
Before Treatment. After Treatment.
Strength .. 12.1 lbs. per 13.6 lbs. per
sq. in. sq. in.
L a rg e r sam ples of san d w ere la te r tr e a te d
w ith a d ilu te solu tio n of hydrofluoric acid and
etched by th e v a p o u r d u rin g e v ap o ra tio n .
 217

of Bunter Moulding-Sands.
weights.
2o H 20
k 2 o. c o 2. T i0 2. Z r0 2. P A . S03. Total,
+ Cl. MnO. BaO. etc.
2.14 0.56 0.34 n.d. 0.19 none trace n.d. .trace trace 0 .0 2 100.29
2.78 If;n. 2 .S 4 0.35 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 100.69
2.65 1.18 0.50 3.52 0.30 n.d. 0.04 0 .0 2 trace 0.04 0.04 99.70
3.41 1 .2 1 0.55 none 0.40 trace 0.09 none trace 0 .0 1 0.04 99.81
3.25 1 .0 0 0.57 none 0.35 trace 0.06 none trace 0 .0 1 0.04 100.30
1.57 lgn. 0.48 0.06 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 1 0 0 .2 1

3.13 0.71 0 .2 1 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 1 0 0 .0 2

3.31 1.43 0.43 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 100.15
5.45 4.28 0.97 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 1 0 0 .0 1

5.37 6.34 0.73 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 99.71
2.95 1 .0 0 0.55 none 0.18 0 .0 2 0.08 0.03 trace 0 .0 2 0.03 99.98
3.41 1 . 2 2 0.74 none 0.40 trace 0 . 1 0 none trace 0 .0 1 0.03 100.35
2.49 1.06 0.28 none 0.19 n.d. none none trace 0 .0 2 0 .0 1 99.87
2 .2 0 1.29 0.47 2.92 0.17 n.d. 0.07 none trace 0 .0 2 trace 99.93
Using th e same sand b u t less clay bond, th e
increased stre n g th was confirm ed: —
Before Treatment. After Treatment.
5.8 lbs. per 6.4 lbs. per
sq. in. sq. in.
An increase of 10.3 per cent in strength.
These figures a re th e average of six d e te r­
m in atio n s ta k e n over a period of 2 firs.
S and on which fe rric hyd ro x id e was precip i­
ta te d an d b u r n t on as fe rric oxide was com­
pared w ith th e sam e sand u n tre a te d . E rith
silica sand was used. A solution of ferric chloride
was added to th e san d sufficient to add about
1 p e r cent, of Fe„ 0 , to th e sand m ass, a solution

of am m onium hydroxide w'as added to p rec ip itate

th e ferric hydroxide and th e sand mass was then
 218

F ig . 6 .— B lown Ca s t in g . C y l in d e r B lock .
 219

d ried an d h eate d to d riv e off th e amm onium

chloride form ed a n d to b u rn on th e ferric oxide.
E q u a l am ounts of clay-bond and w a te r were
added to th e tre a te d and u n tre a te d sands, and
th e sam ples w ere m illed fo r th e same tim e.
S tre n g th and perm eab ility figures were obtained
a n d are as follow : —
Untreated Treated sand
sand. (Pe 2 0 3 burnt on).
Permeability 125 135*
Bond strength 5.4 and 5.7 6 . 0 and 6 . 2
35 min. later 5.3 „ 5.4 6.4 „ 6.5
60 „ „ 5.3 „ 5.3 6.5 „ 6.5
n o ,, „ 5.5 „ 5.5 6.7 „ 6.7
19 hrs. later 7.4 8 .0
Average of 8 deter­
minations 5.4 6.4
An increase of 18.5 per cent, in strength.
* The difference in permeability is due to this sand
being stronger and not as easily compacted by ramming
as the untreated sand, possibly also to the fact th a t the
bond on the treated sand was in the state of thin pellicles
continuously enveloping each of the oxide-covered sand
grains, while the bond on the untreated sand due to the
lower surface energy was not as evenly distributed.
The stre n g th increases are m ark ed a n d are
obviously a fu n ctio n of th e surface tensions
betw een th e w ater-carry in g clay bond and th e
q u a rtz conditions rep resen ted by th e conditions
of th e sand g ra in s used.
A p a rt from th e s tre n g th increases enum erated ,
o th er in te re stin g m a n ifestatio n s of increased su r­
face tension w ere e v id e n t d u rin g th e ex p eri­
m ents. On th e nickel-plated wheels of th e
lab o rato ry m ixen used, th e sands w ith th e lower
su rface tension betw een bond and g ra in s adhered
to th e polished surface. The sands w ith th e
h ig h er su rface ten sio n did n o t ad h ere to th e
wheels. This adds an o th e r ad v a n ta g e of th is type
of sand when w orking w ith m etal p a tte rn s.
W hen th e su rface ten sio n betw een bond and
sand g rain s is h ig h er th a n betw een bond and
m etal surface, m oulding sand stick in g to th e
p a tte rn should be a ra re occurrence. These con­
ditions are diag ram m atically rep resen ted in
F ig . 9.
 220

F tg. 7 .— S how s C o n d it io n or U nbroken C ray P ellets F used in the S and M ass.

 221

P reviously, and p a rtic u la rly in A m erican syn­

th e tic m oulding-sand p ractice, increased surface
tension effects betw een bond and g ra in w ere ob­
ta in e d by solution in th e w ate r of th e green
bond of such substances as soluble alk alies;
g ly cerin e; solution of sodium la c ta te ; m olasses;
su g ar solutions (corn or cane), and wood ex­
tr a c ts , b u t as these ad d itio n s also increase th e
surface tension betw een th e m etal p a tte rn and
th e bond, th ere is d an g er in th e ir a d d itio n , and
th e previously-m entioned m ethod of p re p a rin g
or selecting th e san d g ra in is preferable.
This su b ject of th e physical co ndition of th e
base sand g ra in in m oulding sands is in te re stin g
a n d im p o rta n t, a n d th e above ex p erim en ts do no t
by an y m eans ex h au st th e possibilities of such
an in v estig atio n , e ith e r from th e purely scien­
tific view p o in t o r from th e p o in t of view of
p ra c tic a l ap p licatio n in th e foundry. I t is pos­
sible easily to b u rn on fe rric h ydroxide or o th er
com pound on th e s a n d ; la te r a m ethod of doing
so will be described.
The ex p erim en ts c erta in ly p o in t to a choice of
a p a rtic u la r ty p e of silica san d g ra in as th e
basis of sy n th etic m oulding sand, and such choice
has been in co rp o rated w ith satisfac tio n in the
sy n th e tic m oulding sand used by th e au th o r.
Solely as an ex p e rim en t of lab o rato ry in te re st,
a red sand of th e B u n te r ty p e was synthesised by
using a roug h -g rain ed silica sand, on which ferric
oxide was b u rn t on, an d a clay bond. This sand
had all th e ap p earan ce of th e sands from th e
B u n te r deposits—colour, feel, surface tension
phenom ena, and th e added ad v an ta g es of freedom
from deleterious alkalies.
C o n tin u in g th e second stag e of th e in v estig a­
tio n s an d m a in ta in in g th e sem i-synthetic sand
consisting of a m ix tu re of B elgian sand and
S o u th p o rt sand, which still gave excellent results,
a th o ro u g h ex am in atio n of th e B elgian sand was
u n d e rta k e n . I t was felt t h a t if an ex am in atio n
of th e red sand revealed some ch arac te ristic s to
be avoided in a synthesis, th e ex am in atio n of th e
B elgian yellow would reveal some a ttrib u te s to
be desired.
 222

W hile a very th o ro u g h in v e stig atio n of th is

sand was u n d e rta k e n in th e A u stin L a b o rato ries,
m uch valuable help was o b ta in e d on th is san d ,
an d indeed all th ro u g h the in v e stig a tio n , from a
“ M em oir ” by P . G. H . Boswell, O .B .E ., D .S c.,
nam ely, “ B ritis h R esources of R e fra c to ry
S a n d s,” published in 1918, a n d i t is proposed to
quote extensively fro m th is “ M em o ir.”

Chemical Composition
The follow ing are figures from th e “ bulk
a n a ly s is ” of th is sa n d : —
Boswell. Austin Laboratories.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
S i0 2 86.47 S i0 2 93.3 92.75
a i2o 3 4.96 A1 Â 2.23* 3.6
Fe 2 0 3 2.58 Pe 2 0 3 1.40 1 .0 0 *

EeO 0.29
MgO 0.37 MgO 0.30 0.30
CaO 0.26 CaO 0.30 0.30
N a20 0 .1 2 N a20 0.61 0.50
k 2o 0.47 k 2o
h 20 + 2.44
h 20 - 1.54 h 2o - 1.37 1.45
co2 None
T i0 2 0.40 TiO, 0 .2 0 0 .2 0

Z r0 2 None — -- —
PA 0.09 — -- —
80, None — -- —
Cl Trace — -- —
MnO Trace — - —
BaO Trace — -- —
* Variation consisted only in the substitution of some
alumina by some ferric hydroxide.

T he A u stin analyses a re of sam ples t h a t show

v a ria tio n in b u lk consignm ents an d w ere u n d e r­
ta k e n to a sc ertain w h a t th ese v a ria tio n s con­
sisted of an d th e ir possible effect in th e m o ulding
system . The in te rp re ta tio n of th ese analyses
reveal th e reasons fo r its su ita b ility as a m ould­
in g sand.
The soluble an d easily fusible alk alies are
p re se n t in sm all am o u n ts o n ly ; th e sam e is tr u e
of th e lim e, m agnesia and b a ry ta c o n ten ts.
 223

(CL )
 224

LC )

F i g . 8.

T herefore th e san d w ould be ex p ected to be

re fra c to ry , and such is th e case. The silica
co n ten t is high, so also is th e iro n c o n te n t. The
percen tag e of com bined w a te r, n o t d riv en off a t
110 deg. C. ( H ,0 + ), is also h ig h ; th e re fo re th e
sand w ould be expected to have “ good life ,”
and such is th e case. By “ good life ” is m e a n t
th e ab ility to re ta in its bond stre n g th a fte r
rep eated use.
The m echanical analysis, as given by P ro f.
Boswell, is se t o u t in Table V I.
The o u tsta n d in g p o in ts a b o u t th e m echanical
com position a re th e h ig h p ro p o rtio n of m edium -
g ra d e sand, th e relativ ely larg e q u a n tity of clay
and th e low percen tag e of fine-sand g rad e.
E x a m in atio n of th is m edium san d g ra d e shows
it to be a good-quality high-silica sand.
 225

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 226

C hem ical analysis of th e san d g ra d e : —

Boswell. Austin Laboratories.
Per cent. + 65, + 100, + 150
fraction.
S i0 2 98.63 S i0 2 99.15
A12Os 0.19 A120 3 0.23
Fe20 3 F e20 3 \ „ 3q
\ 0.22 FeO / U
FeO
MgO 0.12 MgO Trace
CaO 0.36 CaO 0.15
N a20 None Na„0 Trace
K 20 0.08 k 2o }
T i0 2 None TiO, " 0.05
„„„„ . ...________
Loss on ignition 0.25. Loss on ignition 0.18.
Under the microscope this high purity is confirmed.
The fa c t, how ever, t h a t th e lim o n ite pellicle
aro u n d th e g ra in is n o t b u r n t on a n d m ay easily
be w ashed off by é lu tria tio n in d ic a te s a lower
su rface ten sio n betw een th e bond an d th e g ra in

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F i g . 9.— P reparation and S election o r the

B ase S and G rain to increase S urface
T ension between B ond and G r a in .
 227

th a n t h a t ex h ib ited by th e red B u n te r sands.

E xperience on th e m oulding floor eonfii-ms th is
assum ption, as th e san d is difficult to p atch .
T his difference betw een th e B u n te r sands and
th e B elgian yellow m ay be accounted for by
th e ir geological fo rm atio n . The g ra in s of th e
red sands, form ed u n d e r d e se rt conditions, de­
veloped roughen ed surfaces from continued dry
abrasion a n d th e d ry fe rric oxide, readily
adhered.
T he presence of colloidal-iron h ydroxide in th e
B elgian sand is probably th e re s u lt of th e decom­
position of th e colloidal m in eral glauconite (sili­
c a te of potassium an d iro n an d alum inium ).
The decom position o ccu rrin g u n d e r conditions th e
reverse of dry, d em o n strated by th e absence of
th e w ater-soluble potassium . G rain s of undecom ­
posed glauconite a re som etim es fo u n d in th is
sand. By su b m ittin g th e B elgian sand to
“ d e sert ” conditions in th e A u stin laboratories,
i.e., by d ry in g an d h e a tin g an d re-h y d ra tin g ,
it has been possible to rep ro d u ce a san d sim ilar
to th e B u n te r reds, in ap p earan ce and behaviour,
w ith o u t, of course, c o n tain in g th e h a rm fu l
soluble alkalies.
The ex am in atio n of these tw o sands h as re ­
vealed th e follow ing ch a racteristics, which are
briefly ta b u la te d as follow : —
The mechanical analysis of—
R ed Sa n d . B e l g ia n Y ellow .
Reveals a great want of Reveals a high percentage
uniformity in grain size of the sand of uniform
of the sand, resulting in grain size, resulting in a
a very low permeability. very high permeability
for sand of such fineness.
The chemical analysis of—
R ed Sa n d . B e l g ia n Y ellow .
Shows excessive amounts Shows a high silica content
of potassium oxide and in the grain sizes and a
sodium oxide in the low figure for the alkalies
various grain sizes and in in the bond,
the clay bond, indicating
excessive amounts of
easily fusible felspars
and their decomposition
products.
I 2
 228

F ig . 1 0 .— C a s t in g s m ade in (a) N a tu ra l M o u ld in g Sand, and (b) S y n th e tic M o u ld in g

S and.
 229

The physical analysis of—

R ed Sa n d .
I n d i c a t e s a h ig h s u r fa c e
en er g y b etw een th e b o n d
a n d t h e s a n d g r a in d u e
t o b u r n t o n p e lic le s o f
f e r r ic h y d r o x id e a r o u n d
t h e g r a in .
B e l g ia n Y e l l o w .
I n d i c a t e s a lo w s u r fa c e
en er g y b etw een th e b o n d
a n d t h e s a n d g r a in .. T h e
p e lic le s o f li m o n i t e a r e
lo o s e l y h e ld a n d e a s ily
w a s h e d off.

S electing th e m ost desirable ch arac te ristic s of

both was th e basis of th e sy n th e sis :— (a) Silica
sands of h ig h p u rity to he th e base g rain s as in
B elgian s a n d ; (b) tw o m a jo r g ra in sizes in th e
sand so t h a t p erm eab ility m ig h t be m ore read ily
c o n tro lle d ; (c) th ese san d g ra in s to be coated
w ith th in pellicles of fe rric hydroxide to increase
th e surface tensio n betw een bond an d g rain s, as
in th e red B u n te r sands. (The silica-sand g rain s
m ay be selected w ith th e hydroxide envelope
n a tu ra lly occurring or artificially superim posed
an d b u rn t-o n , w hich is m ore s a tis fa c to ry ); and
(d) th e bond to be re fra c to ry an d to correspond
in com position to t h a t of th e b est steel sand
bonds an d fireclays, b u t, in a d d itio n , to have a
high green bond an d a h ig h d ry bond.
The selection of th e bond was based on a con­
sid eratio n of th e p ro p ertie s of two colloidal-clay
b inders read ily available—B e n to n ite im ported
from A m erica, an d Colbond a dom estic pro d u ct.
Colbond has a rem ark ab ly h ig h green stre n g th ,
thougli n o t so hig h as B en to n ite. F ro m a series
of te s ts ca rrie d o u t a t c o n cen tratio n s likely to
be used in th e system s, th e g reen bond stre n g th
of B en to n ite an d Colbond w ere found to be in
th e ra tio of
B en to n ite ... ... ... ... 5
Colbond ... ... ... 3
H ow ever, keeping in m ind th e o rig in al purpose
of th e in v estig atio n —to develop a sy n th etic sand
su itab le for a m echanised grey-iron system , a
m echanised-steel system an d a jobbing floor—-
i t w as decided to o p erate w ith Colbond.
An ex am in atio n of com position and properties
of th e tw o bind ers, shown in T able V II, reveals
th e reasons fo r th e choice.
 230

F ig . 1 1 .— T h e S m aller G k a in S iz e of B r o m sg r o v e R ed
S and W a sh e d R epeatedly w it h W ater, s h o w in g the

M a j o r it y of the G r a in s w it h F e r r ic - H y d r o x id e s t il l
a d h e r in g .

F ig . 1 2 .— T h e L arger G r a in S iz e of B r o m sg ro ve R ed
S and W a sh e d w it h H cl.
 231

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 232

F ig . 1 4 .— E k it h S il ic a S and a s naturally o c c u r r in g ,
s h o w in g A bsen ce of F e k r ic - H y d r o x id e P e l l ic l e s .
 233

The fusion p o in t of Colbond is rem arkably

h ig h , as in d ica te d by D r. M ellon’s figures, given
below, o b tain ed from th e c o n stitu e n t clays of th is
p re p a ra tio n .

Mixture of equal
Yellow. Red. Black. parts of yellow
red and black.
Cone 17 17 18 18
Centigrade 1,480 1,480 1,500 1,500
(The above determinations are the work of
Dr. J. W. Mellor.)

As a com parison th e fusion points of clay

bonding m a te ria l of natu rally -b o n d ed m oulding
sands a re in clu d ed ; th is tab le (Table V III) is
ta k e n from a P a p e r on “ Sands an d Sand-T est-
ing ” by J . G. A. S kerl, D .S c., F .G .S ., given a t
th e 28th A nn ual C onvention of th e I n s titu te of
B ritish F ou n d ry m en , Ju n e , 1931.
H a v in g decided on th e clay bond an d ty p e of
sands to be used, th e sy n th etic sand was p u t
in to produ ction.
Several good silica sands w ere available, and
an E r ith silica san d of m edium g ra in size and
a L eig h to n B u zzard sand of fine g ra in size were
selected. The following is th e m echanical
analysis of these sands.
Erith Silica* Leighton Buzzard*
I.M.M. I.M.M.
+ 30 mesh 0.9 per cent. + 40 mesh 0 1 per
+ 40 „ 12.0 + 50 „ o 8
+ 50 „ 28.7 + 70 „ 11 4
+ 70 „ 46.6 „ + 100 „ 45 4
+ 100 9.4 + 150 „ 36 6
+ 150 1.7 + 200 „ 3 0
+ 200 „ 0 .4 „ — 200 „ 10
— 200 0.3 Clay 1 9
* I.M.M. Screens were used in these later determina­
tions, to conform to the more general practice in this
country.
L a te r a silica sand from th e B edford deposits
w as s u b s titu te d fo r th e E rith , w hen th e in v esti­
g a tio n showed th e ad v a n ta g e of th e ferric
 234

F ig . 1 5 .— E r it h S il ic a S and w it h P r e c ip it a t e d F e r r ic -
H y d r o x id e burnt on , s h o w in g one rem arkably S m ooth
G r a in to w h ic h the P r e c ip it a t e d F e r r ic - H y d r o x id e
E V ID E N T L Y D ID NOT A D HERE.

F ig . 16. E r it h S il ic a S and w it h F e r r ic - H y d r o x id e
a n d Clay B ond A d d it io n s .
 235

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 236

F ig. 1 7 .— L e ig h t o n B uzzard S il ic a Sand, s h o w in g

by C o n t r a s t w it h F i g . 1 4 , E r it h S il ic a S a n d , a Th in
P e l l ic l e of F e r r ic H y d r o x id e , in t h is in s t a n c e
C o l l o id a l L im o n ite .

F ig . 1 8 .— W ater-w a sh ed S and G rade of B e l g ia n Y ellow

M S and.
o u l d in g
 237

F ig . 19. — B e l g ia n Sand G rade w it h B ond a d h e r in g .

hydroxide w hich was found n a tu ra lly occurring

aro u n d each g ra in of th is san d (eq uiv alen t in
am o u n t to 0.90 p er cent. F e 20 3).
The follow ing is a resum e of th e resu ltin g sand
practice.
Facing Sand Preparation.
Using 14 parts spent backing sand byvolume.
4 „ Leighton Buzzard Sand by volume,
f- „ Colbond by volume.
1£ „ coal dust by volume.
Mixing for 3 min. dry aijd 4 min. wet, gave the figures
o f :—
Strength .. .. .. 8 lbs. per sq. in.
Permeability .. .. 50 „ „ „
Moisture .. .. 5 per cent.

The Colbond ad d itio n s were calculated from

lab o rato ry d eterm in atio n s, b u t as th e stre n g th
figures steadily increased th e am o u n t was la te r
reduced to 2 /3 p a rts.

flacking Sand Preparation.

Using 14 parts of spent backing sand and
1 part of Erith silica sand (by vol.).
 238
Mixing for one min. gave the following figures :—
Strength .. .. . . 6 lb. per sq. in.
Permeability . . .. 60
Moisture .. ■■ 4.5 per cent.
L a te r th e E r ith silica san d was su b s titu te d by
sp en t core-sand (m ix tu re of E r ith a n d L eig h to n
B uzzard sand), th is being one of th e in te n tio n s
n ecessita tin g th e in v e stig a tio n .
A gain, i t is in te n d e d to s u b s titu te th e new
san d ad d itio n s to th e facin g san d by sp e n t core-
sand. This l a t te r su b s titu tio n is a w a itin g th e
in s ta lla tio n of a san d recovery p la n t u sin g H u m ­
m er screens—th e n th e finer se p a ra tio n m ay be
added to th e facin g san d an d th e co arser se p a ra ­
tio n m ay be added to th e b ack in g sand.
T h a t th e p rese n t sy n th e tic san d is g iv in g sa tis­
factio n m ay be g a th e re d fro m T able I I , show ing
th e red u ctio n of scrap due to san d defects.
No sp en t sand is now being d u m p e d ; th e new
sand ad d itio n s a re , how ever, h ig h e r th a n th e
grey-iron system req u ires, a n d th e e x tr a san d
is n ecessita ted by shop re q u ire m e n ts in m ould­
in g sand, m ainly as “ d rie r ” san d fo r cores used
in th e jobbing grey iron an d steel sections, and
t h a t th e jobbing floor is now d ra w in g from th e
grey-iron-sand system fo r san d fo r special w ork.
The su ita b ility of th is sy n th etic san d in th e
steel system is illu s tra te d by photos of u n fe ttle d
castings, F ig . 10 show ing ca stin g s m ade in (a)
n a tu r a l m oulding sand and (6) sy n th e tic san d .
T his in v e stig a tio n “ to develop a m oulding
san d t h a t w ould o p e ra te successfully as a grey-
iron, a steel an d a jobbing-floor san d , an d to
m ake th e basis of th is sand, b u r n t san d w hich
h as alre a d y fu n c tio n e d in oil-sand cores ” has
resu lted in considerable economy, a p a r t fro m th e
red u ctio n in scrap o b tain ed .
I t h as also revealed v ery im p o rta n t su rface
energy effects betw een bond an d san d g ra in ,
d ep en d en t maimly u pon th e physical co n d itio n
of th e sand g ra in . I t is in te n d e d to p u rsu e th is
su b ject fu r th e r, as th is sy n th e tic system has
alread y in d icated f u r th e r econom ies an d some
rem arkable possibilities. An exam ple w ill illus­
tr a te th is.
 I t is possible to b u rn on th e sand g ra in m any
m ore m a te ria ls (p referab ly re fra c to ry m aterials)
w hich will increase th e su rface tension betw een
g ra in an d bond and in crease th e green and dry-
bomd stre n g th s of th e s a n d ; m anganese com­
pounds a re an in stan ce. These a r e : —
(1) M anganese resin a te added to th e linseed
oil will decrease th e d ry in g tim e of th e cores.
(2) M anganese com pounds will he b u rn t on to
th e g ra in s by th e h e a t of th e m etal on th e cores
an d subsequently by th e h e a t of th e m etal on
th e m oulding sand.
(3) In steel m oulding, m anganese silicate will
be form ed a t th e su rface of th e m ould, an d th e
s trip p in g of th e castin g m ade to resem ble or
im prove upon th e easily -strip p ed m oulds in
m anganese-steel castings.
The re su lts of such ad d itio n s a r e : — (1) An
economy in th e core shop, (2) a n economy in
clay bond, an d (3) an economy in th e fe ttlin g
shop.
The b urning-on of a lu m in iu m hydroxide to
th e sand g ra in suggests even o th e r ad v an ta g es
a p a r t from its d esirab ility as a re fra c to ry and
its su ita b ility as an a d d itio n to siliceous clay
binders, such as g elatin o u s com pound, should
have high surface-energy effects.
I t is fe lt th a t , w hile th is su b ject has m any
possibilities, it is m ost in ad eq u a tely tr e a te d in
th is P a p e r, b u t tim e did n o t p e rm it th e confir­
m atio n of m any in te re stin g resu lts, and only
those rep eated ly confirmed a re m entioned.
F u r th e r w ork is in progress. I t is believed,
how ever, t h a t m ore ra p id progress in th e study
of th is su b ject could be m ade w ith th e co-opera­
tio n of in te re ste d m em bers of th e In s titu te of
B ritish F oundrym en . F o r th is reason th e p re­
lim in ary findings are given here in th e hope
t h a t such in te re s t will be stim u lated .
As an ap p en d ix , ph o to g rap hs of th e sands used
in th e in v estig atio n have been included.
The a u th o r wishes to th a n k th e A ustin M otor
Com pany fo r perm ission to publish th is P a p e r,
a n d very p a rtic u la rly to th a n k th e staff of th e
 240

A u stin fo u n d ry a n d lab o ra to rie s fo r th e ir in d is­

pensable co -operation in th e w ork e n ta ile d in
p re p a rin g th is P a p e r.

DISCUSSION
Importance of Roughened Grain Surfaces
M r. J o h n J . S h e eh an ’s P a p e r sounded a new
note in fo u n d ry -san d p ractice an d received, w h at
i t richly deserved, an ex cellen t discussion.
M e. F . H u d s o n , who opened th e discus­
sion, said th e P a p e r w as m ost in te re stin g ,
p a rtic u la rly considering th e o rig in al lin e of
th o u g h t ad o p ted by M r. S heehan a n d th e
num erous d eb ata b le p o in ts. I t w as n o t su r­
p risin g t h a t th e o rig in a l n a tu r a l m oulding-
sand m ix tu re gave serious tro u b le, b o th in p re ­
p a ra tio n an d service, a n d he d o u b ted if any
eq u ip m en t could be o b ta in e d to effect efficient
m ixing of a san d of th is n a tu re . P e rh a p s M r.
Sheehan w ould confirm th e s ta tis tic s giv en in
re g a rd to san d re q u ire m e n ts a n d tim e fo r m ix ­
in g each b atch , as a m ix in g tim e of 5-g m in u tes
would give th e req u ired o u tp u t in s te a d of th e
allowed tim e of 2 | m in u tes. F u rth e rm o re , he did
n o t th in k th e te s t resu lts, g iv in g a com parison
betw een th e m odern raised -ro ller ty p e of mill
an d its e ld e r b ro th e r w ere fa ir, as here, a g a in ,
th e te s t m ix tu re s w ere inclined to be excep tio n al
fo r green-sand m oulding, w hich he presum ed
was th e p ractice em ployed.

Alkalies and Refractories

H e was also p a rtic u la rly in te re s te d to note
t h a t M r. S heehan d isco n tin u ed th e use of red
san d as p a r t of his san d m ix tu re , a p o in t in
keeping w ith h is own experience, fo r th e im ­
provem ent of p erm eab ility , b u t in clin ed to be
overstressed so f a r as re fra c to rin e ss w as con­
cerned. C andidly, th e q u estio n of alk alies low er­
ing th e refra c to rin e ss of a sa n d w as of little
consequence in th e presence of coal d u s t or o th e r
carbonaceous m a tte r, p a rtic u la rly w hen lig h t to
m edium castin g s w ere bein g produced. He
th o u g h t i t w ould also be a d m itte d t h a t th e
 241

re fracto rin ess of san d was effected by two fac­

to rs : (1) th e te m p e ra tu re of th e m etal in th e
m ould an d (2) th e pressure of th e m etal on th e
m ould surface.
Temperature of Metal in Moulds
These facto rs did n o t entii'ely depend on te m ­
p e ra tu re of p o u rin g , b u t w ere larg ely affected
by th e ty p e of castin g being produced. For
exam ple, in th e case of c a st iro n th e following
points m ig h t be of in t e r e s t :—U sing an in itia l
castin g te m p e ra tu re of 1,340 deg. C., i t h as been
found by a ctu a l te s t t h a t th e te m p e ra tu re of th e
m etal in th e m ould im m ediately a fte r pouring
is com pleted is seriously reduced. (See Table A.)
Table A.— Initial pouring température 1,340 deg. C.

Casting section Temperature of metal in mould

with normal size immediately after pouring in deg. C.
of gates. Green sand. Dry sand.
{- inch 1,100 1,100
1 „ 1,140 1,150
2 „ 1,160 1,160
3 „ 1,180 1,200
4 1,190 1,210

F o r exam ple, in th e case of a castin g , f-in . sec­

tio n , th e te m p e ra tu re of th e m etal in th e mould
has been reduced from 1,340 deg. C. down to
1,100 deg. C. This p o in t should be fully ta k e n
in to account w hen considering th e refracto rin ess
of m oulding sands, as even th e le a st re frac to ry
sand w ould sta n d up to 1,100 deg. C. and only
th e po u rin g basin an d ru n n e r would be subject
to th e -^action of th e m eta l te m p e ra tu re as
poured.
Grain Surface and Strength
The effect of g ra in su rface on th e stre n g th of
th e san d was p a rtic u la rly in te re stin g , an d p er­
sonally M r. H u dson said he would like to com­
p lim en t M r. Sheehan on th e prom otion of th is
new line of th o u g h t, a n d th e clear m an n er of its
exposition. A t th e sam e tim e, however, he would
n o t be so dogm atic as to say t h a t m oulds m ade
 242

from sy n th etic san d s were in cap a b le of being

patch ed o r “ sleek ed .” The av erag e m o u ld er in
th is c o u n try h a d become accustom ed to th e use
of heavily-bonded n a tu r a l sands c o n ta in in g excess
clay bond. M oulds m ade from such sands could
be easily sleeked a n d p atch ed because w hen th e
m oulder ap plied w a ter to th e m ould w ith his
swab, th e re was sufficient clay p re s e n t to; absorb
th is w a te r w ith o u t becom ing u n d u ly stick y . In
th e case of m oulds m ade from sy n th e tic san d th e
use of th e swab was fa ta l, as th e swab c a rrie d
m ore w a te r th a n th e clay p re se n t was cap ab le of
absorbing, an d th e re su lt, in th e S co ttish v er­
n acu la r, was a “ c la rty m ess.” F o r th e re p a ir of
m oulds m ade in sy n th e tic san d a swab should
n o t be used, and w a te r should be added to th e
m ould surface by m eans of a fine sp ray such as
one used fo r sp ra y in g roses. To h is m in d th e
effect of m oisture was in tim a te ly associated w ith
g ra in su rface conditions, as re g a rd s th e ques­
tio n of su rface ten sio n , a n d in th is p re se n t
P a p e r th is h ad n o t received th e a tte n tio n it
m erited. I n fa ct, one could n o t very well con­
sid er one w ith o u t th e o th e r, a n d th e i r com bined
effect could q u ite re ad ily reverse some of th e
sta te m e n ts m ade by M r. S heehan. F o r ex am ple,
th e effect of ad d in g such m a te ria ls as molasses
a n d wood e x tr a c t, e tc ., did n o t necessarily in ­
crease th e su rface ten sio n betw een p a tte r n an d
th e bond, an d he c e rta in ly could n o t agree t h a t
th e re w as d an g er in th e ir a d d itio n .
M r. H udson said h e n o ted t h a t fusion p o in ts
w ere given fo r B e n to n ite a n d Colbond. P e rh a p s
M r. S heehan w ould in d ic a te if th e se could be
classed as a u th e n tic ? W ould i t n o t have been
p referab le to d eterm in e th e fusion p o in t of th e
final sand m ix tu re m ade from th ese p ro d u cts?

Is Facing Sand Necessary ?

F in ally , he asked M r. S heehan w hy h e used
facin g san d a t all, as from th e physical p ro p e r­
tie s given fo r his sy n th e tic b ack in g san d th is
should be capable of p ro d u cin g sa tisfa c to ry
m oulds alone. I n his own p ra c tic e he w as g e t­
tin g sa tisfactio n w hen u sin g over 99 p e r cen t.
 4

243

old sand, and th e tro u b le was to keep down th e

g reen bond. T he reason fo r th is h ad been
puzzling fo r some tim e, b u t a fte r re ad in g th e ex­
cellen t P a p e r he w as of th e o pinion t h a t th e cause
could be p a rtia lly a ttrib u te d to th e roughening
of th e base san d g ra in s th ro u g h rep eated use
an d th e corresponding b e tte r adhesion betw een
th e san d g ra in a n d added bond. H e closed w ith
th e suggestion t h a t p erh ap s M r. Sheehan would
see his w ay to give a f u r th e r P a p e r a t some la te r
d ate, when his researches w ere com plete.

Crain Surface and Coal Dust

Mii. B en H ie d said th e a u th o r h ad sm oothed
down a n o th e r p atch on th e very rough road to
a p e rfe c t m oulding sand, an d i t w as only by
each sm oothing down h is little patch as well as
possible t h a t th e in d u s try w ould a rriv e a t w h at
it sought. H e, lik e M r. H udson, h ad difficulty
in u n d e rs ta n d in g why M r. S heehan used facing
san d a t all, because h e could use th e backing
san d q u ite sa tisfa c to rily fo r facin g sand. M r.
H ird said h is ex perience w as sim ilar to M r.
H u d so n ’s, an d th e b acking san d an d facin g sand
on h is m echanical p la n t was th e same. F u rth e r
— an d th is w as th e p o in t of chief in te re st to
him —he had fo u n d t h a t th e sand, w ith o u t th e
ad d itio n of an y red san d o r b o n ding clay,
only 2J p er cen t, coal d u st to each m ix,
gain ed in bond stre n g th , an d i t was necessary
to w eaken i t periodically. H is own view was
th a t su rface tension was th e c ru x of th is ra th e r
peculiar g ain in s tre n g th when th e re was no
ad d itio n of new san d o r clay, and he was p a r­
tic u la rly in te re ste d t h a t M r. Sheehan had
a rriv e d a t t h a t view. I t was sta te d in th e P a p e r
th a t “ T here is some evidence t h a t th is fe rru ­
ginous bond is b u r n t on to th e san d g rain .
F e rric hydroxid e m ixed w ith sim ilar sand g rain s
is read ily w ashed o u t, while fe rric hydroxide
p re c ip ita te d on th e san d g ra in s an d b u rn t on
resists rep e a te d w ashings. T his co atin g gives a
g rip to th e clay bond and assists i t in m aking
th e san d t h a t m uch stro n g er. B u t w h at is m uch
m ore in te re stin g an d im p o rta n t, p a rtic u la rly in
 244

job b in g floor w ork, is t h a t th is co a tin g g rip s

th e d rie r bond a t th e m ould su rfa c e .” T h a t,
co n tin u ed M r. H ird , was th e p o in t he h a d raised
ab o u t coal d u st. I f one ex am in ed th e black
san d g ra in s w hich w as caused by coal a d d itio n s
one w ould find t h a t th e sm all specks of coal,
a f te r h av in g been h e ate d by th e m e ta l, becam e
coke o r a h a rd ta r r y substance, w hich ad h ered
firm ly to each san d g ra in , so t h a t th e g ra in s
becam e very rough. T here were tw o deposits—
a k in d of sooty t a r w hich affected th e san d g ra in
as th o u g h i t w ere covered w ith fine em ery, and
in ad d itio n to t h a t th e re w ere clin g in g to it,
m ostly on th e g ra in s w hich form th e m ould faces,
th e sm all spicks of coal w hich h a d been b u r n t
by th e h e a t of th e m etal to a carbon o r coke.
These w ere alm ost lik e th e sm all w h ite lim p ets
clin g in g to th e rocks on th e seashore, a n d th ey
give a very ro u g h su rfa c e to th e san d g rain s.
H e suggested t h a t if M r. S heehan w ould follow
th is lime of th o u g h t, in ste ad of ro u g h e n in g th e
g rain s w ith acid o r s triv in g to b u rn on th e
h y b rid s m entioned, h e w ould find t h a t th e coal
d u s t w ould give h im ju s t w h a t he w as looking
for. M r. H ird c o n g ra tu la te d M r. S heehan on
a m ost in te re stin g P a p e r a n d hoped he w ould
m ake f u r th e r ex p e rim e n ts w ith coal-dust a d d i­
tions to sands.
Facing Sands and Reclamation
M b . J . J . M cC lelland com plim ented th e
a u th o r p a rtic u la rly on h av in g p re se n te d a P a p e r
w hich could be followed clearly by th e p ra c tic al
m an, an d fo r h a v in g ta c k le d a su b je ct w hich i t
was hoped w ould e lim in a te e v en tu a lly very m any
of th e difficulties w ith w hich th e p ra c tic a l m an
had to contend. I n ask in g th e a u th o r to e x p an d
his rem ark s on one o r tw o of th e p o in ts raised ,
M r. M cC lelland re fe rre d to th e résum é which
th e a u th o r h ad given of his re s u ltin g san d p ra c ­
tice, w here i t was suggested, in re g a rd to th e
facin g -san d p re p a ra tio n , t h a t th e re should be
used 14 p a rts of sp en t b ack in g san d by volum e,
4 p a rts of L eig h to n B u zzard san d by volum e,
£ p a r t of Colbond a n d Tj p a r ts of coal d u st.
One did n o t notice any su ggestion in th e P a p e r
 245

as to w hether th e sp e n t sand w as to receive any

tr e a tm e n t, b u t he raised th e question because
he h ad found t h a t a fte r san d h a d been used for
a considerable tim e , and som etim es a sh o rter
tim e, it g a th ered a c e rta in am o u n t of silt, which
reduced th e perm eab ility . D id th e a u th o r
in te n d to t r e a t th e sp e n t sand in o rd er to elim i­
n a te an y silt t h a t m ig h t h ave accu m u lated ? I t
was also s ta te d in th e P a p e r t h a t i t was in ­
ten d ed to su b s titu te th e new san d ad d itio n s to
th e fa c in g sand by sp e n t core sand. M r. Mc­
C lelland asked if it were to be assumed th a t
th e sp e n t core san d b ad co n tain ed an artificial
or n a tu r a l bond before use, because in practice
it w as found t h a t a fte r use th e bond was n ot
e n tire ly elim in ated , so t h a t by using t h a t sand
a g ain one o b tain ed th e value of any bond re­
m ain in g in it.
A nother s ta te m e n t in th e P a p e r to which he
re fe rre d was t h a t no sp e n t san d is now being
dum ped, an d t h a t th e new san d ad d itio n s were
higher th a n th e g rey-iron system req u ired . I f
we w ere to g e t all t h a t we expected o r hoped
for from th is new sy n th e tic san d m ethod, com­
m ented M r. M cC lelland, why should we need
new san d ? New san d was generally in tro d u ced
fo r th e purpose of renew ing lost bond, b u t if
th e tre a tm e n t re fe rre d to in th e P a p e r was to
be successful a t all, one n a tu ra lly presum ed t h a t
it w ould elim in ate th e necessity for th e in tro ­
d u ctio n of new sand, ex cep t to th e e x te n t of
th e am ount lost in th e use of th e sand.

American and British Practice

D r. J . G. A. S kerl (B .C .I.R .A .), in con­
g ra tu la tin g M r. Sheehan on th e value of his
P a p e r, sta te d t h a t it h ad in tereste d him g reatly ,
since he was a t one tim e in very close contact
w ith th e fo undry w herein th e ex p erim en ts had
been ca rrie d o u t. The m oulding m ix tu re con­
ta in in g th e m ix tu re of red B rom sgrove sand and
yellow B elgian sand, upon which M r. H udson
had adversely com m ented, was th e re s u lt of th e
a tte m p t to m eet a c e rta in specification for a
green-sand m oulding m ix tu re as used in a t least
 246

one of th e larg e A m erican autom obile fo u n d ries,

th e specification being based a n d checked on
A m erican fo u n d ry -san d c o n tro l eq u ip m en t. M r.
S h eeh an ’s resu lts confirm ed his own ex p erien ce
t h a t specifications fo r m o u ld in g -san d m ix tu re s
fo r s tre n g th a n d p erm eab ility w ould n o t be of
m uch v alu e unless we possessed a know ledge of
th e fu n d a m e n ta l ch a ra c te ristic s of th e sands
used. T he im p o rta n t co n sid eratio n w ith a m ould­
ing sand was th e p ro p ertie s, n o t a t atm o sp h eric
conditions, b u t a t te m p e ra tu re s a t w hich th e
m etal which was c a s t in to i t w as m olten. Two
sands possessing sim ila r stre n g th a n d p erm e­
ab ility co n stan ts a t o rd in a ry te m p e ra tu re s w ould
behave q u ite d ifferen tly a t a te m p e ra tu re of
1,000 deg. C. or less, d u e to those fu n d a m e n ta l
facto rs, some of w hich, lik e th e oxide film,
M r. S heehan h ad been in v e stig a tin g .

Ferruginous Bonds
The w ork done on th e fe rru g in o u s a n d o th e r
bonds by M r. S heehan rem in d ed him of th e
P a p e r presen ted by M r. C. W . H . H olm es to
th e Iro n an d Steel I n s titu te ,* a n d t h a t p resen ted
by th e sam e a u th o r as th e I .B .F . E x ch an g e
P a p e r to th e In te rn a tio n a l F o u n d ry m e n ’s C o n -'
gress, P a ris, f These P a p e rs h a d b ro u g h t fo r­
w ard th e id e a of a “ s ta tic ” an d a “ m obile ”
bond in m oulding sands, based on e x p e rim e n ta l
evidence, w hich th e p re s e n t P a p e r confirm ed.
I t was in te re stin g to n o te t h a t in th is c o u n try
it was believed, follow ing P ro f. P . G. H . Boswell,
F .R .S ., whose v alu ab le w ork h a d received recog­
n itio n in M r. S h eeh an ’s P a p e r, a n d o th ers, t h a t
iron oxide was beneficial in a m o u ld in g san d ,
especially fo r g reen -san d m oulds. In A m erica,
on th e o th e r h a n d , th e o pposite view t h a t i t was
d e trim e n ta l, was m ore u su ally expressed. One
could p o in t o u t t h a t over a p erio d of y ears i t
had been shown t h a t th e in crease in th e iro n -
oxide c o n te n t of th e b o n d in g m a te ria l h ad defi­
n itely im proved th e p ra c tic a l re s u lts in th e case
of one com m ercial B ritis h sem i-sy n th etic
m oulding sand.
* Journal Iro n and Steel In st., Vol. CVI, pp. 61-87,1922.
f F .T .J., Vol. 28,1923, pp. 296-298, 308-311.
 247

Belgian Sand
M r Sheehan h ad quoted some figures from
P ro f. P . 6 . H . Boswell’s “ M em oir on R e fra c ­
to ry S an d ” re g a rd in g B elgian yellow sand.
The chem ical an d m echanical analyses of P ro f.
Boswell’s an d M r. S h eeh an ’s sam ples of B elgian
yellow sand differed considerably an d in d icated
v a ria tio n as to source. A re fracto rin ess
te s t, by D r. J . W . M ellor, P .R .S ., of Stoke, of
1,480 deg. C. w as given fo r th e B elg ian yellow
san d, b u t from th e facts, which showed th a t
larg e steel castin g s a re m ade in B elgian yellow
sand in m any fo u n d ries in th is co u n try , he
would su g g est t h a t th e figure is low. The
evidence w ould seem to p o in t to th e fa c t th a t
th e B elgian yellow san d as te ste d by M r.
Sheehan is n o t re p re se n ta tiv e of th is sand as
generally used in th is c o u n try .
The question of th e refracto rin ess of th e bond­
in g m a te ria l in a m oulding san d h ad been raised
in th e P a p e r an d in th e discussion. I t was
generally tr u e of n a tu r a l m oulding sands th a t
th e bonding m a te ria l was less re fra c to ry th a n
th e bulk of th e sand itself, b u t properly dis­
trib u te d bonding m a te ria l in a san d m ix tu re ,
p a rtic u la rly u n d e r those conditions w here as
little as possible is req u ired , as w hen efficient
m ixing an d m illing is c a rrie d o u t i t was found
th a t th e influence w as n o t very g re a t. I f a
bonding m a te ria l of even com p arativ ely low
refracto rin ess is properly d istrib u te d th ro u g h o u t
a sand th e re su ltin g m a te ria l is fa irly highly
re fra c to ry . By a tte n tio n to such p o in ts as good
d is trib u tio n of th e bonding m a teria l, some firms
are able to m ake steel castin g s in th e red B un-
te r sands w hich M r. S heehan finds n o t re fracto ry
enough fo r his cast-iro n cylinder blocks, even
th o u g h m ost fo u n d ries m ak in g these castings
use such sand.
Iron-Oxide Content
M r. Sheehan has stressed th e iron-oxide con ten t
as of g re a t im p o rtan ce an d c a rrie d o u t m any of
his exp erim en ts to th is end. N evertheless, in
his p re se n t sand p ractice he is using a bonding
m a te ria l co n tain in g only 3.08 p er cen t, of iron
oxide, as a g a in s t 10 p er c en t, in B elg ian yellow
sand clay-bonding m a te ria l (P ro f. B osw ell’s
figures) an d a b o u t 7 p e r cen t, in th e B rom sgrove
bonding m a te ria l. H e (D r. S kerl) suggested
t h a t a bond c o n ta in in g a h ig h e r iro n co n te n t
would offer c e rta in ad v an ta g es.
I n a footnote to th e screening figures on E r ith
silica an d L eig h to n B u zzard sands, i t is s ta te d
t h a t I.M .M . screens w ere used to conform to
th e m ore g en era l p ra ctice in th is co u n try . It
should be s ta te d t h a t th e I n s tit u te of M in in g
an d M etallu rg y h ave d ro p p ed th e ir series of sieves
in fav o u r of th e B ritis h S ta n d a rd Specification
sieves, which have sim ilar a p e rtu re s to th e T yler
screens.
F in ally , in th a n k in g th e a u th o r a g a in fo r his
P a p e r, D r. S kerl ex p ressed h is p leasu re in h e a r­
ing a P a p e r in w hich fu n d a m e n ta ls w ere d e a lt
w ith, a n d t h a t he w ould co n tin u e th e e x p e ri­
m ents.
Perm eability and Bond
M r . J . H . C o o p e r , who said th e a cq u isitio n
of th e in fo rm a tio n c o n tain ed in th e P a p e r h a d
e n ta ile d f a r m ore w ork th a n w as realise d , asked
M r. Sheehan w h a t was th e la rg e st g reen-sand
m ould he h a d m ad e in sy n th e tic san d . H e him ­
self h ad seen castin g s w eighing u p to 4 to n s
m ade in B elgian g reen sa n d in th is c o u n try ;
th ey w ere very well m ad e, an d h a d exceedingly
good finish.
W ith re g a rd to th e referen ce m ad e in th e
course of th e discussion to th e a d d itio n of new
san d to ad d to bond, M r. Cooper co n ten d ed t h a t
in m any cases new san d w as ad d ed , n o t to in ­
crease the bond of th e m a te ria l, b u t to increase
th e p erm eab ility . I t seem ed t h a t M r. Sheehan
agreed w ith t h a t view, because in m a n y cases he
h ad used L eig h to n B u zzard san d to open th e
m a te ria l. W hen san d w as used in a m ould
u n d e r an y co nd itio n s it w as alw ays s p lit up by
th e h e a t of th e m eta l in castin g , a n d e v en tu a lly
became so fine t h a t one could g e t alm ost any
bond. B u t t h a t w as a t th e expense of perm e­
ab ility , a n d in all m oulds, w h e th e r m ad e w ith
sy n th e tic o r o th e r m o u ld in g sands, th e re m u st
be perm eability in a d d itio n to bond s tre n g th .
 249

Grain Surface
M r. F . K . N e a t h , discussing th e fu n c tio n of
iro n oxide as a bond, said th e re was no d o ubt
t h a t th e co nditio n of th e su rface of th e g rain s
in sy n th etic sands was an im p o rta n t m a tte r.
H e had c arried o u t a larg e n u m b er of te s ts on
sy n th etic sands, an d th e re was no d o ubt w h at­
ev er t h a t w hen u sin g a p u re silica sand w ith a
d ead sm ooth su rface th e re w ere difficulties in
securing th e m axim um b o n d ; i t was m uch p re fe r­
able to use a san d which h ad a lread y roughened
o r h a d some sm all am o u n t of bond firmly
ad h erin g to th e g ra in s, o r even to use san d from
th e fe ttlin g shop, th a n to use g ra in s w hich were
sm ooth o r h ad no bond b u r n t on. This led him
to re fe r to th e influence of coal d u st. R ecently
some G erm an in v e stig ato rs h a d confirmed M r.
H ir d ’s theories as to th e fu n c tio n of coal dust,
stressing t h a t t h a t fu n ctio n was n o t m erely to
g en e ra te a gas film to p ro te c t th e . san d g rain s,
b u t r a th e r to form a ta r r y o r pitch y coatin g
which gave th e g ra in s refrac to rin ess a n d im­
proved th e ir b o n ding value.
The P a p e r by M r. Sheehan, to g e th e r w ith
t h a t re a d by M r. H u dson before tw o of th e In s ti­
t u t e ’s b ranches d u rin g th e p a s t session, in d icated
t h a t th e w ork being done in th is c o u n try on
m oulding sands com pared very fav o u rab ly w ith
t h a t of any o th e r c o u n try ; everyone wished both
M r. Sheehan an d M r. H udson every success in
th e ir experim en ts.

AUTHOR’S REPLY
Mb. S h e e h a n rep lied to some p o in ts raised in
th e discussion. A fte r th a n k in g th e speakers for
th e k in d m a n n er in w hich th e P a p e r h a d been
received, he said h e was q u ite conscious th a t
th e re rem ain ed still a good deal w ith re g a rd to
th e sand question t h a t was open to discussion.
W ith re g a rd to D r. S k e rl’s re m a rk t h a t he would
have to re tra c e his steps in a good m any cases,
M r. S heehan said he considered t h a t th e P a p e r
rep resen ted a step fo rw ard , an d he would n o t
like to re tra c e his steps, b u t w ould p refer to
c o n tin u e to go forw ard.
 250

Necessity for Silt Inclusion

W ith, re g a rd to th e p o in t raised by M r. H u d so n
concerning th e p a tc h in g of sy n th e tic sa n d , he
said h e h a d fo u n d , c o n tra ry to w h a t was g e n e r­
ally accepted, t h a t a c e rta in a m o u n t of s ilt was
necessary in a san d . R ecen tly he h a d been
very m uch reliev ed w hen h e h a d received a com­
m u n icatio n from people in A m erica who used a
sy n th etic bond, to th e effect t h a t th e y w ere
recom m ending th e a d d itio n of 4 p er c e n t, of silt,
an d th e y specified t h a t th e san d should c o n tain
4 per c en t, of m a te ria l t h a t w ould pass th ro u g h
100 mesh. I n th e p a s t we h a d a ll been a fr a id of
silt, b u t its inclusion was necessary in sy n th e tic
sands if we h ad to in d u ce th e jobbing-floor
m oulder to ta k e k indly to sy n th etic sands. In
a m echanical m o ulding system one w as n o t
allowed to p a tc h a m ould, a n d if a m ould was
defective, a fo rem an w ould p u t his fo o t th ro u g h
i t ; b u t fo r a job b in g floor, w h ere i t m ig h t ta k e
tw o or th re e days to b u ild u p a m ould, i t was
necessary to p rovide a sa n d t h a t could be
patched.
W ith re g a rd to th e fu sio n p o in ts fo r th e sy n ­
th e tic bonding m a te ria ls, M r. S h eeh an assured
M r. H udson t h a t th e figures w ere absolutely
a u th e n tic . The Colbond figures h a d been d e te r­
m ined by D r. M ellor an d th e B e n to n ite fusion
p o in ts w ere ta k e n from th e p ublished booklet.

Why Facing Sand is Desirable

As to th e question why facin g sa n d should be
used, he said he was n o t p a rtic u la rly am b itio u s
to use it, b u t i t w as a very easy w ay of m ak in g
new ad d itio n s. One could a d d fine san d to th e
facin g san d to give a fine finish a n d one could
ad d th e coarser san d a d d itio n s to b ack in g san d ,
w here a fine finish was n o t im p o rta n t, for i t did
n o t come in to c o n ta c t w ith th e face of th e m ould.
O ne could m ake co al-d u st ad d itio n s an d bond
ad d itio n s to th e facin g san d w here th e y w ere
m ost effective. W h e th e r o r n o t one used a
facing sand, i t did n o t ad d a n y th in g to th e
cost of th e san d , because one ju s t m ade i t in
one m ill an d o b tain ed th e b acking san d from
 251

a n o th e r in a m echanical m oulding sy ste m ; one

m u s t h a r e two m ills in o rd e r to m a in ta in a con­
tin u o u s supply of sand to th e circu it. P erh ap s
th e r e would be no necessity on th e jobbing floor
if one b ro u g h t th e backing sand to a q u ality
condition equal to t h a t of facin g s a n d ; b u t where
one h ad to use tw o m ills to m a in ta in a continuous
supply in a m echanical m oulding system , he saw
no objection to u sin g one as a facin g a n d th e
o th e r as a backing san d m ixer.

Coal Dust and Sand Grain Surface

M r. Sheehan acknow ledged t h a t th e w ork of
M r. H ird h ad been an in sp ira tio n to him on th e
san d question in very m any w ays, even before he
had know n M r. H i r d ; before h e h a d re tu rn e d to
th is co u n try he h ad re ad M r. H ir d ’s com m unica­
tio n s in th e “ F o u n d ry T rad e J o u r n a l.” He
agreed t h a t th e resid u e of carbonaceous m a te ria l
on th e san d g ra in was a decided a d v a n ta g e ; it
was sim ilar to t h a t o b tain ed by p re c ip ita tin g an
oxide film on th e san d g ra in . H e waa n o t very
bigoted ab o u t th e ty p e of film th a t was p u t on to
th e sand g ra in , w h eth er i t be carbonaceous oxide
o r hydroxide, o r w h eth er i t be iron oxide, or
alu m in iu m oxide, o r m anganese oxide, b u t he
considered t h a t some film was necessary on a
sm ooth q u a rtz g ra in . I t c e rta in ly increased th e
bond 10 per c e n t., w hich rep re sen te d a con­
siderable saving in bonding m a te ria l and in new
sand. P e rh a p s as well as th e carbonaceous bond
or ta r r y m a te ria l t h a t was p re c ip ita te d on th e
qu artz-san d g ra in , th e re was* also p re c ip ita te d a
c e rta in am o u n t of coke, an d t h a t would be very
tenacious. H e believed, too, t h a t th e finer th e
coal d u st th e finer th e p re c ip ita tio n on th e sand
g rain and th e m ore ten acio u s it became.

Use of Reclaimed Sand

M r. Sheehan expressed th e belief t h a t re­
covered sand was su p erio r to new sand, and
t h a t a recovery p la n t w ould be necessary in
every fo u n d ry eventually. H e believed th e
recovered san d w hich fou n d ers h a d been th ro w ­
ing aw ay w as decidedly m ore valuable th a n th e
 252

new san d th e y in tro d u ced . I t w as p u rely a

m a tte r of g e ttin g rid of excess of s ilt o r d ir t.
S p eak in g of th e ro u g h en in g of th e g ra in , he
did n o t in te n d to p u t t h a t fo rw a rd as a p ra c ­
tical proposition , a lth o u g h i t m ig h t be such. H e
h a d been looking fo r a ro u g h -q u a rtz g ra in , b u t
could n o t g e t i t co nveniently, so t h a t h e h ad
had to roughen by hydrofluoric acid, an d h a d
been asto u n d ed to find a 10 p e r cen t, in crease of
stre n g th as th e re s u lt of t h a t alone. T h ere was
no film p re c ip ita te d on th is p a rtic u la r g ra in ,
b u t ju s t ro u g h en in g i t in creased th e su r­
face ex ten sio n betw een bond an d g ra in —a n
increase of 10 p e r cen t, in s tre n g th was a tta in e d .
R eplying to M r. M cC lelland, h e said he was
glad to have w ritte n a P a p e r w hich th e p ra c ­
tic a l m an a p p re cia te d , because, c e rta in ly , he h ad
ap p re c ia te d th e difficulties to be overcom e in
p u ttin g th e sy n th etic-san d system in to p ractice.
The fo u n d ry re fe rre d to in th e P a p e r w as n o t
th e only one which he h a d ch an g ed over from
th e use of n a tu r a l m oulding san d to a sy n th etic
sand, b u t i t had offered p a rtic u la r problem s, in
t h a t he had to o p e ra te a steel fo u n d ry , a grey-
iron fo u n d ry an d a job b in g floor. E v ery
fo u n d ry h ad its own p a rtic u la r problem s, and
unless one u nd ersto o d th e u n d e rly in g re q u ire ­
m ents one would n o t be able to effect th e ch an g e­
over.
Standardised Sand and Permeability
W ith re g a rd to th e am plification of th e fo r­
m ula given fo r th e sy n th e tic san d , he said he
had used t h a t p a rtic u la r fo rm u la m erely to
m a in ta in a p a rtic u la r sta n d a rd of p e rm eab ility
an d bond. A ny o th e r fo rm u la t h a t w ould have
given t h a t re s u lt w ould bave been equally wel­
come a n d equally usable. T h ere was no t r e a t ­
m en t of th e back ing san d as such ; i t ju s t re­
tu rn e d u n tr e a te d in to th e system . W ith re g a rd
to th e sp e n t core san d , he said he h a d ru n fo r
a m o n th by u sin g sp e n t core sa n d as new -sand
ad d itio n s, an d i t was tr u e th e re w as some value
in th e bonding m a te ria l w hich h a d n o t been
b u rn ed o u t in th e cores. H e h a d been p a rtic u ­
larly anxious to ta k e a d v a n ta g e of t h a t ; th e
p ra c tic e previously was to throw away som ething
w hich could now be used. I t was n o t necessary
to buy any m oulding sand, b u t ju s t to use th e
core sand as a core sand and th e n convert it in to
m oulding sand by th e a d d itio n of a bond.
T here h ad been no difficulty in in tro d u c in g th e
sy n th e tic san d in to th e jobbing floor; he had
found t h a t th e m en th e re w ere b e g in n in g to use
th e sand fro m th e grey -iro n system on th e ir own
in itia tiv e . T h a t was a ju stific a tio n fo r th e use
of th e p a rtic u la r ty p e of sy n th etic sand in tro ­
duced, because th e jobbing-floor m oulder in a
good m any cases resen ted these innovations.
W hen he h ad found th e jobbing-floor m oulders
were using th e sand he h ad been encouraged,
a n d now adays th e san d m ade up fo r th e grey-
iron system h ad to provide a facin g san d fo r th e
jobbing floor. H e was in tro d u c in g th is ty p e of
sand also fo r th e steel fo u n d ry —he did n o t use
th e coal-dust ad d itio n s in steel m oulding sands.
Control Considerations
C om m enting on M r. Cooper’s rem ark s, he said
th e only new san d ad d itio n s t h a t he in ten d ed to
m ake u ltim a te ly w ere those necessary to m ake
up th e losses on th e castin g s as such, i.e., th e
san d b u rn t in to th e ru n n e rs o r in to th e castin g s
an d ca rrie d aw ay in castin g s. Of course, th e
new ad d itio n s he h ad m ade w ere to in tro d u ce
bond and to re g u la te th e p erm eab ility ; when one
had th e bond in d e p e n d e n t of th e g ra in s of sand,
an d th e g rain s of san d w ere p red eterm in ed by
th e core req u irem en ts, one could very read ily
control both perm eab ility an d th e bond.
H e w as com pletely in ag reem en t w ith M r.
N eath t h a t iro n oxide as such was n o t im por­
ta n t. H e h ad trie d iro n oxide ad d itio n s w ith ­
o u t b u rn in g th em on, an d h ad h a d a bond,
alth o u g h n o t so good as any of th e sy n th etic
bonds t h a t w ere otherw ise available. H e was
n o t in s iste n t ab o u t th e ty p e of pellicle around
th e san d g ra in . H e d id n o t care w hether i t was
ferru g in o u s, or m anganese o r alum inium oxide,
so long as one g o t it aro u n d th e sand g ra in , by
any m ethod. Some of th e m ethods m entioned,
 I

254

such as in tro d u c in g m an g an e se résinât© in to

th e core oil a n d b u rn in g t h a t re s in a te to a m a n ­
ganese oxide, in tro d u ce d a pellicle a ro u n d th e
san d g ra in w hich w as very v alu ab le in steel w ork.
H e e x h ib ite d a sam ple of a san d w ith m a n ­
ganese oxide b u rn e d on, w hich w as equ ally as
valuable as one w ith iro n oxide b u rn e d on, as
re g a rd s bond stre n g th , a n d he p o in te d o u t t h a t
M r. H ird h a d fo u n d t h a t a carbon bond b u rn e d
on w ould be also v aluable. H e considered th a t
th e surface co n d itio n of th e g ra in w as m o re im ­
p o rta n t th a n w h a t w as ad d ed as b o n d in g m a te ­
ria l, provided th e b o n ding m a te ria l m e t o n e ’s
req u irem en ts in g iv in g sufficient g reen- a n d dry -
sand stre n g th .
Mixing Speeds and Composition
D r. S kerl h a d said t h a t his fo u n d ry w as a t
one tim e in th e g rip of A m erican p ra c tic e . I t
w as in th e g rip of a n A m erican p ra c tic e a p p lied
w rongly to B ritis h conditions. T hough he (M r.
Sheehan) h ad a good deal of A m erican p re ­
judices him self, he considered t h a t B ritis h
m oulding-sand p ra c tic e w as su p e rio r in m an y
w ays to th e A m erican. B u t th e A m ericans h a d
to m eet th e difficulty t h a t th ey w ere deficient
in n a tu r a l m oulding san d resources a n d th e y h a d
to tu r n o u t sufficient san d fo r a m o u ld in g system
to m eet th e enorm ous p ro d u ctio n s in t h a t coun­
try . W ith th e a d d itio n s of sy n th e tic bonds one
could m ix w ith in a m in u te , o r I t m in. o r 2 m in .,
b u t if u sin g n a tu r a l m o u ld in g san d s one h ad
v ery o fte n to m ill th e m fo r a p erio d of from
7 1 to 10 m in . T h a t w ould n o t be perm issible
in a m echanised m o ulding system such as those
e x istin g in A m erica, p ro d u cin g 12,000 monoblocs
in tw o sh ifts (16 h rs.).
M r. S heehan sa id he was ra th e r k een on th e
facto r of refra c to rin e ss. B o th M r. H u d so n a n d
D r. S k erl had s ta te d t h a t re fra c to rin e ss d id n o t
m a tte r so m uch in a m o ulding s a n d ; b u t he could
n o t o p erate in th e steel fo u n d ry w ith a red sand,
because a p o rtio n of th e san d becam e fusible
actu ally , a n d alth o u g h he h a d h a d e x cellen t slag
tr a p s in th e m ould, slag was developed n e a r th e
ru n n e r an d w ashed in to th e m ould. I t m ig h t be
 255

possible to ru n a steelfo u n d ry w ith red sand,

b u t he d id n o t see th e necessity fo r so doing
when one could o b ta in m uch m ore refra cto ry
sands q u ite easily an d as cheaply.

Sieves
As to th e s ta te m e n t t h a t th e I.M!.M. sieve was
no longer s ta n d a rd in th is co u n try , he said he
was n o t bigoted even ab o u t sieves; he did n ot
th in k i t m a tte re d very m uch w hether one had
an I.M .M . or B .S .I. sieve, or T yler sieves from
A m erica, so long as one in te rp re te d th e figures
from them , a n d w hen one g o t good resu lts w ith
sand t h a t was re ta in e d on th e 70 mesh of th e
one should m a in ta in t h a t condition. I t
was v aluable from th e p o in t of view of exchang­
ing id eas an d in fo rm atio n to keep to a p a rtic u la r
s ta n d a rd sieve, however.
D ealin g w ith some of th e sam ples e x h ib ited a t
th e m eeting, M r. Sheehan said one was a B elgian
sand m ade in to a red san d by b u rn in g on some
of th e iron oxide e x istin g in th e B elgian sand.
I t could easily be w ashed. A n o th er was a red
sand washed w ith w ater, b u t he could n o t wash
from i t th e ferru g in o u s bond, which was very
valuable in red sands. H e could ta k e i t off by
hydrochloric acid an d leave a perfectly clear
silica sand. On a n o th e r sam ple he h a d su p er­
im posed or p re c ip ita te d th e fe rru g in o u s bond.
On a n o th e r was p re c ip ita te d a pellicule of
m anganese oxide.
Vote of Thanks
M r . J . W . Garbom , who said he was respon­
sible fo r securing th e P a p e r, proposed a h earty
vote of th a n k s to M r. Sheehan fo r it. I ts value
could be gauged larg ely by th e fa c t t h a t i t had
invoked so spontaneous a discussion. P erh a p s
th e a u th o r m ig h t have m ade i t m ore clear th a t
he was using th e sand re fe rre d to in a me­
chanical system , fo r i t ap p eared t h a t some of
those who h ad discussed th e P a p e r were prob­
ably th in k in g of its use in o rd in a ry floor m ould­
ing. I t h ad been p o in ted o u t t h a t n a tu ra l sand
could n o t be p rep a re d quickly enough in a me­
chanical foundry , and t h a t sta te m e n t covered
 256

th e p o in t m ade t h a t th e san d t h a t w as used in

th e fo u n d ry , before M r. S heehan h a d g o t to
work th e re , was n o t su itab le. R eferen ce had
also been m ade to p erm eab ility b ein g too h ig h ,
a sta te m e n t w hich a p p e ared to be a little excep­
tio n al. F in a lly , M r. G ardom expressed th e hope
t h a t th e w ork w hich h a d b een s ta rte d on sand
te s tin g in th is co u n try , a n d w hich h a d been
ca rrie d a stag e fu r th e r by M r. S heehan, w ould
continue.
M r. H . W i n t e r t o n (J u n io r V ice-P resid en t)
seconded th e proposal. D iscussing some of his
own ex p erim en ts, he said t h a t w ith one a rtificial
bond he had tu r n e d o u t th re e blends, one w ith
th e o rd in a ry san d a n d tw o w ith a rtific ia l sand,
a n d one could be excused fo r choosing th e la tte r
as h av in g been m ade w ith th e o rig in a l sand.
H e looked fo rw ard to th e tim e w hen we m ig h t
be able to say t h a t th e sam e san d was being
used in fo u n d rie s y e a r a f te r y e a r, a n d t h a t th e re
w ould be no m ore difficulties in decid in g w here
to dum p it. W e should by t h a t tim e h ave solved
th e problem of p e rp e tu a l m otio n . F in a lly , M r.
W in te rto n said t h a t he could prom ise M r.
Sheehan a very len g th y an d e x h au stiv e discus­
sion by th e S co ttish B ra n c h if he w ould p resen t
such a P a p e r th e re .
The vote of th a n k s w as c a rrie d w ith acclam a­
tion.
M r . Sheehan, in a b rie f resp o n se, s a id th e
re c e p tio n of h is P aper had a m p ly c o m p e n s a te d
h im fo r th e tro u b le he had gone to in p re ­
p a rin g it.
 257

ON t h e u s e o f h ig h - d u t y c a s t ir o n in
THE MANUFACTURE OF TEXTILE MACHINERY

By A. Roeder (Chief Chemist, Société Alsacienne de

Construction Mécaniques, Mulhouse)

[Presented on behalf o f the Association Technique de

Fonderie)
[F rench E xchange P aper ]
M echanical eng in eers h ave been led of late to
Pay g re a te r a tte n tio n th a n in p re-w ar years to
th e researches c arried o u t by m etallu rg ists in
th e realm of cast iron. The ap p licatio n of these
researches soon h ad th e effect of b rin g in g ab o u t
notable im provem ents in th e m echanical and
physical p ro p ertie s of th e m a te ria l. The in ­
fluence of tw o im p o rta n t facto rs have been ascer­
ta in e d , nam ely, th e c o n stitu tio n of th e m etal
and its stru c tu re . W hen due w eight is attach ed
to these facto rs, th e c ast iro n ob tain ed is of
su p erio r q u ality , eu te c to id o r p e a rlitic, d istin -
, guished from o th e r b ra n d s of cast iro n in th a t
it has a quasi-isotropic stru c tu re , a fe a tu re t h a t
m ay be considered as th e one which confers to
m achine p a rts th e ir h ig h m echanical resistan ce
to e x te rn a l stresses. V ario u s m ethods of m an u ­
fa c tu re have been p erfected , and a re now in
c u rre n t use in F ra n c e and in o th e r countries.
Space does n o t allow of review ing in th e p re se n t
in stan ce th e v ario u s processes follow ed; m ore­
over, foundrym en a re well acq u ain ted w ith
them .
H ig h -g rad e ca st iro n w as used in th e first
place in th e m a n u fa c tu re of heavy m achine
p a rts, such as gas-engine and steam -engine
cylinders, piston rin g s, and so fo rth . I t was,
however, soon found advisable to give to o th er
branches of th e en g in ee rin g tra d e th e benefit
to be derived from th e use of th is sam e m aterial.
The In te rn a tio n a l F o u n d ry E x h ib itio n held in
P a ris , in 1927, co n tain ed 1a nu m b er of sp in n in g
a n d w eaving m achine p a rts, nam ely, worm gears,
in te rse c tin g and self-acting spool m echanism s,
 258

F ig . 1 .— M odern T e x t il e M a c h in e w h ic h U t il is e s H ig h -D uty I ron for I ts

Com pon en ts.
 259

levers, calender and fluted roller gears, brake

pulleys, e tc ., of h ig h -d u ty c ast iro n . F ig . 1
illu s tra te s a te x tile m achine em bodying such
elem ents.
h or a long tim e p a st two b ran d s of cast iron
w ere reso rted to in th e m a n u fa c tu re of th e very
m any sp in n in g an d w eaving m achine p a rts as
are illu s tra te d in F ig . 2, these bran d s b e in g : —
(1) C ast iro n of good q u a lity ; an d (2) cast iro n
of an im proved q u a lity , to which th e re has been
added h ig h -d u ty iron as a th ird b ran d .
Two considerations govern th e use of th is th ird
b ran d . In th e first place, its m echanical p roper­
ties a re m uch above those of th e o th er cast
irons. F u rth e r, i t enables en g in eers to deal w ith
th e problem of red u cin g th e w eight of m oving
p a rts, a g re a t ad v a n ta g e in view of th e increas­
ing speeds an d stresses to which m achine
elem ents are now subjected.
The su p erio r q u ality of th e m etal ensures a
h ig h er resistance to ten sile an d b ending stresses,
to sh earin g an d im p act stre ss e s; i t also confers
to th e pieces a considerably h ig h er fatig u e lim it.
I t should be noted in th is connection th a t some
com ponent p a rts of te x tile m achinery have to
undergo in service en d u ran ce stresses having
v ary in g ra te s of h ig h frequency, stresses th e
direction of which is c o n stan tly a lte rn a tin g
betw een extensive positive an d n e g ativ e values.
H ence, th e builders of te x tile m achines have
ta k e n g re a t in te re s t in th e very high increase
in fa tig u e lim it here re fe rre d to , an d are using
m achine p a rts m ade of h ig h -d u ty c a st iron.
A second consid eratio n is th e no less im por­
t a n t p ro p erty of h ig h -d u ty c a st iro n to yield
castings which a re highly re s ista n t to w ear.
A lthough th e problem of resistan ce to w ear still
rem ain s a som ewhat involved one, y e t i t m ay
be s ta te d t h a t th e s tru c tu re of h ig h -d u ty c ast
iron form s a com p arativ ely safe c rite rio n to go
by.
A m axim um resistance to w ear m ay be said
to be en su red by th e presence in th e m etal of
g ra p h ite in long an d th in laminse, and of a
lam ellar p earlitic m atrix . A sim ilar s tru c tu re is
k2
 260

F i g . 2 .— A G roup of T extile E n g in e e r in g C ast ings made from H i g h - D uty I ron.

 261

m e t w ith p a rtic u la rly in th e p e a rlitic c a st irons

of th e L an z system .
I h e object of th e p resen t P a p e r is to p o in t
o u t th e resistan ce values of th e h ig h -d u ty cast
irons in question, by showing th e re su lts ob­
ta in e d in th e course of te sts on specimens which
w ere n o t ca st sep arately b u t were ta k e n from th e
castings them selves. F o r com parison, th e results
are given of sim ilar te s ts on sim ilar castings
(see F ig . 3), h u t m ade of th e o th er brands.
The b ran d s te ste d are m ark ed A, B and C, and
have th e follow ing sig n ifica n ce :—A to cast iron
of good q u a lity ; B to c ast iron of im proved
q u a lity ; C to h ig h -d u ty c a st iron.
Mechanical Tests
I . —Shearing tests, w ith the Fremont-S.A.C.M.
machine, on test specimens 5.64 mm. (0.220 in.)
in diam eter, taken from th e casting shown in
Fig. 3.
A cast iron :
R0 = 24 24 24.9 25.5
Average = 2 4 .6 k. per sq. mm.
= 15.62 tons per sq. in.
B cast iron :
Rc = 3 0 .4 29.9 30.9 30.3
Average = 3 0 .4 k. per sq. mm.
= 19.30 tons per sq. in.
C cast iron :
Rc = 37.1 43.7 40.9 43.1 38.9
Average = 40-9 k. per sq. mm.
= 25.97 to n s per sq. in.
I I .— Transverse tests, w ith th e combined Frem ont-
S.A.C.M. machine, on stan d ard te st specimens
35 X 10 x 8 mm. (1.378 X 0.393 X 0.315 in.) ;
distance between supports 30 mm. (1.181 in.).
A cast iron :
T otal breaking load = 665 695
Average = 680 k. = 1,500 lbs.
Deflection previous to ru p tu re = 0.18 0.20
Average = 0.19 mm. = 0.0074 in.
B cast iron :
T otal breaking load = 915 953
Average = 934 k. = 2,060 lbs.
 262

Deflection previous to ru p tu re = 0 .2 0 0 .2 2
Average = 0 .2 1 mm. — 0.0078 in.
C cast iron :
T o tal breaking load = 1,264 1,320
Average = 1,292 k. = 2,850 lbs.
Deflection previous to ru p tu re = 0 .2 2 0 .2 4
Average = 0 .2 3 mm. = 0.0089 in.
I I I . —Repeated impact tests, w ith th e S.A.C.M.
machine, on te st specimens 10 mm. (0.393 in.)
in diam eter, unnotched.
A cast ir o n :
N um ber o f blows causing ru p tu re = 15 25
B cast ir o n :
N um ber o f blows causing ru p tu re = 180 240
C cast irort, :
N um ber o f blows causing ru p tu re = 1,200 1,500

IV .— Fatigue tests under alternate stresses (ro tary

bending) w ith th e S.A.C.M. machine (W oehler
system), on te s t specimens tu rn ed to a diam eter
o f 10.65 mm. (0.419 in.).
T o tal length = 157 mm. (6.180 in.).
L ength between reference m arks = 140 mm.
(5.512 in.)
A cast iron :
A lternate stress : a = + 1 4 .8 k. per sq. mm.
= 9.40 to n s per sq. in.
A lternations : n = 61,983 (up to ru p tu re).
B cast iron :
A lternate stress': a = + 1 4 .8 k. p er sq. mm.
A lternations : .n = 404,380 (up to rup tu re).
C cast iron :
A lternate stress : a = ± 1 4 .8 k. p er sq. mm.
A lternations : n = 10,000,000 (not ru p tu red ).

The above re su lts clearly show th e su p e rio rity

of th e C c ast iro n over th e tw o o th e r b ran d s A
a n d B, w hich, fo rm erly , w ere th e only ones
used in th e m ak in g of c astin g s for sp in n in g an d
w eaving m achines. The h ig h -d u ty b ra n d of c a st
iron has g re a tly c o n trib u te d to th e progress
achieved in th e co n stru c tio n of te x tile
m achinery.
 263

DISCUSSION
High-Duty Iron Deemed Unnecessary
M r. lv L o n g d e n said a i l im pression m ig h t b e
conveyed th a t B ritish te x tile-en g in eerin g
founders w ere n o t com petent, b u t he did n o t
th in k t h a t was so. I t was tr u e t h a t th e consti­

tu tio n an d s tru c tu re (which m ig h t m ean th e same

th in g ) of c ast iro n h a d h ad m uch closer a tte n tio n
d u rin g th e p a st te n y ears th a n form erly, an d
t h a t if due re g a rd w as p a id to th e physical m ake­
up as well as to th e chem ical com position, m etals
 264

of im proved s tre n g th could be produced, as th e

a u th o r h ad s ta te d , by in creasin g th e p e a rlitic
a re a (as th e re s u lt of special processes) beyond
t h a t o b tain ed by o rd in a ry c a stin g m ethods. I t
was also tr u e t h a t such m a te ria l possessed g re a te r
m echanical resistan ce to e x te rn a l stresses.
F o r m any decades B ritis h tex tile -m a c h in e ry
m akers h a d produced v ery high-class m achines
from castin g s m ade of h ig h -g ra d e m a te ria l. The
sections of castin g s h a d been c u t down to very
fine lim its. A gain, he h a d still to le a rn t h a t
th e re was any need fo r th e re d u c tio n of sections,
since a c tu a l rep lacem en ts w ere n o t fr e q u e n t; nor
w ere th e re so m an y m oving p a rts as to w a rra n t
re-designing m achines an d p a rts, because when
once such m em bers w ere se t in m otion th e y re ­
q u ired very little power* to co n tin u e th e ir move­
m ent. T here was probably m ore s tra in se t up by
in c o rre c t s e ttin g of p a rts or m a l-alig n m e n t an d
fa u lty m ach in in g th a n by th e c a rry in g of a
com paratively sm all a d d itio n a l w eig h t of m etal.
H ow ever, he su g g ested t h a t i t was n o t p ra c ­
ticab le to use h ig h -d u ty iro n in m ore th a n 5 per
cent, of th e tex tile-m a ch in e castin g s— an d he
assum ed t h a t “ h ig h -d u ty ” iro n was in te n d e d to
m ean m e ta l whose c o n stitu e n ts a n d s tru c tu re
w ere controlled w ith in very fine lim its. Such
m etal m u st be m ade by such processes as th e
L an z hot-m ould m ethod, o r processes used for
th e pro d u ctio n of E m m el iro n , M eeh an ite, nickel
iron, an d low -carbon iro n (the la t te r p roduced by
ro ta ry fu rn aces). W ith th e ex cep tio n of E m m el
iron a n d th e low -total-carbon iro n , th ese m etals
w ere essentially of low -total-silicon c o n te n t and
m ig h t co n ta in very little phosphorus ; an d th e
low -total-carbon iro n , w h eth er p roduced by th e
ro ta ry fu rn a c e or by th e E m m el process, could
be b ro u g h t w ith in th e sam e c ateg o ry as being
m etals w hich could n o t be c a st w ith th e degree
of ease necessary in th e p ro d u ctio n of te x tile -
m ach in ery castin g s.
F o r th e 5 p e r cen t, of tex tile-m ach in e castin g s
which m ig h t be m ade by special processes, pro b ­
ably steel castin g s w ould be less expensive. M r.
L ongden v en tu re d to suggest t h a t costs of pro­
duction w ould increase very considerably if high-
d u ty castings w ere s u b s titu te d for th e h igh-grade
ca st iron now used in te x tile m achines. The
reasons he gave were th e h ig h e r in itia l cost of
h ig h -d u ty i r o n ; th e increase in th e g en eral m an u ­
fa c tu rin g cost of th e castin g s due to e x tr a m ould­
ing o p eratio n s, an d g re a te r h azard s due to th e
co m p arativ e viscosities or flu id ity of th e m etal,
which would create a g re a te r" p ercen tag e of
w aster c a s tin g s ; a n d t h a t m ach in in g speeds
would be seriously reduced due to th e g re a te r
den sity an d h ard n ess of th e cast iron.
F rom 6 to 8 per cent, of tex tile-m ach in ery cast­
ings w ere annealed a t a te m p e ra tu re of a p p ro x i­
m ately 850 to 900 deg. C. fo r from 6 to 8 h rs. in
order to create dead-soft m ach in in g p roperties,
an d m ost rem ark ab le m ach in in g speeds were
a tta in e d w ith th e an n ealed m etal. Such dead-soft
m etal could n o t be o b tain ed even w ith nickel.
I t m ig h t be suggested t h a t th e h ig h -d u ty iron
could he annealed, an d he a g reed t h a t i t could,
b u t he also p o in ted o u t t h a t an n ealin g seriously
reduced th e s tre n g th of c a st iron, so t h a t th e
purpose of in tro d u c in g th e h ig h -d u ty iro n would
be defeated. A gain, i t would e n ta il fu rth e r
expense.
In a B ritis h te x tile m achine sim ila r to th a t
shown in F ig . 1 th e re w ere n o t m any p a rts w a rra n t­
ing th e use of h ig h -d u ty iron. The u n d erfram es
were re q u ired to have sufficient rig id ity an d
body to absorb or p re v e n t v ib ra tio n , b u t a t th e
sam e tim e th e ir th ick n ess did n o t average more
th a n from f in. to f in. The thickness of
stretch e rs an d beam s w ere from ab o u t \ in. to
in . The thickness in th e th in a reas of some
of th e fluted rollers shown in th e fo reground of
F ig . 1 was n o t m ore th a n g in. when m achined,
an d th e gen eral section of m any m ore p a rts was
n o t m uch m ore th a n \ in. The thickness of th e
bodies of various ty p es of cast-iro n spindles,
when m achined, varied from in. to J in.
On th e o th e r h an d , th e re w ere rollers of from
1 in. to 5 in. dia. an d up to 9 in. long, highly
 266

polished, which were req u ire d to possess w eight

a n d body. The m a in cylin d ers of a c a rd in g
eng in e m ig h t have a d ia m e ter of 42 in ., an d 4 2 -m .
face, g iv in g a su rface a re a of 5,540 sq. in.
The black castin g s w ere f-in . section, ex c ep t
w here stre n g th e n e d by shallow b an d s, and
m achined down to \ in. thickness. S uch c astin g s
w ere difficult to pro d u ce in any o th e r iro n th a n
t h a t w hich h a d a lread y proved successful, a n d
th e use of m odern h ig h -d u ty iro n w ould be very
risky a n d expensive. T here was a n o th e r ca stin g ,
nam ed a “ f la t,” w hich stre tc h e d across th e face
of th e cylin d ers (th ere w ere u sually ab o u t 100 on
each m achine) a n d acte d lik e a comb ; th is c a st­
ing was of T section, a n d th e general* th ick n ess
was j in. These castin g s w ere th e m ost sensitive
of an y t h a t a fo u n d ry m a n could h av e to m ak e,
a n d quickly responded to ch illin g by a d e p a rtu re
from th e m e ta l m ix tu re , or in th e m ould in g , such
as by th e use of dam p san d , o r flash or fin,
how ever slig h t, fo rm in g on th e jo in t of th e m ould
which c reate d w h ite iro n , such chill p e n tr a tin g
in to th e section of th e c a stin g p re v e n tin g group
m achining.
The whole ra n g e of te x tile -m a c h in e ry c astin g s
could be included in th e follow ing fo u r ran g e s of
a n a ly s is : —

T.C. Si. Mn. P. S.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
3.35 2.75 0.7 0.6 0.08
3.3 2.50 0.7 0.8 0.09
3.3 2.25 0.7 0.9 0.09
3.3 1.50 0.7 0.9 0.09

H e m a in ta in e d t h a t B ritis h te x tile e n g in ee rs
h ad been usin g th e very b e st m e ta l p o ssib le ; th e ir
m etals w ere considered to be of good q u a lity an d
very su itab le for th e d u tie s th e y h a d to p erfo rm .
The co m p lain t is t h a t B ritis h te x tile m ach in ery
lasts too long an d does n o t in d u ce th e purchase
of th e m ore re c e n t ty p e of m achines.
M b. S u t c l i f f e m en tio n ed t h a t one B ritis h
firm w a s u sin g 2 5 p er c en t, p ig -iro n a n d 7 5 p er
c e n t, s c ra p fo r te x tile -m a c h in e ry c a s tin g s .
 M r. J . H . C o o p e r said t h a t th e a u th o r—who
was obviously a clever m an , ju d g in g by his sta tu s
in 1 ran ee should be given .cred it for h aving
trie d to p u t them on a line which m ig h t re su lt in
im provem ent. A lthough th ey m ig h t n o t be using
h ig h -d u ty iron in th is c o u n try , th e y h ad seen
te x tile m achinery m ade w ith a good deal of scrap
which was n o t alw ays up to th e 100 p e r cent,
efficiency m ark . D oubtless th e a u th o r h ad q u ite
good answ ers to th e p o in ts m ade in th e discus­
sion ; i t could be accepted t h a t he w ould no t
have p rep ared th e P a p e r unless he h a d h ad good
reason fo r p u ttin g fo rw ard his arg u m en ts.
 268

STUDIES ON CAST RED BRASS FOR THE

ESTABLISHMENT OF A BASIC CLASSIFICATION
OF NON-FERROUS INGOT METALS FOR SPECI­
FICATION PURPOSES

By C. M. Saeger, Junr.

(.Presented on behalf o f the A m erican F oundrym en's

Association)
[A m e r ic a n E xchange P aper]

Abstract
A n in vestig a tio n was sponsored by th e N on-
F errous In g o t M e ta l I n s titu te a t the B u re a u of
S ta n d a rd s to collect d a ta to be used in the
sim plification of th e n u m b er of com positions of
copper-base in g o t m eta ls. The p resen t research
is re stricted to red brass, h a vin g th e n o m inal
com position o f 85 per cen t, copper and 5 per
cent, each o f tin , zinc a n d lead.
A com parison was m ade o f th e alloys p re­
pared fro m v ir g in a n d rem elted m e ta l w ith fo u r
d is tin c t types of test-bars cast a t tem p era tu res
from 1,040 to 1,260 deg. C. The resu lts fo r
tensile stre n g th , B rin ell hardness, electrical resis­
tiv ity and d e n sity d iv id e d th e test-b a rs in to
three classes:— (1) bars fro m chill in g o ts; (2)
bars fro m in g o ts obtained by th e “ im m ersed-
crucible ” m eth o d , a n d (3) sand-cast bars. There
were only slig h t va ria tio n s in th e values ob­
ta in ed fo r an y typ e of bar cast fro m v ir g in or
rem elted m eta l. The sh rin ka g e and th e ru n n in g
properties of th e alloy were also d e te rm in e d .
The m etallographic stru c tu re o f th e bars poured
a t 1,205 a n d 1,260 deg. C. led to th e conclusion
 269

th a t, in general, a m a rked colum nar stru ctu re is

accom panied by in ferio r physical properties.
P ronounced n o n -u n ifo rm ity of stru ctu re was
fo u n d in one typ e o f sand-cast test-bar. M icro­
scopic exa m in a tio n showed th a t sand-cast bars
poured a t high tem p era tu res were sub ject to
high stresses d u rin g th e cooling, and had- in ­
ferio r physical properties. A n expansion of the
alloy occurred im m ed ia te ly a fte r solidification.
I n the second phase of the w ork th e separate
effects o f sulphur and iro n were stu d ied . Cast­
ing a t a high te m p era tu re lowered the physical
properties m ore th a n d id the a d d itio n of sulphur
up to 0.1 per cent. The a d d itio n of iron u p to
0.6 per cent, im proved all o f the physical pro­
perties o f th is brass w ith the exception of the
electrical re s istiv ity . The ru n n in g properties
were im proved an d the shrinkage was unchanged
by the a d d itio n o f eith er su lp h u r or iron.
The co-operative in v e stig a tio n is conducted a t
the B u reau of S ta n d a rd s by M r. D . B . Gardner,
a R esearch Associate fo r th e N on-F errous In g o t
M etal In s titu te , u n d e r jo in t directio n of the
B ureau and an A d viso ry C om m ittee, a ppointed
by the In s titu te , consisting o f D r. G. D . Clamer,
P resid en t, The A ja x M eta l C om pany, P hiladel­
phia, P en n sylva n ia , M r. F . L . W olf, C hief E n ­
gineer and Technical S u p e r in te n d e n t, Ohio Brass
C om pany, M ansfield, Ohio, and M r. J . W .
B olton, M eta llu rg ist, The L u n ken lieim er Com­
pany, C in cin n a ti, Ohio. This advisory com m ittee
has aided considerably, especially w hen the com­
m ercial aspects of the problem were involved.
This P aper shows a typ e of research conducted at
the B urea u of S ta n d a rd s in co-operation w ith
in d u stry to bring about sim plification of
standard specifications.
 270

The a u th o r w ishes to express his app recia tio n

to M r. H . B. G ardner, B esearch A ssociate, who
m ade the tests and correlated the d a ta contained
in th is P aper.
INTRODUCTION
A Special C om m ittee on P ro m o tio n of G eneral
Use of Specifications fo r C opper Alloys in In g o t
Form was organ ised by th e A m erican Society fo r
T esting M a te ria ls in 1929. T his co m m ittee,
consisting of re p re se n ta tiv e s of p ro d u cers an d
consum ers of copper^base in g o t m etals, h a d fo r
its purpose th e stu d y an d p ro m u lg a tio n of th e
use of specifications fo r copper alloys in in g o t
form and to recom m end to th e Society such
revisions in A m erican Society fo r T estin g
M ateria ls Specifications affected by th ese stu d ies
in d ic a tin g th e d e sira b ility to w ard s re d u cin g th e
n u m b er of specific no n -ferro u s in g o t-m etal alloys
in com m ercial use.
P ro d u cers of n o n -ferro u s in g o t m etals
organised an in s titu te , know n as th e N on-
F erro u s In g o t M etal I n s titu te . T h ro u g h th e
co-operative effo rts of th e m em bers of th is I n ­
s titu te w ith th e A m erican Society fo r T estin g
M a te ria ls an d o th e r te c h n ic al bodies defin ite
progress has b een m ade to w ard th e s ta n d a rd is a ­
tio n of th e n o n -ferro u s alloys in use. As a re ­
su lt of a surv ey m ad e, i t was fo u n d t h a t over
600 so-called common alloys w ere in use, an d in
a d d itio n m any special alloys t h a t a re usually
classed as h ig h s tre n g th alloys. T e n ta tiv e speci­
fications have been p ro m u lg ated an d approved
by th e A m erican Society fo r T e stin g M a te ria ls
covering tw e n ty n o n -ferro u s alloys. I t is
believed t h a t th ese, to a v ery larg e d egree, m ay
be used in place of th e m ore th a n 600 now in
use. S teps along e d u c atio n a l lines will be neces­
sary in o rd e r to m ake th is w ork u se fu l a n d
effective. I t is, of course, n o t believed t h a t th e
in d u s try will in five o r te n y ears fro m now be
producing only 20 n on -ferro u s alloys, b u t a t
least a goal has been set a n d co n stru ctiv e efforts
 271

should be m ade to app ro ach it a s closely as pos­

sible. I t has been found t h a t th e re a re 40
differen t specifications fo r one of th e m ost
w idely-used alloys of th e in d u stry , nam ely, 85
p e r cent, copper, 5 p e r cen t, tin , 5 p er cent,
lead, 5 p er cent. zinc. The v a ria tio n between
specifications is in all cases slig h t, e ith e r in
allowed to lerances of th e m ain c o n stitu e n ts or
in th e im p u rity co n te n t, nam ely, nickel, sul­
p h u r, p hosphorus, iro n , an tim o n y , etc. It
appeared in th is case th a t these fo rty specifica­
tions could probably be replaced by one.
The N o n -F erro u s In g o t M etal I n s titu te has
been in s tru m e n ta l in b rin g in g ab o u t co-operative
a rran g em en ts w ith th e B u reau of S ta n d a rd s,
w hereby tech n ical research is now being con­
ducted a t th is B u re a u fo r th e purpose of pro­
viding a d d itio n a l an d b e tte r in fo rm atio n re­
g ard in g copper-base castin g alloys th a n is a t
presen t available.

SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION
I n th e te n ta tiv e program m e, red brass of th e
nom inal com position, 85 per cent, copper and
5 p er cen t, each of zinc, tin and lead, w hich is
one of th e m ost w idely-used com m ercial alloys,
was selected as th e first alloy to be s tu d ie d .1
The im p o rta n t variab les include th e form of th e
test-b ars th e m ethod of castin g th em , th e
pouring te m p e ra tu re s, an y possible differences
betw een v irg in m etal and rem elted m etal, and
th e effects of definite am ounts of know n im p u ri­
ties. The effects of th ese facto rs u pon th e
physical p ro p ertie s a re sum m arised in th is
P a p e r.
P o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s of 1,040 deg. C.,
1,095 deg. 0 ., 1,150 deg. C., 1,205 deg. C. and
1,260 deg. C. w ere used in th e stu d y of v irg in
m etal, rem elted m etal an d th e effect of sulp h u r.
F o r th e effect of iro n , p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s of
1,065 deg. C ., 1,150 deg. C. and 1230 deg. C.
were used. The following p ro p e rtie s were d e te r­
m ined in sequence on each b a r : E lectrical resis­
tiv ity , ten sile p ro p erties, density and B rinell
 272

hardness. In ad d itio n , th e sh rin k ag e fro m above

th e m axim um p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re to room te m ­
p e ra tu re , and th e ru n n in g p ro p e rtie s a t each of
th e p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s w ere d eterm in ed .
M etallo g rap h ic e x am in atio n s of th e s tru c tu re s
were also m ade.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
W hen th e v irg in m etals used fo r m ak in g th e
alloy w ere analy sed chem ically, th e only im p u ri­
ties fo u n d t h a t m ig h t h av e an y re a l significance
w e re : 0.0052 p e r cen t, of iro n in th e c o p p e r;
0.01 p e r cen t, of iro n in th e z in c ; 0.016 p e r cent,
of iro n a n d 0.12 p e r cen t, of b ism u th in th e
le a d ; an d 0.023 p e r cen t, of iro n in th e tin . The
alloys w ere m ade up in h e a ts v a ry in g fro m 80 to
100 pounds, an d each c o n stitu e n t m e ta l was
w eighed to w ith in 1 p e r c en t. T he te rm
‘‘ rem elted m eta l ” is used th ro u g h o u t th e P a p e r
to re fe r to th e 85-5-5-5 alloy w hich was m ade
from v irg in m etals, c a st in to in g o t form , re­
m elted an d re c a st in to te s t-b a r m oulds. The
extrem e ra n g e of com position as d ete rm in e d by
analysis of th e v ario u s h e a ts w as as follows,
alth o u g h in m ost of th e h e a ts th e v a ria tio n s were
much sm aller. The slig h tly la rg e r v a ria tio n in
zinc co n ten t, especially in th e rem elted m etal,
was caused by th e g re a te r v o la tility of th e
zinc : —

M etal. Copper. T in . L ea d . Zinc

(b y d iff.).

P er c e n t P er c e n t P er c e n t Per cent
V irgin . . 8 4 .5 2 — 8 5 .5 6 4 .9 1 — 5 .2 6 4 . 8 0 — 5 .2 8 4 . 6 4 — 5 .2 1
R e m e lte d 8 4 .4 5 — 8 6 .0 6 4 .9 1 — 5 .2 3 4 .7 7 — 5 .2 5 4 . 5 0 — 5 .4 2

“ S tick su lp h u r ” an d a copper-iron “ h a rd ­
e n e r,” w hich co n tain ed 52 p e r c e n t, of iro n and
was p re p a re d from v irg in copper an d com m er­
cial o p en -h earth in g o t iro n , w ere used in p re ­
p a rin g alloys c o n ta in in g su lp h u r an d iron
respectively.
 273

Moulding, Melting and Pouring

G reen-sand m oulds w ere p rep ared from grade
00 A lbany sand. A p erm eab ility n u m b er of 12
to 16 (A m erican F o u n d ry m en ’s Association
u n its), a com pressive s tre n g th of 5 to 7 lbs. per
sq. in. an d a m o istu re c o n te n t of 6 to 6.5 per
cent, w ere m ain ta in e d th ro u g h o u t in p re p a rin g
the sand fo r th e moulds.
The m e ta l was m elted in a high-frequency
induction fu rn a ce of th e “ lift-coil ” ty p e in a
double-wall clay -g rap h ite crucible. E ach m elt

F i g . «1.— S a n d -C a s t T e s t - B a e D e s i g n a t e d as the
“ F i n -G a t e ” T y p e .

T h e th ic k n e s s o f t h e w eb , A , w a s v a r ie d a s f o llo w s :
i , A a n d i in .

was h e a te d to a te m p e ra tu re of 56 deg. C. hig h er

th a n th e te m p e ra tu re a t w hich i t was to be
poured. A double-wall crucible was used to
m inim ise th e drop in te m p e ra tu re d u rin g th e
pouring. The g re a te st difference in p o u rin g
te m p e ra tu re betw een th e first an d la s t of a
series of te st-b a rs from one h e a t p oured a t
1,040 deg. C- was 5 deg., an d was ap p ro x im ately
tw ice as g re a t a t 1,260 deg. C.
The su lp h u r a d d itio n s were m ade by placing
the necessary am o u n t of stick su lp h u r, as d e te r­
m ined by analysis of p relim in ary m elts, in a
p e rfo rated g ra p h ite co n ta in e r, which was sub­
m erged in th e m olten m etal u n til all a g ita tio n
resu ltin g from th e reactio n of th e su lp h u r w ith
the m etal had ceased. I n m ak in g a n a d d itio n
of iron, th e copper-iron h a rd e n e r was added ju s t
before th e charge was com pletely m elted. S ub­
sequent analysis of th e alloys showed t h a t in
every case th e co n te n t of su lp h u r o r iro n was
w ithin 0.05 p e r cen t, of t h a t desired.

F i g . 2 . — S a n d -C a s t T e s t - B a r D e s i g n a t e d
AS. TH E “ E n D - G a TE ” T Y P E .
In cast-to-size bar, A = 0.505 in. in
machined-to-size bar, A = 0.625 in.
Poured uphill a t an angle o f 7 deg. w ith a
1-in. round pouring gate 5 in. high.

Types of Test-Bars
Two form s of san d -cast b ars, a chilled in g o t,
and ingots obtain ed by im m ersing a g ra p h ite
crucible, b en eath th e su rface of th e m olten m eta l
were m ade from each h e a t.
F in-G ate Sand-C ast B a r.— This ty p e of te st-
bar, o ften d esig n ated as th e W eb b ert b a r, is
shown in F ig . 1. I ts use is req u ire d in th e
specifications of th e A m erican Society fo r T est­
ing M a te ria ls fo r b rass c a stin g s.2 T est speci­
mens each h av in g a web th ick n ess of J, or
 275

j in . respectively were used in th e stu d y of

v irg in a n d rem elted m etal, w hilst specimens
having a web thickness of J in. were used in th e
stu d y of th e effect of su lp h u r a n d iron.
E n d -g a te Sand-cast B a r.—A c h a ra c te ristic
fe a tu re of th is ty p e of castin g , shown in F ig . 2,
is th e absence 6f th e heavy rise r which ten d s to
re ta rd th e cooling of th e te st-b a r. T his m ethod
fu rn ish ed two b ars poured u n d e r id en tical con­
d itio n s w hich were used to stu d y th e “ skin
effect ” by com p arin g th e p ro p ertie s of b ars cast
to size w ith those .m achined to size. This ty p e
of b a r has been used w ith pronounced success
in com m ercial fo u n d ry w ork on non-ferrous
alloys.3

F i g . 3 .— P o s it io n o f T e s t -B a r s i n the
C h i l l -C a s t I n g o t .
A, Two-side C hill; B, No-side Chill.

Coupon from C hill-cast In g o t.—Two specimens

were c u t from each chill-cast in g o t as shown in
F ig. 3. One specim en was ta k e n from t h a t por­
tio n of th e in g o t w hich included tw o a d ja c e n t
chill faces an d th e o th e r from th e p o rtio n fa rth e s t
rem oved from th e chill faces. These h ave been
d esig n ated as “ tw o-side chill ” an d “ no-side
chill ” respectively.
Coupon from , “ Im m ersed-C rucible ” I n g o t.—
This m ethod of o b ta in in g a te s t-b a r consists
essentially in w ith d raw in g a sam ple of m etal bv
m eans of a g ra p h ite crucible subm erged beneath
th e su rface of th e liq u id m etal, as illu stra te d in
F ig . 4. The m ethod p erm itte d th e sam pling of
any h e a t w ith o u t co n tam in atio n th a t m ay be
 276

D IM ENSIO NS IN INCHES

HOLD IN G DEVICE

- 1 .2 5 -
TOP VIEW OF
C R U C I BLE

I MMERSI ON
S A M P L IN G
LO NG ITU DINA L SECTION D E V IC E
OF A S SE M BL Y

F ig . 4 .— D e v ic e f o r O b t a in in g T e s t -B a r s by the
I m m e r s e d -C r u c i b l e M e t h o d .

All p arts were made of graphite. The tig h tly closed

crucible, A, of known volume, was immersed beneath the
surface o f th e molten metal and allowed to come to the
tem perature of the metal. The top, E, was then raised by
means of the rod, C, and the crucible was filled. The cover
was then replaced and th e crucible containing th e sample
of metal was removed, placed in a dry-sand mould and
allowed to cool to room tem perature. The ingot was used
in the determ ination o f shrinkage as well as in other tests.
 277

caused by th e m o istu re of san d m oulds. The

gassing ” of m etals an d th e possible source of
such co n tam in a tio n are of in te re st to th e foundry
in d u stry . The m ethod also p e rm itted a com­
parison betw een m etal as o rd in a rily ca st and th e

F i g . 5 .— R e l a t io n b e t w e e n t h e T e n s il e S t r e n g t h
and P o u r in g T e m p e r a t u r e o e T e s t -B a r s m a d e
f r o m V ir g in M e t a l a n d R e m e l t e d M e t a l .

The minimum tensile strength for th is alloy (A.S.T.M.

Designation B30-32T) is shown by the broken line.

sam e m etal t h a t was n o t su bjected to p ouring

an d to m ould conditions. Im m ersed-crucible
sam ples w ere ta k e n from each crucible of m etal
before th e o th er form s of te st-b a rs w ere cast.
The in g o t th u s o b tain ed was used to fu rn ish d a ta
on th e sh rin k ag e of th e liq u id m etal, a fte r which
it was m achined to a conv en tio n al te s t specim en.
Measurement of Tensile Strength
T he ten sile p ro p ertie s were d eterm in ed w ith an
A m sler u niversal te s tin g m achine of 22 to n s
cap acity , th e load being app lied u n ifo rm ly w ith
a r a te of tra v e l of th e m oving h ead of 0.1 in.
6 ¿ L F .no-G a te B ah c a s t - t o -s iz e IEIn d -G a t e B a r m a c h in e d -t o - s iz e

56

48
40

£ 32
(2D Ki n - G a t e B a r i/ b -w eb F in - G a t e B a r 3 / i6 "-w e b
D 56
z
<
l/l/J 48
Ia. 40
I 32 rT l
64 Fin
in - G a te B a r 1/ 4 - - w e b Im m e r s e d - Q r v c i b l e B ar
_)
u 56 r®
£ *6
40

32
72 T w o - S id e C h il l B ar N o - S id e C h il l B ar

METAL
64 r-TI REMD-T
METAL
56

48 1
40

32
1040 1095 1150 1205 1260 1040 1095 1150 1205 1260
P o u r in g Tem pera tu re °C

F i g . 6 .— R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e B r i n e l l H a r d n e s s
and P o u r in g T e m p e r a tu r e o f T e st-B a r s m ade
fr o m V ir g in M e t a l a n d R e m e lt e d M e t a l.

p e r m in. The te s t specim en used was 0.505 in.

in diam eter, w ith th re a d e d en d s an d a 2-in.
gauge len g th .
The re p o rted resu lts a re th e av erag es of d u p li­
cate d eterm in atio n s, u su ally on b ars fro m th e
sam e h e a t. I n m ost cases th e ten sile stre n g th s
of th e d u p licate b ars agree w ith in ab o u t
1,000 lbs. p er sq. in . (ab o u t ± 3 p er c e n t.),
 279

alth o u g h th e re w ere a few la rg e r v ariatio n s.

I n such cases th e h ig h er values w ere accepted as
being m ore a u th e n tic . Observed differences of
less th a n 1,000 lbs. p er sq. in. a re probably not
significant.
Measurement of Shrinkage
The sh rin k ag e of th e alloy from a te m p e ra tu re
of 1,315 deg. C., which exceeded th e h ighest

F ig .7 .— R e l a t io n b e t w e e n t h e E l e c t r ic a l R e s i s ­
a n d P o u r in g
t iv it y T e m pe r a t u r e of T e s t -B a rs
M ADE FROM V lR G IN M ET A L A N D R E M E L T E D M e TAL.

p ouring te m p e ra tu re used, 1,260 deg. C., to

room te m p e ra tu re was determ in ed by th e m ethod
described by S aeger and A sh.4 I t included th e
d eterm in atio n of th e sh rin k ag e (a) of th e liquid
m etal, (6) d u rin g solidification and (c) in th e
solid sta te .
Measurement of Running Properties
The ru n n in g p ro p ertie s of th e alloy were
stu d ied by th e m ethod described by S aeger and
K ry n itsk y ,5 w hich consists essentially in castin g
in a green-sand m ould a sm all sp ira l strip of
u niform parabolic cross-section. The le n g th of
th e sp ira l is ta k e n as a n in d ic a tio n of th e rela-

. E nd-G a t e B a r c a s t -t o -s i z e I E n d - G a t e B a r m a c h i n e o -t o - s i z e

F in - G a t e B a r i / e -w e b B ar 3 / i 6 ” -w e b

□
VIRGIN
M ETAL

i- G a t e B ar i/ 4 --w eb Im m e r s e d - C r u c i b l e B ar

T w o - S id e C h il l B ar N o - S id e C h il l B ar

rra

1040 1095 1150 1205 1260 1040 1095 1150 1205 1260
P o u r in g T e m p e r a t u r e °C

F i g . 8 .— R e l a t io n betw een the D e n s it y and

P o u r in g T e m p e r a t u r e o e T e s t -B a r s m a d e from
V ir g in M e t a l a n d R e m e l t e d M e t a l .

tiv e flowing p ro p ertie s of th e m etal u n d e r th e

conditions used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
F o r purposes of discussion th e in v e stig a tio n
m ay be divided in to two p a rts : (1) th e p ro p e r­
tie s of th e alloy m ade from v irg in m etal and
 from rem elted m etal, and (2) th e effects of small
percentages of su lp h u r o r iro n on th ese p ro p er­
ties.
Virgin Metal and Remelted Metal
Tensile S tr e n g th .— In F ig . 5 are presen ted th e
d a ta o b tain ed fo r u ltim a te ten sile stre n g th . F o r
each ty p e of te s t-b a r m axim um ten sile stre n g th s
w ere o b tain ed a t p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s of 1,095
an d 1,150 deg. C. A m ark ed drop in tensile

S o l id if ic a t io n R a n g e io o o ° c . t o 8 4 0 ° c
V o l u m e C h a n g e in L iq u id c e - d j
0 9 PER CENTCPER 5 6 ° C )
V o l u m e C h a n g e D u r in g S o l id if ic a t io n
C D -O - - 5 0 PER C E N T C TO T A L)
A p p a r e n t S o l id C o n t r a c t i o n
CH-A0 - - 4 7 PER C E N T C T O T A L)
T h e o r e t ic a l S o l id C o n t r a c t io n
C C -A O --5 .3 PER CENT
.
c u . cm
V o lu m e

oOO'00HO°°0OOoC
S p e c if ic

o°u
OO,0 °
,o°
o ° ,oo'
‘
,QO,0°
'
•O O 1
qOOO O '

F i g . 9 .— S h r i n k a g e of R e d B ra ss fro m 1 ,3 1 5 id e g . C. to R oom
T em perature.

s tre n g th was observed fo r th e m achined sand-

ca st specim ens poured a t 1,260 deg. C. No pro­
nounced beneficial “ skin effect ” on cast-to-size
specim ens w as observed ex cep t fo r b ars c a st a t
1,260 deg. O.
On th e basis of tensile stre n g th , th e various
ty p es of test-specim ens m ay be a rra n g e d in th re e
groups. T he h ig h est ten sile stre n g th was
obtained on specim ens c u t from th e chill-cast
ingots. N e x t in o rd er w ere those c u t from th e
ingots m ade by th e im m ersed-crucible m ethod.
The sand-cast bars, ex cep t those c a st to size,
 282

were u n iform ly low er in ten sile s tre n g th . No

sig n ifican t differences w ere n o ted betw een th e
v irg in an d th e rem elted m etal in th e sam e form
of test-b ar.
Brinell H ardness.— B rin ell-h ard n ess d e te rm in a ­
tio n s were m ade on one of two p ara lle l fla t faces,
| in. in w idth, m achined on th e sides of th e
th read ed p o rtio n s of th e bro k en te s t specim en.
E ach re s u lt showrn in F ig . 6 is th e a v erag e of
th re e d eterm in atio n s. The re su lts fo r B rin ell
L in e a r S h r in k a g e p e r c e n t ( G a s Fu r n a c e )

F ig . 10.—L inear Contraction of

R ed Brass F rom S olidification
TO ROOM TEMPERATURE.

hardness show th e sam e g en eral tr e n d as do th e

corresponding valu es fo r ten sile stre n g th .
Electrical R e s is ti v it y .— The d e te rm in a tio n of
elec trical re s istiv ity w as m ade on th e specim ens
used subsequently fo r ten sile te s ts. These d e te r­
m in atio n s6 w ere m ade according to th e proce­
d u re recom m ended by th e A m erican Society for
T estin g M a te ria ls.1 The resu lts, p resen ted
g rap h ically in F ig . 7, show t h a t th e specim ens
h av in g su p e rio r ten sile stre n g th an d h ard n ess
in v ariab ly had lower resistiv ities. The re sisti­
v ity increased decidedly as th e p o u rin g te m p e ra ­
tu r e was increased above 1,150 deg. C. This
change in re sistiv ity was m ore u n ifo rm fo r th e
rem elted m etal th a n fo r th e v irg in m etal.
 283
D e n s it y .— The d en sity was d eterm in ed on th e
ends of th e broken ten sile te s t specimens by th e
conventional m ethod of displacem ent of w ater.
The re su lts a re given in F ig . 8. N o m arked
diffeiences in d en sity betw een th e v irg in m etal
an d th e rem elted m etal were found. All of th e
san d -cast bars showed a decided decrease in
d en sity as th e p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re was in ­
creased. The den sities of specim ens from th e

F ig . 11.—R unning P roperties of R ed

Brass made from Virgin Metal and
R emelted Metal Cast in Green -Sand
Moulds.

chilled ingots, which were u niform ly h ig h er th a n

those of th e sand-cast bars, were in d ep en d en t of
po u rin g te m p e ra tu re . The d en sity of specimens
o b tain ed by th e im m ersed-orucible m ethod fo r
po u rin g te m p e ra tu re s of 1,205 deg. C. an d above
was in te rm e d ia te betw een th e corresponding
values fo r th e chilled in g o t an d th e sand-cast
bars. The m axim um d en sity was obtained in
practically all cases w ith a p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re
of 1,095 deg. C.
 284

F ig . 12.—Medial L ongitudinal Section oe T est -Bars of Virgin Metal,

Cast at 1,205 deg. C., the Section being P erpendicular to the
P arting P ace of the Sand Mould.
E tc h e d w it h a m m o n ia c a l s o lu tio n o f co p p er-a m m o n iu m c h lo r id e ; r e d u ced o n e -h a lf in
rep ro d u ctio n .

(a ) I n g o t o b ta in e d b y im m ersed -cru cib le m e th o d , (ft) E n d -g a te sa n d -c a st ba r, c a s t-to -s iz e

(c) E n d -g a te s a n d -c a st bar, m a c h in e d -to -s iz e . (d) E in -g a te b a r, J -in . w eb .
(e) E in -g a te bar, jfe-ln. w e b . if) F in -g a te ba r, j - i n . w eb .
 285

F ig . 13.— M e d ia l L o n g it u d in a l S e c t io n o f T e s t -B a k s o f V ir g in M etal,
Cast a t 1,260 deg. C., t h e S e c t i o n b e i n g P e r p e n d i c u l a r to the
P a r t in g F a c e o f t h e S a n d M o u l d .

Etched with ammoniacal solution of copper-ammonium chloride; reduced one-half in

rep ro d u ctio n .

(a) I n g o t o b ta in e d b y im m ersed -cru cib le m e th o d . ( 6 ) E n d -g a te sa n d -c a st b a r, c a st-to -size .

(c) E n d -g a te s a n d -c a st bar, m a c h in e d -to -s iz e . ( d) F in -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, £ -lb . w eb.
( e) F in -g a te s a n d -c a st bar, ^ y in . w eb . ( / ) F in -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, y i n . w eb.
F ig. 14.
 287

S h r in k a g e .— The sh rin k ag e of th e liquid m etal

9) expressed in te rm s of th e changes
in specific volum e was d eterm in ed by th e
im m ersed-crucible m ethod. D a ta on th e sh rin k ­
age of th e solid m etal (C— A, F ig . 9) were ob­
ta in e d by d irec t observations of th e change in
len g th w ith change in te m p e ra tu re of a special
san d -cast re c ta n g u la r b ar. To d eterm in e th e
sh rin k ag e d u rin g solidification (D—C, F ig . 9), it
was necessary to d eterm in e th e solidus, C, and
th e liquidus, D , for th is alloy. By th erm al
analysis, a n av erag e value of 840 deg. C. was
obtain ed fo r th e liq u id u s a n d of 1,000 deg. C.
for th e solidus. The difference betw een th e
specific volum es corresponding to these tw o tem ­
p e ra tu re s is d esig n ated as th e sh rin k ag e of
solidification. No sig n ifican t differences in

F ig . 14.— M iC R O S T K rcT U K E of T e st -B ars of YT r g i x

Metal. ( x 100.)
E tc h in g re a g en t, m ix tu r e o f a m m o n iu m h y d r o x id e and h y d ro g en
p e r o x id e.
(a) I n g o t o b ta in e d b y im m ersed -cru cib le m e th o d a t 1 ,2 0 5 d e g . C.
(a ') I n g o t o b ta in e d b y im m ersed -cru cib le m e th o d a t 1 .2 6 0 d e g . C.
(b) E n d -g a te s a n d -c a st bar, c a s t-to -s iz e , p o u red a t 1,2 0 5 d e g . C.
b
( ') E n d -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, c a s t-to -s iz e , poured t o 1 ,2 6 0 d e g . C.
(c) E n d -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, m a c h in e d -to -s iz e , p o ured a t 1.2 0 5
d e g . C. (c') E n d -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, m a c h in e d -to -s iz e , p o ured a t
1,2 6 0 d eg . C.

sh rin k ag e w ere observed betw een alloys m ade

from v irg in m eta l a n d from rem elted m etal.
T here w as observed, how ever, in th e d e te r­
m in atio n of th e lin e a r sh rin k ag e of th e solid
m etal, a definite expan sio n a t a te m p e ra tu re ju s t
below th e solidus. This is shown in F ig . 9 by th e
po rtio n of th e c u rv e H —B. To determ ine
w hether or n o t th is expansion was th e re s u lt of
“ gassing ” of th e m e ta l from th e charcoal which
form ed a p a r t of th e p ro te c tin g covering used in
th e o rd in a ry procedure, charges w ere m elted in
th e in d u ctio n fu rn a ce , an d in a gas-fired fu r­
nace w ith a pro tectiv e cov erin g of fused sodium
carb o n ate. The sam e phenom enon was observed
in all cases, fo r rem elted m e ta l as well as for
v irg in m etal. These re su lts are given in F ig . 10.
The cause an d significance of th is behaviour a re
still u n c e rta in .
 288

R u n n in g p roperties.—The ru n n in g p ro p e rtie s
were d eterm in ed on both v irg in a n d rem elted
m etal w ith th e re su lts shown in F ig . 11. The
rem elted m etal, c a st in g reen san d , w as m ore
fluid th a n v irg in m e ta l e a st u n d e r th e sam e
condition.
Metallographic stru c tu r e.— I n an en d eav o u r to
ex p lain th e reason fo r th e pronounced influence
of th e po u rin g te m p e ra tu re on th e p hysical p ro ­
p erties of san d -cast b ars a n d specim ens o b tain ed
by th e im m ersed-crucible m ethod, th e m acro­
s tru c tu re of b a rs c a s t a t 1,205 a n d 1,260 deg. C.
was stu d ied . P h o to g ra p h s of e tch e d m ed ial longi­
tu d in a l section p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e p a rtin g line
of th e m ould a re shown in F ig s. 12 a n d 13. The
tendency fo r th e fo rm a tio n of a co lu m n ar c ry sta l­
line s tru c tu re in th e b a rs c a st a t th e h ig h e r te m ­
p e ra tu re s was m uch m ore p ronounced th a n in
th e correspond in g b a rs p o u red a t th e low er te m ­
p e ra tu re s. A com parison of th e se re su lts w ith
those previously given in d ic a te s t h a t a m ark ed
colum nar s tru c tu r e is accom panied by in fe rio r
physical p ro p ertie s.
V ery little difference in s tru c tu re w as fo u n d
in th e tw o ty p es of sa n d -cast b a rs t h a t w ere cast
to size; in both, th e co lu m n ar s tru c tu r e p re ­
dom inated. In th e la rg e r specim ens of th is ty p e ,
m achined to size, th e difference in s tru c tu re
caused by th e p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s w as m ore
pronounced. I n all of th e fin -g ate san d -cast
bars, a m ark ed n o n -u n ifo rm ity of s tru c tu r e
across th e section of th e b a r ex isted . The po r­
tio n of th e b a r form ed in th e “ d ra g ” of th e
m ould h ad a p ronounced co lu m n ar s tru c tu re ,
w hereas th e rem ain d e r, w hich w as u n d o u b ted ly
influenced by th e relativ ely la rg e m ass of m e ta l
in th e a tta c h e d rise r, h a d an eq u iax e d cry sta llin e
stru c tu re . Such a m ark e d n o n -u n ifo rm ity of
s tru c tu re across th e section of a te s t-b a r is n o t
desirable a n d should be avoided.
The observed difference in physical p ro p e rtie s
of b ars obtain ed by th e im m ersed-crucible m ethod
a t 1,205 an d 1,260 deg. C. is believed to be due
largely to th e difference in grain -size.
 289

The effect of p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re ou th e

m ic ro stru c tu re of th e v arious te st-b a rs is shown
in F ig s. 14 an d 15. In each case th e m icro­
g ra p h shows a rep re sen ta tiv e a re a in th e reduced
section of th e b a r ju s t w ith in th e in n e r surface
la y e r of th e colum n ar crystals. W ith in th e in d i­
v id u al g ra in s of all th e san d -cast specimens were
fo u n d m ark in g s consisting of groups of parallel
lines w hich w ere considered to he th e re su lt of
defo rm atio n or s tra in d u rin g cooling. This
s tru c tu r a l fe a tu re was n o t fo u n d in th e b ars ob­
ta in e d by th e im m ersed-crucible m ethod. This
fa c t in d icates t h a t no s tra in s a re set up in th e
la tte r b ars on cooling, such as e x ist in th e sand-
ca st bars when th e g ates and risers a re in a
fixed position w ith in th e san d m ould. These
a p p a re n tly cause p e rm a n en t s tra in in g of th e b ar
by sh rin k ag e d u rin g cooling, while th e m etal is
in a very “ te n d e r ” cond itio n im m ediately a fte r
solidification.

Effects of Small Percentages of Sulphur or Iron

The second phase of th e in v estig atio n was th e
effect of specific am ounts of im p u ritie s on the
physical p ro p erties of th e alloy. I n th is p a r t of
th e stu d y a red u c tio n was m ade in th e num ber
of ty p es of test-b a rs. Those used were th e
im m ersed-crucible b a r, th e en d -g ate b ar, both
“ c a st to size ” an d “ m achined to size,” th e
fin-gate b a r w ith ¿-in. web, an d th e “ no side
chill ” b a r from th e cast ingot. These b ars were
ca st from h eats of rem elted m etal to which had
been added from 0.025 to 0.10 p er cen t, of sul­
p h u r or 0.10 to 0.60 p er cent, of iro n . The
effects of su lp h u r an d iron on th e physical pro­
perties w ere d eterm in ed by com parison w ith
those of rem elted m etal. The values fo r re­
m elted m etal a t p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s of 1,065
a n d 1,230 deg. C. w ere o b tained by av erag in g
th e values previously given fo r 1,040 an d 1,095
deg. C. an d fo r 1,205 and 1,260 deg. C., respec­
tively.
L
F ig. 15.
 291

F ig . 16.—E ffect of P ouring T emperatures

upon the T ensile Strength of R ed Brass
CO NTAINING SU L P H U R .
T h e m in im u m te n s ile s tr e n g th fo r t h is a llo y (A .S .T .M .
D e s ig n a tio n B 3 0-32T ) is in d ic a te d b y th e broken lin e .

F ig . 15.—Microstructure of T est-Bars of Virgin

Metal. ( x 100.)
E tc h in g r e a g en t, m ix tu r e o f a m m o n iu m h y d r o x id e and h y d ro g en
p e r o x id e.
d
( ) F in -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, ¿ -in . w eb , p o ured at 1,2 0 5 d eg . C.
\d') F in -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, ¿ -in . w eb , p o u red at 1,2 6 0 d eg . C.
(e) F in -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, ^ y in . w e b , p o u red at 1,2 0 5 deg . C.
(e') F in -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, Ty i n . w eb , p o ured at 1 ,2 6 0 deg . C.
( / ) F in -g a te sa n d -c a st bar, ¿ -in . w eb , p o u red at 1,2 0 5 d eg . C.
( / ' ) F in -g a te s a n d -c a st bar, ¿ -in . w eb , p o ured at 1 ,2 6 0 d eg . C.

12
 292

32000

24000

16000
E n p -G a t e B a r m a c h n e p -t o - s i z e
in
so
per
lb

16000
40000
S tren g th
T e n s il e

I m m e r s e d - C r u c ib le B ar q r o v ie l t m e t a l

—
i z g
00 01 °/oF*E]
0 2 °/o F « M 0 5 % F e
~Z\ Z7X 0 3 ° /o T t B 06% F»

I600C

16000

F b u R iN O T em pera tu re °C

F ig . 17.-—E ffect of P ouring T emperature

upon the T ensile Strength of R ed
Brass containing I ron.
T h e m in im u m te n s ile str e n g th fo r t h is a llo y (A .S .T .H .
D e s ig n a tio n B 3 0 -3 2 T ) is in d ic a te d b y th e b ro k en lin e .
F ig . 18.—
E ffect of P o u r in g T em perature
upo n B r in e l l H a r d n e s s o f R e d B r a s s '
the
CO NTAININ G S u X P H C B .

T h e m in im u m B rin el] h a r d n e ss fo r t h is a llo y (A .S .T .M .

D e s ig n a tio n B 3 0-3 2 T ) i s in d ic a te d b y t h e b roken lin e .
 294

N um ber
H ar d n ess E nd-G a t e B ar c a s t -t o -s iz e

n REM EU m e ta l
~A 0 I ° / o Fe P I 0 4 % Fc
£2 0 2 ° /o F e R 0 5 % F«r
^ 0 3 % F e |] 0 6 % Fe
B r in e l l

P o u r in g T em per a tu r e °C

F ig . 19.—E ffect of P ouring T emperature

upon the Brinell H ardness of R ed Brass
CONTAINING IRON.
The minimum Brinell hardness for this alloy (A.S.T.M.
D esignation B 3 0 - 3 2 T ) is indicated by th e broken line.
 295

Tensile s t r e n g th — The resu lts in F ig . 16 in d i­

cate a slig h t decrease in tensile s tre n g th as th e
su lp h u r co n te n t was increased. C om parison of
th e values fo r th e fo u r ty p es of b ars w ith re fe r­
ence to “ th e m inim um ten sile s tre n g th expected
fo r th is alloy,” 8 in d ic ate d by th e broken lin e in
F igs. 16 a n d 17, shows t h a t m ost of th e b ars
w hich h ad ten sile stre n g th s m uch below th is

F ig . 20.—E ffect of P ouring T emperature upon

the E lectrical R esistivity of R ed Brass
containing S ulphur .

“ m inim um ” were cast a t 1,205 and 1,260 deg

C. F rom these resu lts i t ap p ears t h a t th e p o u r­
ing te m p e ra tu re h ad m ore influence on th e
tensile s tre n g th th a n had th e su lp h u r co n ten t.
The resu lts in F ig . 17 in d ic a te t h a t th e addi
tio n of iro n te n d e d to increase th e ten siie
s tre n g th , especially of th e san d -cast bars. This
effect m ay be caused by th e iron actin g as a
deoxidiser. H an so n a n d F o rd ,3 in th e ir in v e sti­
g atio n on th e effect of im p u ritie s in copper,
found t h a t in an oxidising atm o sp h ere iro n acts
as a deoxidiser fo r copper. D ews10 h as re p o rte d
th a t th is sam e rea ctio n occurs in bronzes.
Brinell hardness.— The re su lts of th e B rin e ll
h ardness d e te rm in a tio n s a re shown in F ig s. 18
an d 19. I n th e A m erican Society fo r T estin g
M a te ria ls specification fo r th is alloy11 a B rin e ll
h ard n ess n u m b er of 50 to 60 is re q u ire d . In
F igs. 18 an d 19 th e m in im u m v alu e of 50 is
in d icated by a bro k en lin e. I n th e curves show­
in g th e effects of su lp h u r, i t m ay be n o ted t h a t
m any of th e b ars c o n ta in in g su lp h u r a n d poured
a t 1,205 or 1,260 deg. C. h ave h ard n ess num bers
below 50.
T he ad d itio n of iro n ap p ea re d to ra ise th e
B rinell h ardness, a n d th e valu es w ere well above
th e re q u ire d m inim um v alu e of 50, w ith th e
ex ception of some of th e san d -cast b ars p o u re d a t
1,230 deg. C.
Electrical R e s is ti v it y .—The d a ta in F ig s. 20
and 21 show t h a t su lp h u r has little effect on
th e re sistiv ity of th e te st-b a rs po u red a t or
below 1,150 deg. C. H ig h e r re sistiv itie s w ere
obtain ed , how ever, on th e b a rs po u red a t 1,205
and 1,260 deg. C. T his increase in re sistiv ity
is a p p a re n tly caused by th e in crease in th e p o u r­
ing te m p e ra tu re s ra th e r th a n by th e increase in
th e su lp h u r con ten t.
A m arked increase in elec trical re s istiv ity was
found fo r all te st-b a rs c o n ta in in g 0.1 p e r cent,
iron, b u t no sig n ifican t f u r th e r increase was
found fo r iro n co n ten ts u p to 0.6 p e r cen t.
D e n s it y .—The d a ta in F ig s. 22 a n d 23 show
t h a t th e den sity of th is alloy was affected to a
g re a te r e x te n t by th e p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re th a n
by changes in th e c o n te n t of su lp h u r o r iron.
R u n n in g P rop erties.— The d a ta in F ig s. 24
an d 25 show t h a t su lp h u r som ew hat increased
th e ru n n in g q u a lity of th e alloy a t all p o u rin g
te m p e ra tu re s, an d especially a t th e h ig h e r te m ­
p e ratu res. The alloy poured a t th e h ig h e r te m ­
p e ra tu re s (1,150 a n d 1,230 deg. C.) showed
 297

"L nd-G a t e B a r c a s t - t o -s i z e
m jc r o h m - c e n t i m e t e r

_ RE M E L T M E T A L
7 O I ° /o F eH 0 4 % F*
R e s is t iv it y

g 0 2 ° / o F e El 0 5 % Fe
| j 0 3 ° /o F « g 0 6 ° / o Fe
E l e c t r ic a l

P o u r in g T e m p e ra tu re °C
F ig . 21.—E ffect of P ouring T emperature upon
the E lectrical R esistivity of R ed B rass
CONTAINING IRON.
 298

c u . cm i
.. per
g
D e n sity--

F ig . 22.—E ffect of P ouring T emperature

upon the D ensity of R ed Brass containing
Sulphur.
 299

MACHI NED-T0-SI2E
cm.
cu

I/4 --W E B □ REMELT M ETAL

per

0 ° J ° / o Fe R 0 4 % Fe
= 0 2 % Fe R 0 5 % Fe
g

: = i 0 .3 % F e y 0 6 % F «
D e n s it y

Im m e r s e d - C r u c ib l e B ar

1150
P o u r in g T emperature

Fig. 2 3 —E f f e c t o f P ouring T em perature

upon th e D en sity o f Red B rass c o n ta in ­
in g Iro n .
 300

slig h tly increased ru n n in g p ro p ertie s, with, an

in crease in iro n c o n te n t u p to 0.3 p e r c e n t.,
b u t above th is iro n co n te n t th e ru n n in g p ro ­
p erties decreased.
S h r i n k a g e .— The d a ta in F ig s. 26 a n d 27 show
t h a t th e re was an increase in th e specific volum e
w ith increase of su lp h u r c o n te n t a t all p o u rin g
te m p e ra tu re s. The effect of iro n on th e specific
volum e w as n o t so defin ite o r so u n ifo rm as t h a t
of su lp h u r. The sh rin k a g e of th e alloy in th e
solid s ta te w as n o t influenced to an y sig n ifican t
e x te n t by th e a d d itio n s of e ith e r su lp h u r of
iron.

REM EIT METAL

0 0 2 5 ° /o S
0 0 5 0 ° /o S
0 0 7 5 ° /© S
0 1 0 0 ° /o S

n _ I;

F io . 2 4 .— E f f e c t o f P o u r in g T e m p e r a tu r e
u p o n t h e R u n n in g P r o p e r tie s o f R e d B r a s s
CO NTAININ G S U L P H U R .

N e ith e r su lp h u r n o r iro n a p p reciab ly in ­

fluenced e ith e r th e solidus o r th e liquidus te m ­
p e ra tu re of th is alloy. A lth o u g h th e su lp h u r or
iro n produced a slig h t change in th e specific
volum e of th e liq u id an d solid m etal, th e slopes
of th e specific v o lu m e-tem p eratu re curves a re th e
sam e as those re p o rte d fo r v irg in a n d rem elted
m etal. H ence, th e re was no sig n ifican t change
in th e sh rinkag e.
I t is ev id e n t from th ese d a ta t h a t su lp h u r or
iro n in th e am o u n ts used a re n o t necessarily in ­
ju rio u s to th e alloy 85-5-5-5 if th e p o u rin g tem ­
p e ra tu re is k e p t below 1,205 deg. C.
 301

SUMMARY
T he tensile s tre n g th , electrical resistiv ity ,
hardness and density of cast red hrass (Cu, 85;
Sn, 5 ; Z n, 5; P b , 5) were d eterm ined on four
types of te st-b a rs—tw o sand-cast, a chill in g o t
an d a special b a r d ipped from th e m olten m etal.
The p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re was v aried from 1,040
to 1,260 C. D a ta on th e shrin k ag e and ru n n in g
p roperties were also o btained. The m ost im ­
p o rta n t resu lts are as follow: —
(1) The p ro p ertie s of test-b a rs m ade of v irgin
or of rem elted m etal of th e same nom inal com­
position, cast a t th e same te m p e ra tu re , were
alike.

P ig . 25.—E f f e c t
of P o u r in g T em perature
upon th eR u n n in g P r o p e r t ie s of R ed B rass
CONTAINING IR O N .

(2) The pourin g te m p e ra tu re affected th e pro­

p erties of all th e test-b a rs m uch m ore th a n any
o th er facto r. I n gen eral, th e best resu lts for
the sand-cast b ars were obtained w ith a pouring
te m p e ra tu re below 1,205 deg. C.
(3) These effects of p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re on
the physical p ro p ertie s of te st-b a rs were the
sam e fo r alloys c o n tain in g e ith e r su lp h u r (m axi­
m um 0.10 per cen t.) o r iron (m axim um 0.6 per
cen t.).
 (4) The physical p ro p e rtie s of te s t-b a rs poured
a t 1,150 deg. O. o r below w ere n o t ap p reciab ly
affected by th e presence of su lp h u r up to 0.10 per
cent. I n b ars poured a t h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re s
0.10 p e r cent, of su lp h u r adversely affected th e
p ro p erties, p a rtic u la rly of th e sand-caSt bars.
A dditions of iro n up to 0.6 p e r cen t, h a d sim ilar
b u t m uch less pronounced effects.
(5) The d e trim e n ta l effects of high p o u rin g te m ­
p e ra tu re s a n d of im p u ritie s w ere m uch m ore
pronounced in th e san d -cast b a rs th a n in th e
o th er types. The n o n -u n ifo rm g ra in s tru c tu re
of th e sand-cast b a rs an d th e ex isten ce in th e m
of a stra in e d co n d itio n d u rin g cooling a re
probably re late d to th ese effects.

F . 2 6 .— E f f e c t o f T e m p e r a t u r e
ig upon the
Sp e c if ic V o l u m e o f R e d B r a s s c o n t a in in g
Su lph u r.

(6) The flowing p ro p e rtie s increased w ith th e

p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re . The presence of su lp h u r,
up to 0.10 p e r c e n t., im proved th e flowing p ro ­
p erties, while iro n h ad no co n siste n t influence.
S im ilar sta te m e n ts ap p ly to th e sh rin k ag e .
(7) A com parison of th e re su lts fo r ten sile
s tre n g th an d hard n ess w ith th e m inim um re­
q u irem en ts fo r th is alloy in in g o t form se t fo rth
by th e A m erican Society fo r T estin g M a te ria ls
shows (a) t h a t th e e n d -g ate san d -cast b a r is u n ­
su itab le fo r low p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s ; (5) th a t,
w ith th is excep tio n , a ll san d -cast b a rs of v irg in
 303

or rem elted m etal poured a t a te m p e ra tu re n o t

exceeding 1,205 deg. C. easily m eet these m in i­
mum re q u ire m e n ts; and (c) th e presence of sul­
p h u r up to 0.10 p er cen t., o r of iron up to 0.6
p er cen t., is n o t objectionable in sand-cast bars.
T he adverse effect of p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s above
1,205 deg. 0 . was no t so pronounced in th e

F . 27.-— E f f e c t o f T e m p e r a t u r e
ig upon the
Sp e c if ic V o l u m e o f R e d B ra ss c o n t a in in g
Iron.

chdlled-ingot and o th er b ars as in th e sand-cast

bars.
(8) The relativ ely wide v a ria tio n in th e physi­
cal p ro p erties of d ifferen t types of test-b ars
o btained from th e same h e a t of m etal forcibly
em phasises th e need fo r a sta n d a rd m ethod for
o b tain in g th e test-b a rs. I n m any respects th e
sand-cast bars were n o t so su itab le as those
o btain ed by o th e r m ethods.
REFERENCES.
1 T h e a llo y is referred t o in t h is P a p er a s “ R ed B ra ss 8 5 -5 -5 -5 ."
2 S tan d ard S p e c ific a tio n s for C o m p o sitio n B ra ss or O unce M etal
San d C a stin g s (A .S .T .M . D e s ig n a tio n B 6 2 -2 8 ), " A .S .T .M .
S ta n d a r d s,” P a r t I , M e ta ls, p . 67 8 , 1930.
3 R W . P a r so n s, D e e p E tc h in g o f B ra ss A p p lied t o G a tin g
P r o b le m s. " T r a n s . A m . F d y m e n ’s A sso c .," V o l. 39, p. 843, 1931.
4 C. M. Saeger, jr., a n d E. J . A sh . A M ethod for D eterm in in g
th e V olu m e C hanges o ccu rrin g in M eta ls d u rin g C a stin g . R e s.
P a p er N o . 399, “ B u rea u o f Sta n d a rd s Jo u r, o f R e se a r c h ,” \ c l . 8 ,

N<5 C M ^Saeger, jr., and A . I. K r y n its k y , A P ra c tic a l M ethod for

S tu d y in g th e R u n n in g Q u a lity o f a M eta l C ast in F o u n d ry M oulds.
‘ T ran s. A m . F d y m e n ’s A s s o c .,” V o l. 39, p . 513, 1931.
 304
6 M ade b y D r. S. L . T h o m a s, A s s o c ia te P h y s ic is t , B u re a u o f
S tan d ard s.
7 S tan d ard M eth o d o f T e s t fo r " R esistiv ity o f M eta llic M a teria ls
for R e sisto r s (A .S .T .M . D e s ig n a tio n : B 6 3 -2 9 ), “ A m . S o c. T e s t.
M ats. S ta n d a r d s,” P a r t I, M etals, p. 8 6 9 , 1930.
8 A p p e n d ix t o T e n ta tiv e S p e c ific a tio n s fo r C o p p er-B a se A llo y s
in I n g o t F orm for Sa n d C a stin g s (A .S .T .M . D e s ig n a tio n : B 3 0 -
32T ), “ P r o c e ed in g s, A m . So c. T e st. M a ts .,” V o l. 32, P a r t I, p . 67 7 ,
1 932 ; a lso A .S .T .M . T e n ta tiv e S ta n d a r d s, p. 2 3 7 , 19 3 2 .
9 D . H a n so n a n d G. W . Ford, “ I n v e s tig a tio n o f t h e E ffe c ts o f
I m p u r itie s o n C op p er,” P a r t I I . T h e E ffe c t o f Ir o n o n C opper,
“ Jou r. I n s t, o f M etals, V o l. 32, p. 335, 1924.
10 H . C. D e w s, “ T h e M eta llu rg y o f B r o n z e .” S ir I s a a c P itm a n
& S on s, L on d ., 1930.
11 A p p e n d ix to T e n ta tiv e S p e c ific a tio n s fo r C o p p er-B a se A llo y s
in I n g o t Form for S a n d C a stin g s (A .S .T .M . D e s ig n a tio n : B 3 0 -3 2 T ).
“ P r o c e ed in g s, A m . S o c. T e st. M a ts.,” V ol. 32, P a r t I. p . 67 7 , 19 3 2 ,
A lso “ 193 2 B o o k o f A .S .T .M . T e n t a t iv e S ta n d a r d s ,” p . 237

DISCUSSION
Cast Red Brass
Mb . J . E . H ukst (V ice-P resid en t) was in xne
c h air, an d said t h a t before th e discussion opened
he th o u g h t it was v ery necessary to place on
record an ap p re c ia tio n of th e I n s titu te of B ritis h
F ou n d rv m en of th e A m erican F o u n d ry m e n ’s
A ssociation kin d n ess in sen d in g th e E x ch an g e
P a p e r. H e presum ed t h a t M r. D elp o rt w ould
be able to convey t h a t expression of a p p re c ia ­
tio n , an d he suggested t h a t i t should be shown
in th e u su al m an n er. A u n an im o u s expression
of th a n k s to th e A m erican F o u n d ry m e n ’s
A ssociation was th e n c a rrie d by acclam atio n .
T he Chaibman, co n tin u in g , said t h a t th e
second th in g th e y o u g h t to do was to show th e ir
a p p reciatio n of th e v e ry able a b s tra c t t h a t M r.
D elp o rt had p rese n te d of th e P a p e r. H e had
picked o u t, w ith u n e rrin g accu racy , th e sa lie n t
points of th e P a p e r.
Mb . J . S. G. P eimrose said th a t as C onvener
of th e N o n -F erro u s C astin g s Sub-C om m ittee of
th e T echnical C om m ittee of th e I n s titu te he had
m uch pleasure in w elcom ing th e P a p e r from th e ir
A m erican colleagues. I t covered to a v e ry larg e
e x te n t one of th e series of alloys w hich cam e
in th e purview of th e ir p re s e n t in v estig atio n s.
As a C om m ittee th e y w ould v ery carefu lly con­
sid er it an d e n d eav o u r to in c o rp o ra te some o f
its thoroughness in to th e w ork t h a t th e y w ere
a t p resen t doing.
 305

The a u th o r of th e P a p e r had given d etails in

a w ay w hich proved v ery clearly how m any
fa cto rs of v a ria tio n could ta k e place in th e cast­
ing an d te s tin g of th e m ate rials d e a lt w ith.
One p o in t he w as very pleased to notice was t h a t
he h ad elim in ated any possible d o ubt of his
ten sile values by using a p recision-testing
m achine, concerning th e m erits of which th e re
could n o t be any d o ubt a t all.

Graphic Representation
A n o th er p o in t he would like to ra ise was th a t
th e a u th o r had p resented his g rap h s in a slightly
d ifferen t w ay from t h a t associated w ith B ritish
practice. In o rd er fully to realise w h at those
g rap h s m ean t some of th em would have to re ­
p lo t th em on p o in ts and jo in them . In ste a d of
hav in g one g ra p h showing fo u r th in g s th e y would
have to p rep are fo u r g rap h s in o rd e r to ob tain an
idea of how th e p ro p e rtie s v aried w ith th e
d ifferen t conditions.

Casting Stresses
H e was very pleased to see th e m acrophoto­
g rap h s and photom icrographs produced. These
seemed to in d icate t h a t th e A m erican ty p e of te s t
b a r did leave a n in te rn a l stress in th e m iddle,
w ith, of course, correspondingly slig h t reduc­
tio n in th e recorded ten sile due to th is facto r.
A gainst t h a t he would like to m ention t h a t th e
I n s tit u te ’s Sub-C om m ittee had adopted two sizes
of te s t bars, n o t to re p re se n t th e castin g s, b u t
w ith th e object of g e ttin g w h at th e y hoped would
be th e m axim um value o u t of th e alloy so cast.
So f a r th e re su lts o b tain ed from th e various
mem bers of th e C om m ittee had gone to prove
t h a t th e y w ere effective te s t b ars fo r sim ilar
alloys to those d e alt w ith in th e P a p e r, and th a t
in th e case of th e leaded g u n m etals and of th e
leaded phosphor bronzes, much h ig h e r te s ts had
been obtain ed th a n had ever before been recorded
for such m aterials.
A very g re a t nu m b er of specifications had
been b ro u g h t to th e n o tice of th e Sub-C om m ittee,
 306

an d th e g en era l o b ject of th e w ork done h ad

be«n to reduce t h a t n u m b er. The a u th o r of th e
P a p e r had m en tio n ed t h a t ab o u t 40 A m erican
specifications could be c o n c e n tra te d in to th e one
d e a lt w ith. The Sub-C om m ittee, in a w id er field,
bad ta k e n ab o u t 200 B ritish specifications, and
had en d eav ou red to g e t th em w ith in th e space of
five alloys which w ere a t p re se n t being in v e sti­
g ated . I t had been hoped to give some o f th e
findings of th e re su lts a t th e p resen t m eetin g ,
b u t th e ram ificatio n s of th e te s ts w ere so g re a t
t h a t i t was fe lt t h a t th e S ub-C om m ittee would
n o t be ju stified in m ak in g an y p u b lic atio n a t
p resen t. The w ork was still going on.
One p o in t he th o u g h t he m ig h t m en tio n was
t h a t th e y w ere m ak in g a com parison of b a rs
m ade as both d ry -san d ca stin g and g reen -san d
casting. M r. S aeg er b ad confined m ost of his
bars to green san d an d chill cast. T he Sub-
C om m ittee h ad n o t done chilled cast o r im m ersed
crucible w ork, w hich la t t e r seemed to overcom e
th e difficulty t h a t stresses w ere le f t in th e te s t
b a r. an d th ese w ere, of course, r a t h e r d e tr i­
m en tal to g e ttin g u n ifo rm or a c cu ra te re su lts.

The Test Bar Position

M r. F . W . R owe also w ished to jo in in th e
g en eral h e a rty a p p re c ia tio n of th e ex cellent w ork
th a t h ad been described in M r. S a eg e r’s P a p e r,
an d also of th e a ttitu d e o f th e A m erican
F o u n d ry m en ’s A ssociation in le ttin g th em have
such a v e ry excellen t piece of w ork fo r th e con­
sid e ra tio n of th e m em bers of th e C onference,
an d an o p p o rtu n ity to d ig est in d e ta il all th e
m u ltitu d in o u s re su lts M r. S aeg er h a d o b tain ed .
M r. P rim rose had m en tion ed th e w ork which
was being done in th is c o u n try by th e N on-
F e rro u s C asting s Sub-C om m ittee of th e I n s titu te
of B ritish F ou n d ry m en . S p eak in g as a m em ber
of t h a t Sub-C om m ittee he desired to am plify,
an d possibly to cla rify , one o r tw o of th e re ­
m ark s M r. P rim ro se h a d m ade w ith re g a rd to
th e w ork of tjie Sub-C om m ittee. H e did n o t
 307

e n tire ly agree w ith his rem ark s re g a rd in g th e

w ork w hich w as being done w ith respect to th e
d esig n atio n and selection of a m ore suitable size
and form of te s t piece fo r non-ferrous m etals.
P rim a rily , he, th e speaker, considered th a t it
was mot essen tial to select th e size and form
of te s t piece p a rtic u la rly to give th e hig h est
physical p ro p e rtie s of which th e alloy was
capable. H e had n o t un d ersto o d t h a t th a t was
one of th e objects of th e Sub-C om m itteé. The
m ain idea w as to produce a form of te s t piece
w hich w ould give th e m ost u n ifo rm re su lts when
used in a larg e num ber of foundries, an d to
give also a ty p e of te s t piece which was easily
m ade u n d e r stan d ard ised conditions by a n y type
of fou ndry. P ersonally, had he been se ttin g o u t
to design a te s t piece w hich would give th e
m axim um physical p ro p erties of th e alloy u n d e r
specified conditions, he th o u g h t he could have
g o t som ething ra th e r m ore com plicated, and
w hich would give ra th e r b e tte r physical pro­
p erties, b u t one which w ould n o t be ad ap tab le
to p u t o u t to all classes of foundry.
H e was pleased to find t h a t th e P a p e r had
d em o n strated clearly w h at th e mem bers of th e
N o n -F erro u s Sub-C om m ittee of th e In s titu te of
B ritis h F o u n d ry m en h ad fe lt fo r some tim e,
nam ely, t h a t th e fin-gate ty p e of te s t piece which
had been sponsored an d used by th e A m erican
F o u n d ry m en ’s A ssociation was mot one which
was calculated to give a really good re su lt u n d e r
all conditions, an d t h a t i t possessed several
in h e re n t defects which were shown up in th e
P a p e r.
H e th o u g h t also t h a t th e A m erican F o u n d ry ­
m en’s A ssociation would be well advised to
consider if th e specifying of te s t b a rs cast in
g reen sand was n o t likely to lead to n on-uniform
re su lts th ro u g h o u t th e in d u stry . P ersonally, he
considered t h a t if a d ry sand mould was used,
one was m uch m ore likely to secure u n iform
conditions in various fou n d ries th a n if a green
sand m ould were used.
 308

Effect of Sulphur
H e would like also to u t t e r a w ord of w a rn in g
w ith re g a rd to th e re su lts of th e effect of su lp h u r
on th is p a rtic u la r alloy, an d also on brasses and
cast brasses an d bronzes in g en eral. A nyone no t
fully acq u ain ted w ith th e su b je c t in resp ect to
th e effects of su lp h u r w ould be likely, on re a d in g
th e P a p e r; to consider t h a t su lp h u r u p to 0.1 p e r
cent, h a d no app reciab le effect on th is ty p e of
alloy provided th e ca stin g te m p e ra tu re w as k e p t
below 1,260 deg. C. H e su b m itte d t h a t th is was
n o t proved in th e P a p e r. I t h ad been c e rta in ly
proved t h a t by ad d in g stick su lp h u r to a m e lt no
deleterious re su lts w ere o b tain ed , b u t he
suggested t h a t th is m ethod of ad d in g su lp h u r
did n o t b e a r rela tio n sh ip to w h a t a c tu a lly
occurred in a fo u n d ry . A nyone re a d in g th e
P a p e r would be a p t to presum e t h a t su lp h u r was
n o t d etrim e n ta l. T he m ost u su a l fo rm in w hich
su lp h u r was in tro d u ced in to a b ronze was by
co n tam in atio n w ith su lp h u ro u s fuels, in which
case th e su lp h u r u su ally e n te re d th e m e ta l in th e
form of su lp h u r dioxide or su lp h u r trio x id e as a
gas. U n d er such conditions, if th e a u th o r of th e
P a p e r h ad stu d ie d th e effect of th e a d d itio n of
su lp h u r by m eans of su lp h u r dioxide o r su lp h u r
trio x id e , th e re su lts w ould h av e b een very
d ifferen t, an d w ould h ave show n t h a t a
deleterious re s u lt was o b tain ed . A d ding stick
su lp h u r w as h a rd ly likely to o b ta in in an y form
of fo u n d ry p ractice.
H e agreed w ith M r. P rim ro se t h a t th e
p re se n ta tio n of th e re su lts of th e a u th o r’s re ­
search w ork in th e form in th e P a p e r w as one
to w hich th e y w ere unaccustom ed in th is
co u n try . W hile fo r m an y ty p es of resu lts, it
was one t h a t was ad m irab le, he did n o t th in k
t h a t i t was one w hich w as th e b est fo r th is
p a rtic u la r class of w ork, n o r was i t th e b est w ay
of in d ic a tin g th e differences w hich arose. The
p re se n ta tio n of th e resu lts in th e fo rm of curves
would h ave been m ore easily u n d e rsta n d a b le , an d ,
personally, he w ould have to do w h a t M r.
 309
P rim ro se had alread y suggested, nam ely, re-plot
th e figures in th e form of th e m ore usu al graphs.
Casting Temperature
T here was also a n o th e r p o in t he would like to
m ake, t h a t in stu d y in g th e effect of ca stin g te m ­
p e ra tu re w ith th is alloy th e m inim um castin g
te m p e ra tu re used m ig h t have been exten d ed a
little low er down in th e scale, because th e P a p e r
did n o t so f a r give any g re a t in d ic a tio n as to
th e tro u b les which m ig h t arise from sin kin g too
low. The low stre n g th s and low g en eral physical
p ro p e rtie s which arose from a h ig h castin g tem ­
p e ra tu re w ere very well know n, b u t th e re was
also a sim ilar so rt of h a p p en in g a t th e o th e r end
of th e scale w hich w as n o t even h in te d a t in
th e P a p e r.
H e did n o t wish to set him self up as dis­
agreein g w ith th e resu lts w hich h ad been
obtain ed , n o r in any way d e tra c tin g from th e
very g re a t value of th e P a p e r. A fu rth e r
co n tin u an ce of th e w ork w ould be of v ery g re a t
service to th e in d u s try a t larg e.
Is Standardisation Desirable ?
M r. Y. C. P a t j l k n e r (P a st-P re sid e n t) observed
t h a t i t seemed to he assum ed t h a t sta n d a rd isa ­
tio n w as a th in g to be welcomed. C o rrelated
w ith sta n d a rd is a tio n of no n -ferro u s alloys was
th e du al question of p a te n ts and tr a d e m arks.
H e th rew o u t th e suggestion t h a t a foundry
m an ag e r would ta k e a g re a te r personal in te re st
in an alloy h e arin g a tr a d e m ark ra th e r th a n
one which was ju s t called red brass- H e was not
q u ite convinced in his own m ind t h a t th e y were
going on r ig h t lines in tra n s la tin g all alloys
in to common or g a rd e n B .S .I. specifications,
and he would like some of th e speakers who
followed him to to u ch on th a t p o in t.
T he C h a i r m a n (M r. J . E . H u rs t) rem arked
t h a t M r. F a u lk n e r h a d raised q u ite an im por­
t a n t p o in t. H e w ondered if any of th e o th er
speakers, or perh ap s some m em bers of th e Non-
F e rro u s C om m ittee, w ould com m ent on th e
im m ersed crucible m ethod of m ak in g te s t bars?
 310

Too Many Specifications

M e. A. L o g a n said tlia t M r. F a u lk n e r h ad
raised a v ery im p o rta n t p o in t. P e rso n ally , he
h ad m ark ed a passage in th e P a p e r w hich he
th o u g h t was a v ery rem ark ab le p a ra lle l to th e
w ork of th e N o n -F erro u s S ub-C om m ittee. It
was s ta te d in th e in tro d u c tio n t h a t “ As a re s u lt
of a survey m ade, i t was fo u n d t h a t over 600
so-called common alloys w ere in use, a n d , in
a d d itio n , m any special alloys t h a t a re u su ally
classed as h ig h s tre n g th alloys. T e n ta tiv e speci­
fications have been p ro m u lg a ted a n d approved
by th e A m erican Society fo r T estin g M a te ria ls
covering tw e n ty n o n -ferro u s alloys. I t is
believed t h a t these, to a v ery larg e d egree, m ay
be used in place of th e m ore th a n 600 now in
u se .” H e th o u g h t t h a t s ta te m e n t was a n answ er
to M r. F a u lk n e r. I f i t w ere possible to reduce
600 alloys, by m eans of sta n d a rd is a tio n , down to
20 alloys which w ould do e x actly all, a n d pro b ­
ably even m ore th a n , th e 600 w ould, th e n a g re a t
step fo rw ard h a d been ta k e n . T ake th e case of
a n o n -ferro u s fo u n d ry . O rders w ere b ein g
received from day to day fro m a v a rie ty of
custom ers, involving 600 com positions which
som etim es v aried by only a q u a rte r p e r c en t.
B uvers specified w h at th e y w an te d , a n d ex actly
th e p ro p e rtie s req u ired , a n d in siste d u p o n g e ttin g
them . Im ag in e th e chaotic p o sitio n of a fo u n d ry
w ith 600 com positions to deal w ith .
T his aspect of th e w oik of th e N o n -F e rro u s
Sub-C om m ittee h ad been p a rtic u la rly pushed
fo rw ard d u rin g th e p a st tw o y e ars w ith th e
object of sim p lify in g ev ery -d ay fo u n d ry w ork­
ing. T here w ere dozens of d iffe re n t com positions
in common use, an d , being asked fo r ev ery day,
m an y of w hich w ere q u ite u n n ecessary , h alf-a-
dozen alloys w ould do all t h a t th ese m ulti-com ­
positions w ould do. I t was a v e ry im p o rta n t
p o in t in re g a rd to econom ical w o rk in g , and
generally speak in g th e sta n d a rd is a tio n of alloys
w ould sim plify m a tte rs all ro u n d . I t would
give engineers, fo r in stan ce, a d efinite p ic tu re of
w h a t th e y could ex p ect a n d of w h a t th e y w ould
 311

know th e y w ould g e t; w hereas he was ce rta in

t h a t in m any cases people who w ere specifying
c e rta in com positions h ad no idea w h at th e y were
ask in g fo r o r why th e y were asking fo r it.
P ro b ab ly o th e r speakers would in d icate more
com pletely to M r. F a u lk n e r ex actly w h at was
involved in th e sta n d a rd alloys idea, nevertheless
he fe lt very stro n g ly a b o u t it, as it was a problem
t h a t w as being m et every day.

Running Properties
The n e x t p o in t he wished to raise was q u ite
a new one as f a r as he w as concerned. H e had
n o t seen it m entio n ed in connection w ith non-
ferro u s w ork before. H e re fe rre d to th e
M easu rem en t of R u n n in g P ro p e rtie s. I t was
becom ing common ferro u s p ractice to have a
“ ru n n in g ” o r “ flow ” o r “ flu id ity ” te s t.
H e understood t h a t th e a c tu a l te rm was still a
m a tte r of controversy in th e C ast Iro n Com­
m itte e of th e I n s t i t u t e ; b u t he th o u g h t th is was
th e first in d ica tio n he had had of i t being
actu a lly applied in a brass fo u n d ry . “ The
ru n n in g p ro p ertie s of th e alloy w ere stu d ied by
th e m ethod described by S aeg er a n d K ry n itsk y ,
which consists essen tially in castin g in a green-
sand m ould a sm all sp ira l strip of u n ifo rm p a ra ­
bolic cross-section. The len g th of th e sp iral is
ta k e n as an in d ic a tio n of th e rela tiv e flowing
p ro p ertie s of th e m e tal u n d e r th e conditions
u se d .” One rem ark ab le th in g to w hich he
w ished to d ire c t a tte n tio n was shown in F ig . 11—
“ R u n n in g p ro p ertie s of R ed B rass m ade from
V irg in m e ta l an d R em elted M etal ca st in G reen-
San d M oulds.” A p p are n tly th e rem elted red
m etal h ad a g re a te r flu id ity th a n th e o rig in al
v irg in m a te ria l. T here was an ex ception a t 1,205
deg. C. ab o u t which no com m ent was m ade. I t
seemed to be a rem ark ab le exception. The
g en eral ex perience was fo r th e re-m elted m etal
to be h ig h er in flu id ity th a n th e v irg in m etal.
H e w ould like f u r th e r in fo rm a tio n upo n th e
point. I t was a moot p o in t w h eth er th e fluidity
te s t was of any p ra c tic al value in th e foundry.
 312

As a re su lt of th e m an y u n co n tro lled v ariab les,

i t could n o t be th e c rite rio n of p o u rin g te m p e ra ­
tu r e . H e did n o t see an y re a l p ra c tic a l fo u n d ry
significance in a flu id ity te s t, th o u g h possibly it
was of academ ic value.

Casting Temperatures
The sum m ary of th e P a p e r set o u t th e con­
clusions very clearly. One of th e m a in fe a tu re s
m ention ed w ith th e alloy w as com m on to all non-
ferro u s alloys, an d t h a t was th e im p o rtan ce of
th e p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re . T h is w as th e one
fa c to r in n on-ferro u s w ork w hich w as of p a ra ­
m o u n t im p o rtan ce.
One s tra n g e th in g w as t h a t th e p ro p e rtie s of
te s t b a rs m ade of v irg in m etal o r re-m elted m etal
were alike. I t w as n o t s ta te d , how ever, how
m any re-m elts th e m a te ria l had h a d ; p re ­
sum ably only one re-m elt. W ould th e sam e con­
clusions ap ply if th e m a te ria l was re-m elted
10 tim es?
T he q uestion of su lp h u r in connection w ith red
bronze had been d e a lt w ith alre a d v bv M r. Rowe,
a n d he too w ould lik e to q u e ry th e a u th o r’s con­
clusions. As M r. Rowe h ad p o in ted o u t, th is
r a th e r m inim ised th e effect of su lp h u r, a n d one
m ig h t g e t th e im pression t h a t th e su lp h u r w as
of little o r no im p o rtan ce o r p ra c tic a l effect.
T his m ig h t be co rre c t w ith re g a rd to th e p a r­
tic u la r m ethod ad o p ted fo r a d d in g su lp h u r, bu t
i t was r a th e r dubious as to u n iv e rsa l ap p lica­
tio n .
B.S.I. Standards Advocated
D e. J . W . Donaldson said t h a t w ith re g a rd
to sta n d a rd is a tio n of alloys, he could n o t agree
w ith M r. F a u lk n e r, an d lie th o u g h t M r. L ogan
had re fe rre d to th e m a tte r in a v ery sa tisfa c to ry
m an n er. As m e ta llu rg ist to a larg e en g in ee rin g
firm, he w as fre q u e n tly consulted as to th e com­
position of alloys re q u ired fo r v a rio u s specifica­
tions, an d he alw ays advised th e a d o p tio n of th e
B .S .I. Specification w here such a specification
existed . H e w as of th e opin io n t h a t th e r e o u g h t
to be m ore s ta n d a rd specifications fo r alloys b o th
 313

ferro u s a n a non -ferro u s. In te stin g , te s t bars

o u g h t also to be stan d ard ised as well as th e
m ethod of te stin g . M uch of th e w ork which had
been done of recen t years was useless, because
i t was n o t su itab le fo r com parative purposes.
The N oin-Ferrous Sub-C om m ittee w ere con­
sid erin g n o t only sta n d a rd isa tio n of c e rta in
alloys, b u t also s ta n d a rd te s t b ars and sta n d a rd
m ethods of castin g .
In th e P a p e r referen ce had been m ade to th e
influence of su lp h u r on th e alloys tested . He
could n o t agree w ith th e conclusions arriv e d a t.
H e h ad alw ays fo u n d su lp h u r to be d etrim en ta l.
The m a n n e r in w hich th e su lp h u r h ad been added
to th e alloys and th e form in which it occurred
in th e alloys w as n o t th e m a n n e r in which
su lp h u r w as absorbed and re ta in e d in non-ferrous
alloys, w hen p rep ared in th e fo u n d ry u n d er
n orm al conditions.
Standardising Casting Temperatures
M r. A. H opwood wished to rem in d th e pre-
•vious speaker t h a t th e sta n d a rd is a tio n of cast­
ing te m p e ra tu re s fo r aUy ty p e of alloy depended
on th e ty p e of castin g a n d fo u n d ry technique. I t
was, however, a p ra c tic a l proposition to s ta n ­
dard ise for any one job, in clu d in g th e m ethod of
m oulding an d ru n n in g .
D r. D o naldso n said he did n o t wish to
sta n d ard ise castin g te m p e ra tu re s in th e fo undry,
b u t to sta n d a rd ise ca stin g te m p e ra tu re s when
v arious w orkers were m aking co m parative tests
on an alloy or alloys.
Mr . A. H arley (P a st-P re sid e n t) re ferre d to
th e m u ltip licity of alloys. The whole of th e
copper alloys req u ired in th e autom obile in ­
d u stry , as fa r as th e firm w ith which he was
associated was concerned, am ounted to six. T h at
covered all th e req u irem en ts n o t only fo r com­
m ercial vehicles b u t also for o rd in a ry to u rin g
cars. I t was q u ite obvious th ey could n o t afford
to have m any m ore in a fo u n d ry w here th e scrap
had to be carefu lly segregated. M ore th a n six
w ould raise alm ost an impossible problem . W hen
one considered th e hun d red s of p a rts of a car or
 314

a m otor coach t h a t w ere m ade in copper alloys

i t w as evidence t h a t 95 p e r cen t, of th e 600
alloys m entio n ed w ere unnecessary.
D r. D onaldson h a d co rrected a p o in t he w as
going to raise w ith re g a rd to th e s ta n d a rd is a tio n
of p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re s. E v ery jo b seem ed to
req u ire its own te m p e ra tu re , an d it was neces­
sary to find th e m ost su ita b le te m p e ra tu re fo r
th a t job. This co n sid eratio n was, of course,
influenced by th e m ethod of r u n n i n g ; g e ttin g
th e m etal in a t th e p ro p e r te m p e ra tu re w ith o u t
m is-ru n n in g th e c astin g .
A lthough p erh a p s i t w as n o t a lto g e th e r a
m a tte r w hich was re le v a n t to th e P a p e r, y et, as
a brass fo u n d er, he fe lt t h a t m ore a tte n tio n
should be c o n c en trate d on th e m eltin g of th e
m etal. I t was n o t good to o v e r-h e a t th e m etal,
an d th e n po u r a t th e r ig h t te m p e ra tu re . V ery
m uch b e tte r re su lts could be ob tain ed .

Limiting Initiative
Mr . W. Dunkerley, sp eak in g in referen ce to
s ta n d a rd is a tio n , asked w as it to be assum ed t h a t
if th e re w ere six alloys fo r th e whole ra n g e t h a t
all necessary re search w ith re g a rd to alloys had
been com pleted? H e was a chem ist, an d , on
occasion, w as given problem s in th e fo u n d ry
which n ecessita ted a c e rta in am o u n t of local
research w ork bein g done. I t m ig h t be found
necessary to ad d nickel, o r o th e r m e ta l, to an
alloy. I f i t w ere to be assum ed t h a t all t h a t was
necessary was to go to th e six alloys w hich had
been recom m ended by th e v ario u s sp eak ers, it
would m ilita te a g a in s t in d iv id u a l effo rt in any
p a rtic u la r w orks in connection w ith alloys.
M r . P r i m r o s e said t h a t in alloys fo r w hich
the S ub-C om m ittee h ad d ra w n up te n ta tiv e speci­
fications fo r passing in tim e fo r th e B .S .I., th e y
had been very c a re fu l to give, as f a r as possible,
ranges of th e m e ta l added to th e alloys, w hich,
in some eases, w ith th e h ig h e r lead co n te n ts,
included as m uch as 2 p er cen t, of nickel. E v en
th e No. 2 or No. 3 alloy w ould have q u ite a
ran g e in w hich to achieve in d iv id u a l effo rt, a n d
 315

it was hoped to give th e lim it of a m inim um

tensile an d o th e r values t h a t would be a tta in a b le
by o rd in a ry m ethods of castin g . W hile
s ta n d a rd is a tio n was th e keynote it was n o t w h at
m ig h t be term ed a “ ca st iro n ” sta n d a rd isa tio n
t h a t m ust be “ dead on ” to th e ex a ct composi­
tio n . T here wmuld be a ra n g e of v a ria tio n of
two or th re e added m etals.
I t would he noticed th a t th e alloys c ast and
m entioned in th e P a p e r bad all been m ade in
an in d u ctio n electric fu rn ace. This was an ideal
m ethod which elim in a te d a g re a t m any of th e
p ra c tic a l difficulties M r. H arle y had m entioned,
and i t was slightly academ ic, possibly ru lin g o u t
some effects such as t h a t of su lp h u r due to oil-
fired or pit-fired fu rn aces.
M r. A. L ogan, also re fe rrin g to th e question
of sta n d a rd is a tio n , th o u g h t t h a t M r. H a rle y ’s
rem arks touched th e c ru x of th e whole point.
I t had been s ta te d t h a t th e m o to r in d u stry could
do th e whole of th e ir bronze w ork by m eans of
six copper alloys. H e (the sp eak er), as a m e ta l­
lu rg ist, w ould say t h a t th e m arin e en g in ee r­
ing in d u s try could do th e ir w ork also w ith th e
sam e num ber, a t any r a te i t could he done in
th e case of his own w orks w here th e y h ad only
th e ir own in te rn a l c astin g s to consider. N ev er­
theless, w hen d ealin g w ith o utside w ork, th ey
w ere forced to m ake a trem en d o u s nu m b er of
alloys w hich th e y knew w ere of no p ractical
significance or im p o rtan ce a t all, an d p a rtic u ­
larly so w ith re g a rd to locom otive work.
Mr . J . E . O. L ittle, sp eak in g from th e loco­
m otive p o in t of view, sta te d t h a t th e L .N .E .R .
C om pany h ad ju s t issued in stru c tio n s to all th e ir
b rass foundries to use six sta n d a rd alloys.
A p p aren tly s ta n d a rd is a tio n w ould have to be
n a tio n a l, as sta n d a rd is a tio n by individuals
w ould lead to g re a te r chaos th a n before. The
sp ira l te s t for flu id ity was an in te re stin g point.
H e had been try in g to com pare accu rately th e
fu rn aces in fo u r differen t brass fou n d ries be­
longing to his Com pany. These fu rn aces differed
from one an o th er. H e included th e sp ira l te s t,
 316

b u t lie fou nd t h a t if he w en t fro m one fo u n d ry

to a n o th e r w ith th e sam e p a tte r n he could n o t
g e t th e sam e castin g . The m oulders d id n o t
m ake th em th e sam e th ick n ess o r w ith th e sam e
finish.
Interlinking Requirements
M r. C. E . Williams (E x -P re sid e n t) n o ticed
t h a t M r. H a rle y d id n o t say t h a t six alloys w ould
be sufficient fo r all in d u s trie s. W as i t possible
fo r th e I n s titu te of B ritis h F o u n d ry m en to
become a u sefu l lin k fo r jo in in g u p th e loco­
m otive, th e elec trical, th e sh ip b u ild in g , a n d o th e r
in d u stries, a n d if th e y w ere all g o ing on sixes
to see how f a r those sixes m ig h t be in te rlin k e d ?
M r. A. L ogan said t h a t each d iffe re n t in ­
d u stry u su ally used a b ronze o r b ro n zes of th e
g u n m etal ty p e an d th e y m ig h t also use a leaded
bronze. Those tw o ty p es w ere th e ty p es
sta n d a rd ise d , o r a tte m p te d to be sta n d a rd ise d .
T here was a ra n g e of six s tra ig h t g u n m etals
an d a ra n g e of six leaded phosphor b ro n z e s; and
w hen th ese alloys w ere p u t th ro u g h w ould
be applicable to an y in d u s try . T h ere was
no question of an in d u s try re q u irin g six d ifferen t
ty p e s fo r th e ir own in d u s try ; th e six d ifferen t
sta n d a rd s w ould be a v ailab le o r su ita b le fo r any
in d u s try . T here w ould be no o v er-lapping.
Mr . S. G-. H arrison in q u ire d w h e th er, if
s ta n d a rd is a tio n w as n o t to be of th e “ c a st iro n ”
category, he w ould n o t be r ig h t in say in g t h a t
b efore v ery long th e re w ould be a lo t of ra th e r
m ixed scrap a g ain , th u s d e fe a tin g th e obj'ect of
sta n d a rd is a tio n .
M r. J . S. G. P rimrose said t h a t a n a tte m p t
had been m ade to estab lish a sufficient difference
betw een th e v ario u s sta n d a rd alloys so t h a t
v a ria tio n s w ould still rem ain w ith in th e classi­
fication. A No. 3 alloy scrap , w ith in its v a ria ­
tio n s, could still he used as No. 3 allo y ; i t w ould
n o t drop in to N o. 2 o r N o. 1. W hile a ra n g e
was being estab lish ed th e re w ould be a sufficient
d istin ctio n betw een i t a n d a n o th e r ran g e .
M r. V. Delport, sp eak in g on b eh alf of th e
a u th o r of th e P a p e r, said t h a t he w ould h ave very
 317

g re a t pleasure in conveying to th e A m erican

F o u n d ry m en ’s A ssociation th e very k in d expres­
sions of opinion w hich h ad been sta te d w ith
re g a rd to th e P a p e r. P ersonally, he h ad been
p a rtic u la rly d elighted a t th e in te re st shown in it
by th e discussion. P e rh a p s th e P a p e r could n o t
be re fe rre d to as being of a scientific ch a ra cte r,
b u t i t was certa in ly a highly tech n ical one, w hilst
a t th e sam e tim e i t p resented wide p ractical
aspects a n d re su lts in th e sim plification of th e
w ork of th e fo u n d ry , an d especially so when
coupled w ith th e in v estig atio n s of th e B ritish
N o n -F erro u s Sub-O om m ittee.
T he Chairman, in closing th e discussion, said
he could q u ite sym pathise w ith th e a ttitu d e of
m ind of both M r. F a u lk n e r and M r. D unkerley,
h aving reg a rd to w h a t had h appened to
sta n d a rd is a tio n in th e p ast. Specifications had
been stan d ard ised in th e p ast, and as y ears w ent
on v aria tio n s c re p t in , a n d th e re was a ten d en cy
fo r a chaotic s ta te to supervene once m ore.
I t had happ en ed , in c e rta in d irections, w ith
re g a rd to c a st iron.
The a u th o r’s reply to th e discussion on th is
P a p e r is given in A ppendix A a t th e end of th is
volume.
 STUDIES IN CAST BRONZES

By F. W. Rowe, B.Sc. (Associate Member)

D espite th e f a c t t h a t th e c a st bronzes a re
extensively used in all classes of en g in e e rin g
products, th e in fo rm a tio n a n d d a ta av ailab le
concerning th em a re still lack in g in m an y im p o r­
ta n t p a rtic u la rs. R eliab le figures a re rela tiv e ly
scarce concerning th e precise effect of v a ria tio n s
in com position on th e physical p ro p e rtie s a n d th e
effect of m ass u n d e r v ario u s co n d itio n s of castin g .
The follow ing resume a n d d a ta h av e been
selected from w ork by th e a u th o r as rep re se n ­
ta tiv e of th e physical p ro p e rtie s o b ta in in g w ith
c a st bronzes of v ario u s com position a n d u n d e r
v a ry in g castin g te m p e ra tu re a n d v a ry in g m ass.
T hey h ave been selected in a n a tte m p t to give a
clear w orking idea of w h at h a p p en s u n d e r no rm al
fo u n d ry condition s, a n d th e v aria b les h av e been
reduced to th e sim p lest to avoid u n d u e com pli­
cations.
F o r c a stin g purposes fo r e n g in e e rin g use th e
a m o u n t of ti n v aries from a b o u t 5 p e r cen t, to
a m axim um of from 15 to 16 p e r c e n t. The tw o
o th er c o n stitu e n ts u su ally p re se n t in v a ry in g
q u a n titie s, besides copper, a re zinc a n d lead , an d
to a lesser e x te n t nickel. W h ere th e c a st bronze
is needed fo r a n ti-fric tio n a l o r w ear-resistin g
purposes, zinc should be ab sen t, in w hich case
phosphorus is added som etim es p u rely fo r deoxi­
d ising purposes an d som etim es also fo r in creasin g
th e h ard n ess an d th e a n ti-fric tio n a l a n d w ear-
re sistin g p ro p ertie s. I t m ay be p re s e n t in
q u a n titie s v ary in g from 0.3 to 1.4 p e r cen t.
W here th e bronze is re q u ired fo r th ese d u ties,
lead m ay be added in am o u n ts v a ry in g fro m 1 to
15 p er cen t, (or in c e rta in specific in sta n c e s as
h ig h as 20 or 30 p e r c e n t.) to in crease th e plas­
tic ity of th e alloy an d increase its fitness fo r its
wOrk in c e rta in conditions.i I n th is p a rtic u la r
P a p e r i t is proposed to consider only ti n and
phosphorus as alloying elem ents.
 Interpretation of Equilibrium Diagram
W h ilst a full and d etailed know ledge of th e
co p p er-tin equ ilib riu m d iag ram is essen tial for
seiiou s research w ork, th e fa c t th a t none of th e

F ig . 1.—E quilibrium Diagram of the

Sn-C u Series of Allots.

com m ercially-used alloys is in th e sta te which

would be in d icated by th e d iag ram when cast,
ren d ers th is d iag ram of no stra ig h tfo rw a rd use
to foundrvm en.
F o r instance, th e d ia g ra m (F ig . 1) indicates
t h a t all alloys up to 15 p er cent, tin a re plain
solid solutions of tin in copper. T h a t is, consist
en tire ly of single cry stals of homogeneous com­
position, and, as such, these alloys, like m ost
 320
solid solutions, should be co m p arativ ely soft,
m alleable an d d uctile, w hereas i t is know n th a t,
say, th e 15 p er cen t, tin bronze is re lativ e ly h a rd ,
b rittle a n d n o t m alleable, e ith e r h o t o r cold.
T his is due to th e s ta te of th e u n stab le equi­
lib riu m in w hich th e c a st alloys p ersist, d u e to
th e ir com paratively ra p id r a te of cooling a f te r
solidification, in com m ercial fo u n d ry p ra ctice .
In fa c t, th e 15 p er cen t, ti n alloys need several

F ig . 2.—Alpha-Delta E tjtectoid in Cast

Bronzes.

weeks of carefu l a n n e a lin g a t p re d ete rm in e d te m ­

p e ra tu re s to b rin g th e m to a s ta te as in d ic ate d
on th e d iag ram , i.e., a single solid solution.
T hus i t should be fully realise d t h a t th e dia-
g ram does n o t hold fo r bronzes betw een 5 and
15 p er cent, tin in th e c a st sta te . N o r, u n fo r­
tu n a te ly , could an e m p irical d ia g ra m be d raw n
show ing th e m ake-up in th e c a st sta te , as th e
am o u n t of v a ria tio n from tr u e eq u ilib riu m v aries
alm ost e n tire ly w ith th e r a te of cooling a fte r
solidification, which in tu r n depends on th re e
 321

variables—m ould m a te ria l, castin g te m p e ra tu re

an d th e m ass of th e castin g .

AIpha-Delta Eutectoid
P ra c tic a lly all th e cast-bronzes m ade u nder
norm al conditions c o n ta in in g above ab o u t 5.5 per
cent, t i n show th e presence of th e alp h a-d elta
eu tec to id increasin g as th e q u a n tity of tin rises
u n til a t ab o u t 28 p e r cen t, tin th e whole alloy
consists en tirely of th is c o n stitu e n t.
The a lp h a-d elta eu tec to id (a ty p ical p atch of
which is shown in F ig . 2) is h a rd an d b rittle .
Its B rinell hardness (3,000 k g .-10 mm. ball) is
in th e neighbourhood of 400. This is equal in
hardness to a 90-ton steel and is com m ercially

F ig . 3.—Method of Moulding Test-Bars.

unm achinable w ith o rd in ary high-speed steels.

I t s b rittle n e ss is such t h a t a piece sh a tte rs in to
a pow der w ith lig h t ta p s of a ham m er. All
foundrym en a re fa m ilia r w ith th e b rittlen ess of
15 p er cent, phosphor-copper, and th e 28 per
cent, tin alloy possesses b rittlen ess of a sim ilar
b u t lesser order.
T hus it will be ap p rec ia te d t h a t v ary in g q u an ­
titie s (vary ing w ith th e tin c o n te n t of th e alloy,)
of th is com pound m ate ria lly affect th e physical
p ro p ertie s of th e bronzes. W h ilst a c a st bronze
w ith 7 p e r cent, tin m ay have an elongation of
40 to 50 p e r cent., a 14 per cent, tin bronze
ra re ly shows an elongation of m ore th a n 2 per
M
 322

cent, u n d er ten sile s tra in , a n d is o fte n less th a n

th is. S im ilarly, a n im p a c t test-p iece (20 mm.
by 20 mm. notched to s ta n d a rd B .S .I. p ro p o r­
tions) from a c a st bronze of 10 p e r c en t, ti n
requires a blow of 80 to 90 ft.-lb s. to fra c tu re
it, w hilst one fro m a bronze of 15 p er c en t, tin
requires only 17 ft.-lb s.
As reg ard s B rin e ll h ard n ess (1,000-kg. 10-mm.
ball), th e 7 p er cen t, t i n bronze c a st u n d e r speci­
fied conditions has a h ard n ess of 70, w h ilst th e

F ie . 4 .— D e n s it y Curves fro m S e r ie s I
B ars (7 per cent. Sn)„

15 per cent, tin bronze cast u n d e r ex a c tly sim ilar

conditions has a h ard n ess of 110. These im p o r­
t a n t differences a n d th e ir effect on th e service
resu lts are due e n tire ly to th e d iffe re n t a m o u n ts
of th is a lp h a -d e lta eu te c to id p re se n t in th e
bronze. A p a rt from th e differences in d icated
above, due e n tire ly to com position, th e re th e n
come th e larg e differences which m ay be p re se n t
due to castin g conditions and m ass of th e c a st­
ing.
 323

Experimental Data
To avoid confusion, all v a ria tio n s to m elting
conditions, gas and oxide c o n ten t an d d eleteri­
ous im p u ritie s have been elim in ated in th is
P a p e r. Such te s t resu lts as are quoted a re from
in itia lly p u re m etals m elted u n d e r good average
foundry conditions, and th e re s u lta n t bronzes

l2 5 o I2 o o m5 o iio o io S o

C a s t i m s Te m p e r a t u r e “ C e w t i c r b d e .

F ig . 5 .— D e n s it y T ests on S e r ie s I I B a rs
( 1 0 . 5 P E R C ENT. S n ).

co n tain n e ith e r m ore n o r less am ounts th a n

norm ally o b tain of oxide, gas or deleterious im ­
p u ritie s when u sin g v irg in raw m aterials.
The first series given a re a 7 p er cent, tin
bronze co n tain in g no o th e r elem ent beyond a
slig h t am o u n t of phosphorus to ensure deoxida­
tio n . A ctually, a n am o u n t equal to 0.1 p e r cent,
was added an d 0.04 p er cent, was le ft in th e
finished castings. F ro m th e sam e po t of m etal,
six boxes w ere poured. One box co n tain ed a
simple rin g casting , 8 in. d iam eter, w ith 5 |-in .
m2
 324

bore an d 1J in. deep. E ach of th e o th e r boxes

co n tained fo u r b ars resp ectiv ely , 0.80 in.
d iam eter (a re a 0.5 sq. in .), 1.5 in. d ia m e te r
(ap p ro x im a te a re a 1.75 sq. in .), 2.125 in.
d iam eter (ap p ro x im a te a re a 3.5 sq. in .), and
3.3 in . d ia m e te r (ap p ro x im a te a re a 8.5 sq. in .).
All th e b ars w ere 3 in. long a n d placed v e r­
tically in th e box, a n d each w ith a h ead of
3;( in. long, as shown in th e sketch in F ig . 3.

F i g . 6 .— D e n s i t y T e sts on S e r ie s III A llo y '

(15.5 PER CENT. S n ) .

These fo u r boxes of b ars w ere c a st a t 1,250,

1,160, 1,100 and 1,050 deg. C. T hus, th ese gave
th e re la tiv e effect of both ca stin g te m p e ra tu re
an d m ass. The boxes w ere d ry -san d m oulded
an d d ried u n d e r specified conditions.
The resu lts of th e d e n sity te s ts on th is first
lot of b ars are shown in F ig . 4. T he first in ­
te re s tin g fe a tu re of th ese curves is t h a t th e
alloy has followed obvious laws, nam ely, t h a t
r a te of solidification, as influenced b o th by m ass
 325

an d c a stin g te m p e ra tu re , has an appreciable

effect on th e packing of th e g ra in s. The v a ria ­
tio n in d en sity from th e sm allest b a r to th e
la rg e st (0.5 sq. in. an d 1.75 lbs. w t. to 8.5 sq.
in. an d 18 lbs.) is, on th e av erag e in th is series,
of 0.12, or ab o u t 1.5 p er cent. On th e o th e r
hand, v a ria tio n in castin g te m p e ra tu re from
1,245 to 1,100 deg. C. shows an average v a ria ­
tio n of 0.25, or 3 p er cent. The u su al drop in
density as th e castin g te m p e ra tu re approaches
th e freezin g p o in t of th e alloy is noticeable. This
indicates th e p re ca u tio n ary m easures necessary
in fo u n d ry p ractice if th e g re a te st degree of
soundness is to be secured.
I n th e n e x t series of sim ilar bars cast, th e tin
co n ten t was raised to ju s t over 10 p er cen t, (the
actu a l analysis being 10.53 p er cen t.) w ith a
sim ilar sm all q u a n tity of phosphorus added for
deoxidising purposes. S im ilar castin g te m p e ra ­
tu re s w ere em ployed an d th e d ensity resu lts are
shown in F ig . 5. W h ilst n o t so reg u lar (due
probably to slig h t d ep a rtu re s from th e u n ifo rm ity
of conditions) th e sam e tre n d is observed as in
F ig . 4, w ith th e difference t h a t th e ex ten d ed
period of solidification, due to th e h ig h er tin
c o n te n t of th e alloy, has w idened th e possible
v a ria tio n in density due to difference in castin g
te m p e ra tu re . W ith th e ca stin g te m p e ra tu re em­
ployed, th e 7 p er cen t, tin alloy showed a v a ria ­
tio n of 0.25 due to castin g te m p e ra tu re , b u t
in th is series th e v a ria tio n average of 0.40. J u s t
why th is should be is n o t clear, as th e re is very
little difference in th e m axim um calculated
Theoretical densities.
I n th e th ir d com position of alloy used in th is
series, th e tin c o n te n t was raised to 15.45 per
c e n t., th e o th er co n d itio n s being sim ilar.
The density d eterm in atio n s are shown in
F ig . 6. H e re th e sam e larg e difference due to
castin g te m p e ra tu re as was observed in Series I I
(F ig . 5) is ev iden t, b u t th e difference due to
mass is very small. Also due to th e sam e cast­
ing te m p e ra tu re s being employed for a lower
m elting p o in t alloy, th e p o in t w here th e density,
 326

a fte r risin g w ith fallin g c a stin g te m p e ra tu re

begins to fall a g a in , h as n o t been reached.
The fo u rth series (F ig .7) was m ade on an
alloy co n ta in in g 6.37 p e r c en t, of tin an d 1.02
p er cent, of phosphorus. T his showed, as re g ard s

C A S T ir tq T e m p e k o t u r k - C E M T . g n a . T . f ,

F ig . 7 . — D e n s i t y T e s t s o n S e r i e s IV A l l o y
( 6 . 4 P E R C E N T . S n , 1 . 0 PE R C E N T . P ) .

density, th e w ell-m arked c h a ra c te ristic s of th e

heavily-phosphorised bronzes, nam ely, e x tr a ­
o rd in a rily larg e differences due to v a ria tio n in
period of solidification due to c astin g te m p e ra ­
tu r e . I t w ill be seen on c o m p arin g th is series
 32 7

of d ensity curves w ith th e previous ones (and

p a itic u la rly w ith t h a t of a som ew hat sim ila r tin -
c o n te n t alloy b u t w ith o u t phosphorus— S eries I)
th e m ark ed effect of 1 p er cen t, of phosphorus.

F ig . 8 .— D e n s it y T ests on S e r ie s V A lloy
(10.0 PER CENT. Sn, 1.0 PE R C E N T . P ).

W hilst th e average difference in d ensity due to

castin g te m p e ra tu re in th e first series was 0.25,
in th is series i t is 0.6. The low er c astin g tem ­
p e ra tu re employed, w hilst in th e sm aller bars has
 3 2 8

had some effect on th e progressive rise in d en sity

due to fallin g te m p e ra tu re , h as n o t been suffi­
cien tly n e a r th e solidus to cause m ark ed
unsoundness.

F ig . 9 .— D e n s i t y T e sts on S e r ie s VI A llo y
(14.8 PER CENT. S n , 1.0 PER CENT. P ).

T he n e x t series, No. V, w ere m ade on a n alloy

sim ilar to t h a t used in S eries I I b u t w ith 1 p er
cent, of phosphorus. The ti n c o n te n t was 1 0 p er
cent. As th e a d d itio n of 1 p e r cen t, of phos­
phorus m a terially lowers th e solidifying p o in t of
 3 2 9

h p e r 1. i c e n t -, t l n a l l ° y . it was fe lt t h a t th e
re su lts o b tain ed (F ig . 8) w ith th e same casting
te m p e ra tu re s as used fo r th e previous series
w ould give results incom parable w ith those ob­
ta in e d w ith th is class of alloy, and th e m axim um

P e.r C ent P cri- iame-mt S et

F ig . 10.— C u r v e s of C o m p r e ss io n T ests on

P ie c e s cut from T e st -R in g s C a st w it h
B a rs.

an d m inim um castin g te m p e ra tu re s were lowered

by 50 deg. C. I ts g en eral tre n d , however, is
sim ilar to t h a t of F ig . 7, b u t th e points ap p ea r
50 deg. C. f u r th e r on th e scale. The same wide
v a ria tio n in density w ith a c astin g te m p e ra tu re
v a ria tio n of 200 deg. C., as in F ig . 7, is very
noticeable.
 330

D e n s ity .
CO CO GO O QO 0 5
z D CO OQ CO
O 0 0 0 GO 0 0 0 0 0 0

20 mm. x 20m m . 1,000 kg.

B rin e ll
a co a —i t - ^
O O O O t 'O O r -
H '

SO
PQ

n otched .
4p
Im p a c t.

o - h l > c o > o CO
<M 0 0 l Ci f—1
Eln.

Per cent.

CO
tons per
sq. in .

CO 0 0 CO CO CD C
M .S .

C 2 O i I > l > CO
tons per
sq. in .

1 2 .4

1 0 .0
1 3 .2
Y.P.

8 .2

o o o o o o
deg. C.
C astin g

CO »O no lO I"- o
tem p,

r-H P-H © ^

■t
ph orus.

ft,
P h o s­
C om p osition .

i I 1^22

O W I O ^ O O O
T in .

t ' O m CO o Tf
Series.

M H > Ł »-H
 331

The n e x t alloy, Series V I, was sim ilar to th a t

used in Series I I I , b u t w ith 1 per cen t, phos­
phorus. The density re su lts a re shown in P ig . 9.
The tin co n te n t w as 14.75 an d th e sam e ran g e
of castin g te m p e ra tu re s was used as fo r Series V.
T he sam e gen eral ou tlin e is observable as in
the o th e r tw o series of high-phosphorus alloys,
b u t th e very low d en sity of th e 3.5-in. d ia, b a r
c ast a t 1,200 deg. C. is ra th e r inexplicable. I t
serves, how ever, to em phasise th e sen sitiv ity of
th is class of alloy an d th e low d en sity (and
soundness) which m ay follow o th e r th a n th e m ost
rig id s ta n d a rd is a tio n of conditions in th e
foundry.
A long w ith these te st-b a rs o u t of each m ixing
was cast a te s t-rin g 8 in. d ia. w ith 5.25-in. bore
an d 1.25 in. w ide. The w eight of th is castin g
was 11 lbs. an d th e m ould was a norm al dry-
sand m ould ru n in a conventional m an n er. F rom
th is rin g was c u t tensile, im p act, d en sity and
B rinell test-pieces, an d th e resu lts of th ese te sts
are shown in T able I. These a re n o t presented
as m axim a of w hich th e v arious alloys are
capable, b u t form an in te re stin g g u id e when
ta k e n in co n ju n ctio n w ith th e previous g rap h s
of th e resu lts to be expected from th e various
alloys in th is ran g e.
I t should be specially noted t h a t th e im pact
values o btained a re p u rely em p irical, since they
are ta k e n on b a rs 20 mm. square and notched
w ith th e u su al B .S .I. notches. H ig h e r densities
an d possibly im proved physical pro p erties would
probably h ave been ob tain ed h ad lower castin g
te m p e ra tu re s been em ployed fo r th e alloys
Series IV , V or V I.
An in te re stin g illu s tra tio n on th e effect of
phosphorus as a h a rd e n in g a g e n t is shown in
F ig . 10, w here th e re su lts of com pression tests
on pieces c u t from th e six sand-cast te st-rin g s
from which th e tensile figures were o btained.
T he a u th o r’s th a n k s fo r perm ission to presen t
th e results of th is w ork a re due to his directo rs
a t M essrs. D avid B row n & Sons (H uddersfield),
L im ited, an d to his assistan ts, by whom these
d a ta were collected.
 DISCUSSION
A fte r th e a u th o r (M r. F ra n c is W . Rowe) had
in tro d u ced his P a p e r, M r. Y . C. F a u lk n e r
inq u ired w h eth er th e a u th o r of th e P a p e r could
give any referen ce w hich w ould confirm his figure
t h a t th e B rin ell h ard n ess of th e a lp h a -d e lta
euteo to id in cast bronze w as of th e o rd e r of
400. P ersonally , he h a d been u n ab le to con­
firm t h a t figure, an d from in q u irie s m ade in th e
London a re a th e u su a l figures ap p e a re d to be of
a m uch low er o rd er. H a d M r. Rowe m ade any
“ life ” te s ts w hich w ere now erroneously being
called flu id ity te sts, in so m uch as it h ad been
ta c itly a d m itte d by one sp eak er t h a t “ life ” was
th e sam e as flu id ity , in his c o rre la tio n w ith
te m p e ra tu re . T he o b ject of th e sp ira l te s t was
to d iffe re n tia te betw een th e flu id ity a n d “ life .”
“ L ife ” was th e a b ility of th e liq u id m e ta l to fill
a m ould. A p p aren tly , one m em ber p re s e n t found
such a te s t useless. H e w ould lik e to su g g est
t h a t if t h a t m em ber d esired to a sc e rta in th e
best dressing fo r a m ould th e r e could b e no b e tte r
way to do so th a n by m eans of th e sp ira l “ life ”
te s t. H e could th e n asc e rta in w hich of th e m ould
dressings influenced th e p ro p e rty of life o r a b ility
to fill a m ould w ith th e m etal. T h a t was th e k in d
of w ork fo r which fo u n d ry m en w ere looking.

Hardness of Alpha-Delta Bronze

Mr. R ow e s ta te d t h a t th e B rin ell h ard n ess
figures cited w ere e n tire ly his own, w ith re g a rd
to th e h ardness of th e a lp h a -d e lta e u te c to id such
as was p re se n t in m ore o r less am o u n t in all
g un m etals an d bronzes c o n ta in in g above 6 or
7 p er cent, of tin , a n d he d id n o t know an y re f e r­
ence w hich could be m en tio n ed w ith resp e c t to
them , th o u g h he h ad searched in p a st y e a rs fo r
some a c tu a l h ard n ess d e te rm in a tio n s on such
v arious c o n stitu e n ts as ap p e ared in a bronze.
In th e found ries an d lab o ra to rie s of th e firm
w ith w hich h e was associated a considerable
am o u n t of tim e a n d m oney h ad been devoted to
o b tain in g some reasonably a c c u ra te d e te rm in a ­
tio n s of th e h ard n esses of th e v ario u s con­
s titu e n ts in bronzes. Q u ite sufficient w ork h a d
 333

been done, an d figures com puted, to form th e

su b je c t of a sep ara te P a p e r.

An Outstanding Feature
The figures were ra th e r sta rtlin g . I t would be
a p p re c ia te d t h a t i t was th e hardness of th e con­
s titu e n ts in th e bronze w hich form ed th e whole
e x p lan a tio n as to why th e tin-bronzes and th e
g u n m etals were of such g re a t value in th e
e n g in ee rin g in d u stry , an d also why so m any of
th e so-called ch eap er alloys which were p u t
forw ard to replace bronzes w ere m ore or less
bound to fail.
The ty p e of bronze re fe rre d to in th e P a p e r
w ould never be replaced unless m etallographic
fe a tu re s, or fe a tu re s of differen tial hardness, and
sim ilar ty p e of s tru c tu r e could be du p licated .
The v alue of a bronze a n d of a g u n m etal in
in d u s try did n o t depend on its o rd in ary physical
ch aracteristics, such as ten sile stre n g th and
hardness. Those could be q u ite easily d u p licated
by o th e r alloys. The v alu e of a bronze depended
alm ost e n tire ly on th e fa c t t h a t i t h ad th e same
so rt of stru c tu re as a m acadam r o a d ; nam ely,
t h a t th e re w ere p articles of g ran ite -lik e h a rd ­
ness im m ersed in a relativ ely so ft a n d plastic
s tru c tu re , a n d i t could n o t be replaced by
m a te ria l all of th e sam e h ardness.

Utility of the Spiral Test

So f a r he h a d n o t done any work on the
fluidity te s t as reg ard s bronze, b u t he did ap p re­
c iate th e p o in t of M r. F a u lk n e r’s rem ark s th a t
w hen te s tin g th e value of v arious m ould m aterials
“ life ” tests, such as w ere being discussed and
propounded, would be of g re a t value. W ith
re g a rd to th e com parison of various bronzes by
m eans of th e ir “ life ” tests, he was bound to
sym pathise w ith M r. L ogan in th a t, so fa r, o th er
p o in ts h ad proved of m uch g re a te r value and th e
d eterm in atio n of o th er p ro p ertie s was needed
m uch m ore th a n th e so-called fluidity tests.
The C h a i r m a n (M r. J . E . H u rst) th o u g h t it
would have been p referab le if M r. Rowe had
sta te d t h a t th e value of bronze was due to th e
fa c t it had a s tru c tu re m ore like cast iron.
 334

Density Curves and Impact Values

D r. J . W. D o n a l d s o n , in th a n k in g M r. Rowe
for his very in te re s tin g an d p ra c tic a l P a p e r,
said t h a t th e value of th e P a p e r would have
been increased, if a m axim um p o in t h ad been
o btained in th e d en sity curves of th e alloys in
Series I I I to V I by th e low ering of th e c a stin g
te m p e ra tu re .
W ith reg ard to th e im p ac t values given in
T able I, th ese h ad been o b tain ed on a 20-mm.
square b a r. H e w ould be g lad to know how
these values com pared w ith values o b tain ed on
a 10-mm. square b a r o r a 0.45-in. ro u n d b a r.
Such values w ould c e rta in ly be low er, b u t would
be of g re a te r value fo r com parison w ith values
o btain ed fo r steels.

Reasons for the Ranges Chosen

Mr. R ow e said t h a t a n a tte m p t h a d been
m ade to com pare th e physical p ro p e rtie s of th e
alloys w hen cast over th e sam e ra n g e of castin g
te m p e ra tu re . H a d tim e a n d fac ilitie s p e rm itte d ,
th e ra n g e m ig h t have been e x te n d e d fo r th e
lower m eltin g -p o in t alloys, w hereas five castin g
te m p e ra tu re s fo r th e h ig h e r m e ltin g -p o in t alloys
had been used.
R e g a rd in g th e im p a c t te s ts shown in T able I,
i t w as n o t possible a t th e m om ent to give th e
in fo rm atio n w ith resp ect to c o m p arativ e values
obtained on th e sta n d a rd 10-mm. sq u are b ar.
The 20-mm. squ are b a r h a d been ad o p ted m an y
y ears ago, because i t was fo u n d t h a t , in th e
case of th e relativ ely b rittle alloys, th e d ifferen­
tia tio n which w as o b tain ed w ith a s ta n d a rd
10-mm. square b a r w as n o t sufficiently high.
The la rg e r b a r w as also a d o p ted fo r cast iron
in o rd e r to give a g re a te r a m o u n t of d ifferen­
tia tio n am ong th e re la tiv e ly b rittle alloys, such
as th e b rittle bronzes and th e ca st irons.

Divergent Results
Mr. A. H a r l e y also ra ised a p o in t in re g a rd
to Table I. L ooking a t Series 2 an d S eries 5,
i t would be found in th e case of th e tw o alloys
 335

m entioned, th e only difference was th a t one was

1 p e r cent, of phosphorus. The e astin g te m ­
p e ra tu re was a little lower th a n fo r phosphor
bronze, and th e re w ere e x tra o rd in a ry v a riatio n s
in th e resu lts. I n th e case of th e phosphor
bronze, th e yield-point gain ed ab o u t a to n . The
u ltim a te stress lost ab o u t 3 ton s, while th e im­
p a c t value of phosphor bronze w as only 50 p er
cent, of th e o rd in a ry ti n bronze. The B rinell
hardness was p ractically id en tical, an d th e den­
sity of th e phosphor bronze was definitely less
th a n th e o rd in a ry tin bronze. Could M r. Rowe
throw an y lig h t upon why th e difference in com­
position should produce such values?

Influence of Phosphorus
M r. R o w e said t h a t M r. H a rle y h a d raised
th e very re lev an t question of th e difference in
physical p ro p erties shown in Table I between
Series 2 Alloy, which was a s tra ig h t tin bronze
of 10.5 p er cent, tin , an d a sim ilar alloy w ith
th e a d d itio n of 1 p er cent, phosphorus in
Series 5. As a h a rd e n er, tin was p referab le to
phosphorus. An o rd in a ry bronze could be
h ard en ed by e ith e r in creasin g th e tin co n ten t
or increasing th e phosphorus c o n ten t. G enerally
speaking, th e m ain difference betw een two alloys
of relatively sim ilar h ard n ess, o r one which con­
ta in e d no phosphorus an d one which co ntained
a fa irly large pro p o rtio n of phosphorus, was th a t
th e h ig h er phosphorus alloy was m ore b rittle .
T here was no corresponding a d v an ta g e beyond
cheapness in h a rd e n in g w ith phosphorus, while
th e re was a definite loss as reg ard s shock
stre n g th an d liab ility to fra c tu re u n d e r sim ilar
conditions to those o b tain in g in th e im p act test-
b ar.
The resu lts were, of course, n o t stric tly com­
p arable, because th e tin co n te n t in Series 2 was
0.5 p er cent, h ig h er th a n in Series 5, an d th e re
was, of course, th e v a ria tio n in castin g tem ­
p e ra tu re .
H e would n o t lik e to say th a t th is difference
of 80 deg. in castin g te m p e ra tu re was sufficient
to m ake th e two alloys relatively sim ilar. I t
 336

was know n, of course, t h a t w ith a 1 p er cent-

phosphorus th e ca stin g te m p e ra tu re should be
lowered because th e freezin g p o in t was de­
pressed, b u t he w ould n o t say th e tw o series
were stric tly com parable. They in d ic a te d th e
g en eral tre n d which w as o b tain ed as re g a rd s
phosphorus, t h a t th e alloys d id become m ore
b rittle when h a rd e n in g w ith phosphorus th a n
when h a rd e n in g w ith tin .
W ith re g a rd to th e d en sity te sts, 1 p e r cen t,
of phosphorus, even on th e o re tic a l calc u latio n s,
m ade a considerable difference to th e d en sity .
The resu lts as reg a rd s d en sity w ere m ore o r
less com parable w ith h u n d re d s of o th e r sim ilar
classes of alloys, nam ely, t h a t alloys w ith h ig h
phosphorus co n te n t h ad d efinitely a lower
d ensity, even u n d e r th e best co n d itio n s, th a n
th e tin bronzes w ith o u t phosphorus.
M r . H a r r e y in q u ir e d h o w t h e d e n s it y t e s t w a s
c a r r ie d o u t .
M r . R o w e r e p lie d t h a t t h e b o tto m h a l f o f th e
m id d le p o r t io n o f e a c h o f t h e t e s t - b a r s w a s t a k e n
in t o t a l , t h e c ro s s - s e c tio n o f t h e t e s t - b a r s w a s
t a k e n h a lf - w a y f r o m to p t o b o tt o m , a n d a d e t e r ­
m in a t io n m a d e h y t h e u s u a l w e ig h in g i n a i r
a n d w e ig h in g in w a t e r f o r s p e c if ic g r a v i t y .

True Equilibrium Diagram

M r. J . S. G. P r i m r o s e said he could n o t
recognise th e e q u ilib riu m d ia g ra m in F ig . 1.
H e w ould like to ask fo r th e a u th o rity fo r th e
la te st ones. H e knew th e d ia g ra m by S h ep h erd,
given in 1896, an d he knew th e one p roduced in
th e I n s titu te of M etals P a p e r by P ro f. H o y t
in 1913, who definitely b ro u g h t in th e g am m a
and ignored th e b eta. M r. Rowe showed t h a t
the d elta cam e in som ewhere in th e region of
10 p er cent, an d p u t i t as a c tu a lly beyond 15 p er
cent, according to th e d iag ram .
E a rly in th e P a p e r i t w as sta te d t h a t to o b tain
equilibrium w ith 15 per cen t, tin alloys th ey
needed several weeks of carefu l an n ealin g . H e
did n o t th in k any of th e m w ould co n tem p late
th e an n ealin g of phosphor bronzes fo r a few
weeks, an d he believed i t w ould spoil all M r.
Row e’s alloys as b earin g s if h e did so.
 337

They h a d been shown w h at no d o u b t M r. Rowe

would describe as a tr u e eq u ilib riu m d iag ram ,
b u t w h at was w an ted was a w orking d iag ram
which b ro u g h t in th e gam m a ra n g e in cooling
and in which th e d e lta came in much n e are r
10 p e r cent, as in actu a l practice.

Foundry Use of Equilibrium Diagrams

M b . R ow e said th a t th e equilib riu m d iag ram
h ad been compiled by him self from all th e e x ist­
ing d a ta on th e co p p er-tin series. H e h a d en ­
deavoured to embody, as f a r as was possible, a
reasonable com prom ise betw een conflicting views.
H e h ad a t o th e r tim es, and in o th e r places,
given some idea as to how th e norm al foundry
alloys differed from th e eq u ilib riu m d iag ram ,
an d a fa ir in d ic atio n had been given to foundry-
m en as to how m uch alp h a-d elta eu tec to id was
to be expected in sand-castings of v arious com­
positions, an d th e differences which could he ex­
pected in fo u n d ry p ractice as re g a rd s m etallo-
g rap h ic s tru c tu re as co n tra ste d w ith th e tru e
equ ilib riu m d iag ram of alloys in a stable con­
d itio n .
Density of Bronzes
M b. A. L o g a n p o in ted o u t t h a t th e only physi­
cal p ro p erty re su lts rep o rted in th e P a p e r were
densities, which to th e fo u n d ry m an were, of
course, of v ita l im p o rtan ce. The question of th e
m axim um possible den sity of any alloy was of
very p ra c tic a l im p o rtan ce in non-ferrous work,
a n d from t h a t p o in t of view th e P a p e r had
stru c k a new note. I t gave a num ber of alloys
to re fe r to w here th e den sities u n d e r various
conditions w ere very c le a rly 'sta te d . F ig . 3 was
a d iag ram of a m ould co n tain in g fo u r bars, b u t
he assum ed t h a t i t was n o t draw n to scale. The
dim ensions of th e b ars were given, b u t th e space
in betw een th e b ars was obviously too small.
W h a t would have am plified th e P a p e r very
m uch, an d added to its in te re st, would have been
com plete m acro etch in g s of th e b ars as cast,
show ing also th e sink of th e heads. H e assumed
t h a t th e den sity quoted was th e av erag e density
of th e whole b a r. H a d M r. Rowe ascertained
 338

th e densities of th e ou tsid e a n d c en tres of th e

bars, and, if so, were th e figures a v a ila b le 9

Phosphorus and Porosity

The o u ts ta n d in g p o in ts of th e P a p e r led to
two very definite conclusions. By ad d in g phos­
phorus to a bronze th e re was an u n d o u b ted in ­
crease in th e chances of unsoundness an d
porosity. The o th e r im p o rta n t fe a tu re , w hich
was equally obvious, was t h a t th e fa c t of m ass
v a ria tio n was n o t of such im p o rta n c e as c a stin g
te m p e ra tu re . B oth th e P a p e rs re a d t h a t m o rm
in g led to th e sam e conclusion. The sy stem atic
checking of castin g te m p e ra tu re s w as g re a tly
neglected, a n d u n til i t was realise d by non-
ferro u s foundrym en to be necessary th e value
of th e v arious research P a p e rs rea d from tim e
to tim e w ould be larg ely n e u tra lise d .
H e w ould n o t like to be u n d ersto o d to s ta te
th a t th e “ life ” te s t or flu id ity te s t was of no
value a t all, b u t t h a t as a p ra c tic a l c o n tro l te s t
it was of little use in a n o n -ferro u s fo u n d ry .

Average Density Determinations

M r . R o w e replied t h a t m acro-etchings were
p rep ared from th e whole of th e b a rs, b u t t h a t
i t was n o t th o u g h t necessary to go to th e cost
of rep ro d u cin g them .
The d en sity te s ts w ere only ta k e n as a whole
cross-section of th e b a r, a n d , th e re fo re , w ere
average den sity te sts. C om plete B rin e ll h a rd ­
ness d eterm in atio n s w ere ta k e n over th e whole
a rea of th e b ars, b u t ow ing to th e so rt of ideal
way in w hich th ey w ere cast, w ith th e whole of
th e b a r being u tilised as a ru n n e r an d a rise r,
th e re was very little difference betw een th e
cen tre an d th e outsid e in all of th e bars. T h ere­
fore, th e B rin ell figures w ere n o t published,
because w ith th em being m ore o r less even
th ro u g h o u t th ey did n o t add g re a tly to any
knowledge w hich was likely to be im p a rte d by
th e P a p e r.
F o u n d ry difficulties w ere u n d o u b ted ly in creased
when an alloy co n tain ed a larg e am o u n t of
phosphorus, and th e re was a g re a te r p ro b ab ility
 339

of unsound castin g s resu ltin g th erefro m to g e th er

w ith low density.
(Mass Variations
H e accepted M r. L ogan's rem ark s w ith respect
to mass v a ria tio n w ith diffidence, because h e did
n o t consider th e re su lts s ta te d in th e P a p e r, in
so fa r as th e y affected th e question of mass on
th e physical p ro p ertie s, were figures which could
be rig id ly in te rp re te d and quoted. H e th o u g h t
th e re was, of course, less v a ria tio n due to mass
th a n m ig h t have been expected, b u t he did not
th in k th e conditions would o b tain in o rd in ary
fo u n d ry p ractice, due to th e fa c t t h a t th e bars
h ad been cast u n d er m ore or less ideal condi­
tions. T aking, say, a rin g castin g , th e average
cross-section of which was sim ilar to t h a t of th e
o rd in a ry sm all size b a r, and ru n by th e o rd in ary
fo undry m ethods, and a rin g castin g of sim ilar
cross-section as th e la rg est size, th e re would
probably be a g re a te r v a ria tio n due to mass
effect.
The d iag ram m a tic sketch (F ig . 2) did no t
show th e full am o u n t of space betw een th e bars.

Inter-Crystalline Cracks
M r . W . D u n k e r l e y m entioned th e case of a
bronze valve w hich leaked, an d w hich, upon
m icroscopic ex am in atio n , ex h ib ited a consider­
able num ber of in ter-c ry sta llin e cracks which
p e n e tra te d even in to th e eu tecto id p a r t as well.
A peru sal of P rim ro se ’s book on “ G un-m etals ”
led him to assum e t h a t if th e castin g had been
a t a lower te m p e ra tu re th e cracks would have
been elim in ated . W as it possible, by castin g a t
a lower te m p e ra tu re , to g e t a denser m aterial,
an d th e re fo re one less likely to show in te r­
cry stallin e cracks?
M r. R o w e replied th a t te m p e ra tu re , per s e ,
had no effect on d e n s ity ; w h at m a tte re d was th e
ra te of solidification of th e alloy. I f th e ra te
of solidification was m ade sufficiently ra p id as in
th e case of th e chilled b a r shown in th e red
brass P a p e r th e re was very little difference caused
by th e v a ria tio n of castin g tem p e ra tu re .
A ctually, v a ria tio n in castin g te m p e ra tu re in a
 340

sand m ould caused g re a te r a lte ra tio n .

m ore ra p id th e ra te of solidification th e more
dense was th e alloy.
The in te r-c ry sta llin e fissures n oticed by M r.
D unkerley w ere n o t due to h ig h ca stin g tem ­
p e ra tu re , b u t w ere probably due to gas co n ten t
in th e bronze, w hich g en erally revealed itself
m ore m arkedly w ith a low ra te of solidification.
I t was n o t c e rta in t h a t th e tro u b le w ould be
cured by depression of th e ca stin g te m p e ra tu re .
I f th e c astin g w ere m ade in a chilled m ould i t
was d o u b tfu l if th e gas c o n te n t w ould show its
bad effect, b u t th a t, of course, was n o t alw ays
p ra c tic a b le ; and one h a d to rely on g e ttin g
m etal reasonably free from gas c o n te n t (which
was likely to come o u t of solution) in o rd er to
elim in ate any chance of in te r-c ry sta llin e fissures
occurring.
The C h a i r m a n wished to re fe r to th e alp h a-
solid solutio n ra n g e ; p a rtic u la rly w ith referen ce
to th e liquidus a n d solidus curves. T h e re w as a
view g ain in g g ro u n d t h a t th e liq u e fa c tio n of a
solid solution, p rovided it was p erfectly
homogeneous, occurred w hen th e c ritic a l speed
of th e v ib ra tio n of th e atom s in th e space la ttic e
was exceeded. T h erefo re th e view was t h a t th e
solidification p o in t of a series of solutions should
be ju s t a single line an d n o t a ra n g e. I f M r.
Rowe was in te re ste d in th e th e o re tic a l asp e ct of
th e m a tte r, had he come across any ex p erien ce
th a t m ig h t lead him to ex p ect t h a t th e solidus
line was v ariab le, an d , p erh a p s, u n d e r c e n tri­
fugal castin g conditions was m uch m ore closely
approaching th e liq u id u s line th a n h a d been
shown in th e diag ram s.
Vote of Thanks
The C h a i r m a n th e n proposed t h a t a very
h e a rty vote of th a n k s be accorded to th e a u th o rs
of th e P a p e rs fo r th e ir ex trem ely in te re stin g
com m unication, which was c a rrie d unanim ously
by acclam ation.
Vibratory Effect on the Liquidus-Solidus Line
M r . R o w e said t h a t w ith re g a rd to t h e q u e s ­
t i o n o f t h e eq uilib riu m d ia g ra m s h o w n u p o n
 341

page 3 of th e P a p e r, th e a lp h a solid solution

line a t p ractically 16 per cent, was one which
he fe lt was q u ite rig h t, an d w hich h ad been
definitely determ in ed by o th er w orkers. I t had
been g rad u ally pushed up as th e y ears w en t on,
a n d th e fu ll lim it m ig h t n o t have been reached,
b u t h e d id n o t th in k i t was fa r off now. R e­
g a rd in g th e difference betw een th e liquidus and
solidus lines, th e re was a good deal in th e new
th eo ry t h a t u n d e r a critica l speed of v ib ratio n
th e liquidus an d solidus would be m erged in to
one line, b u t so fa r he h ad n o t observed any­
th in g in his experience of c e n trifu g a l casting,
involving a good deal of v ib ra to ry effect, which
led him to su p p o rt th e th eo ry dogm atically. One
of th e proved fe a tu re s of ce n trifu g a l casting was
th a t, due to th e v ib ra to ry effect, th e cry stal size
was k e p t extrem ely small. This was due to no
o th er reason ex cept th e v ib ra to ry effects se t up
d u rin g th e whole period of solidification, b u t th a t
w ould n o t lead him to advance a th eo ry th a t
th e solidus and liq u id u s did sta n d e n tirely in a
s tra ig h t line.
 PAPERS PRESENTED TO THE
BRANCHES

Lancashire and London Branches

COMMERCIAL MOULDING SAND CONTROL FOR
THE MODERN IRONFOUNDER
By F. Hudson (Member)
Com m ercial m oulding sand contro l, p roperly
applied, should be looked u p o n as a sound in ­
vestm ent by every fo u n d er. O b ta in in g th e
highest degree of con trol w ill p robably depend
prin cip ally upon th e co n sid eratio n of tw o
factors—firstly, th e s u ita b ility of th e sand-
han d lin g a n d p re p a ra tio n eq u ip m e n t av ailab le,
and, secondly, upon th e in itia tio n of a su itab le
scheme of san d -testin g m ethods. The q uestion
can n o t be answ ered by an y s ta te m e n t of b ro ad
p rincipals, as i t also involves discovering by
observation an d e x p e rim e n t th e p ro p e rtie s of
sand m ost sa tisfa c to ry fo r th e ty p e of c astin g s
being m ade an d th e m oulding m ethods in use.
The d e te rm in a tio n of p ro p er c h ara c te ristic s,
fu rth e rm o re , is n o t a n easy m a tte r . T h ere a re
so m any variables involved t h a t defin ite con­
clusions can only be d raw n a f te r every fa c to r
has been ta k e n in to acco u n t an d w hen av erag es
are ta k e n over long periods. C onsequently i t is
n o t in ten d ed t h a t th is P a p e r should o u tlin e
g en eralities or th eo ries u p o n th e su b ject, b u t
ra th e r to describe a concrete exam ple of th e
ap p licatio n of sand control in a m odern fo u n d ry .
Accordingly, i t is proposed to divide th e P a p e r
in to two sections, th e first p a r t d ealin g w ith
th e in sta lla tio n of su ita b le p la n t an d control
m ethods, and th e second p a rt d ealin g w ith th e
problems t h a t are likely to arise an d th e final
benefits gained. P e rh a p s in th e first case i t
m ay be as well to s ta te t h a t all follow ing re ­
m arks re fe r to th e m a n u fa c tu re of high-class
en g in eerin g casting s, such as valve bodies fo r
 343

th e control of all classes of fluids, th e ir acces­

sories such as headstocks an d o th er o p eratin g
m echanism s, h y d ra n ts, sluice g ates and pum ps
as specialised in by Messrs. Glenfield & K en ­
nedy, L im ited .

PART I
Plant and Control Methods
P rev io u s to th e in sta lla tio n of sand control
it was custom ary to employ both facing and
backing sands. The facin g fo r green-sand work
was m ade up from a p p ro x im a te ly :—57.1 old
floor sand, 21.4 new rock sand, 14.3 red sand,
an d 7.2 p er cen t, coal d u st. This was m ixed by
h an d a n d th e n p u t th ro u g h a H e rb e rt a e ra tin g
m achine, nicknam ed th e “ Joy W heel,” an d de­
livered to th e m oulder. The m oulder was re­
sponsible fo r th e p re p a ra tio n of backing sand,
which consisted of old green-sand floor sand,
plus th e a d d itio n of rock sand, according to dis­
cretio n and th e ty p e of castin g being m ade.
T his d u ty w as conducted a t th e end of each
d a y ’s cast, a fte r th e m oulds h ad been “ knocked
o u t,” th e sand being tem p ered , m ixed by hand
an d th e n p u t th ro u g h a p o rtab le R oyer a e ra t­
ing m achine.
A ccordingly it will be observed t h a t th e
m oulder, as well as m aking moulds, had to
strip his own castings and p rep are, and be re­
sponsible for, th e bulk of his sand.
C onditions in re g a rd to th e p re p a ra tio n of
dry sand were also fa r from satisfacto ry . S im ilar
to green-sand practice, both facin g and backing
sands w ere used, the) sand being p rep ared in an
old ty p e of pug m ill, a piece of e q u ip m en t most
su itab le for cru sh in g bricks b u t fa r from being
satisfacto ry as a m eans of p re p arin g m oulding
sand. C onsequently co n sisten t supplies of sand
were like ideals in a d ream and re a lity dem anded
recourse to a v ariab le m ix tu re according to th e
views of th e forem an in charge an d th e size of
castings being m ade. R oughly speaking, th e
facin g m ix tu re would be along th e following
lines : — 1 barrow dry-sand floor sand ; J barrow
rock s a n d ; 3 shovels loam, an d 2-t shovels ashes.
 344

H ap p ily , how ever, th e m an ag e m en t h ad been

giv in g co n sid eratio n to th e q u estio n of san d
control for some tim e, a n d i t was decided to go
ahead w ith th e in sta lla tio n of a c en tra lise d sand-
p re p a ra tio n an d d is trib u tin g p la n t w ith th e view
of b rin g in g th e fo u n d ries up to d a te as de­
m anded by p re se n t economic conditions. By
ta k in g th is step i t was fe lt t h a t i t w ould allow
th e green-sand m oulder to produce a g re a te r o u t­
p u t of castings, as all th is tim e could th e n be
u tilised for m oulding purposes in ste a d of p a r t
being occupied for sand p re p a ra tio n . F u r th e r ­
m ore, it was considered t h a t a c e n tra lise d p la n t
would m ost read ily len d itse lf to a scheme of
control w hereby san d could be produced a t lowest
cost h av in g those p ro p ertie s b est su ite d to safe
castin g production. I t was also a p p re c ia te d t h a t
in a scheme of th is n a tu re i t w ould be advisable
to w ork w ith th e m in im u m n u m b er of san d m ix ­
tu re s possible, th e ideal bein g in th e p ro d u ctio n
of a san d t h a t could be used w ith m in o r modifi­
cations, fo r both g reen - a n d d ry -san d purposes.
B roadly speak in g , i t would a p p e a r t h a t in
m odern fo u n d ry practice' g reen -san d m o u ld in g is
becom ing a lost a r t, p a rtic u la rly w here th e
la rg e r sizes of castin g s a re concerned, y e t now
when in d u s try needs th is form of m o ulding m ost,
due to its lower cost, th e re a re few skilled a r t i ­
sans available. F u rth e rm o re , p re se n t-d a y m ass-
production m ethods m ilita te a g a in s t th e revival
of th e highly-skilled m an , a n d if th e in d u s try is
to revive th is b ran ch , i t w ould a p p e a r to be
essen tial to produce a “ foolproof ” san d which
does not req u ire th e in d iv id u a l skill of th e
tra in e d m oulder. I n th e Glenfield fo u n d ries
th ere a re m any castin g s m ade in dry san d which
one would like to see m ade in g reen san d , a n d in
th e ir stu d y lead in g u p to th e p ro d u ctio n of a
s ta n d a rd san d —call i t a g reen -d ry san d if you
like—i t was decided t h a t in o rd er to o b ta in suc­
cess i t would be necessary for th e g reen sand
to have th e p ro p ertie s of d ry sand.
The foregoing re m a rk s give a fa ir id ea of th e
firm ’s aim s an d am b itio n s lead in g up to th e
in sta lla tio n of com m ercial m oulding-sand control.
 345

F ig . 1 .— G en e r a l V iew of S and P lant in s t a l l e d at M essrs. G l e n f ie l d & K ennedy ,

L im it e d .
 346

Sand-Preparation Plant
F ig . I gives a g e n eral view of th e p la n t.
The o p eratio n of th e p la n t, as shown, is for
the re tu rn sand to be delivered e ith e r on to th e
g ra tin g over th e boot of th e knock-out e lev a to r
or d irect by m eans of th e u n d e rg ro u n d conveyor
which tra v e rse s all th e m oulding bays in th e
foundry. The elev ato r delivers th e san d in to a
ro ta ry screening an d b rea k in g d ru m fitte d inside
w ith liftin g blades w hich pick up a n d th e n drop
th e lum ps, th u s b rea k in g th em up. The fines
pass- th ro u g h w ire mesh p lates, an d th e refuse
is collected an d discharged a t th e end of th e
screen.
W hen th e sand falls th ro u g h th e screen i t is
collected on a flat in d ia -ru b b e r an d can v as b e lt
conveyor and th e n passes u n d e r a m ag n etic
s e p a ra to r as shown in F ig . 2. T his se p a ra to r is
ra th e r o u t of th e o rd in a ry , as it consists of a
dual m ag n etic system . The m ag n ets a re a r ­
ran g ed both below an d above th e m ain conveyor
belt, and th e m a te ria l first comes u n d e r th e in ­
fluence of th e m ag n ets below th e b elt. F e rro u s
m a te ria l tra v e llin g on th e b elt is th u s re ta rd e d ,
an d th is red u ctio n in speed enables a second set
of m agnets, placed above th e b elt, to e x e rt th e ir
full a ttra c tiv e force. The iron is e x tra c te d , and
by m eans of a cleaning b elt is deposited to one
side. The sand, which has now been screened
an d freed from sp rig s a n d iro n . p a rtic le s, is
elevated to a flat b elt conveyor ru n n in g over
fo u r sto rag e hoppers.. T his conveyor is fitted
w ith a d ju stab le ploughs fo r d ire c tin g th e sand
in to th e req u ired sto rag e h opper, each h a v in g
a cap acity of ab o u t 10 tons.
A t th e bottom of each sto rag e h o p p er a re fitted
double chop g a te s-o p e ra te d by levers w hich con­
tro l th e supply of san d in to th e m easu rin g
hoppers fixed im m ediately below. These m ea­
su rin g hoppers are also fitted w ith double chop
gates, an d have 10-cwt. b a tc h c a p ac ity d isch arg ­
ing in to 8-ft. m ills. The m ills a re of th e sta -
tio n a ry -p a n ty p e fitted w ith renew able w ear
p lates an d equipped w ith tw o rollers c a rrie d on
rocker arm s to allow of rise and fa ll fo r bulkv
m aterials. The rollers m ay he a d ju ste d to ru n
e ith e r on th e pan botto m or w ith any clearan ce
 347

req u ired according to th e e x te n t of knead ing

actio n necessary fo r th e san d being tre a te d . In
ad d itio n to th e rollers th e re are tw o sets of
beaters, positively driven, as th ey revolve around
th e pan as well as th e usual ploughs. I t will

P lant
S and
the
in
in c o r p o r a t e d
. 1.
ig
F
in
S e p a r a to r
sh o w n
.
F a g n e t ic
2 .— M
ig

be understood t h a t th e positively-driven beaters

have an a g ita tin g action on th e san d an d pro­
vide a m ore inten se m ixing th a n can be ob­
ta in e d from th e ploughs and rollers alone.
W a te r is added th ro u g h sp rin k lers ru n n in g
ro u n d th e inside of th e p a n an d th e q u a n tity
controlled by Glenfield ro ta ry w ater m eters. The
new sand is m easured and ad d ed by b a n d from
sto rag e b u n k ers level w ith an d a d ja c e n t to th e
w orking platform .
The w orking cap acity of th e p la n t is ab o u t
20 to n s p er h o u r, an d i t has been specially de­

signed to w ork in c o n ju n ctio n w ith a co n tin u o u s

m oulding system which will be a fu tu re de­
velopm ent of th e firm. A t presen t, how ever,
th e san d -d istrib u tio n conveyors re q u ired by th e
com pleted scheme a re n o t y e t in stalled , a n d th e
delivery of sand to th e m oulders is conducted
by m eans of tip p in g stillages. The m ix in g tim e
 349

fo r a b atch of sand is aro u n d 3 m in ., an d before

i t leaves th e m ill th e m oisture c o n te n t is
checked by m eans of th e “ Speedy m oisture
te s te r ” and th e figure o b tain ed m arked up on
a special control board for fu tu re reference.
F ig . 3 illu s tra te s th e w orking p latfo rm and th e

F ig . 4 .— S h o w in g M o is x u r e -C o n t r o l B oard
at the E nd op the D ay.

m ethods adopted fo r m o istu re control, and

F ig . 4 shows th e m o istu re control board a t th e
end of th e d ay ’s w ork. I t will be observed th a t
th e m oisture c o n te n t is varied according to th e
purpose fo r which th e sand is used and th e type
of m achine i t is to supply. E v ery b atch of
sand m ixed is n o t te ste d on th e “ Speedy ”
te s te r, as it is considered unnecessary in view
of th e added w a te r being m etered fo r each
batch. T here is no d is in te g ra to r o r a e ra to r
fitted to th e p la n t.
Test Methods Used for Sand Control
A good deal of th o u g h t was devoted to th is
problem , an d a f te r tr ia ls covering th e b est p a r t
of a year w ith all av ailable eq u ip m en t, it was
decided to sta n d a rd ise p rin c ip a lly on those
m ethods recom m ended by th e A m erican
F o u n d ry m en ’s A ssociation as covered in th e
R eport* of th e Sub-C om m ittee on S ands an d
R e fra c to rie s given a t th e la s t C onference. The
m ain p o in ts responsible fo r th e decision being
m ade in th is d irectio n a re as follow r— (1) The
m ethods a re applicable fo r te s tin g sands h av in g
w idely-different p ro p e r tie s ; (2) te s t resu lts are
rap id ly obtain ed a n d re p re se n ta tiv e of p ra c tic a l
conditions, w hilst n o t being affected by m in o r
te s t in a c c u ra c ie s; (3) resu lts a re d irec tly com­
p arable w ith th e bulk of referen ce w ork a v a il­
able ; an d (4) th e e q u ip m en t is sim ple and
ro b u st in o p eratio n an d is capable of being used
by th e av erage p ra c tic a l w orker.
A fte r th e te s tin g e q u ip m en t h ad been selected
th e ro u tin e control te s ts p ro p er w ere p u t in to
th e hands of a lab o ra to ry a ss ista n t a n d w ork
commenced. An exam ple of th e schedule
adopted, say fo r th e co n tro l of g reen sa n d , can
be o u tlin ed as follow s: —
The o p e ra to r on th e san d p la n t ta k e s a sam ple
of th e sand as i t leaves th e m ill an d p u ts it
th ro u g h an -J-in. mesh sieve an d th e n in to a
canvas sam pling bag, an d im m ed iately
despatches i t to th e san d la b o rato ry . H e also
tak es p a rtic u la r care to see t h a t th e m ain sand
b atch has been te s te d fo r m o istu re on th e
“ Speedy ” a p p a ra tu s. As soon as th e sam ple
reaches th e lab o ra to ry , a sm all p o rtio n of i t is
w eighed o u t an d p u t in to a n elec tric oven a t
105 deg. C. to d eterm in e th e tr u e m o istu re con­
t e n t an d to check th e m ill o p e ra to r an d h is m ore
ra p id m ethods. The san d chem ist th e n ram s
u p an y test-pieces req u ired fo r d e te rm in in g th e
d ried s tre n g th of th e san d , p u ts th ese in to th e
oven and, w hen th is is com pleted, d eterm in es
* Proceedings Vol.xxvi, page 61.
 351

th e green com pressive s tre n g th and perm ea­

b ility on th e rem ain d er of th e sam ple. The
a ctu a l m ethods employed and th e a p p a ra tu s re ­
q u ired are fully described elsewhere, so i t is no t
proposed to spend m uch tim e on th is aspect, b u t

F ig . 4 a .— A p p a r a t u s r e q u ir e d f o r G r e e n -
S a n d C o n t r o l , w h ic h in c l u d e s S ie v e ,
“ S p e e d y ” M o is t u r e T e s t e r , B a la n c e
a n d W e i g h t s , A .F .A . R a m m i n g D e v i c e ,
C o m p r e s s io n - t e s t in g M a c h in e and
R ic h a r d s o n ’s P e r m e a b il it y A p p a r a t u s .

th e sequence of th o u g h t certain ly dem ands a

brief ou tlin e in th is direction.
Compressive Strength
E x actly 151 gram m es of green sand are
weighed o u t and in tro d u ced into a sp lit cylin­
drical m etal corebox, which is set in to position
 3 5 2

on th e ram m in g device, as shown in F ig . 4 a .

The sand is th e n ram m ed by energy ob tain ed
from th re e blows of a 14-lb. w eig h t fallin g
th ro u g h a d istan ce of 2 in ., w hen a unifo rm ly -
ram m ed cylindrical test-p iece should be o b tain ed
exactly 2 in. in d ia. by 2 in. h ig h , as in d ic a te d

F ig . 5 .— C o m p r e s s io n
L in k f it t e d to S tan­
dard C em e n t -t e s t in g
M a c h in e fo r o b t a in ­
in g D r ie d Com pres­
s io n S trength of
M o u l d in g S an ds.

by th e gauge m ark s fitted to th e to p of th e

ram m er-fram e castin g .
The ram m ed te st-p iece is now rem oved from
th e corebox an d bro k en on a com pression te s tin g
m achine, as shown in F ig . 4 a , an d th e load
req u ired to effect fra c tu re d ivided by 3.14 gives
th e green com pression stre n g th in lb. p er sq. in.
The sp rin g balance on th e m achine re a d s u p to
 353

50 lb. I f th e d ried compressive stre n g th is de­

sired, a sim ilar test-piece is ram m ed up , dried
in th e stove, an d th e n broken on an o th er form
of te s tin g m achine of g re a te r loading capacity.
In th e a u th o r’s firm th ey have devised a special
com pression link for fittin g to a sta n d a rd
cem en t-testin g m achine fo r service in th is
d irectio n , an d th is is illu stra te d in F ig . 5.
U sing th is a tta c h m e n t, loads up to to n can be
applied.

SPA CE For
AIetrcu« / •S M L

SrEEL

r u s &e r
LUSHER

F ig . 6 .— M o d i f i e d A .F .A . M e rc u r y -S e a l
A tta c h m e n t fo r R i c h a r d s o n ’s P erm ea­
b ility A p p a r a tu s fo r o b ta in in g In d ex
o f D r ie d P e r m e a b ilit y .

Permeability
The same test-piece as used for compression
te s ts is also used fo r p erm eability, b u t instead
of using th e sp lit form of corebox th e sand
sam ple is ram m ed up in a tu b u la r form of box.
T his tu b e is th e n a tta c h e d to R ich ard so n ’s p e r­
m eability a p p a ra tu s, as shown in F ig . 4^, and
2,000 c.c. of a ir is blown th ro u g h th e core by
allow ing th is am o u n t of w ate r to fall from th e
to p ta n k in to th e bottom . The pressure of th e
a ir being blown th ro u g h th e core is indicated
N
 354

on th e m anom eter, a n d th is is recorded, to g e th e r

w ith th e tim e of a ir flow, fo r c a lc u la tin g th e
A .F .A . p erm eab ility n u m b er by th e use of th e
fo rm u la g iv e n in th e p re v io u s ly -m e n tio n e d
R e p o rt of th e I.B .F . Sub-C om m ittee on S an d s
and R efracto ries.

D a il y S and C ontrol T e s t s .

G l e n f ie l o K en n ed y L im it e d . K il m a r n o c k .

D a te S l/lo /3 3 "

T ype of S an d L16HTFoMOXV GkEENoMO

M ix t u r e of Batch
GREEN&ANO FLOOR SANO ‘Ptt'S og% COAL 2MJST
O- IZS% WOOD exXK ACT

"Tim e A.M. T he PM Da y 's

T e s t . /o o H o 10 AO A verace

% M o is t u r e h i 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 63'
*
Gr e e n Co m p r e s s io n
A T A. Lb. Pc* Sol In. (o'S hi 6 8 3? 6 3

G r e e n Co m p r e s s i o n .
B.C . 1. R .A . 1« Per . Sq In
4 o 3 8 3? 3 ? 39
Gr e e n
A .F A
P e r m e a b ility .
Nu m b e r So o 8 So 7i o 7f o so- S
D r ie d Co m p r e s s io n
to t* hot iji 73 6 ise
A FA L b Per Sq In
D r ie d C o m p r e s s io n
Z+S 2 1 -0 26S n o JSt
B.C . 1 R . A Lb. Pe r Sq In
D r ie d T r a n s v e r s e
Lb Pm Sa in B r o k e n Over
4 'C e n t r e s
- - - - -
D r ie d P e r m e a b i l i t y
A F A N um ber - - - - -

R em arks
APPARENT I>aHSiTy OF A.F.A. TESTT»iEd£5 /.+ 7
APPARENT 3>£NSlT/ OF B C l R A T^ ST PtECES = , 4 .?
NO TROUBLE IN FOONORy 2>UE T o SAtiO Q y ^ L ix y

F ig . 7 .— D a il y S and C ontro l T ests.

I f th e p erm eab ility of a d rie d sam ple is re ­

q u ired , we em ploy a modified form of th e A .F .A .
m ercury-seal a tta c h m e n t fo r h olding th e sand
sam ple u n d e r te s t, as shown in F ig . 6. T he size
of th e core is th e same as giv en fo r all th e
previous tests, ex cep t t h a t th e p re c a u tio n is
ta k e n to ra m up a steel rin g in th e b o tto m of
th e core to en su re a sa tisfa c to ry jo in t w ith th e
 355

ru b b er w asher and p re v en t leakage of m ercury,

t is personal p ractice to ta k e a t le ast fo u r
sam ples of sand p er day, an d th e resu lts obtained
are e n tered upon a daily control sheet, as shown
in F ig . 7.
I n com m ercial m oulding-sand control i t is
essential t h a t th e resu lts ob tain ed by te s t should
definitely be rep re se n ta tiv e of p rac tic a l condi­
tions, an d i t is good p ractice to satisfy oneself

I able I. Influence of Methods of Ramming on Physical

Properties of Sands.
Type M ould Haroncss A p p a re n t WEIOHT OF SANO
M ETHOD
PENETROMETER D e n sity o p Z*Z" OBTAINED IN
OF OF READING IN CMS SECTION TRCPANHEC TREPANNING
SAN D. R a m m in g .
W eiG H T
r
USING 200(3Cm 80M MOULD T O O L.

1 -5 0 1 5 5 GRMS
G B EC N SAN D HAND
2-5 1 *4 8 I5 Z GEMS.

H EEM AN 2 6 1 -57
G M EN SAN D 14-1 G EM S .
J0 LT E 2 . 3 -5 1*3 7

ossoeNE 4 - 1 , 4 -5 , 1 -5 4 I3 Ô 6 2 .M S .
GEEENS A N D
JQ L T E E . 4 -1 , 3 -5 J '3 5 1 3 7 G CM S.

3 *1 J-4 6 1 5 0 G EM S.
G B E E N SAND SQUEEZE
3 -5 1 -45 1 4 9 G EM S .

2 •2
D 2 Y SAN D HAND 1 *6 3 I6ÔGEMS.
2-1
1 *4 -, 2*1,
D£Y SAND J olt 1-6 4 1 6 9 G EM S
2 -0

VOLUME OP* Z'o iA M < 2 "£ r*T R A C T IO N T U B E IS 102» CCS.

T fe S T CORE TBEPAN N ED FROM ô * V A L V e BOOy MOULD JOINTED 150 TIMES
CAVS A G R E E N C O M PR ESS IO N STRENGTH O F 5 - 5 lbs PER- SO.INCH A. FrA .
B O U T iN S C O N T e O L T E S T C O KS M A D E FROM T H E S A M E SAND AS THE
MOULD. GAVE A GREEN C O M P R E S S IO N S T R E N G T H O F 5 * 4 - lbs PEC.

th a t th is is so, a t req u ired in terv als. The

m ethod em ployed to effect th is is by a com parison
of th e a p p a re n t d ensity of m oulds ram m ed up in
th e fo u n d ry w ith the a p p a re n t d ensity of th e
daily te s t sam ples. Table I illu stra te s th e way
of doing th is. V arious moulds a re ram m ed up
by d ifferen t m ethods and th en sand sections are
tre p a n n e d by m eans of a steel c u tte r of exactly
th e sam e size as th e control test-piece. This
sand section is th e n w eighed and i t m u st agree
n2
 356
w ith th e w eight of san d used for ram m in g up th e
test-piece. I n some cases it is even possible to
actu ally te s t th e e x tra c te d sam ples for com­
pression.
In ram m ing up th e test-pieces fo r green-sand
w ork, th e s ta n d a rd ram m in g conditions g ive
a p p a re n t density of 1.47 u sin g 151 grm s. of sand,
an d it will be observed t h a t th is agrees q u ite well
w ith th e average ram m in g co n d itio n s o b tain ed in
p ractice on h a n d and squeeze-ram m ed jobs. I t
is p referab le to base th e av erag e on th is class of
ram m ing r a th e r th a n on jo lte d w ork, as th is
la tte r m ethod gives a v ariab le a p p a re n t d en sity
according to th e re la tio n of th e sam ple w ith th e
p a tte rn face. F o r jo lt-ra m m e d jobs i t is con­
v en ien t to use a p e n e tro m e te r as devised by
B uchanan fo r o b ta in in g an in d ic a tio n of th e
co m p arativ e d en sities as o b ta in e d in p ractice
w ith those from te s t m ethods. I n th is Table,
one will also observe th e co m p arativ e resu lts
o b tain ed by tre p a n n in g com pression test-pieces
from m oulds, a g a in s t th e m ethods of ram m in g
em ployed in th e ro u tin e co ntro l te sts. I t can be
definitely assum ed from th ese re su lts t h a t th e
recom m ended A .F .A . ro u tin e co ntro l te s t
m ethods a re com parable w ith p ra c tic e .
T here a re o th e r h e lp fu l te s ts likely to be of
value fo r contro l purposes, b u t th ese h av e been
m ore fully described elsew here, an d fo r those
in te re ste d referen ce should be m ade to av ailable
lite r a tu re . In th is p re se n t P a p e r p robably th e
only o th er te s t likely to receive referen ce w ill be
th e question of gas evolved on h e a tin g , an d th is
has been fully covered in previous P a p e rs by
the au th o r.
PART n
Benefits to be Gained by Moulding Sand Control
A fte r th e in sta lla tio n of su itab le p la n t and
m ethods, one is co n fro n ted by m an y problem s,
an d th e first aim , no dou b t, w ill be in th e d irec­
tion of producin g a su itab le san d fo r safe c astin g
production a t low est cost. O bviously, th e b est
w ay to u n d e rta k e th is problem is first of all to
ob tain some reliable id ea of those p ro p e rtie s re ­
q uired in a m oulding san d to produce good c a s t­
ings, an d when these have been o b ta in e d and
sta n d a rd ise d , ex p erim en ts in cost red u ctio n can
go ahead. In th e p a rtic u la r case of th e au th o r,
he first re fe rre d to all published lite ra tu re a v ail­
able an d a b stra c te d all sa n d -te st values given,
le la tiv e to th e m a n u fa c tu re of g en eral en g in eer­
ing castings. Secondly, th e ex istin g sand mix-
tu re s which h ad heen in service for several years
previously, an d know n to give fa irly efficient
results, w ere tho roughly te ste d and th e ir physical
ch aracteristics d eterm in ed . T hirdly, th e sand
p ractice of o th e r foundries who were o p e ra tin g
w ith sim ilar con tro l m ethods an d producing effi­
cient results, was sou g h t an d com pared w ith th e
results already o b tain ed by th e two previous
lines of in v estig atio n .

Some of th e resu lts ob tain ed by these m ethods

are illu s tra te d in Tables I I an d I I I . N ote
should be ta k e n th a t in th e green-sand values
given by D ie te rt in Table I I a d istin ct difference
is m ade according as to how th e sand is ram m ed.
F o r exam ple, if a san d slin g er be used for ra m ­
m ing up th e m oulds, th e sand will req u ire to
have less m oistu re and a lower green compression
stre n g th th a n if a jo ltin g m achine is employed.
This is e n tire ly due to th e difference in ram ­
m ing velocities im p a rte d by th e two types of
m achines. P erso n al experience en tire ly confirms
the need of th is d istin ctio n , an d , if it is not
recognised, trou b le will resu lt. P a rtic u la r note
should also be m ade of th e av erag e te s t lim its
a t th e bottom of th e Table, especially t h a t re fe r­
rin g to th e d ried com pression stre n g th required
of 40.0 to 60.8 lbs. p e r sq. in. fo r com parison
w ith th e san d values given in Table I I I obtained
from dry-sand p ractice. I t will be observed th a t
th e lim its of dried com pression stre n g th obtained
on th e green sand fall w ith in th e lim its obtained
from dry sand.
Obviously, if one could increase th e dried
s tre n g th of green sand by a c e rta in m argin
th e re would be no need for using a sep arate
sand m ix tu re fo r dry-sand work, and i t should be
possible to develop a single sand m ix tu re for both
 358

duties. A fte r all, why should g reen san d be any

w eaker in th e d ried con d itio n th a n a dry-sand
m ix tu re ? The only difference affecting th is ques­
tio n is in re g a rd to th e coal-d u st a d d itio n s and
in m ethods of m ix in g , a n d a fte r due co n sid era­
tio n i t was decided t h a t th is p o in t c o n stitu te d
a valuable line of th o u g h t fo r fu tu r e research
work.
I t w ill, no dou b t, be agreed t h a t Tables I I and
I I I give some d efinite idea of those p ro p e rtie s

T able II.—Green-Sand Values known to give Good

Results.
A M E R IC A N ------------------------- --------------------------------- ------- -------- ---------------
Compiles Sion S-re^NGTM Q*i •/-
K in d o f Ty pe Itn per t . 1 ■ - J<U»5 Losfl
% rk AumoE-HY-
OF Q a eE N . Dr y
C a s t in g . “ OI5TUB «nnc*
RAMMING A.FA LCI£A a_f a U Z A seo>') x>r» *

PLY WHEELS JO LT 4 -6 4 0 -0 - 90 -0 - - D IE T Ł 2 T
-
%
SAND 6< y 40O IOOO d ie t b z t
PLY WHEELS SUNG 0 2 4 -1 - - - -
4o
Q -< y
P IP E S Jolt 4 -0 - 460 - • X - - DIETO T.
•-9-0
75/
Ca £ Wh e e l s Jo lt 'ÔS 4 - 7 40 -O - 130-0 - - D IE T E 2T .

c Y l in d e e . 60 0 D IE T E Z T
J o lt 5 0 - 44 0 - - -
BLOCKS X
san d
c y l in d e r
4 0 42 0 - 00-0 - - DlET.flLT
Blo c ks SLINGE8. X -

B B lT lS H (a p p a re n t d e n s ity o f s e m s H s a m p le s a l l h5 5)

Ra i l w a y
HAND 6 -5 5-1 -2 9 5 2 -7 19-4 3 0 -2 6 5 3 6 1 BPN HI2D.
CHAIRS.
HYDRAULIC HAND *■
V ALV ES MACHINES
FACING SAND 7 -0 A 6 3 -0 60-6 21-0 4 9 1 7 0 0 7 - 2 P Hudson
BACKING SAND 7 -0 5 0 3 - 5 4 6 - 7 15-5 4 3 - 4 6 6 3 7-1 P Hudson

AVE2AGE FR O M 5 5 4 0 2 9 4 0 - 0 15 5 So -2
L IM IT S TO 9 0 5 -1 3 - 5 6 0 Ô 21 0 3 0 0 0|

* D R IE D AND H E A T E D TO 12-OO‘ C F O E . Í.H O U B ..

req u ired of th e san d to produce good castin g s

an d p e rm it san d .tests to become a d efinite m eans
of control. I t w ill be a p p rec ia te d t h a t a ll th is
was n o t done in a few days. In fa c t, to be p er­
fectly candid, before th e L ab o ra to ry h ad decided
on w h at te s t m ethods to ad o p t, a n d th e neces­
sary te s t lim its req u ire d for control, th e best
p a r t of tw elve m o n th s h ad elapsed. I n th e
m eantim e, thei new san d p la n t h ad been o p e ra t­
ing stead ily on green san d , u sin g a tem p o ra ry
sta n d a rd m ix tu re consisting of a p p ro x im a te ly :_
 359

94 green-sand floor sa n d ; 3 rock sa n d ; red

sand, an d p er cen t, coal dust.
T he cost of new sand ad d itio n s and coal d u st
in th is m ix tu re worked o u t a t ab o u t Is. 6d. per
to n , a n d a t th e tim e th is was th o u g h t to
be q u ite economical. U n fo rtu n a te ly one is a p t
to fo rg et th e cap acity of th e p la n t, a n d even
w hilst ru n n in g a t reduced cap acity of aro u nd
80 tons p e r day i t was soon found o u t t h a t so
f a r as th e red u ctio n of new sand costs w ere con­
cerned i t w as fallacious. In fa ct, a fte r some
. m onths’ ru n n in g i t w as found t h a t th e cost of

T able III. — Dry-Sand Values known to give Good

Results.
BRITISH G EN ER AL ENG IN EERING CASTINGS UP TO IQ TONS
CoMPuessic n SraCnOth Pea«-
K IN D % lbs fc* %
G & eEN oev A JT H O e .lT v

C A S T IN G A F A |BCi2A A FA BClZA [oejEp) »es»*»

Med iu m We ig h t ( TH E APPARENT o e w S iry O F T E S T S IS 1-65)

FA C IN G SAND 9-3 ©■3 6 -4 125-1 112-0 79-0 56-6 4 9 F H U D SO N

BAC KING SAND 9 0 6-1 4 - 5 66-1 34-0 66 3 55-7 4 5 R H UD SO N

h eavy W e ig h t

f a c in g sa n d 9 0 9 0 £6 114-5 T b - 0 61-5 53-9 4 - 4 F H U D SO N

Ba c k i n g S a n d 10-2 5 -3 2 5 40-1 12-5 67-5 56-3 4 2 F H U D SO N

AVEN G E 80
F . M 9 O 5 3 £5 40-1 12 5 61 5

Lim IT S t 0 10-2 9 O 6 - 4 125-1 1120 79 o

• DRIED AND HEATED To \1 0 0 'C FOR ¿HOUR

th e sand ad d itio n s w as going to be well above

th a t used in th e old system of w orking when
facin g sand was em ployed, backed up w ith th e
floor san d p rep a re d by th e m oulders. F o r­
tu n a te ly th e sand-control te sts h ad now s ta rte d ,
a n d very soon we found o u t t h a t th e “ economi­
cal m ix tu re ” was m ost un-econom ical, and th e
position a t th is tim e is clearly exemplified in
Table IV . I t will be observed t h a t when ro u tin e
daily control te s ts commenced i t was found th a t
th e green sand in service was alto g e th e r too rich,
an d it was decided to reduce bond. Obviously
th e m ost econom ical way of doing th is was to
 3 6 0

ru n th e p la n t w ith o u t any a d d itio n s w hatsoever,

and th is course w as accordingly ad o p ted . -
th e en d of one m onth th e san d w as still in sa tis­
facto ry co n d itio n a f te r h a n d lin g betw een 400 to
500 to n s of lig h t to m edium -w eight castin g s. A t
th e end of two m onths a b o u t 1,000 to n s of c a s t­
ings h a d been m ade, an d in th e lig h t of p re se n t
know ledge th e san d d id n o t really need any
ad d itio n s so f a r as its value fo r safe castin g
pro d u ctio n w as concerned ; how ever, a t t h a t tim e
th e atm osphere in th e fo u n d ry w as h ighly charged
w ith ten sio n an d liab le to explode fig u rativ ely
a t an y m om ent, a n d i t w as decided t h a t some
ad d itio n h ad b e tte r be m ade to th e san d to
p rev en t th e risk of a su d d en in crease in de­
fective castings.
The only p ro p e rty of th e san d w hich needed
a d ju s tm e n t, according to th e ro u tin e te sts, was
th e d ried stre n g th , w hich recorded a te s t figure
a t th e en d of th is tw o -m o n th p erio d of 28.4 lbs.
per sq. in. com pression, u sin g th e B .C .I.R .A .
form of test-p iece ram m ed by B u c h a n a n ’s
double-com pression m ethod. T his h ad to be in ­
creased w ith o u t in c rea sin g th e green-bond
s tre n g th , a n d th u s th e first problem w as b o rn ,
an d overcome by th e use of a sm all a d d itio n of
liquid wood e x tra c t. I t is obvious t h a t a d d i­
tio n s of new san d , o r of clay, w ould h a v e in ­
creased th e green-bond stre n g th as well as th e
d ried s tre n g th , a n d th is w as u n d esira b le , as
some slig h t tro u b le h a d alre ad y been experienced
due to th e san d lack in g t h a t p ro p e rty of “ flow-
a b ility ” so esse n tia l fo r ra p id p ro d u c tio n on
jo ltin g m achines, an d w hich c o n stitu te d th e
m ain percen tag e of m ould o u tp u t. M uch m ore
could be said ab o u t o u r tr ia ls an d trib u la tio n s
in these e a rlie r stag es of san d contro l, b u t in
view of o th e r co n sid eratio ns th e subsequent d e­
velopm ents can probably be m ore re a d ily seen
by a survey of T able IV .
To sum m arise th e q uestio n of th e necessary
ad d itio n s req u ire d to keep g reen san d in safe
w orking ord er, one m u st first h ave absolute fa ith
in th e resu lts shown by th e co n tro l eq u ip m en t,
and th e re q u ired a d d itio n s can th e n p robably be
 ,‘361

d ivided in to th re e groups, as fo llo w :— (1) To

increase th e green-bond stre n g th , add clay e ith e r
in th e form of one of th e colloidal clays on th e
m a rk e t such as B en to n ite, or alte rn a tiv e ly in th e
form of finely-ground fireclay or new m oulding
s a n d ; (2) to increase th e d ried stre n g th use
wood e x tr a c t; and (3) a d ju s t coal d u st to s u it
th e sand according to th e percen tag e of gas
evolved.

Table IV.— Illustrating Methods of making Green Sand

Additions Based on the Results obtained from Daily
Control Tests.
<3*CSn COCPifSSKJ" a.*
it*» p v a ' ib T ^cr
IflNlT-OH &EMABKS
A Fa lCl.RA A FA N* B a e A
vfopt i C o n tro l s ta r re o,
6 55 8 -7 5 -5 5 5 -6 5 0 -0 960 9-3- SAND TOO STRONG. SO
PLANT ALLOWED To RUN
UNTIL. TE5T« SHOWED
NEED OP ADDITION».

ozieo s n e n o T »
6 0 7 -3 5 0 7 Z -2 6 8 6 7 8 BEGINNING TOOtreSboSATl
ADDITION OF y * %
wood e *T a A .c T made.

7/»/M DttJEO STRENGTH

5 -6 2 6 -5 4 -4 7 6 -4 350 64 3 6 -7 2 regained so ~ ood
Extract addition
oh it ted. Gas evolve o
SHOWS NEED OP EXTRA
COAL DUST. O-fli^ COALDUST
ADDITION MADE.
Vi/t.ftoGOHL. DUST ADDITION
6 -9 6 -6 4 -0 570 2 8 -5 9 0 -9 8 -3 STOPPED Plant allowed
TO {LON WITHOUT ANV
ADDITIONS.
jA p 'ii GREEN AND Dried Strehgtm
6 9 -3 2 4 -0 7 9 -4 ' ' beoinning toDereinoCATE
6 -5 8 £ £ 8 -4 So O- 75 - 1* S'/. eoctc.
SAND ADDED AND 0-125 TO
Q-ZS'/. WOOD «TRACT

i6/e/s» Geeew and drieo

6 -5 5 7 0 4 -5 9 5 -1 4 2 4 685 STRENGTH REGAINED
2 £ BUT GAS EVOLVED SHOWS
need o p c o al oust
SO O S ADDITION
RECOMMENCED

I f sand-eontrol te s ts a re properly applied, and

if satisfacto ry and efficient m ethods of p re p a ra ­
tio n are available, it should definitely be pos­
sible to produce a green san d su itab le for th e
bulk of gen eral g rey-iron en g in eerin g castings
from a m ix tu re c o n tain in g 99 p er cent, of floor
sand, and from personal experience of th e sand
practice of m any fou n d ries such a re su lt cannot
b u t be a considerable economic ad v an ta g e as well
 362
as a strik in g arg u m en t for a g re a te r in te re s t in
san d control. f
I t is considered, how ever, t h a t th e success o
th is re su lt depends to a larg e degree u pon th e
rem oval of iron p a rtic les from th e re tu rn e d sand,
a n d th e fittin g of some fo rm of m ag n etic
se p a ra to r as an in te g ra l p a r t of sa n d -p re p a ra tio n
p lan ts is essential.
B efore leaving T able IV , it is in te re s tin g to
n ote t h a t a fte r five m o n th s’ service th e p e r­
m eability of th e san d has progressively im proved.
T his is p a rtly b ro u g h t a b o u t by th e fa c t t h a t we

T a b l e V . —Result of Sand Control on Physical Properties.

L ig h t Fo u n d r y S t a n d a r d G r e e n S a n d Da t e 2 7 -5 -3 3

M ix tu re - 34 % O ld g r e e n s a n d f l o o r sand

3 % R ock 5and

l i X R ed 5 a n d

co al Du s t ( a d d it io n s c o s t i/ 6 * p e r ton)

AVERAGE TEST RESULTS BEFORE SAND CONTROL

C0«PRES MON STR &rCRMI> Gas % LOSS

% GRE EN DF Y A.F.A ON
ttUTunc GNITION
ALF. A B.CI.RA A.F.A. acj.R-A N*

SAND IN SERVICE 27-3-53 6 -6 8-7 5-5 - 50-0 53-6 98-0 9-3

GREENSAND VALUES KNOWN TO

GIVE GOOD RESULTS (TABLE 2) X * x X X « x X » X
DRYSAND VALUES KNOWN TO 6 -2 ^
GIVE GOOD RESULTS (TABLE 3) X X X X , x * x ° x
Sa n d in s e r v ic e 20-i0-SS 6-6 6-3 3-8 621 50-3 77-7 66-6 90

AVERAGE TEST RESULTS AFTER SAND C ONTRO L

M ix tu r e 9 9 075 % O ld g r e e n sand flo o r sano

0-800 % COAL DUST

0-125 % -WOOD E X T R A C T (A D D IT IO N S COST 7 ° PER TON)

do n o t w orry a b o u t th e g reen san d becom ing

co n tam in ated w ith b u rn e d oil san d fro m cores,
w ith in reasonable lim its, an d also due to th e
fa c t t h a t th e m ix in g m ills are of a n efficient
design. I t would a p p e a r t h a t th e “ s iltin g u p ”
of m oulding san d , so f a r as ca st iro n is con­
cerned, is largely d e p e n d e n t u pon th e san d -p re-
p a ra tio n m ethods employed an d th e in te llig e n t
use of control tests.
I n Table V is ap p en d ed a com parison of re su lts
before a n d a fte r th e in s ta lla tio n of san d -co n tro l
m ethods. N o claim is m ad e to have reach ed p e r­
fection in th is d irectio n , b u t it is th o u g h t i t will
 303

be ad m itte d t h a t by th e use of system atic tests

i t is possible to effect very su b sta n tia l cost reduc­
tio n in new sand supplies. F o r com parison th e re
is included in th is Table th e sand values already
shown as g iving good results, and it is in te re stin g
to observe t h a t a fte r seven m o n th s’ service th e
san d is still m uch b e tte r th a n i t req u ires to be
n o tw ith sta n d in g th e economical additio n s, and
th is p o in t b u t gives added em phasis to th e need
for every foun d ry m an to ta k e a keener in te re st
in th e su b ject which form s th e te x t of th is P a p e r
to -n ig h t.
In w orking w ith such sm all ad d itio n s of new
m a terials th e problem of m aking up san d losses
is an im p o rta n t one, an d i t is, no doubt, obvious
t h a t th is aspect m u st also be u n d er careful
control. U ndoubtedly, th e first p o in t is to ensure
as little sand loss as possible, an d m uch can be
done in th is d irectio n by th e adoption of proper
supervisory m ethods by th e fo u n d ry staff. W ith
due care san d losses can be k e p t a t a low level,
an d a t c e rta in in te rv a ls th e loss can be m ade up
by th e reclam atio n of b u rn ed core sand. The
p ractice adopted by th e a u th o r en ta ils th e re ­
bonding of th is san d w ith colloidal clay, and a
typical m ix tu re g iving sa tisfa cto ry service is as
follow s:—40 g reen-sand floor sa n d ; 60 bu rn ed
core s a n d ; 2 B e n to n ite ; an d 1 p er cent, coal
dust.
Such a m ix tu re will cost aro u n d 7s. p er ton.
The idea of u sin g a c e rta in p ercentage of floor
sand in co nju n ctio n w ith th e reclaim ed core
sand is to reduce th e am o u nt of B en to n ite re ­
q uired, a n d so effect rebonding a t th e lowest
possible cost. The use of colloidal clay has m any
economic ad v an ta g es in m odern m ethods of
Sand control, an d , if tim e had p e rm itte d , m any
in te re stin g app licatio n s could be discussed. I t
m ay be of in te re st to m ention, however, th a t
a recen t survey of rebonding clays available to
th e fo u n d ry tra d e in d icate t h a t th e re are about
th ree types show ing prom ise for service in th is
d irection, and if these be a rra n g ed in o rd e r of
m erit, placing B en to n ite first w ith 100 p er cent,
rebonding efficiency, th e com parison is as fol­
lows : —B en to n ite, 100 per c e n t.; Colbond, 50 per
 364

c e n t.; c e rta in dry g ro u n d fireclays, 20-25 p er

cent.
W h ilst perhap s th e g re a te s t value of p ro p er
sand control lies in re g a rd to conservation an d
reclam ation, th e re a re m any o th e r d irectio n s in
which system atic te s ts can benefit th e p ra c tic a l
w orker. A good sand is e sse n tia l fo r m odern
economic pro d u ctio n m ethods in a t le a st tw o
m ajo r directions. F irs tly , a good san d m akes
th e m o u ld er’s w ork easier an d consequently
ten d s to increase o u tp u t. Secondly, a good sand
is essential fo r good castin g s.

Good Sand Makes the Moulder’s Work Easier

I f a census be ta k e n of th e m ost w idely-usea
m oulding m achine, probably i t w ill be found
t h a t th e “ jo lte r ” heads th e list, a n d fro m th e
sand p o in t of view i t is c e rta in ly th e m ost in ­
te re stin g . A t a fo u n d ry social e v e n t an a p t
co n u n d ru m w ould be som ething like t h i s : —
“ W hy doesn’t th e jo lte r jo l t,” a n d th e answ er
m ig h t b e : “ B ecause th e m o u ld er w ill ra m , and
the sand w on’t . ” No d o u b t th e m e a n in g is
obvious, b u t i t is s u rp ris in g how m uch a u x ilia ry
hand ram m ing is re q u ired to su p p lem e n t th e
actio n of th is ty p e of m achine u sin g th e n a tu r a l
sands of B rita in , w hilst observ atio n s ab ro ad ,
p a rtic u la rly in th e U n ited S ta te s, definitely
show t h a t pro d u ctio n is in v a ria b ly o b tain ed
w ith o u t th is e x tr a ram m in g . U n d o u b ted ly th e
reason lies in th e physical p ro p e rtie s e x h ib ite d
by th e san d an d p a rtic u la rly by t h a t p ro p e rty
called “ flow ability.”
“ F low ability ” is a n in d e x of th e a b ility of
th e sand to flow u n d e r ram m in g en erg y to form
a sm ooth, u n ifo rm su rface a g a in s t th e p a tte rn .
Obviously, if a sa n d possesses too m uch g reen
bond th e “ flow ability ” w ill be low, a n d if such
a san d is used on “ ja r rin g ” m achines one is
a p t to o b tain so ft patches or voids, unless th e
h an d ram m er is b ro u g h t in to play. Conversely,
if th e sand has too little bond, w h ilst th e ra m ­
m ing m ay be conducted sa tisfa c to rily , i t w ill be
probable t h a t bad p a tte rn draw s w ill be e x p e ri­
enced, e x tr a gaggers will be re q u ired to hold
 365

th e sand to g e th e r an d probably drop-outs will

occur on top p a rts when tu rn e d over lo r closing.
The su ita b ility of any p a rtic u la r sand for ser­
vice on jo ltin g m achines is p rim arily d ependent
upon in d iv id u al practice, an d no definite te s t
lim its can be offered, b u t it m ay be of in te re st
to ou tlin e a ty p ica l exam ple of th e effects of
“ flow ability ” in th is d irection. A new H erm an
m achine was recen tly installed in th e foundry for
the m a n u fa c tu re of valve bodies over a ra n g e of
sizes an d to save cost a sta n d a rd m oulding box
was designed to ta k e th e necessary ran g e of ca st­
ing sizes. I t will be a p p reciated th a t when the

T able VI.—Physical Properties of Sands used for

Flowability Tests on Herman Jolting Machine.
Ve r y
St r o n g
Sa n o

M ix t u r e s :- ( a l l sands h il le o for 3 to.c m in u t e s )

WEAK SAND 60 SHOVELS STANDARD GREEN SAND PLUS 16 SHOVELS SEA SAND

STANDARD SAND 60 SHOVELS STAN0AR0 GREEN SANO ALONE

STRONG SAND 60 SHOVELS STANDARD GREEN SAND PLUS \ SHOVEL BENTONITE

VERY STRONG SAND 60 SHOVELS STANDARD GREEN SANO PLUS I SHOVEL BENTONITE

sm allest size of castin g was m ade th e sand

“ h an g ” was considerable, an d when th e top
half was tu rn e d over fo r closing, very o ften p a r­
tia l “ drop-outs ” occurred. A ccordingly, an
in v estig atio n was conducted in o rd er to d e te r­
m ine th e m ost su itab le sand for production p u r­
poses, a n d th e m ethods adopted were as follow : —
A series of half boxes of th e sm allest valve body
m ade on th e m achine were ram m ed up in four
sands h av in g various green-bond stre n g th s, and
these were jolted fo r differen t tim es. H ardness
te s ts w ere th e n conducted on th e m ould face by
m eans of B u c h an an 's P e n e tro m e te r and th e
“ h anging ” , p ro p ertie s of th e sand gauged by
tu rn in g th e ram m ed box p a rts over and strik in g
 366

the box sharply on a lte rn a te sides w ith an *r ° n

ban, th e num ber of blows req u ire d to cause th e
sand to drop bein g accep ted as a n in d ex in th is
d irection. Table V I illu s tra te s th e physical pro-
porties of th e sands used, v a ry in g in green-bond
stre n g th from a w eak san d h av in g only 5.4 lbs.
per sq. in. com pression s tre n g th u p to a very
stro n g sand h av in g a s tre n g th of 10.1 lbs. p er
sq. in.

F i g . 8 .— P o s it io n of H ardness T ests in

E x p e r im e n t in S and F l o w a b il it y .

F rom each of th ese sa n d m ix tu re s half-m oulds

w ere m ade, givin g th e m achine 50, 100 a n d 150
jolts, an d h ard n ess te s ts w ere th e n conducted
a t th e positions shown in F ig . 8. I n T able V II
are ta b u la te d th e av erag e h ard n ess values ob­
ta in e d . These a re m ost in te re stin g . C onsider­
ing th e te s t usin g w eak san d first, i t w ill be
noticed t h a t g re a te st u n ifo rm ity so fa r as m ould
hardness is concerned is o b tain ed a f te r 100 jolts.
 367

It m ore or less th a n 100 jo lts are given to th e

m ould, th is v a ria tio n is g re a te r th a n th a t
obtained w ith 100-jolt period. I n th e case of
th e sta n d a rd sand, g re a te st u n ifo rm ity is ag ain
o b tain ed a fte r 100 jolts. F u rth e rm o re , by th e
use of th e sta n d a rd sand m axim um , hardness
values a re obtain ed for any given jo ltin g period,
a n d i t will be observed th a t th e hardness of th e
m ould face is g re a te r th a n when w eaker or
stro n g er sands are used. I n fact, as th e sands
become stro n g er, th e hard n ess of th e m ould face
becomes less, due, in all prob ab ility , to th e jo lt
im p act n o t being of sufficient in te n sity to com­
p act th e m ore stro n g ly bonded sands, an d th is
gives a very definite in d icatio n t h a t sands having
a g re a te r green-bond stre n g th th a n th e sta n d a rd
sand shown in th is tab le are n o t likely to give
good resu lts so f a r as u n ifo rm ity of ram m ing is
concerned.
I t is considered th a t th e hardness of the
ram m ed face b ears a definite relatio n to th e
q uestion of “ flow ability ” and consequent
troubles of “ b rid g in g ,” so ft spots and d isto rted
castings. F rom previous observations conducted
it was known th a t th e average hardness obtained
generally from sa tisfac to ry m oulds was in th e
o rd e r of 21 m /m ., an d it should be noted t h a t in
these p re se n t te s ts th e m oulds m ade from th e
s ta n d a rd sand a fte r 100 jo lts m ost n early
ap p ro x im ate to th is figure, co n sisten t w ith
u n ifo rm ity over th e m ould face. P a rtic u la r note
should be ta k e n of th e colum n in Table V II,
giving th e v a ria tio n in p en etro m eter values
over th e m ould face, as th is provides an excel­
le n t index for sands h aving “ b rid g in g ” te n ­
dencies, and th e h ig h e r th e v a ria tio n th e
g re a te r th e tend en cy fo r th is tro u b le to occur.
T able V II gives an in d icatio n rela tiv e to th e
am o u n t of green bond req u ired from th e sand
to m inim ise “ d ro p p in g .” The final conclusions
reached by th is series of te sts in d icate t h a t th e
s ta n d a rd sand h av in g physical p ro p ertie s as
shown in Table V I will give th e m ost satisfac­
to ry resu lts fo r m oulds m ade on th e H erm an
m achine. A safe lim it so f a r as th e green com­
pression stre n g th is concerned would be as
 368

follow s:— On A .F .A . a p p a ra tu s, 5.7 to 7.0 lbs.

p er sq. in. a t 7 p e r c en t, m o istu re ; on
B .C .I.It.A . a p p a ra tu s, 4.0 lbs. p e r sq. in. a t 7
per cent, m oisture. W ith san d of th is s tre n g th
it requires 100 jo lts to effect u n ifo rm compac­
tio n . I f a w eaker san d is used, th e re will be
lia b ility fo r “ drop-outs ” to occur, an d if th e
sand is stro n g er, “ b rid g in g ” and v a ria tio n in
m ould hardness will arise. “ D rop-outs ” due to
w eakly-bonded san d can be co rrected w ith in
Limits by a long er jo ltin g tim e , b u t th e re is no

T a b le VII.— Mould Hardness Values obtained from

Various Sands after Jolting for Various Purposes.
A v e r a g e p e n e t r o m e t e r v a lu e s Va r i a t i o n i n
N° OF in m/ m a t POSITION PENETROMETER
Sa n o u s e d JO LT S VA LU ES OVER
G IV E N AB.CD E. F.G. H .l. MOULD FA C E

50 27 50 22 36 14

Weak 100 24 24 22 28 6

150 20 23 16 28 12

50 23 26 24 34 II

STANDARD 100 19 20 17 22 5

150 18 18 17 22 5

50 29 29 27 40 13
St r o n g
100 24 20 20 29 9

VERY 50 23 25 24 35 12

St r o n g 100 » 16 19 30 14 '

correction for “ b rid g in g ” if th e green-bond

stre n g th is high.
In q u o tin g th ese te s ts as an exam ple of th e
fu rth e r value of san d te s ts to th e p ra c tic a l
w orker, i t is in ten d e d m ain ly to illu s tra te te s t
m ethod, and due co n sid eratio n m u st be given to
one’s own in d iv id u a l p ra c tic e in th e acceptance
of these results. M oistu re control is a very v ita l
factor in its effect on th e flow ability of m ould­
ing sands, and should be carefu lly co ntrolled.
A t th e la s t A n n u al C onference a t C ardiff, in
th e discussion on th e R e p o rt of th e S an d s and
R efracto ries Sub-C om m ittee in reference to te s t
 369

m ethods fo r green san d , some m ention w as m ade

relativ e to th e value of compression te sts as an
in d icatio n of th e “ liftin g ” p ro p ertie s of a
sand, an d here a g a in th e question of “ flow-
ab ility ” arises.
M r. J . H ird m entioned a case w here a sand
givin g a h ig h er com pression read in g on te s t
did n o t necessarily give a b e tte r “ lif t ” in
p ractice. This is n o t by any m eans an isolated
case, for in conducting th e te s t th e m ethod
of ram m ing ensures a satisfacto ry degree of com­
paction even from strongly-bonded sands, and

T able V III.— Resistance of Rammed Sand against

Dropping in Top Parts.
N° OF Rem arks a s t o whether N° OF BLOWS STRUCK
Sa n d used JOLTS MOULD OROPPEO BOX TO CAUSE
GIVEN ON TURNING BOX OVER SAND TO DROP

50 F il l e t s a t x ( sec Fig h#8) ONE

Weak 100 AS ABOVE TWO

150 AS ABOVE FIVE

50 Fill e t s at X (see F1g N°8) THREE

Standard 100 CORNER OF MOULD DROPPED FIVE

150 NO OROP FOUR

50 NO OROP THREE
str o n g
100 NO OROP FOUR

50 NO OROP SIX
VE R Y
St r o n g 100 NO OROP NO OROP AFTER SIX BLOWS

N O T E:- A N ir o n or gag g er is us u a lly p laced at F IL L E T X BUT

IN TH ESE T E S T S T H IS W AS O M IT T E D IN T E N T IO N A L L Y .

the fa c to r of “ flow ability ” is n o t of g re a t

m om ent. F o r exam ple, le t us assume th a t the
test-piece gives a re ad in g of, say, 10 lbs. per
sq. in. com pression. I n p ractice, however, p a r­
ticu larly in connection w ith m achine m oulding,
the fa c to r of flow ability en ters, and, if strongly-
bonded sands a re employed, ex actly th e same
conditions can arise, as exem plifled a few
m om ents ago in connection w ith th e tests on th e
H erm an jo ltin g m achine, and if compression
te sts be tre p a n n e d from moulds ram m ed up in
th e shop, in stead of a figure of 10 lbs. being
obtained, probably only 5 lbs. o r less will be
 370

evident. A ccordingly, it is wise to consider "the

influence of “ flow ability ” in th is d irectio n ,
and to allow fo r it.

Good Sand is Essential for Good Castings

S and control obviously helps iu th e p rev en ­
tio n of defective w ork, and one in stan ce has
already been given .if its v alu e in th is direc­
tio n in connection w ith th e p ro p e rty of “ flow­
a b ility .” Of o th e r in stan ces which can he cited
from personal experience in g reen san d d u rin g
th e la s t few m onths, one stan d s o u t w ith p a r t i­
cu lar prom inence, an d t h a t is in connection w ith

F ig . 9 .— “ B l i n d ” or “ D um b ” Scab.

th a t defect know n as a blind o r dum b scab.

This is illu s tra te d in F ig . 9. I t is g en erally be­
lieved t h a t th e cause of th is d efect is due to
lack of perm eability in th e san d o r c o n trib u to ry
factors, such as h a rd ram m in g , excessive
m oisture, etc. In th e p a rtic u la r exam ple u n d e r
consideration o u r sand te s ts showed v ery de­
finitely t h a t these causes were n o t responsible
for th e defect, an d in d ic a te d t h a t th e cause of
th e trouble m ust be looked fo r elsewhere.
In th e scientific researches conducted upon
refracto ries i t has been fo u n d t h a t silica ex ­
pands upon h e a tin g , and as silica c o n stitu tes
th e base of all m oulding sands, i t is obvious
 3 71

t h a t th is expansion is also p resen t in th is la tte r

m aterial. The expansion tak es place q u ite sud­
denly a t relativ ely low te m p e ra tu re s between
500 to 700 deg., and resu lts in a volum e change
of a b o u t 1.0 p e r c en t. I t is feasible to suppose
t h a t th e sudden h e a tin g of th e mould arisin g
d u rin g castin g causes th is expansion to ta k e
place, an d in c e rta in instances, d ep en d en t on
m any facto rs too num erous to m ention in th is
P a p e r, slig h t buckling of th e san d surface ta k e s
place. I f due th o u g h t be given as to th e form
th e sand buckle is likely to assume, due to these
expansion stresses, and reproduce upon th e c a s t­
ing surface, one is im m ediately stru ck by th e
m arked sim ilarity of th is defect w ith th a t
know n as a “ blind scab.”
F u rth e rm o re , it is feasible to conclude th a t
if, a t th e tim e w hen th e sand increases in
volume, a volum e c o n tractio n of sim ilar o rd er
could be b ro u g h t ab o u t, or provision m ade for
th e bond betw een th e g ra in s to become plastic,
an d so allow th e m ould su rface to yield slightly
w ith o u t buckling, th e defect would be prevented
or m inim ised. This line of a rg u m e n t is a t
p resen t being closely in v estig ated , and it was
hoped t h a t th e re su lts ob tain ed could have been
in co rp o rated in th is P a p e r, b u t u n fo rtu n a te ly
th ey are n o t y e t com pleted. H ow ever, i t has
definitely been found t h a t th e a d d itio n of coal
d u st to green san d has a m arked effect in reduc­
in g th e expansio n arisin g on h e atin g , and i t is
now sta n d a rd p ractice in th e a u th o r’s foundry
to add excess coal d u st fo r th e p rev en tio n of
blind o r dum b scabs in c e rta in castings. In c i­
d en tally , M r. B en H ird , who has done such ex­
cellent w ork in in v e stig a tin g th e effect of coal
d u st on green sand, confirms th is fa c t by his
own experiences.
U p to th is p o in t it has been shown th a t com­
m ercial m oulding-sand control has a definite
value in th e m odern fo u n d ry in red u cin g th e
cost of productio n along two well-defined lines.
F irstly , i t effects conservation, reclam ation and
sta n d a rd isa tio n of e x istin g sand supplies, and
these ad v an tag es re a c t to give th e second value
of increased production of good castings. The
th ird an d la s t ad v an ta g e which suggests con­
sid eratio n is th e value of san d co ntrol as app lied
to p ractical research and consequent fu tu re pro­
gression, an d no b e tte r exam ple can be ta k e n
th a n th e productio n of a san d equally su ita b le
for green- or dry-san d m o ulding purposes, a n d
for w an t of a b e tte r te rm th is can be called
“ g reen -d ry -san d .”
“ Green-Dry-Sand ”
The question of g reen san d versus d ry san d is
one of keen controversy b etw een p ra c tic a l
w orkers, and th e re s u lt of any discussion on th is
m a tte r can e x ten d indefinitely. The reaso n why
th is s ta te of affairs ex ists is probably due to th e
fact t h a t in th e p a st know ledge of th e m oulding
sands used for th e p ro d u ctio n of castin g s has been
m ost vague, an d any re al progression in th is
direction m u st arise th ro u g h th e m ore ex ten d e d
ap p licatio n of sand te sts.
The average green san d in use in B ritis h fo u n ­
dries to-day is f a r from being foolproof, a n d its
safe ap p licatio n to th e la rg e r c a stin g sizes in
the p a st has depended u n d o u b ted ly u pon th e
skill of th e m oulder m ak in g th e c a stin g . U n fo r­
tu n a te ly , as pointed o u t a t th e b e g in n in g of th is
P a p e r, m odern m ass-production m ethods do n ot
lead to th e p reserv atio n of th e highly-skilled
green-sand m oulder, a n d th is re ac tio n is e v id e n t
to-day by th e fa c t th a t one sees few er a n d few er
of th e la rg e r castin g s being m ade by th is m ethod.
From th e economic v iew point th e ex ten d e d use
of green-sand m oulding has m uch to recom m end
its m ore w idespread ad op tio n to larg e r1 castin g s,
and i t is fe lt t h a t if fo u n d ry executives h a d m ore
confidence in green san d th is would to a la rg e
e x te n t m ake up fo r an y effect m odern co n d itio n s
have played upon th e w ork of o u r cra ftsm e n .
Obviously, th is confidence can only be o b tain ed
by com ing in to closer c o n ta c t w ith g reen sand
and g e ttin g to know each one of its c h a ra c ­
teristic s b e tte r, a n d th ese can only be shown by
th e use of sand-control tests.
I n th e a u th o r’s works th is problem of th e
p roduction of a single sand fo r both green- and
 373

dry-sand m oulding purposes has received con­

siderable a tte n tio n , an d is considered a feasible
solution to th e economic p roduction of th e la rg er
castin g sizes. A fte r all, w h a t co n stitu tes th e
difference betw een green sand an d dry san d ? A
superficial analysis of th is question te n d s to show
m any differences. F o r exam ple, th e average dry-
san d m ix tu re to-day differs from green sand
inasm uch as i t co n tain s m ore m oisture as
m oulded, i t has a g re a te r green-bond stre n g th ,

T able IX .— Showing the Development of Green Dry Sand

as a Moulding Material.
CONTa&LLtO CbNTBOLtto
Ol d Greensand Old Dry s a n d NEW
STANOAno
TEST GBCCH-DRT GREEN- Dot
Facing Backing Sano Facing Backing Sano

% MOISTURE TO 70 6-65 9 3 9-0 7-5

G r e e n Compression
4 6 50 6-3 8-3 6-1 4-4
A .F.a l bs per sq inch
GREEN COMPRESSION
3-0 3-5 39 64 4-5 325
B.C.i.R.A. L bs per sqinc h
Green Pe r m eabilit y
A .F .A . N # 49-1 45-4 80-5 53-0 - 119-0
Dr ie d Co m p r e ss io n
a .F.a . L b s per so. inch
60-8 48-7 65-8 125-1 68-1 147-2
Dr ied Compression
B.C.I.R.A. L bs per sq. inch 21-0 15-5 258 1120 340 149-0
Dried Transverse L»j « * * q.in
BROKEN OVER 4 ' CENTRES - - - 7 02 - 7-5
DRIED PERMEABILITY
A . F.A. N ° - - - 790 683 130-0
57 IX 04.0 •*-07»\ OLD 550*04.0 98% 040
Ap p r o x im a t e JS7X«W 0 •%<*•* DUTT «ai» 2 *
M ix t u r e
«TMLLCO M.U..D MILLED MILLED

Co s t per To n 9/2* ? 7* f/3 * 3/5*

N o t e .:- G r e e n dry san d n «i is ju s t about as strong as o ld

DRY SAND BACKING SAND AND CAN CONSEQUENTLY BE USED

WITH N *2 SAND AS FACING TO REPLACE DRY SAND MIXTURES.

i t has a g re a te r d ried stre n g th . I t usually

evolves less gas on castin g , due to th e absence
of coal d u st, b u t in v ariab ly is n o t so perm eable
as green sand. I f these p o in ts be carefully
sifted , i t will be found t h a t th e only re al differ­
ence so f a r as th e p ractical app licatio n of th e
two sands are concerned hinges on th e question
of g re a te r d rie d stre n g th . Give g reen sand th e
d ried stre n g th of its com petitor, and th e re will
be a fa r b e tte r m edium fo r th e p roduction of
castings, fo r even if one is still dubious about
m aking larg e castin g s from i t in th e green
 374

sta te , one can dry th e m oulds m ore ra p id ly , as

it contains 50 p e r cent, less m o istu re. Such
sand does n o t crack d u rin g d ry in g so m uch as
dry sand, an d lends itse lf p a rtic u la rly to th e
production of skin-d ried m oulds. Less pow er is
also req u ired fo r ram m ing.
The easiest w ay to increase th e d ried stre n g th
of g reen sand is by th e a d d itio n of wood e x tra c t,
and th e effect of th is from th e dry -san d view is
shown in Table IX . T his ta b le gives a com­
parison of th e averag e p ro p e rtie s of g re en an d
dry sand as used in th e fo u n d rie s of M essrs.
Glenfield & K enned y , L im ited , before th e in ­
stallatio n of com m ercial con tro l m ethods,
a g a in st t h a t obtain ed to-day u sin g o u r sta n d a rd
green-dry sand. I t will be observed t h a t th e
controlled sand is vastly su p e rio r to old m ix ­
tures, an d i t m ay be of in te re s t to m en tio n th a t
d u rin g th e sum m er m onths in some in stan ces
castings norm ally m ade in d ry san d were
moulded from th e sta n d a rd g re en -d ry sand con­
ta in in g 1 to 2 per cen t, wood e x tr a c t, a ir d ried
for a few hours by exposure to th e fo u n d ry
atm osphere an d cast th e sam e d ay w ith com­
plete success.
Since th e in s ta lla tio n of sand co n tro l, th e
m ain benefits noted a r e : — (1) R ed u ctio n in cost
of new sand ; (2) in creased p ro d u ctio n of
finished m oulds; an d (3) red u c tio n of d efective
work'; an d these alone have afforded ex cellen t
savings to th e firm and p a id a n ex cellen t in ­
te re s t on th e expense in c u rre d by th e in s ta lla ­
tion of th e new p la n t and control m ethods.
I n conclusion, it should be p o in ted o u t t h a t
it is fe lt t h a t some of th e p o in ts m en tio n ed in
this P a p e r have n o t been so fu lly o u tlin ed as
they m ig h t have been, b u t indulgence is asked
in th is m a tte r, as, no d o u b t, i t will be a p p re ­
ciated t h a t to have corrected th is om ission, th e
P a p e r would have been u n d u ly long. F u r th e r ­
more, it should also be und ersto od t h a t p e r­
sonal w ork in th is d irectio n has n o t been long
s ta rte d , and is still y e t uncom pleted, an d th is
to some e x te n t has p rev en ted m ore d e ta il being
given.
 375

B efore closing, th e a u th o r desires to record his

th an k s to M r. H . G ard n er and th e directo rs of
M essrs. Glenfield & K ennedy, L im ited , fo r th e ir
very active co-operation in p roviding th e ex­
cellent facilities fo r sand control in onr
foundries, and fov th e ir perm ission to pass on
some of these re su lts to th e in d u stry .

DISCUSSION BY THE LANCASHIRE BRANCH

The discussion was opened by th e B r a n c h -
P r e s i d e n t (M r. A. P h illip s), who said th a t when
th e P a p e r was published i t would probably be re­
g ard ed m ore as a w ork of reference th a n merely
a P a p e r. P robab ly m any would desire to receive
f u r th e r in fo rm a tio n concerning “ B e n to n ite ,”
an d to know w h a t was its com position and w hat
i t w ould do. Possibly some of th em were fully
acq u ain ted w ith w h a t i t w as an d for w h a t p u r­
pose i t was in ten d e d , b u t o th ers m ig h t n o t be
so fully in stru c te d . A n other p o in t of in te re st
was w h at was th e re la tiv e cost of Wood E x tra c t?
A p p aren tly , these w ere th e tw o chief item s used
in re g a rd to th e new san d in th e fou n d ry . In
th e L an cash ire D is tric t th e problem w as always
p re se n t to foundrym en in re g a rd to th e use of
old sand.
T hen, th e re was th e question of th e resistance
of th e ram m ed sand. The le c tu re r h ad sta te d
w ith re g a rd to one of his figures t h a t 100 jo lts
gave th e best resu lts for te s t purposes. On a
p ra c tic a l d em o n stratio n fo r ram m in g a valve
body in a box, an d tu rn in g th e top p a r t over,
an d ta k in g th e nu m b er of blows to knock i t o u t
w ith a piece of iron, th e figures in th e tab le
shown in d icated th a t 150 jo lts gave th e best
results. I t w ould be in te re stin g to le a rn w h at
num ber of jo lts th e le c tu re r recom m ended for
th is castin g in o rd e r to en su re th e best results
being achieved in th e foundry.

The Question of Scabbed Castings

If one had a series of scab castings and also
found th e castin g s w ere too rough, w h at method
 376

would th e le c tu re r use to produce c a stin g s which

would n o t sell unless th e y h ad a sm ooth finish ?
In re g a rd to th e Osborne jo lt m achine, fo r g reen
sand th e h ardness figures w ere s ta te d to be 4.1 to
4.5. W ould th e same m o istu re co n d itio n s p re ­
v ail fo r jo lt a n d h an d -ram m ed ? W hen an
am ount of sand was tre p a n n e d o u t, t h a t w hich
was hand-ram m ed w eighed 155 gram m es, w hilst
t h a t from th e Osborne jo lt ra m m er w eighed
only 137 gram m es. The ta b le showed a h a rd e r
surface when using th e O sborne jo lt m achine,
and y e t th e re was a less w eig h t w ith th e t r e ­
pan n ed section ta k e n ou t. These tw o co nditions
could h ard ly be reconciled, probably he m ig h t
have reversed th e figures th ro u g h ta k in g th em
h u rried ly down, due to th e sh o rt tim e th e slide
was on th e screen.
Bentonite and Colbond
M r. H u d s o n s ta te d t h a t “ B e n to n ite ” was a
colloidal clay im p o rted p rin c ip a lly from U .S .A .
a n d C anada, an d was, really , 100 p er cen t. clay.
I t was very m uch like Hour, a n d w as supposed
to h ave been form ed th ro u g h e x tre m e volcanic
disturbances. I t ex isted in a n a tu r a l s ta te and
m erely req u ired g rin d in g . I t w as som ew hat ex­
pensive, a n d cost, ap p ro x im ately , £14 to £20
a ton. L a tte rly , a su b s titu te fo r “ B e n to n ite ”
had been in tro d u ced in th is co u n try , w hich was
know n as “ C olbond.” I t was very sim ilar to
“ B en to n ite ” in being 100 p er c en t, clay, an d
it was ch eaper in price.
M r. H u dso n th e n re fe rre d to th e survey
of rebonding clays m en tio n ed in his P a p e r, an d
said i t should be p o in ted o u t t h a t th e te s t m ix ­
tu r e used was composed o f : — 77 p a rts d ried sea
sa n d ; 20 p a rts d ried g reen -san d floor san d , an d
3 p a rts rebonding clay u n d e r te s t. This m ix tu re
was m illed fo r 5 m in. a t b o th 4 a n d 6 p e r c en t,
of m oisture, an d th e te s t re su lts o b tain ed a t
these m oisture co n ten ts showed “ Colbond ” to be
50 p er cent, efficient in com parison to “ B en ­
to n ite .” F u rth e rm o re , th e m o istu re c o n te n t th a t
could be safely used in th e w orking of san d or
 377

d a y gave one an in d icatio n of th e likely green

an d dried-bond stre n g th s available, a n d it would
be found t h a t th e m ore w a ter req u ired th e
g re a te r th e am o u n t of clay g rades p resen t.
A ltern ativ ely , if a sand req u ired less m oisture,
i t definitely in d icated a w eaker sand. The ques­
tio n of refracto rin e ss an d longevity is n o t vitally
im p o rta n t to th e grey-iron founder,, an d these
points, in th e p a st, h a d received g re a te r stress
th a n was necessary.

Wood Extract
C o n tin u in g , M r. H udson said th e price of
“ W ood E x tr a c t ” v a rie d according to q u a n tity
o rdered, h u t a f a ir av erag e price was round
ab o u t £8 to £9 p e r to n . I t was a b y -product
of th e p a p e r in d u stry , an d was im p o rted m ainly
from C an ad a an d N ew foundland, N orw ay and
Sweden.
D ealing w ith th e p ercen tag e of defective c ast­
ings, th e lab o ra to ry a t th e Glenfield W orks had
r a th e r th e honour of being blam ed fo r m ost of
th e defective castin g s produced in th e shop, and,
in fa c t, th e lab o ra to ry w as responsible to th e
m anagem ent fo r d efective castin g s, because they
w ere d irectly responsible fo r th e m etal and for
th e m ou lding sand. T he fo u n d ry forem en have
h ad to control m ethod, lab o u r, an d produce th e
o u tp u t. As f a r as possible all raw m a te ria ls were
u n d er scientific control. N evertheless, th e re were
still a few jobs w hich ra n ou t, o r w ere defec­
tive, when th e m oulder fo rg o t to p u t in th e
sm allest core of th e b atch . The p o in t has been
re a d ie d when th e fu r th e r red u ctio n of defective
castin g s e n ta ils inten siv e supervision over th a t
m ost v ariab le elem en t of all — th e hum an
elem ent. The finish of th e castin g s in th e fo u n ­
d ry a t th e p resen t day w as g reatly su p erio r to
w h at i t was tw elve m onths previously.

Influence of Jolting on Sands

The p o in t w ith re g a rd to jo ltin g was ra th e r a
hard one to answ er, because jo ltin g depended
 378

principally upon th e ty p e of san d used.

p oint he h ad endeav o u red to em phasise w as t h a t
th e flow ability in a m o ulding san d d eterm in ed
how m any jo lts m u st be given to th e sand, i t
th e sand w as too stro n g i t did n o t m a tte r how
long th e jo lt was, as th e san d w as n ev er properly
ram m ed, alth o u g h th e velocity of th e jo lt im p a c t
m ig h t be sufficient to com pact it. I n th e case
of a very w eak sand, th e lo n g er th e jo lt th e
h a rd e r th e m ould su rfa c e becam e, a n d so com­
pacted t h a t probably th e m e ta l w ould n o t lie
on it. To begin w ith , th e san d h a d to be w h a t
was classed as a “ sa tisfa c to ry ” san d . I t m u st
have ju s t th e co rrec t bond a n d a d e q u a te
perm eability. W ith such a san d , th e jo ltin g
period fo r norm al castin g s from , say, 2 cw ts. up
to 10 cw ts., a t an y ra te , w ould be ro u n d ab o u t
88 to 120 jo lts, 100 being a very good figure,
an d usually ab o u t 15 p er cen t, m ore th a n w h a t
th e m akers of th e m achines p re d ic te d th ey could
do.
Skin and Permeability
A p o in t h ad been raised w ith re g a rd to th e
re latio n of su rface finish a n d th e p rev e n tio n of
scabs. W hen a sm ooth-surfaced e a stin g was
desired m any problem s could he discussed. To
begin w ith, p erm eab ility by itse lf w as of no real
value, because if th e re w as no g as g e n e ra te d by
th e m ould, p erm eab ility d id n o t m a tte r . H is
own view of p rodu cin g a sm ooth-skinned c a stin g
free from scabs w ould h in g e p a rtic u la rly on
o b ta in in g a co rrect d ried stre n g th . M an y green-
sand m oulds in use a t th e p re se n t d ay ap p e a re d
to have a satisfacto ry green bond—he m ade th e
sta te m e n t advisedly— an d y e t w hen th e san d was
dried th e bond d isap p eared e n tire ly . I n his
opinion, th e d rie d -stre n g th of a g reen -san d
mould w as infinitely m ore im p o rta n t th a n th e
green s tre n g th , th e la tte r being only necessary
in o rd er to o b tain th e p la stic ity fo r m o ulding
purposes. I f th e s tre n g th d e te rio ra te d d u rin g
pourin g, an d every g reen-sand m ould w as fo r a
few seconds d u rin g ca stin g a d ry -san d m ould,
th e n th ere would be scabbing. I t m ig h t be t h a t
 379

th e san d was deficient in d ry s tr e n g th ; on th e

o th er h a n d , i t m ig h t be t h a t th e coal-dust p er­
cen tag e w as so excessive t h a t f a r g re a te r gas
w as being gen e ra ted th a n th e n a tu r a l perm e­
ab ility of th e san d would stan d .
An a tte m p t h ad been m ade, by m eans of th e
tab les, to give some in d icatio n as to th e am ount
of gas presen t in th e mould as well as th e per­
m eability. I t w as n o t possible to answ er th e
B ra n c h -P re sid e n t’s question in a d ire c t way,
because th e re w ere so m any v ariab les to ta k e
in to account. The only way probably in which
a reasonable answ er could be given to th e ques­
tio n was by e x am in in g th e fo u n d ry practice
a n d probably te s tin g th e sand. I f M r. P h illip s
cared to avail him self of th e o p p o rtu n ity , and
send him (th e le ctu re r) a sam ple of th e sand,
he w ould be pleased to te s t i t fo r him . The
te s t could th e n be com pared w ith th e re su lt
shown in th e ta b le , and i t would be possible,
perhaps, to in d ic a te w h a t was wrong.
W ith respect to th e Osborne jo lt m achine and
th e h ard n ess te s t, th e green-sand values of 4.1
and 4.5 w ere n o t th e hardness values, b u t th e
green-bond values.

Life of Modern Sand Plants

M r. A. S u t c l i f f e in q u ired how long the
sa n d -tre a tin g p la n t would la st, an d w hether
blacking was used on th e m ould. I t w ould be in­
te re stin g , also, to le a rn if th e le c tu re r h a d had
any experience w ith th e use of saw dust. T hree
or fo u r m oulders m ig h t be en gaged on th e same
class of job, a n d every one of th e c astin g s would
be different, alth ou g h th e y w ere a ll u sin g th e
sam e k in d of sand. T w enty years ago he had
m ore loam th a n sand m oulders. The p la n t de­
scribed would n o t m ix loam o r clay. I t was
necessary fo r th e sand to be u n ifo rm in q u ality .
A p o in t upon which he would like to receive
in fo rm atio n was w hether M r. H udson had ex­
perienced any tro u b le w ith th e use of w ate r con­
ta in in g acid. H e, th e speaker, used core sand,
which cost 2Jd. a cw t., and th is was m illed in a
 380

pug m ill c a rry in g tre a d e d an d p la in rollers.

I t seemed to him t h a t th e p la n t described by
M r. H udson would n o t be su itab le fo r th e
m a jo rity of jobbing shops, alth o u g h i t could be
ad a p te d fo r a te x tile m achine fo u n d ry o r a
lig h t-castin g s shop. H a d M r. H u d so n e x p e ri­
enced an y tro u b le w ith x'egard to th e coal d u st
c a rry in g a high ash c o n ten t?
M r . H u d s o n said t h a t th e p la n t described in
th e P a p e r h ad now heen in sta lle d tw o y ears,
an d t h a t h is firm h ad th e re p u ta tio n fo r m ak in g
a good e n g in ee rin g job. H e a p p re c ia te d th e
fa c t t h a t some fo u n d ry p la n t was n o t m ade to
la s t any considerable le n g th of tim e'; th e re fo re
th ey designed th e p la n t fo r them selves, a n d th e n
got th e e q u ip m en t people to co-operate an d m ake
i t fo r th em . T here w as n o t a b e a rin g on th e
p la n t t h a t w as n o t a ro lle r b e a rin g . I n every
in stan ce, w here san d m ig h t be able to g e t into
th e b earin g s, th e b earin g s w ere p ro te c te d in
o rd e r to p re v e n t i t doing so. I f M r. Sutcliffe
could spare th e tim e to v is it th e fo u n d ry , he
would be gladly welcomed, a n d he w ould th e n
be able to see fo r him self t h a t it was a well-
designed job.

Mould Surfaces and Casting Finish

B lacking was n o t used on th e m ould surfaces
ex cep t for c e rta in castin g s w hich h ad to have
an o rn am en tal finish. M ost of th e c astin g s were
p rotected from corrosion in some w ay, such as
by th e use of D r. A ngus S m ith ’s solu tio n o r by
dip p in g th em in t a r , a n d i t w as d eb atab le a s to
w h ether a sm ooth finish w as a n a d v a n ta g e in
th is direction.
The bulk of th e c astin g s in th e d ressin g shop
were, how ever, com parable w ith th e finish of
castings m ade by 95 p e r cen t, of th e job b in g
foundries in th e c o u n tr y ; th e only people who
could probably excel th em being those who m ade
a p o in t of g e ttin g an e x tra o rd in a rily h ig h finish,
such as H a rp e rs, of W illenhall, an d some of th e
light-castings people.
 381

A t one tim e saw d u st was inco rp o rated in dry-

sand m ix tu res, b u t th ey could never ascertain
w hat real ad v an ta g e th e re was in doing so. L ike
o th er ad d itio n s, such as horse-dung, etc., they
did not a p p e a r to affect th e p erm eability of th e
sand very m uch.

Coal Dust and High>Ash Content

Coal d u s t an d ash h ad n o t proved to be any
source of tro u b le, because th e firm had a definite
specification for coal d u st, an d th e suppliers had
to conform to t h a t specification. New deliveries
were analysed in th e lab o rato ry , an d if th e ash
co n te n t was too high th e n th e suppliers h ad to
ta k e th e ir coal d u st back.
W hy did M r. Sutcliffe still ad h ere to loam
m oulding P S urely, m ak in g à skin -d ried mould
was ch eap er th a n u sin g loam . H is firm were
en deavouring to c u t o u t loam w ork as m uch as
possible. They form erly used loam in th e m an u ­
fa c tu re of h yd rau lic cylinders and ram s, for
which th e re seem ed to be now a scarcity of
orders. The p la n t was c e rta in ly n o t designed to
m ix loam. W h a t was now desirable was to fix a
sta n d a rd ise d green sand, w hich w ith suitable
m odifications could be used for m ak in g castin gs
form erly m ade of loam.
The modified g reen sand re fe rre d to in the
P a p e r was perfectly satisfacto ry . C astings had
been m ade w ith i t which were form erly m ade
en tire ly w ith th e old dry-sand m ix tu re , w ith
excellent results.

Troubles from Polluted Water

U ndoubtedly w a te r q u a lity played an im por­
t a n t p a rt, p a rtic u la rly in th e case of oil-sand
cores, b u t a p p a re n tly i t did n o t play a very
g re a t p a r t in re g a rd to th e o rd in a ry san d con­
ta in in g clay bond. W hen used fo r m ix in g oil
sand i t was im p o rta n t n o t to use polluted canal
w a te r or an y th in g sim ilar to it. I n Scotland
th e re was a p len tifu l supply of clean fresh w ater,
and all th e m oulding sand used by th e firm was
tem pered w ith fa irly pure w ater. T herefore, he
 382

had not as y e t had to overcome an y p a rtic u la r

problem w ith re g a rd to th e use of p o lluted w ater
for m oulding operations.
H e noted t h a t M r. S u tcliffe’s core san d cost
2^d. a cw t., w hich was 4s. 2d. a to n . H is own
firm w ere to-day using core san d w hich cost
Is. 9d. a to n , so th e re w as a d ire c t sav in g m
th a t respect. Tests w ere b ein g u n d e rta k e n a t
th e p resen t tim e w ith re g a rd to th e p ro d u ctio n
of a semi-oil sand-core m ix tu re fo r heavy cast­
ings, an d i t was hoped t h a t th e cost would w ork
o u t a t n o t m ore th a n Is. p e r to n .
Elimination of Facing Sand and Transport
Mr. H . S h e r b u r n considered t h a t th e P a p e r
provided a g re a t fu n d of in fo rm a tio n fo r
those foundrym en who h a d been b ro u g h t
up in w h at m ig h t be te rm e d th e school
of experience. The problem of sands, an d
m oulding sands p a rtic u la rly , was so com plex th a t
i t was necessary fo r th e problem to be d e a lt w ith
by te ch n ically -train ed people as well as th e
p ra c tic a l m en. I t was obvious t h a t all th ro u g h
th e P a p e r th e p ra c tic a l side of th e q u estio n h ad
n o t been overlooked, an d doubtless th e p ra c tic a l
foundrym en w ith whom M r. H u d so n w as associ­
ate d had ren d ered considerable assistance.
One th in g he w ould lik e to have h e a rd some­
th in g ab o u t was in re g a rd to th e c u ttin g a ctio n
of th e flowing m etal, p a rtic u la rly in th e v icin ity
of th e ru n n e rs. T his was a m a tte r of g re a t
im portan ce. A noth er p o in t w as, of course, t h a t
the process described by th e le c tu re r d e a lt w ith
th e whole of th e san d o p e ra ted in th e fo u n d ry .
H e w as n o t d ealin g w ith a facin g san d , as such,
which was obviously th e common p rac tic e , and
th e one m ost commonly followed a t p re s e n t in
th e absence of gen eral m ech a n isatio n . T his, in
itself, created lim itatio n s, while i t possibly h ad
c e rta in ad vantages.
I t would be of in te re s t to know if M r. H udson
had considered th e q uestion of th e fu sib ility of
th e d ifferen t sands, which was, a g a in , a m a tte r
of p rim ary im portan ce. C e rta in new san d s had
 383

been te s te d recen tly , and i t was su rp risin g to

note th e difference in th e fu sib ility of th e
common sands commonly in use in th e L ancashire
d is tric t.
A nother p o in t of m om ent, as fa r as he (the
speaker) could u n d e rsta n d , was t h a t th e use of
new sand in Messers. Glenfield & K en n ed y ’s
fo u n d ry m u st be alm ost a negligible q u a n tity .
This suggested, of course, t h a t th e problem of
clearin g o u t old sand, an d t h a t of b rin g in g new
sand in to th e works, h ad been largely elim in ated ,
a n d hence one of th e problems of th e foundry
as to th e m ovem ent of m aterials had been largely
solved.
Cutting Action of Metal on Sand
M r . H udso n rep lied t h a t a little tro u b le had
been experienced a t one tim e w ith re g a rd to th e
c u ttin g action of th e flowing m etal. The tro u b le
took th e form of th e b ottom of th e R u n n e r
g a te w ashing in to th e castin g . This w as found
to be en tirely due to th e excessive use of th e
swab. M ost of th e firm ’s castin g s w ere m ade in
half-boxes, an d th e ru n n e r g a te was usually
m ounted on th e p a tte rn p late. I n d raw in g th is
g a te p a tte rn th e w orkm en w ere a p t to use a
heavy swab c o n ta in in g a g re a t deal of m oisture,
an d th e e x tr a m o istu re n a tu ra lly w eakened th e
sand. In m any cases tro u b le was experienced a t
th e g ates from th is cause. By o m ittin g to use
th e swabs on th e g a te p a tte rn th e c u ttin g ceased,
owing to th e increased stre n g th of th e san d a t
th a t point.
The san d re fe rre d to in th e P a p e r was re ­
gard ed as being q u ite equal to facin g sand.
T here were tw o fo u n d ries in th e works—one a
lig h t fou n d ry , h a n d lin g th e bulk of th e produc­
tio n , an d th e o th e r a heavy fo undry, m aking
jobs of a n y th in g from 2 to n s to 60 to n s in
w eight. The heavy fo u n d ry h an d led special
work, an d u n til very recently did n o t use th e
same ty p e of san d as was used in th e lig h t
fou n d ry , nam ely, a ch eap er sand. The cost of
th e facin g sand used in th e heavy foundry
 384

worked o u t a t 9s. a to n . I t was decided to use

th e lig h t fo undry m ass-production san d a s l a
facin g sand in its stead . T h is w as done w ith m
th e la s t m onth or so in re g a rd to some very
heavy sluice gates, an d th e castin g s cam e ou
b e tte r th a n when u sin g fac in g sand.
The Old and the New
The m ethod of p re p a rin g th is fac in g sand was
th a t th e sand w as m ixed on th e fo u n d ry floor
by th e m oulders an d th e n p u t th ro u g h an a e ra t­
ing m achine. I t was n o t m illed. I t w as con­
sidered now t h a t th e g reen san d w as actu a lly
su p erio r to th e facin g san d , a n d th e bond was
g re a te r an d th e p erm eab ility w as b e tte r. The
forem an in charg e of th e h eavy shop w as very
adverse to tr y in g i t ; h e could n o t see how i t
could possibly be b e tte r. H e now a d m itte d it
was f a r b e tte r th a n th e old facin g m ix tu re .
I n re g a rd to refra cto rin e ss, o r fu sib ility , sands
varied considerably. W hen carb o n was ad d ed to
sand its re fracto rin e ss w as in creased . C arbon
could he added in th e fo rm of coal d u st, as wood
e x tra c t, core oil, or as heavy m in e ra l oil. The
re fracto rin ess was th e n increased enorm ously.
E rith loam w as a san d w ith a low in d e x of re ­
fractoriness, an d a t te m p e ra tu re s below t h a t of
c a st iron i t vitrifies a n d te n d s to slag. B y a d d ­
ing 5 p e r cent, of carbon in th e fo rm of coal
d u st to th e E r ith san d i t will n e ith e r glaze n o r
m elt. T his was a very im p o rta n t p o in t in th e
effect of carbon in in cre a sin g th e re fra c to rin e ss
of a sand, a n d w as one of th e m a in benefits of
coal d u st.
The re fracto rin ess of new san d s v a ried , b u t
his line of th o u g h t a t p re s e n t w as n o t to use
new sand ! in fa c t, h is am b itio n w as to produce
h ig h-quality castin g s fro m scrap alone, u sin g no
sand an d h av in g no d efective castin g s.
I n f u r th e r reply to th e rem a rk s of th e P re s i­
d en t, he th e n answ ered, w ith th e a id of
figures on th e blackboard, M r. P h illip s’ question
w ith re g a rd to th e su rface h ard n ess a n d th e
jo lt te st.
 385

DISCUSSION BY THE LONDON BRANCH

Ih e B r a n c h - P r e s i d e n t (M r. C. H . K ain ) com­
m ented t h a t th e P a p e r con tain ed a g re a t deal of
in fo rm atio n w hich would m ake th e old school of
foundrym en tu r n in th e ir graves, and he was
c e rta in t h a t very few p resent-day foundrym en
w ere u sin g 99 p er cent, of old san d in th e ir
facing m ix tu res.
The H o n . J . M. W . N o r t h said he understood
t h a t 99 p er cen t, of th e old m oulding sand was
used ag ain , so t h a t th e new ad d itio n s am ounted
to only 1 p er c en t. C onsiderably m ore th a n
1 p e r cent, of m oulding sand m u st go o u t of th e
shop on th e castin g s, h o w ev er; th is was m ade up
from th e old core san d , and he asked w h at p e r­
centage of old core san d was added to th e shop
sand to m a in ta in th e c o n sta n t q u ality of old sand
in th e system .
R e fe rrin g to th e cooling drum , he said th e re
did n o t ap p e a r to be a fan or o th e r equ iv alen t
m eans of cooling th e sand, and he w ondered w hat
was th e le n g th of tim e d u rin g which th e sand
rem ained in th e d ru m , and a t w h a t te m p e ra tu re
it came out.

The Silting-up Problem

M r. G. E . F r a n c e said he h a d listened to th e
P a p e r w ith very m ixed feelings. In th e first
place, he was inten sely glad t h a t a t la s t we were
g e ttin g to know som ething ab o u t sand control,
th e p ro p ertie s of sands an d th e m a n n e r in which
th ey should he p re p a r e d ; m any foundrym en had
been unable to com plete th e story by reason of
lack of d a ta , an d i t was pleasing to note th a t
th e need for p ro p er research h ad a t la st been
ap p reciated . B u t w hilst he h ad been an advo­
cate of reducing very considerably th e q u a n tity
of new sand used in facing-sand m ix tu res, of th e
discontinuance of th e use of facin g sands as such,
an d th e use of one m oulding san d th ro u g h o u t th e
fou n d ry , it was som ething of a shock to h e a r
t h a t for two m onths th e a u th o r’s fo u n d ry d id no t
require any new sand. I t was in te re stin g to

O
 386

learn t h a t a t th e end of th e period of tw o

m onths, u n d er th e conditions o b tain in g , th e san d
was n o t siltin g up ; t h a t ex p erien ce was so
u n u su al t h a t M r. F ra n c e asked if th e a u th o r h a d
any confirm atory d a ta from sources o th e r th a n
his own experim en ts. I t w as g en erally accepted
t h a t m oulding san d d id s ilt u p , an d h e supposed
th e a u th o r w ould say t h a t th e siltin g up was due
to th e ad d itio n of th e new san d itse lf.
The a u th o r’s insistence u p o n th e absolute
necessity fo r m ag n etic sep a ra tio n was p a rtic u ­
larly pleasing. A lth o u g h th e cost of th e in s ta l­
la tio n was som ew hat h ig h , once th e p la n t was
in stalled th e cost of m ag n etic se p a ra tio n was
negligible— an d i t was a defin ite essen tial.
M r . G . C . P i e r c e (P a s t B ra n c h -P re sid e n t)
asked w h at w as th e wood e x tr a c t w hich th e
a u th o r added to th e sa n d m ix tu re s. H e was
n o t so alarm ed as some people a p p eared to be
w ith re g a rd to th e use of 99 p er cen t, of old
sand. S urely those who w ere a larm ed h a d lost
sig h t of th e fa c t t h a t th e whole of th is san d was
going th ro u g h th e p la n t an d was bein g p re p a re d .
One w ould n o t like to see th e m oulders ram m in g
up th e whole of a m ould w ith facin g san d , and
it was safe to say t h a t ab o u t 10 p e r c e n t., o r
even less, of facin g sand was all t h a t w as re ­
q uired in a m ould. I f one considered th e figures
carefully one w ould g e t som ewhere n e a r th e
a u th o r’s figure of 99 p er cen t. B u t th e problem
of th e silt had b o th ered him and he h a d w on­
dered w h at becam e of it. In m ost fo u n d rie s a
pro p o rtio n of th e old san d w as th ro w n aw ay, b u t
uses could be fo u n d fo r t h a t san d , an d some
foundries did use it. B u t he was n o t p re p a re d
to accept t h a t one could m ake m u ch use of silt.
H e liked th e idea of c a rry in g on fo r tw o m o n th s
w ith o u t new san d , an d d id n o t w onder t h a t
feeling ra n ra th e r h ig h ; b u t a t le a st t h a t e x p e ri­
ence m u st n u llify some of th e p reju d ic e .

Moisture Content and Mould Ramming

M r . W . T a i t s a id t h e a u t h o r ’ s r e f e r e n c e t o th e
f lo w a b ilit y o f t h e s a n d w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y in t e r e s t -
 387

m g, b u t he had n o t laid sufficient stress on th e

im po rtance of m o istu re. I t was sta te d th a t in
A m erica m oulds w ere jo lt ram m ed m uch more
quickly th a n w ere moulds in th is c o u n try ; h u t
i t should also be p o in ted o u t t h a t th e m oisture
c o n te n t of th e A m erican san d was very much
lower th a n t h a t of th e sands re fe rred to in th e
d a ta sheets exh ib ited by M r. H udson. The sand
used in one autom obile fo u n d ry in th is country
h ad a m oisture c o n ten t of ab o u t 4 p er cent.,
an d i t was said th a t th e moulds w ere ram m ed
m uch m ore quickly th e re th a n in m ost foundries
in th e co u n try . The im p o rtan ce of th e clay bond
had alsoi to be borne in m ind. I t was said th a t
w ith a fireclay if one added fo u r tim es th e
am o u n t as com pared w ith B en to n ite th e pro d u ct
was cheaper. One would have th o u g h t, how ever,
t h a t if an increased am o un t of clay w ere added
i t w ould be necessary to increase th e m oisture
co n ten t, and t h a t t h a t would have affected th e
flow ability of th e sand. F u rth e r, one would
im agine t h a t th e m ethod of m illing th e sand
w ould have to be changed. The a u th o r was
passing th e sand th ro u g h a rid d le ; one assumed,
th e re fo re , t h a t th e re w ere no lum ps of new sand
going in to th e san d m ixer. I t h ad been said
t h a t th e effect of th e m ullers in th e m ill was to
d is trib u te th e lu m p s; in larg e foundries in
th is co u n try , how ever, w here very larg e tonnages
w ere used, good resu lts w ere being obtained,
alth o u g h m ullers w ere n o t used.
F in ally , in a reference to th e old pug mill
re fe rre d to by th e a u th o r, M r. T a it asked if
te s ts h ad been c a rrie d o u t to a scertain w hether
th e re was a b reak in g down of th e sand g rain s in
t h a t mill.
Steel Castings Made in Silt
The B r a n c h - P r e s i d e n t (M r. C. H . K a in ) was
n o t q u ite sure w hether or n o t th e a u th o r tre a te d
th e whole of his san d in th e fo u n d ry ; he had
g a th ered t h a t only a p o rtio n of i t was tre a te d ,
an d th a t a considerable p ro p o rtio n w en t th ro u g h
th e knock-out g rid and passed s tra ig h t back to
th e foundry.

o2
 388

Some really a c c u ra te in fo rm a tio n was re ­

q uired w ith re g a rd to th e siltin g u p of th e san d
an d th e b reak in g down of th e san d g ra in s, an d
he w ould be glad if th e a u th o r could give d a ta
on those m a tte rs. H e p ersonally h a d m ade steel
castings in th e s ilt ta k e n fro m a d u st-se p a ra tin g
ap p a ra tu s in his fo u n d ry , w here considerable
tro u b le was ta k e n to se p a ra te th e d u s t from th e
steel-foundry sand . H e did n o t consider t h a t th e
b reak in g of th e sa n d g ra in s in m illin g was a t
a ll serious. T his m a tte r h a d been raised very
o ften in P a p e rs dealin g w ith oil sands, b u t in
an o rd in a ry m ill, w ith a bed of san d a b o u t 1 in.
th ick u n d e r th e rollers, i t was n o t im p o rta n t,
because th e san d w ould flow.
C om m enting on th e a u th o r’s referen ce to th e
stre n g th of d ried sa n d , th e B ra n c h -P re sid e n t
asked w h at process was used fo r d ry in g th e sand
specim ens, w h a t te m p e ra tu re was a tta in e d , an d
w h eth er any m o istu re-ex h a u stin g a p p a ra tu s was
fitted to th e oven. The e stim a tio n of th e a m o u n t
of gas evolved from th e san d was m o st im p o r­
t a n t ; he asked, th e re fo re , w h at a p p a ra tu s was
used fo r th is purpose, how th e gas ev olution was
m easured, an d w h eth er th e a p p a ra tu s could be
used w ith th e o th e r sim ple a p p a ra tu s in th e
o rd in ary foundry.

AUTHOR’S REPLY
Sand-Cooling Methods
M b . H udso n , rep ly in g to M r. N o rth , said th e
am ount of sand lo st w as n o t g re a t, a n d in
Messrs. Glenfield & K en n e d y ’s fo u n d ry 1 p er
cent, was th e ou tsid e lim it. The a m o u n t of san d
in circu latio n was a b o u t 200 to n s d a ily ; 1 p e r
cent, on t h a t was 2 to n s p e r day, a n d c e rta in ly
not m ore th a n t h a t a m o u n t w as lo st on th e c a s t­
ings going in to th e d ressing shop a n d fro m th e
w aste san d bein g dum ped. B u t he w as n o t
p rep ared to a p p ly th e figure of 1 p e r c e n t, g e n er­
a lly ; obviously, th e loss w ould d ep en d to a con­
siderable e x te n t u pon th e ty p e of c a stin g b ein g
m ade.
 389

I lie cooling drum s were n o t fitted w ith fans,

h u t th ey had in te rn a l vanes which reg u la te d th e
speed a t which th e san d came down th e drum s,
lh e sand came down th e drum s in ab o u t 1 to *
inin., roughly, an d th e te m p e ra tu re of th e sand
leaving th e drum s was ab o u t 80 deg. F a h ., i.e.,
a b o u t blood h eat. I t th e n rem ained in th e sto r­
age hoppers fo r ab o u t 2 hrs. before i t was used,
a n d d u rin g t h a t tim e i t cooled off to a tem p e ra ­
tu r e a t w hich i t could safely be used in th e
foundry. H e had n o t been tro u b led in any
w ay by h o t s a n d ; th e p la n t produced cool sand
w ith o u t any p a rtic u la r precautions being ta k e n .
H e re a g ain , of course, th e p a rtic u la r circum ­
stances ap plying to in d iv id u al foundries m u st be
considered. I n c e rta in m ass-production p lants,
w here th e sam e san d was being re-used more
ra p id ly a n d m ore freq u en tly , th e sand would g et
h o tte r, a n d special provision would probably have
to be m ade fo r cooling it. The production in
M essrs. Glenfield & K en n ed y ’s lig h t foundry
was roughly 40 to n s of castin g s per day as a
m axim um , an d ab o u t 200 to n s of sand was in
circu latio n . If , however, 100 tons of castings had
to be m ade p er day in 200 to n s of sand, u n ­
doubtedly th a t san d would become too hot, unless
eq u ip m en t w ere in stalled to cool it.
R eplying to M r. F ran c e , he said th a t new sand
ad d itio n s w ere m ade only when th e control tests
in d icated th e need for such additio n s. A t th e
end of th e y e a r 1933 he h ad to talled th e num ber
of m onths in which th e re h ad been no additio n s
a t all, a n d th e nu m b er of m onths in th a t y ear
w hen ad d itio n s w ere n o t m ade was six. H e
drew M r. P ie rc e ’s a tte n tio n also to t h a t point,
an d to th e fa c t t h a t th e 1 p er cen t, ad dition
covered a period of only six m onths in th e year.
Silt in New Sand
W ith re g a rd to siltin g -u p , he h ad n o t obtained
an y confirm atory evidence o th e r th a n th a t given
in th e P a p e r. C ertain ly when new san d was
added th e silt increased. Sieve tests, fo r
exam ple, showed definitely t h a t since additio n s
of new sand w ere stopped th e p ercentage of fines
o r silt had been m arkedly reduced.
 390

Wood e x tr a c t was n o t very f a r rem oved from

d irty w ater, as M r. P ierce h a d su g g e s te d ; i t was
a w aste b y -p ro d u ct of th e p a p e r in d u stry , and
th e m ain sources of supply w ere N orw ay,
Sweden, N ew foundland and C an ad a.
M r. V . C. F a u l k n e r (P a s t-P re sid e n t o f th e
In s titu te ) said he u n d ersto o d i t was su lp h ite
lyes.
M r . H u d s o n agreed t h a t i t was. I t h a d q u ite
a stro n g d ried bond, an d was q u ite useful for
th e purpose he h ad in d ica ted . In d eed , i t could
he used as a core oil, b u t its s tre n g th w as n o t
up to th e u su al s ta n d a rd fo r core oil.
Elimination of the Sand Bill
W ith re g a rd to th e con tro l of facin g san d ,
ad m itted ly th is san d was being used over an d
over ag ain , as M r. P ierc e h a d in d ic a te d . B u t
th e whole p o in t was t h a t i t was u n d e r contro l.
In th e old days th e m oulder took w h atev er facin g
sand he liked, an d in m an y cases probably
moulds w ere ram m ed up e n tire ly of facin g san d ,
o r f a r m ore facin g san d was used th a n was
necessary. One g re a t a d v a n ta g e of a system
of control such as his was t h a t th e m oulder could
n o t use facing sand, an d h a d to use w h a t he was
given. B u t th e m ain a d v a n ta g e was th e saving
in sand costs. One was a p t to be m isled by th e
fact t h a t th e sand was used over an d over a g a in ,
an d if he had used p erh ap s 98.5 in ste a d of 99 p er
cent, of old sand th e savings w hich h a d in fa c t
been effected w ould probably n o t h av e been
made. H e was q u ite h opeful t h a t in th e very
near fu tu re ab o u t 99.5 p e r cen t, of old san d
ivould be used in M essrs. Glenfield & K en n e d y ’s
p la n t; indeed, th e y w ere alread y u sin g ju s t ab o u t
t h a t percen tag e, because fo r six m o n th s of la st
year th e re w ere no new sand ad d itio n s, an d for
the o th er six m onths 99 p er cent, of black sand
was used, so t h a t th e av erag e for th e y e a r was
ab o u t 99.5 p er cen t. The whole job h a d become
very m uch easier for him self th a n i t was a t first.
C ertainly for tw o m onths th e fo u n d ry forem an
and th e m oulders w ere u p in a rm s; fo r a tim e,
every bad castin g t h a t was m ade was said to be
bad by reason of b ad san d , a n d some tim e h a d
 391

elapsed before he could convince th em t h a t i t

was not due to th e sand a t all. Then th ey began
to ta k e a g re a te r in te re st in th e m a tte r, and
m ore recently th e y did n ot w orry very much
ab o u t sand.
C om m enting upon M r. T a it’s rem arks, he
em phasised t h a t th e sand he h ad described in
th e P a p e r was a n a tu r a l sand, and a modification
of a B ritish sand. The sands of lower m oisture
co n ten t, such as those used in A m erica an d in
some of th e B ritish foundries re ferre d to , were
definitely sy n th etic, an d were usually m ade up
from silica g rain s, re-bonded. They were of d if­
fe re n t ty p e from t h a t m entioned in th e P a p e r
a n d from t h a t commonly used in th is country.
F o r th e purposes of th e P a p e r he had th o u g h t it
wise to stick to th e sands of th is cou n try , so
t h a t th e bulk of th e founders here could tak e
a d v an ta g e of th e w ork w ith which he was con­
nected.
Moisture Content and Scabbing
A dm ittedly, w hen th e w eaker clays were used
one h ad to add la rg e r q u a n titie s th a n was th e
case w ith th e stro n g er clays, a n d th e m oisture
co n te n t to o b ta in a su itab le sand m u st be
g re a te r. B u t one could m ake of th e m oisture
problem as big a bogey as t h a t of th e silt prob­
lem, a n d he was q u ite confident th a t th e results
o btained in M essrs. Glenfield & K en n ed y ’s
fou n d ry , using sand c o n tain in g from 6 to 7 per
cent, of m oisture, were as good as those ob­
ta in e d by th e A m ericans an d by some English
autom obile firms using sand c o n tain in g between
4 a n d 4r| p e r cent, of m oisture. One of th e
biggest problems on a h o t sum m er day, even in
Scotland, was th e d ry in g o u t of th e sand, which
could cause troub le. H e was always averse to
d e p a rtin g from his own p ractice because he felt
th a t if th e percentage of m oisture were higher
th e sand did n o t d ry o u t so read ily as i t did if
th e percentage w ere lower. F u rth e rm o re , th e
work on th e expan sio n of sands h ad shown th a t
in a green sand w ith a h ig h m o istu re co n ten t
th e sh rinkage a risin g from th e rem oval of th e
w ater ten d ed to balance th e expansion of th e
 392

sand g rain s, w ith th e re s u lt t h a t th e re w as less

scabbing. H e was q u ite convinced t h a t th e o rd i­
n ary theories p u t fo rw ard by th e p ra c tic a l m en
as to th e causes of scabbed c astin g s did n o t m eet
th e bill fully. C astin g s w ere som etim es scabbed
when th e san d w as r ig h t a n d w hen th e m oulder
had said t h a t th e ram m in g was r ig h t; th e re was
som ething else we w ere tr y in g to find o u t in
o rd er to g e t th e whole story.

Insufficient Milling and Blown Castings

W ith re g a rd to m illing, M r. H udson p o in ted
o u t t h a t th e m esh of th e ro ta tin g screen was
ab o u t J in. The san d , w hen i t le ft th e screen,
was n o t su ita b le fo r m oulding, an d i t h a d to be
m illed. W ith all due resp e c t to th e pad d le
m ixer, he still considered t h a t i t did n o t m ix so
efficiently as did a properly-designed m ill, n o r did
i t m ix so quickly. A t M essrs. Glenfield & K e n ­
nedy’s fou n d ry i t was necessary to m ix roughly
1 p er cent, of new' m a te ria l in th re e m in u te s and
to d is trib u te th e w a te r u n ifo rm ly , a n d he
doubted t h a t a paddle m ix er w ould do th e w ork
in t h a t tim e. R ecen tly th e re h ad been a b re a k ­
down on one m ill, so t h a t it was o u t of actio n , as
th e re su lt of inexperience'; th u s, th e m illin g tim e
had to be c u t to ab o u t 1 ’ m in ., a n d th e r e h ad
been some tro u b le due to blown castin g s. I t was
found t h a t th e m oisture was n o t p ro p erly d is tri­
b u ted th ro u g h o u t th e sand, some sm all p atch e s
co n ta in in g 9 p e r cent, an d o th e rs only a b o u t
■ivy p e r cent. One could n o t d is tin g u ish th e m by
th e h an d , b u t w hen th e m etal cam e in to c o n ta c t
w ith a slig h tly w e tte r spot a b o u t th e size of a
shilling, a hlow-hole was form ed. One could n o t
im prove upon a properly-designed m ill fo r effi­
c ien t and ra p id m ix in g . A t th e sam e tim e , if
some sim pler form of m achine could be devised,
it would be of a d v a n ta g e , because th e re w as a
good deal of w ear on a mill. H e m ade a p o in t
of fittin g new scra p e r blades ev ery week, and
th e scrap er clearances w ere a d ju s te d ev ery m o rn ­
ing, w ith a view to k eeping th e m achines in good
ru n n in g ord er, b u t, even so, th e w ear was g re a te r
th a n one would desire.
 393

Breaking Sand Grains in the Mill

A t one tim e he had sta te d dogm atically th a t
a mill did break down th e san d g rain s, b u t he
h ad since become less dogm atic ab o u t it, be­
cause, in th e first place, a lot depended on th e
m ill, an d , secondly, i t was a very moot p o in t
w hether th e g rain s did break down in a m odern
mill. The old m ill he h ad described certain ly
would crush th e san d g rain s, because in Scotland
th e re was a h a b it of m aking loam from gravel.
C oarse gravel river-b o tto m sand was crushed for
ab o u t 40 m inutes, and th re e or fo u r shovels of
o rd in a ry boulder clay was added, an d a b e a u tifu l
loam was produced in t h a t way. V ery good
castings, w eighing up to about 50 tons, were
m ade in i t ; it was most im perm eable, like m ud.
I n rep ly to th e B ran ch -P resid en t, M r. H udson
said t h a t all th e sand a t M essrs. Glenfield &
K en n ed y ’s fou n d ry was tre a te d . The dry-sand
specim ens were dried in an electric oven, having
a n a tu r a l- d ra ft chim ney to remove as fa r as
possible all products from th e dry in g . The tem ­
p e ra tu re was controlled a t 105 deg. C., and th e
d ry in g was effected in about one hour. The oven
was q u ite sim ple, an d was m ade a t th e foundry
from a couple of ra d ia to r elem ents, b u t it worked
efficiently.
F in ally , he said t h a t in th is P a p e r he had p u r­
posely re fra in e d from any reference to th e .e s ti­
m atio n of th e gas evolved, because he h ad d ealt
w ith i t previously. I n a P a p e r on “ L ig h t C ast­
ings P ro d u c tio n ,” which he h ad re a d in Scot­
lan d , he had described fu lly th e tw o types of
a p p a ra tu s commonly used, and he re fe rre d th e
B ra n ch -P resid en t to th a t P a p e r.
M s. W. T. G r i f f i t h s , seconding th e vote of
th a n k s, said he was im pressed w ith w h at M r.
H udson h ad done t h a t evening tow ards o b ta in ­
in g a g re a te r “ flow ability ” of in fo rm atio n con­
cern in g sands. D u rin g th e la s t ten years or
m ore th ere had been a g re a t deal of th eo retical
in v estig atio n of san d problems, an d a whole mass
of in fo rm atio n had been collected as to w h at
sands should or should n o t b e ; i t was only by
 394

finding o u t w h at was h a p p en in g in th e fo u n d ries,

however, t h a t we should be able to use th is v a lu ­
able in fo rm atio n . M r. H u d so n h a d in d ica te d
how he was ap p ly in g th a t in fo rm atio n by m sti-
tu tin g p ro p er control, a n d how i t was even pos­
sible to m ake some p ro fit o u t of san d control.
F u rth e r, he was proving or disproving th e
v arious th eo ries p u t fo rw ard , and when o th ers
followed th e exam ple of M essrs. Glenfield &
K enn edy a n d in sta lle d acc u ra te m ethods of con­
tro l, th e in fo rm a tio n o b tain ed by th e o re tic a l in ­
vestig atio n s could be sifte d a n d we should he
in a b e tte r position to ta k e a d v an ta g e of it.
The vote of th a n k s to M r. H u d so n w as ac­
corded w ith acclam ation.

What is Silt ?
M r. J . W . G a r d o m (P a s t B ra n ch -P re sid en t),
proposing a vote of th a n k s to M r. H udson fo r
his P a p e r, said he h a d w ished t h a t th e Questions
of th e fineness of san d an d th e m o istu re co n te n t
had been d e a lt w ith m ore fully. D esp ite M r.
H u d so n ’s final rem ark s, one fe lt t h a t in fu tu re
he w ould say t h a t th e m ost im p o rta n t th in g was
g ra in size. F u rth e r, i t was essen tial, in o rd e r
to ensure an even flow of san d in any m echanical
system , to lim it th e w a te r co n ten t a n d to in ­
crease th e bond. The s ilt problem alw ays w orried
foundrym en when p u ttin g in m echanical p la n t.
The m ain problem was to d eterm in e w h a t was
silt. I t was n o t necessarily fine s a n d ; i t m ig h t
consist of sm all pieces of iron, an d M r. H u d so n
had definitely advocated th e rem oval of th is by
m agnetic sep ara to r. A gain, M r. G ardom su g ­
gested t h a t M r. H u d so n was q u ite w rong in his
references to th e paddle m ixer, an d t h a t if he
had to m ix 75 to n s of sand p er h o u r, th e c a p ita l
cost of th e p la n t ad vocated in th e P a p e r would
be enorm ous. F in ally , he suggested t h a t m ost
of th e troubles experienced w ith san d used in
th e v arious typ es of ram m in g m achines m ig h t
be due to th e p ercen tag e of a ir in th e san d being
w rong Some fo u n d ries, he believed, h a d already
found t h a t th ey m u st definitely a e ra te th e sand
differently for th e differen t ty p es of m achine.
 395

M r . H u d s o n , responding, said th e m ain diffi­

culty so fa r was t h a t th e re were fa r too few
c a rry in g on th e w ork in th e foundries. I f more
foundrym en an d fo u n d ry executives would ta k e
up th e p ra c tic a l stu d y of sands we should arriv e
a t some ag reem en t w ith re g a rd to details, such
as those m ention ed by M r. G ardom , m uch more
easily. The aim of P a p e rs he h ad w ritte n was
largely to in te re s t th e foundrym en in sand. If
he succeeded in th a t he could deal m ore deeply
w ith th e science of sand te s tin g ; fo r th e tim e
being he had h a d to shelve these deeper studies
because if he ta lk e d ab o u t th em a t th is stage
m any people w ould n o t be able to ap p reciate
w hat he was ta lk in g ab o u t. M oisture con ten t
an d g ra in size were very im p o rta n t factors, and
a considerable degree of ag reem en t would be
achieved in re g a rd to these m a tte rs when th e re
were a few m ore w orkers in th e field. So fa r he
did n o t believe th e re h a d been published in th is
co u n try a P a p e r, d ealing w ith sand, by a m an
who was directly in co n tac t w ith th e new er syn­
th e tic sands. H is own experience of sy nthetic
sands was m ore o r less lim ited to w h at he had
learn ed in A m erica, an d it would be of very g re a t
ad v an ta g e to have a P a p e r on sy n th etic sands, so
t h a t foundrym en could com pare notes and see
how f a r ag reem en t could be achieved. H e sug­
gested t h a t on th e I n s titu te ’s S and and R efra c­
to ries Sub-C om m ittee th e re should be someone
connected directly w ith t h a t p a r t of th e in d u stry .
W hen he h ad first suggested th e use of less new
san d in th e fou n d ry he was to ld t h a t his ideas
w ould n o t w ork. H e had decided to ta k e noth in g
fo r g ra n te d an d to w ork only on th e facts dis­
covered, an d as a re su lt very m uch g re a te r
advance h ad been m ade th a n was m ade form erly.
H e had n o t a tta c h e d m uch value to th e old
ideas of th e foundrym en (which in m any cases
were ra th e r “ fan cy ” ,) unless th e y w ere proved
to be facts, an d in th e la s t y e a r he had done
more th a n d u rin g th e n in e y ears preceding it.
 396

Sheffield Branch
ALLOYS IN THE IRONJFOUNDRY

By J. Roxburgh (Member)

Since th e days of th e in tro d u c tio n of t h a t

m isnom er “ sem i-steel,” p ractically th e first
definite a tte m p t to im prove th e p ro p e rtie s of
ca st iron, efforts have been continuously devoted
to t h a t end, re su ltin g in th e developm ent of
alloy c a st iron, a definite adv an cem en t an d one
still p re g n a n t w ith d is tin c t possibilities fo r th e
w ider ap p licatio n of c ast iron.
U ndoubtedly, a g re a t deal of lite r a tu re in th is
connection has been published, an d m any resu lts
of research w ork c a rrie d o u t by in v e stig a to rs,
both a t home an d ab ro ad , h ave been m ade a v a il­
able to th e in d u s try ; y et, very o ften , th e p ra c ­
tic a l d etails of th e fo u n d ry p ractice a n d con­
d itio n s involved have n o t been given th e a tte n ­
tio n th ey rig h tly deserve.
I t is g ran ted ' th a t, generally speaking, i t is
difficult to specify an analysis fo r a c a stin g to
be used fo r a definite purpose u n d e r know n con­
d itions, b u t, hav in g settled t h a t im p o rta n t issue,
it is e n tirely a n o th e r m a tte r to produce such a
castin g , sound, free from w arp , of th e rig h t
dim ensions a n d of c o rrect alloy c o n te n t and
analysis.
Som etim es th ere is a p re v ale n t ten d en cy to
believe t h a t alloys are a cure fo r all ills, b u t,
personally, w here possible, th e a u th o r en d eav o u rs
to g e t th e m ost o u t of o rd in a ry iro n s an d only
resorts to th e use of alloys w here special circu m ­
stances dem and it. W hen all is said a n d done
alloy irons a re m ore expensive, a n d i t h as been
found, in some cases, th a t a m ix tu re of specially-
selected irons a n d scrap h a s given re su lts com­
parable, in so f a r as ten sile, tra n sv e rse a n d
B rinell figures a re concerned. A g ain , alth o u g h
i t m ig h t d is tu rb th e scien tist, th e a u th o r has
 397

actu ally m ade castin g s to re sist abrasion from

a m ix tu re of steel scrap and “ b u rn t ” iron,
w hich, i t will be agreed, is a very cheap m ix­
tu r e indeed. This p a rtic u la r in stan ce is cited
w ith th e object of advising founders to go as
f a r as th ey can w ith o rd in a ry irons before in ­
c u rrin g th e expense of alloy irons. P erh a p s, too,
th e fo u n d er m ig h t have been able to correct some
fa u lt in a c e rta in castin g by th e use of alloys,
b u t t h a t is n o t to say th a t, if he h ad h a d th e
necessary fu n d am e n ta l knowledge, he could no t
have achieved th e same resu lt in some o th e r way.
I t should n o t be th o u g h t, however, th a t an}’
a tte m p t is being m ade to decry th e use of alloys.
P a r from i t ! There is a definite place for them
in th e fo undry in d u stry .
I t is of p a ra m o u n t im portance, a t th is stage,
to em phasise th e fa c t t h a t i t is essen tial for th e
p roducer to be co g n isan t of all th e d etails re­
g a rd in g th e conditions of service of a casting
before any a tte m p t is m ade to specify a suitable
analysis or m ix tu re . W ith th is end in view, it
is re a lly unnecessary to m ention th a t th e closest
co-operation should be m a in ta in e d betw een cus­
to m er an d sup p lier, especially in th e in itia l
stages.
Heat-Resisting Irons
I n th is connection, ta k e , fo r instan ce, th e heat-
re sistin g irons. The w orking te m p e ra tu re
should be s ta te d , w h eth er m a in ta in e d a t th is
te m p e ra tu re fo r sh o rt periods o r continuously,
th e atm osphere w h eth er oxidising o r reducing
o r w h eth er gas-laden c o n ta in in g su lp h u r o r its
com pounds, or w h eth er th e castin g is sub ject to
any corrosive actio n due to acids o r liquors
sim ultaneously. A t th e sam e tim e, th e stre n g th
p ro p erties a t no rm al and elevated te m p e ra tu re s
m u st be given consideration, as it is know n th a t
some good h ea t-re sistin g irons lack stre n g th ,
an d so o th e r typ es h av in g th e necessary stre n g th
m ust be used.
I t is generally assum ed th a t irons c o n tain in g
low to ta l carbon, u n d er m ost conditions, are
b e tte r fo r h e a t resistin g , as th e g ra p h ite is in a
 398

finer form , th ere b y e lim in a tin g th e channels,

w hich a re p re se n t in irons w ith larg e g ra p h ite
flakes, along w hich o x id a tio n c an ta k e place.
On th e o th e r h an d , how ever, sig h t m u st n o t be

lost of those castin g s w hich a re liable to o x id a­

tio n , grow th an d su bsequent cra c k in g due to
th e d ra stic tr e a tm e n t to w hich th e y a re sub­
jected , e.g., in g o t m oulds, w hich, in th e
m a jo rity of cases, a re m ade w ith h e m a tite con­
ta in in g high to ta l carbon, low com bined carbon
 399

a n d la rg e g ra p h ite flakes. The elev ated tem ­

p e ra tu re of th e surfaces in c o n tac t w ith th e
steel, th e expansio n and c o n tra c tio n of th e
mould, dem an d t h a t th e c astin g should possess,
fo r w a n t of a b e tte r te rm , t h a t e la stic ity to
ta k e care of th e strain s. I t will have been
noticed t h a t th e surface of th e m ould a fte r a
num ber of casts begins to show t h a t “ croco­
dile ” app earan ce. I t is p o stu lated th a t , w ith
a m ould c o n tain in g low to ta l carbon, i t would
fa il p re m a tu re ly due to cracking. The a u th o r
once m ade a n in g o t m ould, fo r ex p erim en t, from
th e a ir fu rn ace w ith a h e m a tite base, th e re ­
s u lta n t to ta l carbon being 3 p e r c e n t., and
found th a t , a f te r only tw o o r th re e casts, it was
of no f u r th e r use d u e to cracking.
A gain, th e a u th o r ex p erim en ted on som ewhat
sim ilar lines, only th is tim e w ith a sem i-steel
m ix tu re from th e cupola, w ith a 12-in. d ia. chill,
G in. th ic k fo r a chilled roll, and found th a t
a fte r five casts, to be precise, t h a t i t had
cracked beyond f u r th e r u tility . Som etim es, w ith
preconceived ideas, fou n d ers a re liab le to a ru d e
aw akening.
The conditions of service, too, a re im p o rta n t
w ith reg ard to th e w ear- and abrasio n -resistin g
castings, a n d o ften i t is a question of o b tain in g
a h ig h er hardness value an d u n ifo rm ity of
s tru c tu re to o b ta in an en hanced life. Some­
tim es th e a u th o r has fo u n d th a t , h av in g p re ­
pared an iron solely to re sist ab rasio n , only a fte r
a ctu a l service has it been discovered t h a t cor­
rosion also is ta k in g place due to th e presence
of some liquor, an d so an a lte ra tio n h ad to be
m ade in subsequent castin g s in an endeavour to
c o u n te ra c t th is.
T herefore, altho u g h p erh ap s i t m ay seem
unnecessary to stress th e p o in t, i t is obvious th a t
th e p roducer should be in possession of all th e
facts re la tin g to th e service of th e castin g , before
ever a tte m p tin g to m an u fa c tu re , or even in d i­
cate, th e m ost su itab le m etal.
H av in g decided t h a t fo r these special purposes
th e castin g should co n tain a c e rta in percentage
 400

of alloy or alloys, in q u iry is m ade as to th e form

in which th e various alloys a re av ailab le to th e
fo u n d ry an d as to th e v a rio u s m ethods of a d d i­
tio n . I t is well know n t h a t th e alloy can be
supplied as a ferro-alloy, as p u re in g o t, as sh o t
or in pow der form o r b riq u e tte s. On th e o th er
h an d , special sy n th e tic p ig-irons, to specification,
can be purchased from re p u ta b le firm s w illing to
g u a ra n te e th e analysis. K now ing th a t , in some
cases, th e alloys can be o b tain ed in an y of th e
above form s, i t is o fte n p e rp lex in g , w ith o u t p re ­
vious experience, to know w h eth er i t is w isest to
m ake ladle ad d itio n s in c e rta in cases o r to add
d ire c t to th e fu rn a c e available o r to m ake use of
the special p ig -iro n previously m en tio n ed .
N a tu ra lly , th e m e ltin g p o in t of th e alloy, th e
te m p e ra tu re o b tain ed in th e ladle o r fu rn a c e ,
th e degree of accuracy of co n tro l of th e m etal
desired, an d , in th ese days p a rtic u la rly , th e
co m parative e x tr a cost o f th e alloy a d d itio n , by
w hatever m eans, a re a ll p o in ts to be considered
before a rriv in g a t an y decision.
A t th is ju n c tu re , th e re fo re , i t w ould be ad v is­
able to consider th e v ario u s m e ltin g u n its in
gen eral use to -d ay in c o n ju n ctio n w ith th ese
alloy ad d itio n s. The cupola suggests itse lf for
p rim a ry co nsideratio n as probably i t is th e m ost
common ty p e of fu rn a c e used.
Introduction of Chromium
I n connection w ith th e cupola, th e in tro d u c tio n
of chrom ium w ill be considered first. I t is
known t h a t th is elem en t can be added a s ferro-
chrom e, co n ta in in g up to 70 to 80 p e r c e n t. C r
as desired, an d from carb o n -free u p to 8 to
10 p e r c e n t., a n d a g a in as chrom ium b riq u e tte s,
usually co n ta in in g little o r no carbon. The fe rro ­
alloy is added in lum ps an d , ow ing to th e h ig h
m elting p o in t of th e alloy, a p p ro x im a tely 1,580
deg. C., w hich is low ered w ith in c rea sin g carbon,
i t is som ew hat difficult to o b ta in com plete lique­
factio n , w hich m ig h t lead to th e o ccurrence of
h a rd spots in th e ca stin g , a n d th e re is also to
be ta k e n in to acco u n t th e ap p reciab le loss by
o x id atio n . In th e usu al com m ercial g ra d es of
ferro-chrom e, th e chrom ium fo r th e g re a te r p a r t
 401

is alread y p rese n t in th e carbide form and, con­

sequently, i t is difficult to m elt, an d v ariable
resu lts are liable to be o b tain ed . H owever,
owing to circum stances, th e jobbing founder
o ften has to re so rt to th is m ethod fo r ad ding
chrom ium , b u t w ith good cupola p ractice and
lab o rato ry contro l i t is su rp risin g how satisfac­
tory are th e re su lts obtained.
The im portan ce of o b tain in g h o t m etal when
d ealing w ith alloy m e ta l m u st be stressed, and

F ig . 2 .— M ic ro s t r u c t u r e of M e ta l fo r
C a s tin g s in F ig . 1. x 100.

generally th e a u th o r would m ake su re th a t th e

coke bed was well b u r n t to en su re a h o t h e arth ,
an d w ould p u t e x tr a coke in th e se p a ra tin g
charges. The re su ltin g h o t m etal can th e n th e
more read ily be d e a lt w ith, an d especially if chill
te sts are ta k e n , w hen th e m etal has to sta n d a t
least J h r. a n d longer if th e d ep th of chill has
to be a d ju s te d by th e a d d itio n of so ft m etal.
W ith chrom ium b riq u ette s, c o n ta in in g little
carbon, liquefactio n tak e s place m ore read ily
an d rapidly, owing to th e ir lower m eltin g point.
 402

These b riq u ettes yield th e ir chrom ium to th e

m olten iro n w ith o u t ab so rp tio n of carb o n and
w ith p ractically no loss. U n fo rtu n a te ly these
b riq u ettes are expensive, b u t rec en tly a firm has
commenced m ak in g b riq u e tte s w ith 4 to 6 p er

cent. C a t th e sam e price as ferro-chrom e. The

ad d itio n of pow dered ferro-chrom e to th e ladle
should n o t be en co u rag ed , a lth o u g h , probably,
some fo u n d ries still a d h e re to th is p rac tic e when
dealing w ith sm aller ad d itio n s. T he a u th o r
stro n g ly recom m ends those fo u n d ries n o t h av in g
 403

th e services of a chem ist o r lab o rato ry to use

sy n th etic pig-irons, w hich probably m ake th e
re s u lta n t iron d earer, b u t which, u n d e r such
circum stances, would prove ch eap er in th e long
ru n .

Addition of Nickel
R e g ard in g nickel, th is can be added to th e
cupola in th e form of N i in g o t or sheet and
ap p roxim ately 2{r p er cent, loss should be allowed
for. In th e m ain , th e resu lts ob tain ed w ith
sand castings are fairly reliable, alth o u g h th e
 404

high m eltin g p o in t of th is elem en t a g a in m ili­

ta te s a g a in s t o b ta in in g com plete liq u e fa c tio n and
sa tisfa c to ry d is trib u tio n in th e m etal. P ro v id ed
th a t th e re is sufficient m etal to be ru n in to a ladle,
th e “ F ” nickel sh o t can be added down th e

spout. T his sh o t h as a low er m e ltin g p o in t,

a p p ro x im ately 1,260 deg. C., an d c o n tain s
92 p er cen t. N i a n d ab o u t 6 to 8 p er c en t. Si.
This m ethod has given in p ra c tic e fa irly con­
s is te n t an d sa tisfa c to ry resu lts. W ith referen ce
to m olybdenum , th is is av ailab le as ferro-m olyb-
 405

denum , c o n tain in g 80 p er cent. Mo, a n d no loss

should be allowed on m eltipg. The a u th o r has
fo u n d from experience t h a t i t is essential to
m elt iro n co n ta in in g Mo, tw ice or even th ree

P
PS
O

K
Q

tim es before u n ifo rm ity of analysis and stru c ­

tu re is obtained.
The a u th o r strongly advocates t h a t before
po u rin g alloy irons th ey be boiled up w ith a
“ robbler,” m ade by fixing a piece of wood in
th e end of a long tu b e, which is sim ply in serted
 406

in th e m etal, an d , by th is m eans, a c o rrect

m ixing is ob tain ed .
F u r th e r com plications arise w ith cupola m elt­
ing, how ever, a n d th e m ost m eticu lo u s c a re is
req u ired if good re su lts a re desired. O wing to
the c h a ra c te r of its w ork, th e req u ire m e n ts of
alloy iron in a jo b b in g fo u n d ry v a ry fro m day
to day. Some days i t m ig h t be only a case of
10 cwts. req u ired , o th e r days 1 o r 2 to n s, w h ilst
a n o th e r possibility is t h a t of 3 o r 4 to n s, o r even
m ore, co n ta in in g v a ry in g a m o u n ts of alloy or
alloys on th e sam e blow. All th ese p o ssibilities
c re a te th e ir own difficulties. I n an y case, if
possible, th e special iro n should be p u t on first
a n d charged in excess of re q u ire m en ts to avoid
c o n tam in atio n of iro n follow ing. I t is alw ays
possible to p o u r th e e x tr a down a n d m ak e u sefu l
scrap, o r a rra n g e fo r th e e x tr a to he m ix ed w ith
th e iron follow ing an d p u t in some su ita b le
castin g . G re a t care, too, m u st be ex ercised w ith
th e o rd er of ch arg in g , a n d th e ferro-alloys should
be add ed w ith th e first ch arg e so t h a t th e f u r th e r
charges com prising th e m ix tu re will b rin g down
th e alloy in to th e c o rre c t ladle. I f th e price
ob tain ed fo r th e castin g s w a rra n ts it, i t is m uch
easier, from a co n tro l p o in t of view , to buy
special pig-irons. W ith tw o m eltin g s, also, th e
m etal is ren d e re d m ore u n ifo rm . I n th is con­
nection, w here possible, i t pay s a fo u n d e r to
consider th e m a n u fa c tu re of his ow n iro n by
e ith e r ru n n in g down in itia lly fro m th e cupola
in to pigs, w-hen pro b ab ly i t w ould be necessary to
d esulphurise, or, b e tte r still, fro m M s a i r f u r ­
nace, w here no su lp h u r g a in is reg iste re d an d
w here he can o b ta in a low to ta l carb o n , to allow
fo r th e carbon pick-up on re m e ltin g in th e
cupola.

Air and Rotary Furnaces

In an a ir fu rn a c e , of course, th e b a th of
m olten m etal is n o t in c o n ta c t w ith th e fu el and
o x id atio n of th e v ario u s elem en ts in th e iron
ta k e s place. Now, w ith o u t p rev io u s ex p erien ce,
i t is a problem to know w hen to ad d th e alloy
or alloys, i.e., a t w h a t su ita b le stag e of m e ltin g ,
 407

and so, if we ta k e ferro-chrom e, fo r exam ple,

you will find t h a t it is advisable to add th is alloy
to th e b a th a few hours before all th e m etal is
a ctu a lly in a m olten condition, th e tim e, of
course, depend in g on th e w eight of alloy to be
added. F o r in stan ce, 2 cwts. of ferro-chrom e
should be add ed to 10 to n s of m etal 3 hrs.
before you consider th e m etal will be all m elted.
E ven in th is ty p e of fu rn ace th e te m p e ra tu re

j r I(j . 7. M IC K O ST IIT JC T U R E OF M etal c o n t a in in g

50 p e r cent . H e m a t it e and A llot free .

x 100.

obtained is n o t really sufficiently high to ensure

th e best m eltin g conditions fo r th e complete
liq u efactio n of th e ferro-chrom e, b u t b e tte r re ­
su lts are obtain ed in th is resp ect th a n in th e
cupola. Ferro-m olybdenum and nickel in g o t
should be added w ith th e charge, a n d p ra c ti­
cally no loss allowed for. F a irly consistent
resu lts have been o b tain ed w ith th e various
alloys in th e a ir fu rn ac e u p to percentages
round ab o u t 1 to 1.5 p e r cent.
 408

Of course, w ith th e a d v e n t of th e ro ta ry f u r ­
nace, alloys can be d e a lt w ith still m ore success­
fully, as th e te m p e ra tu re o b tain ed is m uch
h igher. I n th e case of chrom ium , i t can be
added in th e form of lum p ferro-chrom e, 60 to 70
p e r cent. C r a n d 2 to 4 p e r cen t. C, e ith e r w ith
th e cold charg e o r when th e ch arg e is ju s t be­
com ing soft. Possibly th e la t te r is th e b e tte r
p ractice, alth o u g h no ap p reciab le difference is
found in th e o x id atio n , w hich, in b o th cases,
averages 10 to 15 p e r c en t. W ith 70 p e r cen t.
C r an d 6 to 8 p e r cen t. C, th e ferro-chrom e
could be added even f h r. before ta p p in g . W ith
reg ard to nickel, “ F ” nickel sh o t is fav o u red ,
p u t in tin s co n ta in in g , say, ab o u t 56 lbs. This
m ay be added 25 m in u tes before ta p p in g , when
th e b a th is q u ite h o t a n d fluid. I t is a definite
a d v a n ta g e to have a good fluid slag so th a t,
from th e physical p o in t of view, th e alloy has
no tro u b le in g e ttin g th ro u g h . V ery special alloy
irons, e.g., N i-R esist o r N im ol o r N icro silal a re
best m elted in crucible fu rn aces, w h ilst oil-fired
fu rn aces can be used fo r iro n s c o n ta in in g 27 / 30
per cent. Cr. M eltin g losses in v ario u s ty p es of
furnaces are shown in Table I.

Chromium Irons
W hen alloyed w ith c a st iro n , C r form s h a rd
complex carbides a n d help s to refine th e m a trix ,
a n d fo r these reasons ren d ers th e iro n su itab le
fo r abrasion- an d h e a t-re sistin g castin g s u n d e r
c e rta in conditions. A g ain , in o rd e r to re s ist th e
actio n of oxidising gases, c o n ta in in g S com­
pounds, h ig h c o n ten ts e ith e r of C r, Si o r A1 m u st
be used in th e castin g s. As th e c arb id es are
stable, th e a d d itio n of even sm all q u a n titie s
of C r m akes c a st iro n re s is ta n t to th e actio n of
h eat, an d consequently i t re ta in s its special
q u alities a t h ig h te m p e ra tu re s. F a m ilia r a p p li­
cations are firebars, fu rn a c e p a rts , re to rts , a n ­
n ealing pots, etc.
W here te m p e ra tu re s a re m a in ta in e d fo r long
periods an d g ro w th is likely to occur, a n iro n
w ith low T .C ., low S i, com m ensurate, of course,
 2

ÏÀ
O
Ch

T .C . M n. M o.

OQ
409

Per cent. Per ce n t. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. I Per cent.
Cup ola + 5 -1 0 - 10-15 - 25 + 0 .0 3 0 - 2* - 25 N il
Air fu rn ace - 10-15 - 25 - 2 5 -3 0 + 0 .0 1 0 - 24 - 20 N il
Sesci r o ta ry - 5 -1 0 - 10 - 10 + 0 .0 2 0 - 10-15 N il
 410

w ith th e section of th e castin g an d th e C r con­

te n t, will w ith sta n d te m p e ra tu re s up to , say,
800 deg. C. W here C r is alloyed by itse lf,
m ach in in g m u st be considered, i.e., th e p e rc en t­
age of C r an d Si, a n d section of m etal, should
be correlated. P erso n al ex perience is t h a t 3 .1 /
3.2 p er cen t. T .C ., 1.2 p e r cen t. Si c an be used,
fo r in stan ce, w ith 0.7 p e r cent. C r m axim um
on 1-in. section an d still p e rm it of m ach in in g
a t 25 f t. p e r m in . w ith a high-speed tool. I t
is rem ark ab le th e effect t h a t coke e x e rts on c a st
iron w ith re g a rd to ab rasio n , a n d so m any
ap p licatio n s of c a st iro n a re fo u n d c o n ta in in g
C r in th is d irectio n , e.g., coke-shute p lates, lin er
plates fo r coke-oven cars, coke-screening c astin g s,
etc. V ery o ften in coke-oven p la n t, too, th e re is
th e du al action of ab rasio n a n d corrosion from
th e ta r r y liquors.
W ith chilled su rfaces C r increases th e shore
hardness an d th e refo re , unless c ra c k in g occurs
p rem atu rely , gives increased service. I n th e a t ­
te m p t to avoid c rack in g w ith chilled surfaces,
i t is advisable to keep th e C r c o n te n t a t 0.4 p er
cent, m axim um . C r also te n d s to p re v e n t th e
loss of chill from th e test-p iece to th e ca stin g .

Chilled Cr-Alloy Rolls

C hilled Cr-alloy c ast-iro n rolls h ave now been
some tim e in fash io n , and th e m ost common
ty p e is th e Cr-M o, w here longer service is
claim ed and a stro n g e r roll o b tain ed . In th e
early days v ariab le re su lts w ere o b ta in e d , b u t
some success has u n d o u b ted ly accru ed since.
W ith re g a rd to g ra in rolls, co n ta in in g low T.C.
an d cast from th e a ir fu rn a c e , i t h as been cus­
to m ary fo r a long tim e to in tro d u c e 0.5 p er cen t.
C r, an d doubtless th e com b in atio n of th e tw o,
i.e., low T.C. fo r s tre n g th a n d C r fo r w ear, gives
a splendid roll. N ickel is o fte n alloyed along
w ith C r in ca st iro n a n d gives im proved s tre n g th ,
w earing p ro p ertie s and o ften good h e a t-re sistin g
p ro p erties. The a u th o ritie s g en erally recom m end
th e ad d itio n of N i of th re e tim es th e C r c o n ten t.
ivi-C r alloys have a w ide a p p lic a tio n fo r m o to r­
car com ponents such as cylin d ers a n d cy lin d er
 411

heads. A dditions of nickel help to im prove th e

q u ality of cast iro n , hy refining th e g ra in and
m aking unequal sections m ore u n ifo rm in
s tru c tu re . I t elim in ates h a rd spots, th ereb y
assistin g ease of m achining, and by e n su rin g a
closer-grained iro n im proves p ressu re tig h tn ess
an d also increases resistance to w ear and te m ­
p e ra tu re . G enerally, th e silicon is lowered when
N i is added, as N i acts sim ilarly to S i, only p re­
c ip ita tin g th e g ra p h ite in a finer s ta te of
division. H ow ever, in an atm osphere co n tain in g
S or its com pounds, N i should be avoided owing
to th e fo rm atio n of N i S a t com paratively low
te m p e ra tu re s. A dditions of N i up to 5 p er cent,
give an iro n co n tain in g a p e a rlitic m a trix , w hilst
betw een 5 an d 15 per cent, i t becomes m ainly
m arte n sitic and g re a t hard n ess is obtained.
Above 15 p er cen t, approx. th e irons are
com pletely a u ste n itic . The a u ste n itic irons are
p ractically non-m agnetic, and w ith 10 p er cent.
N i an d 5 per cen t. M n th e well-known N omag
is obtain ed , w hilst N i-R esist an d N icrosilal are
o th e r exam ples of a u ste n itic irons.
Effect of Molybdenum
T he a d d itio n of Mo to c a st iro n produces a
m ore u n ifo rm d is trib u tio n of th e g ra p h ite , w ith
consequent refin em en t of th e stru c tu re . I t also
toughens th e m a trix and re ta rd s g ra in grow th.
I t is claim ed to increase th e tensile, tran sv erse
an d B rin ell, y e t n o t enough is know n of th e
effect of th is elem ent on cast iro n and fu rth e r
developm ents m u st be aw aited . A t any ra te it
is an expensive elem en t an d should only be used
in very special cases. B rak e drum s a re m ade
in A m erica w ith 0 .2 /0 .4 p er cent. Mo, w hilst
c e rta in castings, w ith which th e a u th o r has come
in co n tact, have co n tain ed as m uch as 2 p er cent.
I t is said t h a t 0.20 p er cen t. Mo to an ingot
m ould increases th e life given. Mo is now used
fo r q u ite a nu m b er of chilled rolls, e.g., strip
an d sh eet rolls, and claim s are m ade fo r increased
service, less break ag e, less fre q u e n t dressing and
a b e tte r finish on th e rolled p roducts. W ith
some rolls N i, Gr and M o are alloyed to g eth er.
 412

F o r a long tim e th e effect of m an g an ese on

c a st iron seems to have fallen in to th e b a ck ­
g round, an d one is a p t to n eg lect th e im p o rt­
ance of a d d itio n of h ig h M n fro m th e p o in t of
view of h e a t re sistin g a n d h ard n ess. T ake, for
instance, in g o t m oulds. Some ex p erim en ts con­
ducted on sm all m oulds in d ic a te d t h a t betw een
1.5 an d 2 p e r cen t. M n th e r e was an optim um
co n ten t, w hich gav e th e b e st re su lts in service.

F ig . 8 .— M i c r o s t r u c t u r e o f S im ila r M e ta l
w ith A d d itio n o f 0.3 p e r c e n t. Cr and
1 per c e n t. N i. x 100.

A gain, w ith chilled safe p lates, a h ig h T .C .,

ab o u t 3.8 p er c e n t., a M n, in th e reg io n of
1.2 p e r c en t., w ith low S, effectively resisted
th e blow pipe an d d rill of th e b u rg la r. M n,
a g ain ab o u t 1 p e r c e n t., gives th e fo u n d e r th e
necessary m edium w hereby w ith a fa irly low
T.C. he can o b ta in B rin ell h ard n esses of th e
o rd er of 200 to 220, d em anded on slide faces by
th e m achine-tool m ak er. I t w ill be n o ticed ,
too, t h a t M n is specified ab o u t 1 p e r c en t, in
m ost of th e well-known special irons, e.g., N i-
 413

R esist an d N icrosilal. W ith su g ar rolls, w here

a rough su rface is req u ired to g rip th e sugar
canes, 5 to 6 p er cent. M n is in co rp o rated to
ensure a coarse g ra in . H ow ever, on th e o th er
hand, a high M n chill, o b tain ed on chilled rolls,
does n o t give as good re su lts as a roll c o n tain in g
low M n content.
I n th e contro l of alloy irons, th e chill te s t
is invaluable in th e foundry, as th e d ep th of
chill th ro w n on such a te s t in d icates ap p ro x i­
m ately th e balance of th e various co n stitu en ts,
a n d i t is especially h elp fu l in th e case of castings
which have to bo m achined, when, from ex p eri­
ence, one can find a definite m axim um chill for
ease of m achin in g .
I t has been th e a u th o r’s endeavour to p u t
fo rw ard a p ra c tic a l m a n ’s views of alloys in th e
iron fou n d ry , an d alth o u g h th eo ry an d p ractice
m u st go to g e th e r to g e t th e b est resu lts, he feels
t h a t th e p ra c tic a l m an som etim es is c o n te n t to
m iss a splendid o p p o rtu n ity . A p ra ctic a l m an
w ith a technical know ledge h as always th e a d v an ­
ta g e over th e p urely scientific in d iv id u al because,
in v ariab ly , i t is th e p ra c tic a l m an who m u st be
consulted w hen some scientific id ea is to be p u t
to a p ra c tic a l te s t. T herefore th e a u th o r strongly
u rg es th e p ra c tic a l m an , especially w ith th e
facilities t h a t e x ist to -day for learn in g , to
acquire th e tech n ical side of his job a n d thereby
fit him self fo r th e h ig h e st position in th e
fou n d ry , a position which he oug h t, by v irtu e of
his p ra c tic a l experience, to hold, and if he does
not, i t is en tire ly his own fa u lt.
 414

Scottish Branch
GREY-IRON CASTINGS FOR LAUNDRY
MACHINERY

By J. Longden (Member)

T here is offered to th e m odern la u n d ry m a n , by

m a n u fa c tu re rs of la u n d ry m ach in ery , a w ide
ran g e of m echanical aids to his w ork. In conse­
quence, th e re a re few in d u strie s w hich a re m ore
highly m echanised th a n th e la u n d ry tra d e . The
m achines in use include, in an ex ten siv e ra n g e
of designs an d cap acities, w ashing m achines,
hydro e x tra c to rs, iro n in g m achines an d presses.
D esigners of these v ario u s ty p es of m achines a re
co n tin u ally in tro d u c in g im provem ents of one
k in d or a n o th er, w ith a view to in cre a sin g th e ir
cap acity or th e q u a lity of th e w ork done by th em .
The m odern la u n d ry m achine is, th e re fo re , a
first-class en g in ee rin g job, m ak in g a serious call
upon th e cap ab ilities of those en g ag ed in th e ir
co n stru ctio n . U pw ards of 95 p er cen t, of th e
m a te ria l b u ilt up in to th ese m achines consists
of castings, in cast iro n , bronzes, brasses and
alu m inium . The b u lk of th ese castin g s, how­
ever, u p to ab o u t 97 p e r c en t., a re m ade in g rey
cast iron, an d i t is to th e m ak in g of a few re p re ­
se n ta tiv e ty p es of th ese iro n castin g s t h a t
a tte n tio n is here d irected .
An iro n in g m achine m ay w eigh a n y th in g up to
23 tons, d ep en d in g u p o n th e n u m b er of rollers,
which m ay v a ry from one (in th e “ D ecoudun ”
ty p e) to e ig h t or n in e. I n F ig . 1 is show n a six-
roller T ullis ' iro n in g m achine in service. It
consists essentially of stro n g cast-iro n cheeks,
upon w hich a re b u ilt th e steam -h e ated b ed s’
rollers, g e a rin g an d g u a rd s, w hich to g e th e r do
th e w ork of iro n in g an d d ry in g th e goods as
th ey a re passed th ro u g h th e m achine. F ig . 2
shows a T ullis tw o-roller starch w o rk iro n er.
 415
I ts co n stitu e n t p a rts are essentially sim ilar to
t h a t of th e m achine shown in F ig . 1, th e differ­
ence lying m ainly in th e size and shape of th e
beds a n d rollers. The cheek castings p re se n t no
serious difficulties and call for no com m ent. The

.
S
Me r v ic e
in
a c h in e
I h o n in g
.
Fu l l is
1 .— T
ig

problem s associated w ith th e m aking of cast gears

an d g ear blanks h ave been discussed by th e
a u th o r in o th e r P a p e rs. The castings which
presen t th e g re a te st difficulty to th e foundry-
m an in these m achines are th e beds. These are
 416

m ade in v ary in g sizes an d s h a p e s ; th e one th in g

common to th e m a ll being t h a t each is a steam -
tig h t chest, one (hollow) su rface of w hich m u st
be a flawless polished su rface. F ig . 3 shows a
24-in. by 120 in. (D ecoudun ty p e) bed, w ith th e

M ach in e.
Ironing
S tarch w o rk
2.—T u llís
F ig .

polished, w orking face down. T his bed w ill be

used here to illu s tra te th e g e n e ra l problem .
F ig . 4 shows a cross-section of th e bed, a n d a
lo n g itu d in al section (sm aller scale). The ca stin g
as i t leaves th e fo u n d ry w eighs n early 33 cwts.
 417

The o p e ra tin g su rface of th is iro n er bed has a

m achined and highly-polished surface of nearly
32 sq. f t., w hich is cast down. T hough th e
w orking steam p ressure is only in th e region of
100 lbs. p e r sq. in ., these castings m u st toe
classed as h ig h -d u ty castings. They are expected
to give sa tisfac to ry service for a period of
upw ards of 20 years. This m eans th a t they
m u st n o t d is to rt or lose m uch of th e ir m echanical
s tre n g th in service. F u rth e r, these castings are
su b jected to rep eated h eatin g s to tem p e ra tu re s
ap p ro ach in g 200 deg. C. each w orking day, and
cooling d u rin g each n ig h t. E very artic le passed
th ro u g h th e m achine a b strac ts h e a t from th e

F ig . 3.— A 24 in . x 120 in . D eco u d un B ed .

o p e ra tin g face of th e castin g locally. I t has

been estim ated t h a t some 30 per cent, of th e
w eight of th e articles, p rio r to passing u n d er
th e rollers, is w ater. The sudden and rep eated
local ap p licatio n of w et cloth on th e surface of
th e bed sets up co n tin u a l stresses and stra in s in
th e castin g , ow ing to v ary in g contractio n s and
expansions.
A m etal su itab le fo r th is w ork m u st have cer­
ta in definite q u alities. I t m u st be of high
tensile s tre n g th , highly rig id an d y e t capable
of “ b re a th in g ” w ith o u t fra c tu re . I t m ust
show th e m inim um grow th of g ra p h ite (conse­
q u en t upon th e breaking-dow n of combined
carbon) on long-continued h ea tin g and cooling

p
 418

to and from 200 deg. C. over long p eriods of

tim e ; fo r a red u c tio n in th e p ro p o rtio n of com­
bined carbon in a ca stin g re su lts in a serious
red u ctio n in m echanical stre n g th , an d also in
g ro w th or d isto rtio n .

A good deal of w ork h as been done u pon th is

su b ject d u rin g th e la s t 25 y e a rs by v a rio u s in ­
v estig ato rs, b u t probably th e m ost h e lp fu l in
th is p a rtic u la r connection h as been t h a t of Cam ­
pion an d D onaldson. I n a P a p e r* re a d to th e
L an cash ire B ran c h of th e I n s titu te in 1926,

* Proceedings, I .B .F ., Vol. x x , 1928-7, p. 513.

 410

D r. D onaldson gave th e resu lts of a very com­

prehensive series of ex p erim en ts, an d he arriv ed
a t conclusions which confirm an d sim plify th e
resu lts of o th e r in v estig ato rs. H e showed th a t
decom position of carbide in grey iron tak e s place
a t te m p e ra tu re s as low as 200 deg. C. (it cer­
ta in ly tak es place a t even lower tem p e ra tu re s),
t h a t th e e x te n t of th e decom position depends
upon th e am o u n t of th e silicon c o n ten t, being
m ore pronounced th e g re a te r th e q u a n tity , and
th a t it also depends upon th e te m p e ra tu re and
d u ra tio n of th e h e a t-tre a tm e n t. H e fu rth e r
found t h a t th e re exists a critica l co ndition a t
round a b o u t 1 p e r cent, silicon, a t which carbide
decom position is a t a m inim um . Any h ig h er
silicon p ro p o rtio n resu lts in a m ore ra p id de­
com position. D r. D onaldson’s conclusions con­
siderably n arro w th e search fo r a su itab le grey
iron fo r th e purposes here u n d e r consideration.
Iro n s of high silicon c o n ten t are clearly quite
u n su itab le, even when, as in th e case of th e
Thyssen Em m el iro n , i t is associated w ith low
to tal-carb o n . Iro n s of th is o rd er have a to ta l
carbon c o n te n t of from 2.4 to 2.8 p e r cent,
to g e th e r w ith a silicon c o n te n t of 2 o r m ore p er
cent. I n th e course of th e discussion following
th e re a d in g of th e P a p e r re fe rre d to above, D r.
D onaldson pointed o u t t h a t he h a d c arried o u t
a te s t w ith an iro n co n ta in in g 1.78 p er cent,
silicon a n d 2.75 to ta l carbon, and t h a t a fte r
200 h rs .’ tr e a tm e n t a t 550 deg. C. th e carbide
decomposed to th e e x te n t of 48 p er cent.
I n some resu lts published by C am pion and
D onaldson in 1922,* an iron which had been
h e a t-tre a te d , c o n ta in in g a to ta l carbon of 2.8,
gave no m ore resistan ce to grow th th a n irons
w ith 3.3 p er cent. The reasonable conclusion
is t h a t irons w ith h ig h silicon co n ten ts, even
when associated w ith low to ta l carbon, m ust
rap id ly lose some of th e ir in itia l stre n g th on
rep eated h e a tin g an d cooling, and t h a t th e ra te
of th a t loss of s tre n g th is very m uch g re a te r
th a n in th e case of irons h av in g low silicon
* Proceedings, I.B .F ., Vol. xv, 1921-22, p. 211.

P2
 420

co n ten t. W ith th e loss of s tre n g th due to

carbide decom position th e re is alw ays associated
grow th, a n d w here t h a t g row th is u neven th e re
follows d isto rtio n . T h ough th e carb id e decom­
position in an iro n er bed m u st be very slow, it
should be rem em bered th a t, in five y e a rs’ tim e ,
it w ill have been h eate d fo r 8 hrs. each day
and cooled d u rin g th e n ig h t some 1,400 tim es.
I n th is connection th e m icro p h o to g rap h shown
a t F ig . 5 h as in te re s t I t w as ta k e n fro m a
piece of an old iro n e r bed w hich h a d been in
service fo r 28 years. F ro m its com position, it
probably h ad an o rig in a l carb id e c o n te n t of
ab o u t 0.5 p er c e n t., to g e th e r w ith a silicon con­
te n t of 2.0 p e r cen t. As will be seen, th e com­
bined carbon h as alm o st e n tire ly b ro k en down,
th e s tru c tu r e con sistin g alm ost e n tire ly of
fe rrite , te m p e r carbon a n d g ra p h ite .
A n iron in or a p p ro ach in g th is co n d itio n has
lost a good deal of its rig id ity a n d m echanical
s tre n g th a n d is likely to d is to rt o r fra c tu re
u n d e r com parativ ely lig h t load in g .
I n th e P ap er* re a d by C am pion an d D o n ald ­
son in 1922 a good deal of lig h t w as th ro w n u pon
th e influence of m anganese. They proved t h a t
th is elem en t exercises a pow erful influence in
re ta rd in g grow th on rep e a te d h e a tin g s a n d cool­
ings. B u t th ey also showed t h a t m an g an e se, in
pro p o rtio n s above 1 p er c e n t., induces a n a c tu a l
sh rin k ag e in volum e a fte r a few h e a tin g s a n d
coolings to a n d from 500 deg. C. D onaldson also
noticed th e sam e phenom enon in th e case of
chrom ium ad d itio n s to c a st iron. W h a t in flu ­
ence these elem ents h ave in th e case of rep e a te d
h eatin g s an d coolings to a n d fro m te m p e ra tu re s
no h ig h er th a n 200 deg. C. is a t p re s e n t u n ­
know n. T h a t th e y w ill help to m a in ta in
u n im p aired th e m echanical s tre n g th is in d u b it­
able. On th e o th e r h an d , in a case such as an
iro n er bed w here h e a tin g (ow ing to service con­
ditions) is uneven, a n d w here a n im p o rta n t con­
sid eratio n is absence of d isto rtio n , a te n d en c y to
u neven sh rin k ag e in size m ig h t g ive re s u lts as
* Proceedings, I .B .F ., Vol. x v , 1921-22, p. 211.
 421

F ig. 5.—Photomicrograph of a very old Ironer

Bed taken at the Cross Section of a patch
AFTER 28 Y E A R S I N S E R V IC E . X 800 D I A S .
The Combined Carbon is 0.14 per cent.

u n satisfacto ry as those due to grow th. The

w rite r th erefo re concludes th a t, in th e lig h t of
p resen t know ledge, a m anganese c o n te n t of
ab o u t 0.8 p er cen t, w ould a p p ear to offer th e
 422

m axim um ad v a n ta g e fo r w ork such as is here

being considered, w h ilst ad d itio n s of chrom ium
would be of d o u b tfu l u tility .
I n view of these co n sid eratio n s, th e iron used
for th e bed shown in F ig s. 3 an d 4 has a com­
position of th e o rd e r of silicon 1.0 ; com bined
carbon 0 .8 ; g ra p h ite carbon 2 .4 ; m anganese 0 .8 ;
phosphorus 0.3, and su lp h u r 0.1 p er cen t. Such

F ig . 6.—P hotomicrograph op I ron now Used

for B ed Castings, x 500.

an iron has a high resistan ce to carb id e de­

com position a n d a ten sile stre n g th a v e ra g in g
17 to n s p e r sq. in. c a st in a te s t b a r 1^ in . d ia.
an d m ach in in g down to 0.798 in. d ia . The
m etal leaves th e cupola a t a te m p e ra tu re in th e
region of 1,400 deg. C., an d th e m oulds a re
c a st a t round ab o u t 1,330 to 1,350 deg. C. The
m etal is m ade u p of S co ttish h e m a tite s and
steel. I t is h ig h ly fluid a t th e te m p e ra tu re s
used, g iving a close-grained a n d e n tire ly sa tis­
facto ry m etal.
 423

The m icrophotog rap h a t F ig . 6 shows th e stru c ­

tu r e of th is m etal tak en from a te s t-h a r cast
a t 1i in. d iam eter. I t re p rese n ts a m agnifica­
tio n of 500 diam eters. The m icro stru ctu re,
w hich is of fine p e a rlite an d sorbite, indicates
considerable s tre n g th . The tensile s tre n g th of
th is m e ta l is probably equal to w h at can be
a tta in e d in day to day workshop p ractice, w here
T hyssen E m m el iron is in re g u la r use (one
B ritis h licensee sta te s t h a t stre n g th a t 14-20
to n s p e r sq. in .), an d w ith o u t th e disadvantages
re su ltin g from high silicon contents.
In service th e beds rest a t each end on flanges
on th e cheeks, and are stressed in , m uch the
sam e way as is a te s t-b a r u n d e r tran sv erse
loading. The load is n o t of a high ord er, being
in th e region of h alf a to n d istrib u te d m ore or
less evenly, by th e roller, along its len g th . To
th is m u st be added th e g ra v ita tio n a l pull of th e
b ed ’s own w eight. The loading is in te rm itte n t
an d rep eated , an d ta k e s place when th e bed is
a t a te m p e ra tu re ap p ro ach in g 200 deg. C. If
th e m etal is of a q u a lity w hich, being high in
silicon co n ten t, is predisposed to carbide de­
com position an d te n d s to become fe rritic , i t will
te n d to e x te n d u n d e r rep e a ted loading on th e
side of th e bed w hich is p u t in ten sio n , i.e., th e
u n d e r side. T his resu lts in a slig h t sag in th e
m iddle of th e bed, which, th o u g h only in th e
region of a few th o u sa n d th s of an inch, m ilitates
a g a in s t m axim um efficiency. This sag m ay be­
come ev id e n t a f te r 5 to 10 y ears’ work. I t is
th e re fo re q u ite clear t h a t any iron which has
a h ig h silicon co n ten t, an d which is, conse­
q u en tly , predisposed to ra p id carb id e decomposi­
tio n , is n o t suitab le fo r w ork of th is ch aracter.
The p ractice of th e a u th o r’s firm is to cast these
beds in a m etal which has a h ig h degree of
carbide sta b ility , e n su rin g m axim um stren g th
over m any years of service. This is supple­
m ented m echanically by th e provision, a t th e
cen tre of each bed, of a su p p o rt which is ad ju sted
to ta k e u p th e fu ll load. C onsequently th e
possibility of sag is reduced to th e b arest
m inim um .
 424

The m oulds fo r th ese c astin g s a re ram m ed u p

from a p a tte rn in d ry sand. The san d used has,
as a base, S co ttish rock sand. T he m oulding
calls fo r no special m en tio n , ex c e p t t h a t n o th in g
less th a n first-class w orkm anship is good enough.
V ery c arefu l ram m in g an d finishing of th e m ould
is im p erativ e, fo r a m ould o r core scab will give
an u n sa tisfa c to ry c astin g . I t is essen tial t h a t
th e m ould should be th o ro u g h ly d ried , firstly
because of th e n eed fo r avoidance of scabs a n d ,
secondly, so t h a t th e re shall be no w a te r v a p o u r
in th e m ould p rio r to castin g .
The core fo r a castin g of th is c h a ra c te r is a
serious proposition. A view of a core fo r a
sm aller bed th a n th e one u n d e r co n sid eratio n
is seen h a n g in g from th e c ran e in F ig . 7. The
co n stru ctio n of th e core fo r th e bed shown a t
F ig . 4 is sim ilar. As will be seen, i t is ju s t a
shell, 2f in. th ick n ess, ta p e rin g down a t th e
ends of th e horns. T h ro u g h th e core, jo in in g
up th e in n e r and o u te r walls, are 70 webs, v a ry ­
ing from 6 to 9 in. long, b u t only a few of th em
a re of th e sh o rte r len g th . These b re a k u p th e
c o n tin u ity of th e core m ass. The iro nw ork of
th e core consists of lig h t iro n b rid g es th re a d e d
on six steel tubes. The tu b e s h ave a n inside
d iam eter of 1 in. a n d an ou tsid e d ia m e te r of
1-J in. These tu b e s a re d rilled along th e ir le n g th
every six inches fo r v e n tin g , a n d serve t h a t
purpose ad equately , w ith th e a id of a series of
w ax ven ts in th e region of th e h o rn s of th e core.
The core is m ade by strick le, bein g stru c k up
d irectly upon a c ast-iro n p la te g iv in g th e e x a c t
co n to u r of th e hollow side of th e core. The sand
is an oil san d , w hich has obvious a d v a n ta g e s;
th e first being its re a d y v e n tin g q u a lities, an d ,
secondly, ease of e x tra c tio n from th e castin g .
I n castin g s of th is c h a ra c te r i t is im p o rta n t t h a t
no sand should be le ft in th em . I t is n o t diffi­
c u lt to visualise th e difficulty which th e re w ould
be to g et o u t of th e c astin g a core m ade in
o rd in a ry core san d , an d th e re w ould n ever,
having re g a rd to th e m an y webs inside th e c a s t­
ing, be any assu ran ce t h a t all th e core had been
ta k e n out.
 425

The sand in use is Irv in e sea sand, which has

proved highly satisfa c to ry in use. The oil used
is of th e th in fluid ty p e , th e ra tio of oil to sand
being 1 :2 0 . T his sand m ix tu re , all along th e

B ed .
. I iio nek
18in
120
. x
in
an
fob
Conn
and
7.— M ould
F ig .

ex tre m itie s of th e h o rn s of th e core, h as an

ad d itio n a l bond c o n stitu e n t of 1 p e r cen t, of
core gum . I t is along th is p a rt of th e core t h a t
th e m etal races as i t fills u p th e m ould. W here,
in a n v core, th e bond b u m s o u t too soon, th e
 426

core te n d s to d is in te g ra te , an d san d w ill be

found in th e castin g w here i t is n o t w an ted .
C onsequently, such p o rtio n s of an im p o rta n t core
as a re su bjected to long c o n tin u e d im p in g em en t
by th e m olten m etal should h ave a n excess, o r a
reserve, of b in d in g m a te ria l.
A b u r n t or u n d e rb a k e d core is useless fo r a
job of th is c h a ra c te r. A te m p e ra tu re of 200
deg. C. should n ev er be exceeded in th e stove.
A properly baked core is easily checked. I ts
finished colour should be n u t-b ro w n . The to u ch
of a finger-nail will b reak th e su rfa ce of a core
w hich has been over-baked. Such a core as is
now being considered should be ex am in ed all over
its su rface p rio r to b lack in g , fo r i t m ay be
b u rn t locally.
I t has been p o in ted o u t t h a t th e re a re 70 webs
jo in in g th e tw o walls of th e ca stin g . E v ery
fo u n d ry m an will a t once realise t h a t these
provide a t least 70 possibilities of p o rosity on
th e m achined in n e r face of th e c a stin g .
F u rth e r, a p a r t from th e q uestion of ste a m -tig h t­
ness, i t is necessary t h a t th e re should be no
places show ing a n open s tru c tu r e , w hich would
seriously dim in ish th e c a p a c ity of th e bed to
give a good finish to th e a rtic les p u t th ro u g h
th e m achine in service. C onsequently, th e fillet
of every web is chilled along its whole le n g th ,
on b oth sides of th e web, w here i t jo in s th e
w orking face of th e castin g , as is shown in
F ig . 4.
Shrinkage Phenomena
A few gen eral observ atio n s m ay n o t be o u t of
place here. C ast iro n , in common w ith m ost
o th e r m etals, sh rin k s in volum e in cry stallisin g
from th e liquid to th e solid. As th e o u te r shell
of m e ta l in c o n ta c t w ith th e m ould a n d core
su rfaces freezes first, th e to ta l n e t sh rin k ag e
u su ally ap p ears in th e in n e r p o rtio n s of m e ta l,
p a rtic u la rly w herever th e re is a local in crease
in section, due to th e jo in in g up of walls, th e
presence of bosses o r sim ila r a d d itio n s to b ulk.
The freezin g shell ta k e s th e fo rm a n d size of th e
m ould, an d , consequently, th e sh rin k a g e in
 427

volum e due to cry stallisatio n often resu lts in th e

presence, somewhere in th e h e a rt of th e castin g ,
of a cav ity or cavities. Or i t m ay m ake its
presence felt, in a m ore widely d istrib u te d form ,
as porosity or even stru c tu re . These form s of
cav ity are illu s tra te d in F ig . 8. Of course,
these cav ities nev er a p p e a r as re g u la r figures as
shown in th e sketches, h u t th ey will serve to
illu s tra te th e tendencies a t work.

f ig 8

L O O S E P IE C E S W ITH D RAW N A F T E R
R A M M IN G SLO T CO RE CO RE
■ KEEPERS S C R E W ED T
ifM O U LO IN C B O X B A R S
STEM CO RE­ MOULD
S T EM -' TO P P A R T

C O RE •CORE IRON

r ........" " " " I MOULD

BOTTOM PART

CORE SUPPORT STEM lI 3 6 ' -120' R O L L E R

F igs. 8, 9, 10 and 12 show Defects and

Moulding Details connected with L aundry
Machinery Castings.

The sketches a re in ten d ed to show th re e sim ilar

sections in w hich, depended m ainly on m etal
com position, th e sam e am o u n t of cavity will be
d is trib u te d in a d ifferen t way. In th e case of
“ a ” th e cav ity lies hidden and m ay be q u ite
harm less in reg ard to th e efficiency of th e castin g
of which i t form s a p a rt. In th e case of “ B
th e defective n a tu re of th e cavity is a very
serious m a tte r, b u t local. The case of “ C ” is
hopeless, fo r n o th in g a t all can be done w ith a
 428

w idespread spongy a re a. I t is p erh ap s unw ise

to generalise, b u t th e re a re sufficient gro u n d s
fo r th in k in g t h a t th e d e fect a t “ A ” is re p re ­
se n ta tiv e of grey irons, th e com position of which
m akes fo r a sh o rt freezin g ra n g e (th e stro n g
irons), t h a t a t “ C ” of those w ith a long
freezin g ra n g e (th e w eak iro n s), w hile “ B ”
rep resen ts th e in te rm e d ia te ty p e.
I n th e case of “ A ,” fre ez in g p robably ta k e s
place as a m ore o r less level th r u s t of d e n d rite s
from th e outside of th e m etal section to th e
m iddle, b u ild in g up solid b eh in d from th e a v a il­
able m o th er liq u o r— fo r as long as th e supply
lasts. W hen t h a t fails a fa irly re g u la rly shaped
cav ity will ap p e a r. I n th e case of “ C ,” long
p ioneer d e n d rite s grow o u t, w ith th e re s u lt t h a t
a final lack of m o th er liquor is m a n ife sted in
w idely^distributed sm all voids o r p o ro sity , w hich
connect one su rface of th e section w ith a n o th er.
The case of “ B ” is a g a in in te rm e d ia te .
O bservation shows (an d com m onsense assures it)
th a t those p o rtio n s of a c a stin g w hich freeze
first are those w hich a re th in n e s t o r f a r th e s t
from th e ru n n e r, a n d th o se p o rtio n s will alw ays
be found q u ite sound, as f a r as sh rin k a g e
cav ities a re concerned. The obvious in feren ce
(and observation d em o n stra tes it) is t h a t th e
th in p o rtio n s m ake up th e ir loss of solid volum e
a t th e expense of n eig h b o u rin g heavy sections,
o r of sections w hich, fo r one reaso n o r a n o th e r,
hold m etal w hich is still liq u id en o u g h to flow—
in accordance w ith th e law of g ra v ity . Now
these observatio n s a re tim e of all g rad es of grey
iro n , even w hen m etallic a d d itio n s a re m ade
(e.g., nickel) or of th e low to ta l carbon iro n s of
th e Thyssen E m m el ty p e.
The m etal com positions w hich h ave th e sh o rte r
freezin g ran g e a re those low in carbon, silicon,
an d phosphorus, b u t, w h ilst such iro n s will
alw ays show g re a te r soundness (o th e r th in g s
being equal) th e ir solid volum e w ill be less th a n
th e i r liq u id volum e an d , in th e absence of p ro ­
vision fo r a .supply of new liq u id to m ake good
th e loss of volum e, cav ity in some form will
occur. A good d eal of t h a t loss, how ever, is
m ade up n a tu ra lly . No c a stin g freezes
 429

in stan tan eo u sly . F reezin g ta k e s place in accord­

ance w ith th e h e a t g ra d ie n t set up in th e mould
by th e p a th of th e m etal d u rin g p o u rin g ; and
a good deal of th e c ry stallisatio n sh rin k ag e is
m ade good from th e ru n n e r an d from heavy
risers. B u t isolated bosses, wall ju n ctio n s, and
o th e r heavy sections can n o t g et th e ir qu o ta of
new liq u id in th is way. The “ chill ” can be so
used as to provide a solution. I t should be of
such a w eight as to m ake for solidification of
th e heavy po rtio n before th e su rro u n d in g th in
portion.
B u t, it m ay be said, will n o t th e heavy section
th e n rob th e th in ? I n such circum stances th e
th ic k p o rtio n will n o t rob th e th in , for th e th in
places will have th e ir losses m ade good from the
ru n n e r, o r o th er h ead of m etal. T ake a shank
of iron an d cast o u t of it (1) a 5-in. cube and
(2) a p la te | in. thickness, both h av in g th e
sam e cubic capacity . A ssum ing pro p er m oulding
conditions th e p late will be found to be quite
free from defects, b u t th e cube will show cavity.
W hy is th is? The p la te will freeze quickly and
th e cry stallisatio n sh rin k ag e will be m ade up
au to m atically , along th e line of th e h e a t g ra d ie n t
from th e ru n n e r. The cube, longer in freezing,
finds its supply of new liquid c u t off, w ith conse­
q u e n t resid u al cavity.
To re tu rn now to th e p a rtic u la r case of th e
iro n er bed, referen ce to F ig . 4 shows t h a t a
chill is la id along each side of each web where
i t joins th e o p e ra tin g face of th e casting. There
a re 140 such chills in each core. I n each chill
a series of sprigs is c a st; th e sprigs being b en t
ro u n d th e core b arrels to en su re stab ility . Before
laying in place in th e core, each is wiped w ith
sperm oil, and a n o th e r wipe of sperm oil is given
th e chill w hen th e core is read y to place in th e
mould.
T here is a p o in t of in te re st to note h e r e :
O bservation shows t h a t a chill which is long as
com pared w ith its cross-section, and which comes
into co n tac t w ith th e m olten m etal on one of
its faces, ten d s to cam ber. T rouble will arise
from th is w here i t occurs, b u t no tro u b le of th is
ch a ra c te r arises even when these chills are used
 430

up to 10 in . long. The reason is t h a t tn e cross-

sectional are a of th e chill is sm all, bein g a
rig h t-an g led tria n g le h av in g a len g th of J in.
on each side of th e rig h t ang le, less th e ro u n d
fillet. I n such a sm all cross-section th e h e a t
transm issio n is sufficiently ra p id to p re v e n t
cam ber of th e chill.
No chaplets are used anyw here in th is castin g .
The core is seated in six I f in. ro u n d core
p rin ts a t each end (these holes being la te r
plugged). Two 2-in. holes on th e back of th e
castin g provide th e re m a in in g anch o rag e. This
is illu s tra te d in th e sketch a t F ig . 9. A hole is
m ade in th e cen tre of th e bed m ould in th e d ra g ,
an d before th e core is low ered in to th e m ould a
pin is passed th ro u g h it, re s tin g on a n iro n p la te
on th e floor. The p in is clearly seen stic k in g
up th ro u g h th e d ra g a t F ig . 7, w hich is a pho to ­
g rap h of a m ould an d core of a sm aller bed
(18 in. by 120 in. of a d ifferen t design). The
p in stan d s up above th e su rface of th e mould
th e e x a c t thickn ess of th e m e ta l re q u ire d . A
bridge iron in th e core c a rrie s tw o lugs, th e
bottom one of w hich re sts on th e p in , th u s
su p p o rtin g th e core. W hen th e to p p a r t is p u t
on, tw o J-in. screws are passed th ro u g h th e 2-in.
holes in th e to p p a rt, an d screwed in to th e
u p p er lugs in th e core bridge.
A suitable 2-in. core is th e n slipped down
round th e screws, th u s filling up th e p r in t, an d
e n su rin g t h a t th e screw is k e p t c lea r of th e
m etal. The holes in th e to p p a r t a re th e n
ram m ed u p w ith sand. The screws p ro je c t above
th e to p p a r t p a st th e keepers show n in th e
sketch, an d thum bscrew s above th e keepers ta k e
up th e w eight of th e core, e n su rin g th e e x a c t
thick n ess of th e m etal below th e core. Also,
as will be seen in th e sketch, n u ts on th e u n d e r­
side of th e keepers effectively hold th e core in
place a g a in s t th e d isp lacem en t lif t of th e m etal.
The p in in th e d ra g w hich had been su p p o rtin g
th e core is th e n ta k e n aw ay an d th e hole sealed.
The m oulds are c ast “ on th e b a n k ,” a t an
angle to th e shop floor of a b o u t 20 deg. The
ru n n e rs a re a t th e to p en d , g iv in g e n try to th e
mould a t th e bottom of each horn.
 431

Roller Making
A nother im p o rta n t p a r t of an iro n in g m achine
is th e roller, of which th e re m ay be as m any as
e ig h t or nin e on a m achine. They need to be
perfectly clean a n d well balanced. They are
m ade in v ariou s sizes, up to 120 in. in len g th ,
an d of diam ete rs from 9 to 48 in. P la in rollers
u p to 15 in. dia. a re ram m ed up from p a tte rn s.
The b igger d ia m e te r rollers a re strick led up in
loam . These m oulds u p to 36 in. d ia. are m ade
in boxes w hich enable th e m ould to be sp lit in
h alf, lo n g itu d in ally . The jo in t edges of th e
m oulding boxes a re m achined and th e m ould is
stru ck o u t w ith a sem i-circle strickle. The
m ould fo r th is ty p e of roller is alw ays a simple
cylinder, th e in te rn a l flanges of th e roller being
sw ept u p in th e core. The cores up to 36 in.
d ia. are all stru c k u p on tre stle s, th e core
b arrels for th e sm aller d iam eters being of steel,
and those fo r th e la rg e r d iam eters of cast iron.
T his ty p e of ro ller does n o t call fo r m uch com­
m en t. A line section view of a 36-in. roller
m ould an d core is shown in th e sketch in F ig . 10.
The m ethod of ru n n in g is in d ic a te d in th e sketch.
The ru n n e rs are all 1 in . by \ in. in cross-section,
an d th e sam e k in d of ru n n e r is used fo r all
rollers. They a re rubbed in th e core a t th e top
core-seating, an d a re placed a t in terv a ls of about
4 in. all ro u n d th e circum ference. These ru n n e rs
have proved h ighly sa tisfa cto ry fo r all sizes of
rollers. T h e ir n earn ess to each o th er re su lts in
th e m etal, when risin g in th e mould, being k e p t
in c o n stan t a g ita tio n a t its surface, and drosses
are b ro u g h t u p safely into th e head. These
rollers are m achined all along th e ir len g th , and
m ost of th em are req u ired to sta n d up to a
w orking pressu re up to 100 lbs. of steam . The
chief defect to g u a rd a g ain st in a ca stin g of th is
c h a ra c te r is th e blow hole, found on m achining.
The cast thickness fo r some of th e sm aller rollers
is t s in ., th o u g h th e la rg e r ones ru n up to 1 in.
I t is n o t an easy m a tte r to g e t 10 ft. of a th in
castin g absolutely free from blem ish on m ach in ­
ing and te s t, b u t, w ith care and fo reth o u g h t,
highly satisfacto ry resu lts m ay be obtained.
The chief conditions fo r success are (1) a
 432

properly-ram m ed and d ried m ould an d (2) a

good core, well d ried b u t w ith no b u r n t hay-
bands—th e la s t tw o lay ers of h ay b an d leav in g a t
least an inch betw een each b an d . A f u r th e r
im p o rta n t conditio n is t h a t th e re shall be le ft
nc w et or dam p lu tin g betw een th e b o tto m end
of th e core an d th e m ould. W h ere loam stam p s
a re used on an im p o rta n t ca stin g to seal up th e
flash ro u n d a cy lin d er core of an y k in d , th e
stam ps should be th o ro u g h ly d ried before th e top
p a r t is p u t on. I t is fu tile an d stu p id to depend
upon th e h o t m ould to d ry a stam p . W h ere t h a t
is done th e re will be a tr a il of g rie f in th e shape
of a group of m ysterious blowholes n o t fa r aw ay
from th e region of th e stam p .

F ig . 1 1 .— V e n t il a t e d R oller C a s t in g , 2 4 in . x
120 in .

A n o th er ty p e of ro ller, h av in g a little m ore

difficulty, is shown in F ig . 11. All th e g en eral
rem arks above apply equally to th is ty p e of
roller, w hich is c ast on end in th e sam e w ay.
An im p o rta n t th in g to contro l, in a c a stin g of
th is c h a ra c te r, is t h a t a fte r p o u rin g i t should
be as free as possible to c o n tra c t. T his cu ts o u t
th e use of g aggers in th e to p h alf of th e m ould,
as ram m ed up. The m ould is, of course, d rie d ,
an d a double row of 6-in. sp rig s is fo u n d q u ite
sufficient to ca rry th e o u ts ta n d in g san d betw een
th e gills. Soon a fte r p o u rin g , th e box w ith th e
castin g is lifted o u t of th e p it an d th e bolts are
ta k e n o u t a t th e jo in t.
I t will be noticed t h a t each g ill of th is ca stin g
has fo u r slots cast in it, th e ir p u rp o se b ein g to
allow of easy ev acu atio n of w a te r v ap o u r, w hich
 433

is g en erated in service from th e goods passing

th ro u g h th e m achine. If these holes w ere formed
by loose dry-sand cores, th e re su lt w ould he a
n o t very good job, leaving a lo t of unnecessary
w ork for th e fe ttle r to do. I n th e castin g shown

.
24
C
.
Fe n t il a t e d
. V
in
120
x
in
a
for
ore
and
ould
12a.— M
ig

in th e illu s tra tio n th e re are 92 such slots. They

are m ade very sim ply. On th e p a tte rn th e re are
no core p rin ts fo r these holes. The gills are
p lain flanges, and are finished in th e m ould as
such. Two sm all m aking-up pieces a re th en
 434

in serted in th e gill, as show n in F ig . 12,

sand is ram m ed in to th e space w hich is to be
th e slot, sprigg ed an d v en ted , scrap ed an d
sleaked level a n d th e loose pieces w ith d raw n .
This m akes a sound job, bin d in g up th e sand
betw een th e gills, from one end of th e ro ller to
th e o th er. A view of a m ould a n d core is shown
in F ig . 1 2 a . The rig h t-h a n d half-m ould is
unfinished, th e v en tila tio n slots n o t h a v in g been
ram m ed in.
Metal Characteristics
The m etal for c astin g s of th is c h a ra c te r need
not be of a very h ig h ten sile o rd er. Any plain
cylinder, w hich has no a tta c h m e n ts in th e shape
of b rack ets, e tc ., an d w hich is c a st on end, is
likely to be p erfectly sound w hen c a st w ith a
relatively so ft iro n m ix tu re w hich will fa c ilita te
m achining o peratio n s. F o r th e th in n e r ro llers
a m etal h av in g a silicon c o n te n t of ro u n d ab o u t
2.3 p er cent, is q u ite sa tisfa c to ry , an d , in th e
heavier rollers, a silicon c o n te n t of ab o u t 1.75 per
cent.
Pneumatic Press Castings
In F ig . 13 is shown a T ullis p n e u m atic press.
The chief m a te ria l in its co n stru c tio n is c ast
iron. The m achine consists of th e san d , c a rry in g
the a ir cylinder, fu lcru m arm , levers an d th e
u p p er an d lower “ b u c k s.” Space will p e rm it
here only to draw a tte n tio n to th e m ak in g of
th e “ b u ck s.” F ig . 14 shows a selection of a few
ty p es of these, w hich a re of m an y shapes and
sizes. E ach of th ese castin g s is a steam -h eated
ja c k e t, one face of w hich is m ach in ed an d h ighly
polished, an d w hich is a fte rw a rd s co ated w ith
electrolytically-deposited nickel. E a c h is te ste d
by w a te r a t 240 lbs. p e r sq. in. a n d a t 150 lbs.
steam . The m etal th ick n ess is § in . A p la n and
section of a “ buck ” is shown in F ig . 15. I t
will be seen t h a t th e tw o o u te r walls of th e c a st­
in g are jo in ed up by 48 webs. The core fo r th is
ty p e of castin g is exceedingly d elicate in its con­
stru c tio n . The core is a p la te of san d 1J in.
thickness an d 15 in. by 3 f t. 9 in. th ro u g h which
th e 48 webs shown p e n e tra te . T his is com pletely
enclosed in m etal, ex c ep t a t th e e x te rn a l holes.
 435
A view of th e m ould ajid core is shown in
1' ig. 16. T he m oulds a re m ade in d ry sand.
The core co n stru ctio n is on th e sam e principle
as in th e case of th e iro n e r beds. F o r th e
buck ” in th e sketch, th re e th in cast-iro n core­
irons a re tie d to fo u r tu b es, which a re k e p t a t
sufficient len g th to p ro tru d e a t each end of th e
m oulding box when closed. The tu b es are § in.

F ig . 13.— T u l l ís P n e u m a t ic P ress.

inside d ia m e te r an d § in. outside. They are

drilled fo r v e n tin g every 3-in. in terv a l along
th e ir len g th . These, w ith a few loose wires,
give sufficient sta b ility to th e core, which is
m ade in oil sand. The tu b e s also, w ith a few
wax vents, ad eq u ately v e n t it.
A job of th is c h a ra c te r p resents some d if­
ficulties. I t is necessary, in o rd e r to g e t a
spotless w orking face, to han g th e core in th e
top p a rt, as' seen in F ig . 16. This is reduced
 436

to sim plicity by m eans of en d p lates, w hich a re

provided w ith holes of slig h tly la rg e r d ia m e te r
th a n th e core tu b es. A fte r th e core is placed
in th e m ould th e p la te s a re slipped o v er th e
tu b es a t th e en d of th e box. One f-in . bo lt

.
P
P
”
Tresses
n e u m a t ic
for
ucks
“ B
y p ic a l
14.—
.
Fig

th e n screws th e p la te to th e end of th e box an d

th e core is firm ly held
I n th is job, success depends m ain ly u p o n free
v en tin g of th e core. A w ell-baked core and
m ould a re im p erativ e . They a re c a st w ith m e tal
a t a te m p e ra tu re of a b o u t 1,320 deg. C. an d ,
 437

F ig . 15.— P lan and S ectio n of a “ B uck .

 438

like th e iro n e r beds, a re c a st “ on th e h a n k .”

T here is no d o n b t th a t , in cases like th is , c a s t­
in g on th e sla n t is ad v an tag eo u s. W hen such
a m ould is ca st on th e flat, th e m e ta l fills th e
m ould u p to th e to p of th e core, a n d th e n covers

uck s.
“ B
for
C okes
and
o u ld s
. 1 6 .— M
Fig

up th e top of i t in a flood, w hen a c e rta in

am o u n t of bubbling will ta k e place u n til such
tim e as th e head of m etal is sufficient to face
th e new ly-generated gases th ro u g h th e v en ts
provided fo r them . In a th in c a stin g p a rtic u ­
larly, and one which is in ten d e d to sta n d u p
 439

to steam pressure, bubbling in any degree is

dangerous. On th e o th e r h an d , a mould cast
a t an angle to th e h o rizo n tal fills up grad u ally ,
from th e lowest p a rt first, creeping up u n d e r
an d over th e core. In th is case th e call upon
th e v en ts is m ore g ra d u al, so t h a t th ey are n o t
over-taxed.
I t has been p ointed o u t th a t th e u p p er
“ bucks ” are nickel-plated. F o r th is to be
sa tisfa c to rily deposited a close-grained iron is
needed. I t is found th a t all th e necessary
q u alities a re p resen t in an iro n of th e following
o rd e r: C .C ., 0.75; G.C., 2.4; Si, 1.5; M n, 0.7;
S, 0.08, an d P , 0.4 p er cent. Such an iron,
ca st a t th e te m p e ra tu re in d icated , will give a
sound castin g free from defects on te s t and
w ith o u t any o p en-grained patches on th e o p e ra t­
ing surface in th e region of th e webs. One of
these castin g s was te sted to d estru ctio n in th e
presence of an in su ran ce inspector. I t finally
b u rs t u n d e r h y d rau lic pressure of 1,360 lbs. per
sq. in.
Washing Machinery Castings
One f u r th e r exam ple will be discussed here,
an d t h a t a m a tte r of design. In F ig . 17 is
shown a T ullis w ashing m achine. The photo­
g ra p h in F ig . 18 shows a n u m b er of green-sand
m oulds of th e o utside ends fo r th is m achine. In
F ig . 19 is a sketch of one of th e cast-iron outside
ends. I t is essentially a circu lar plate,
3 f t. 4 in. in d iam e ter an d rs in. thickness,
c a rry in g th e rim fo r jo in tin g on to th e shell of
th e m achine, two feet, an d o u tsta n d in g b rackets
for th e d riv in g g ear. The sketch shows an older
design of o utside en d which is seldom b u ilt up
recently, b u t i t will serve to illu s tra te a point.
As o rig in ally designed, th e b ra c k e t was m ade
sep arately an d bolted on to th e outside end. B u t
th e re are obvious ad v an ta g es in m ak in g th e
b ra c k e t in te g ra l w ith th e m ain casting, th e chief
one being t h a t of g re a te r sta b ility an d rig id ity
fo r th e d riv e— usually from a neighbouring
sh a ft. U pon th e decision to c a st th e b rack et
in te g ra l w ith th e castin g , i t was first designed
sim ply as a co ntinuous p late ex ten d e d from th e
 440

body of th e castin g , c a rry in g th e necessary

bosses a n d stiffenin g ribs.
W hen m achines w ith th ese en d s w ere p u t in to
service conditions, some of th e ends crack ed as
shown a t th e d o tte d lin e “ A .” T his is a
sym ptom w hich is evidence of a f a u lt in design,
an d w hich in o th e r connections is responsible
fo r a good m any fa ilu re s in service of castin g s
of m any k inds th ro u g h o u t th e en g in e e rin g in ­
d u stry , w herever such castin g s a re su b jected to
irre g u la r h e a tin g conditions.

F ig . 1 7 .— T u l l ís W a s h in g M a c h in e .

In th e case u n d e r co n sid eratio n th e diagnosis

is sim ple. I n service, th e in te rio r of a w ashing
m achine is b ro u g h t up quickly to th e te m p e ra ­
tu re of boiling w ate r. T h ere follows a n equally
quick expansion of th e whole of th e c irc u la r
plate. B u t th e o u ts ta n d in g b ra c k e t rem ain s a t
o r n e a r room te m p e ra tu re , a n d c a n n o t e x p a n d
w ith th e c irc u la r p late, w ith th e re s u lt t h a t
heavy stresses a re set u p in th e rim in th e
region of th e b ra ck e t, an d a ten d e n c y to fra c ­
tu r e a t th e p o in t in d ic a te d by th e d o tte d lin e
“ A ” in F ig . 19. The rem edy proved sim ple.
The b ra c k e t w as jo in ed u p to th e p la te by th re e
arm s (as shown in th e sketch) in ste a d of by a
 441

F ia . 1 8 .— G reen - S and M o u ld s fob W a s h in g M a c h in e O u t s id e E nds.

 442

continuous p late. T his allowed th e b ra c k e t to

“ b re a th e ” in lin e w ith th e expan sio n a n d con­
tra c tio n of th e c e n tre p late . I n th is P a p e r a
few fo u n d ry problem s in la u n d ry m ach in ery
have been discussed, b u t th e lis t is by no m eans
exhausted. They m ay, how ever, be sufficient to
d em o n strate t h a t th is b ran c h of e n g in eerin g ,
.D RIVING S H A F T BRACKET

SECTION T H R O 'A Q

F ig . 1 9 .— S k e t c h o e W a sh in g M a c h in e
O u ts id e End.

like every o th er, has its own p ecu lia r difficulties

an d problem s to solve a n d overcom e.
I n conclusion, th e w rite r expresses his th a n k s
to M essrs. D . & J . T ullis, L im ited , fo r fa c ilitie s
afforded him to discuss a n d illu s tra te here some
aspects of th e ir fo u n d ry p ractice, a n d to M r.
D. It. T ullis fo r th e m icro p h o to g rap h s.

DISCUSSION
The C h a i r m a n said t h a t he was su re t h a t th ey
w ere all agreed t h a t th e y h ad liste n e d to an
e x tra o rd in a rily in te re s tin g P a p e r fro m M r.
L o n g d e n ; he had been very s tr a ig h t a n d p ra c ­
tic a l in th e d escrip tio n s of th e problem s which
he had had to solve.
M r. R . B a l l a n t i n e said t h a t he h a d listened
w ith im m ense pleasu re to M r. L o n g d en ’s P a p e r
 443

an d th e descriptions of th e m ethods he used in

th e m ak in g of som ew hat difficult castings. H e
h ad h ad th e p leasu re of seeing th ro u g h M r.
L ongden’s fo u n d ry an d h ad been im pressed by
th e efficiency of th e m ethods an d th e q u ality of
th e castings produced. T here was a p o in t in
connection w ith th e beds upon which he was no t
q u ite clear. M r. L ongden told th em th a t he
used chills or denseners a t th e botto m of th e
cores of th e webs and he w ondered why th e chills
w ere n o t c arrie d rig h t to th e to p , as he u n d er­
stood t h a t th e necessity fo r soundness an d ab ility
to w ith sta n d steam pressure th ere was equally
im p o rta n t. P e rh a p s M r. L ongden would give
his reasons fo r chilling th e bottom p a r t only.
In connection w ith th e castin g w ith th e gills,
th e ph o to g rap h of th e castin g showed an
a lte rn a te coring of th e gills, b u t in th e photo­
g ra p h show ing th e m oulds and m ethod of m aking
up i t appeared t h a t th e coring was in a d irect
line.
M r. L o n g d e n , in reply, said th a t th e castin g
of w hich a p h o to g rap h was shown was as a
m a tte r of fa c t one ta k e n some tim e ago, b u t
th ey now m ade th em s tra ig h t as shown in th e
view of th e m ould. M r. B a lla n tin e ’s question
ab o u t th e chills was im p o rta n t. The reason they
used th em a t th e botto m of th e web and n o t th e
top was th e re s u lt of observation and experience.
Messrs. Tullis go t beds back which h ad been
m ade a long tim e ago as scrap. On exam ining
th em carefu lly he h ad never found any defects
a t th e top p a r t of th e web, b u t had o ften found
them in th e bottom . F ou n d ry m en , w hen they
had an item of tro u b le, h ad to re so rt to m eans
of overcom ing it, an d it was a case of ad ap tin g
th e p ractice to elim in ate th e tro u b le. H e had
never seen one of these beds leak on th e top
p a rt, an d he th o u g h t th e effect of th e shrin k ag e
was d ifferen t a t th e to p and th e bottom . M r.
L ongden here ex plained his views of th e sh rin k ­
age w ith th e aid of blackboard diagram s.
M r. A. D . M a c k e n z i e said t h a t he had been
p a rtic u la rly in te reste d in th e cylinder and th e
m ethod of m oulding. M r. L ongden h ad said
 444

th a t th e core was m ade u p w ith stra w rope, and

he w ould like to know w h a t th ick n ess was used
an d th e a m o u n t of loam . H e w ould also like
to know w h eth er an y difference w as m ade in th e
size of th e to p an d b o tto m of th e core to allow
fo r pressure. H e took i t t h a t th e cores were
ru n u p on a b a rre l of some so rt w ith a strick le.
M b. L o n g d e n said t h a t he w ould ta k e a 3 6 in.
dia. as an exam ple, an d proceeded to illu s tra te
his rem ark s by b lack b o a rd sketches. H e said
th e y g o t as big a b a r as possible t h a t would
pass th ro u g h th e n arro w end. Such a core w as
bound to be b u ilt in loam , a b o u t 2-j in . th ic k .
The stra w rope w as p u t on fa irly close on th e
first layer, an d , th e n d e p en d in g on th e ty p e of
b a r used, a n u m b er of rows of h ay b a n d , q u ite
1-in. spaced, th e id ea b ein g to b u ild u p loam
behind. H e d id n o t b u ild u p th e d iffe re n t cores
w ith th e id ea of sta n d in g a n y conceivable h y d ro ­
s ta tic pressu re which m ig h t be e x e rte d . H e had
n ev er fo u n d th e necessity fo r it.
M b . A. D . K i r b y said t h a t M r. L ongden
s ta te d t h a t h e used a n oil-sand m ix tu re of 1
p a r t b in d e r to 20 p a rts of san d . T h a t a p p eared
to him to be a v ery h ig h p ro p o rtio n of b in d er,
a n d he w ould like to know w h e th e r th e re was
an y tro u b le from blowholes. I n re g a rd to th e
roller, w hich a p p e ared ra th e r th ic k in re latio n
to th e flange, w ere th e re any chills used in it?
M r . L ongden re p lie d h e d id n o t u s e c h ills , a s
he th o u g h t w here a c a stin g was th ic k e r th a n th e
average, if i t w as a t th e b o tto m of a deep
castin g , i t was m ore solid th a n th e to p . R e g a rd ­
in g oil sand in cases like th e one re fe rre d to ,
he th o u g h t t h a t a little excess b in d e r w as neces­
sary. H e h a d nev er h ad an y tro u b le w ith blow­
holes a n d w ould n ev er h e sita te to use an excess
w here th e b u rn in g te n d en c y w as serious.
T he C h a i r m a n , sp eak in g i n re g a rd to th e long
th in castin g fo r presses w hich a p p e a re d fu ll of
webs, said he was n o t q u ite cle a r as to th e
m ethod of castin g . W as he r ig h t i n th in k in g
t h a t th e y ra n th e m e ta l to se p a ra te ru n n e rs to
th e bottom an d th e n allowed th e m eta l to
flow u p ?
 445

M r. L o n g d e n said t h a t in a way th e ch airm an

was rig h t, th e m etal w en t down th e dow ngate
and th e n e n te re d by a num ber of sep a ra te inlets.
M r . A. B r u c e said t h a t he h ad been very much
in te re ste d in th e P a p e r, which h ad been in s tru c ­
tiv e in re g a rd to th e g en eral m ak in g of castings.
H e th o u g h t th a t th e use of denseners in th e
bottom p a r t of th e web of th e bed helped to
freeze th e m etal q uicker an d p rev en ted th e d raw ­
ing from th e to p p a rt. R e fe rrin g to th e ques­
tio n of th e am o u n t of b in d e r in th e sand, he
th o u g h t t h a t an excess was essential in such a
case, an d i t w ould do no h arm provided th e core
was thoro u g h ly dried. R e fe rrin g to th e cylinder
castin g , he th o u g h t th e core b a rs would n o t have
a very big co n trac tio n , b u t M r. Longden had
s ta te d t h a t he som etim es had a half-in ch of clear­
ance. H e w ould like to know w h a t M r. L ongden
p u t in th e re . M r. L ongden h ad said t h a t th e
p ressure did n o t a lte r th e thickness of th e core ;
he w ould like to know w h a t thickness of loam
he had on to re sist th e pressure.
M r. L o n g d e n said t h a t p erh ap s M r. Bruce
m ig h t be rig h t, an d th e re m ig h t be a c e rta in
am o u n t of th ick e n in g of th e bottom of th e core.
H e h ad , however, never noticed it. W h a t they
p u t on was w h ite rope, an d th e re h a d never been
any difficulty. W hen th e m ould was cast, th e
b a r began to ex p an d . The thickness of loam
along th e m ain len g th of th e core w as 2 | in.
M r . A . B r u c e m entioned some cases w here he
h ad seen evidence of s tra in on th e build in g
p late. H e said t h a t in re g a rd to th e core which
M r. L ongden h ad spoken about, he th o u g h t th a t
if th e y h a d tw o courses of straw rope seven-
eig h th s or th re e -q u a rte rs a p a rt, th e re h ad go t to
be a very good lay er of loam on t h a t b ar, and
th ey would c e rta in ly g e t a stra in . In his own
case, th ey h ad to m ake castin g s as n e a r as
possible to th e size ordered, an d in m any cases
i t w ould be impossible to do i t on such a core.
W hen th ey cam e to a cylinder of larg e d iam eter
such as 36 in. and over th e re would be too big a
Strain.
M r. L o n g d e n r e p l i e d t h a t he r e a l l y c o u l d n o t
say th e c o re s d id n o t y ie ld at th e b o tto m , but
 446

he had no reason to su sp ect t h a t th ey did . The

pressure on th e castin g s was th e sam e as on a
h eav ier castin g , b u t probably th e re was a good
deal in w h a t M r. B ru ce h a d said. W hen th e y
had a b u ild in g rin g on a brick ed -u p ca stin g th e
rin g began to ex p an d w hen th e m etal filled th e
mould m ore rap id ly th a n th e b rick p a rt, and
perhaps th e re was some p u sh in g o u t of th e rin g .
 447

Wales and Monmouth Branch

SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN A
SMALL JOBBING FOUNDRY

By B. Gale (Associate Member)

I n these days of huge combines an d mass-
pro d u ctio n shops, i t was som ewhat su rp risin g
an d y e t pleasing to re a d th e leader in “ The
F o u n d ry T rade J o u rn a l ” of J u ly 20, 1933, en ­
title d “ The F u tu r e of th e C o untry Jo b b in g
F o u n d ry ,” in which i t w as sa id : “ Y et, realis­
ing t h a t th e cou n try jobbing fo u n d ry is an ideal
place fo r yo u n g sters to le a rn th e ir tra d e , nobody
deplores th e ir p resen t parlous cond itio n more
th a n we. . . . I f th e la rg e r establishm ents
would send th em th e ir one-off jobs, th ey would
in th e long ru n be h elping along th e ir in d u stry
by keeping alive th ese real nurseries for fu tu re
c ra ftsm e n .”
The a rticle in question certa in ly re fe rred to
th e very sm allest of shops, w ith o u t any m eans
of m echanical aid to assist th em in th e stern
fight fo r existence, as i t re fe rre d to hand-m ixed
sand, boiler-tube cupola a n d castin g s m ade from
scrap iron, an d it is n o t proposed to deal w ith
th a t class of fo u n d ry , b u t, nevertheless, th e
rem ark s concerning th e c raftsm a n does apply to
th e sm all fou n d ry in g eneral. F o r th is P a p e r
an a tte m p t will be m ade to give an o u tlin e of
some of th e m ethods by which a sm all foundry
concern m a n u fac tu res some of th e hig h er-g rad e
castings.
P e rh a p s a brief descrip tio n of th e foundry
will be of assistance in visualising th e scene.
The fo u n d ry is no t connected to any en g in ee rin g
concern a n d is, th erefo re, d ep en d en t upon secur­
ing general castin g orders, in th e open m ark et,
for its tra d e . Im ag in e a sm all shop h av in g six
m oulders, fo u r m oulding m achines, tw o core­
m akers an d th e usu al com plem ent of fettlers,
labourers, cup o la-ten ter, etc., open to ta k e any
 448

class of w ork fro m one-off jobs up to 4 to n s in

w eight a n d sm all re p e titio n ca stin g s in any
q u a n tity , up to 3 cwts. The m oulding m achines
are all of th e h a n d -ra m ty p es, an d t h a t section
has no pow er app lian ces, b u t m etal, san d , c a s t­
ings, e tc ., are conveyed by m o norail ru n w ay s.
The sand-m ixing d e p a rtm e n t is served by a dis­
in te g ra to r a n d a ro ller m ill. F lo o r san d is p re ­
p ared by a “ R o y er ” m achine, w hilst m eltin g
is effected by tw o W h itin g -ty p e d rop-bottom
cupolas, of 30 in. an d 18 in. in te rn a l d iam eters
respectively. The core-m aking d e p a rtm e n t has
th re e stoves, coke-fired, of v a ry in g sizes, a
belt-driven oil-sand m ixer, an d a h a n d -d riv e n
ro ta ry core-m achine fo r th e p ro d u ctio n of ro u n d
cores up to 2^ in. d ia . The fe ttlin g d e p a rtm e n t
h as th e u su al fixed em ery wheels a n d ru m b ler,
an d electrical p o rtab le g rin d e r a n d w ire-brush
for th e la rg e r castings.
M aterial Control
The control of m a te ria ls affects all fo u n d ries,
w hether la rg e o r sm all, b u t th e sm all fo u n d ry
is very g re a tly h a n d ica p p ed fo r several re a s o n s :
(1) I t can n o t afford to em ploy a chem ist in a
lab o rato ry of its own, an d m u st, th e re fo re ,
depend upon p ra c tic a l te s ts fo r some of th e
m aterials. W h a t an aly sin g is done h as to be
sen t to a consu ltin g la b o ra to ry , possibly in
a n o th e r tow n, w ith consequent d e la y s ; (2) it
c an n o t afford to buy in larg e q u a n titie s, an d is,
th e re fo re , liable to g e t v a ry in g q u a litie s a t each
sm all o rd e r; an d (3) i t c a n n o t afford to e x p e ri­
m en t w ith “ sam ple tru c k s ” of a m a te ria l, as a
tru ck -lo a d m ay be a m o n th ’s supply, a n d , th e r e ­
fore, ac tin g on th e p rin cip le of “ leav in g well
a lo n e,” m ay be p ay in g a h ig h e r p rice th a n is
necessary.
B elieving t h a t m etal analysis is one of th e
m a jo r p o in ts in m a te ria l control, i t is necessary
to have every tru c k of special p ig -iro n s sam pled
an d analysed, in o rd e r to be able to c o n tro l th e
m ix tu res for h ig h -g rad e castin g s. In th e case
of pig-irons to be used for th e m a n u fa c tu re of
h igh-pressure castin g s, p ig-irons a re b o u g h t to
analysis, an d re jec te d if o u t of th e specified
 44G

lim its. Common irons are not so seriously d ealt

w ith , only occasional analyses being tak e n for
checking purposes. M ix tu re s for p ressure c a st­
ings are periodically analysed fo r checking
purposes, an d all castin gs m ade in these m ix tu res
are d a te m ark ed , so th a t , in th e ev en t of
porosity tro u b les arisin g a t some la te r d ate,
m aybe tw o or th re e m onths a fte r castin g , th e
d ate, m ix tu re d etails, etc., can be tra c e d to give
in d icatio n of th e expected analysis of th e m etal.
An analysis of th e fa u lty castings should give
in d icatio n of e rro r in cupola ch arg in g or of th e
allocation of th e m etal on t h a t p a rtic u la r d ate.

Coke and Foaming Slags

Coke is a very complex m ate rial, and i t has
been shown from personal experience t h a t a
c e rta in coke t h a t will m elt m etal ad m irably in
one cupola will have adverse resu lts in an o th er,
and in th e case of th e sm all fo u n d ry th is is a
m a te ria l w here th e a u th o r would advocate th e
policy of “ leavin g well alo n e.” Cheap coke
m ay be false economy. I t is q u ite realised t h a t
a m arg in of 2s. o r 3s. per to n m ay, in a large
firm, effect a saving of some h u n d red s of pounds
sterlin g p er year, b u t to th e small u se r th is
saving is n o t of such im portance. To look a t it
a n o th e r way, if one is m eltin g 10 to n s of iron
w ith 1 to n of coke, and th e saving in price is 2s.
p e r to n , th e price p e r cwt. of th e m olten m etal
is only effected by 0.12 of a penny, and so small
an am o u n t can n o t be ta k e n as a n in d u cem en t to
reduce castin g costs. Is th is sm all saving w orth
w hile if th e sm all fo u n d ry is to be saddled w ith
a m o n th ’s supply of coke, w hich is of in fe rio r
q u a lity ? The a u th o r recen tly had a p ecu liar and
som ew hat costly ex perience w ith coke. F o r ab o u t
th re e years th e coke supply h ad given excellent
resu lts and tro u b le-free m elting. I t was decided
to tr y a sam ple tru c k of an o th er coke which had
a re p u ta tio n of being su p erio r to th e one in use,
an d on analysis and physical te s tin g th e coke
ap p eared to be a good-quality fo u n d ry coke. As
soon as th e fo u n d ry commenced u sin g th e coke,
troubles began. A t two or th re e h u n dredw eights
of m etal th e fu rn ac e becam e choked up to th e
Q
 450

tu y e re s w ith a foam ing slag, an d w hen th e slag

hole was opened th e o p e ra to rs could n o t g e t rid
of th e boiling m ass of slag in th e cupola. The
slag, w hen cold, resem bled a porous, spongy
m ass, an d a b arro w fu l w eighed only \ cw t.
D ifferent blast pressures w ere trie d , b u t w ith no
im provem ent, an d th e m an a g e m e n t had to th ro w
o u t th e whole su p p ly an d g e t back to th e p re ­
vious source to overcom e th e tro u b le, an d it was
n a tu ra lly chary on th e su b jec t of try in g a n o th e r
coke. F o r a m o n th o r tw o all w en t well, an d
th e n th e tro u b le recom m enced. The su p pliers
of th e coke closed down th e ir ovens, a n d th e
fou n d ry was compelled to find a new su p p lier.
I t tr ie d several b ra n d s of coke, b u t could n o t
find one to give th e sam e clean, h o t m e ltin g to
which i t h ad been accustom ed. The m an ag e m en t
could n o t ex p lain th e tro u b le , an d could n o t
u n d e rsta n d why one coke should give ex cellent
resu lts, w hilst o th ers, a t th e sam e iron-coke
ra tio , an d sim ilar m eltin g conditions, should be
c o n tra ry , a n d i t w en t th o ro u g h ly in to o u r m e lt­
ing conditions to a sc erta in w h eth er th e tro u b le
was in o u r own hands, b u t it could n o t find a
solution, an d was compelled to seek o th e r coke
supplies. T hen th e m an a g e m e n t e n listed th e
aid of several of th e ir fo u n d ry frie n d s, an d also
p u t th e question before chem ists, b u t i t was
u nab le to o b tain any definite conclusion. The
only “ tip ” to overcome th e tro u b le of th e
foam ing slag was ta k e n from a P a p e r re a d be­
fore th e W ales a n d M onm outh B ran ch by M r.
G. M oran, an d published in th e P roceedings,
Vol. 25, which suggested an increase in th e
coke-bed charge, b u t to keep th e bed a t a h ig h
level g re a tly reduced th e iron-coke ra tio and
was consequently expensive, a n d ex p e rim en ts
w ith fu r th e r cokes had to be m ade u n til condi­
tio n s could be g o t back to good m e ltin g on th e
usu al procedure. This tro u b le is n o t now ex ­
perienced w ith th e coke in use, b u t i t w ould be
in te re stin g to le a rn th e views of o th ers as to th e
cause of th e foam ing slag tro u b le . The p e c u lia r­
ity of th e whole tro u b le was t h a t i t w as associated
w ith th e m eltin g of steel-m ix c a st irons. Any
of th e cokes ap p ea re d to m e lt stra ig h tfo rw a rd
 451
common irons successfully, b u t as soon as steel
scrap was incorp o rated into th e charges, th e
tro u b le commenced. I t is fe lt t h a t th e coke m u st
be th e cause of th e tro u b le, as previously, and
now th e fo u n d ry has used steel scrap daily, and
it has a co n stan t supply of th is m a te ria l of
id en tical analysis an d q u ality .

Moulding Sands
M oulding sands are m ixed in various stren g th s
to su it th e v ary in g types of work, an d b u t little
difficulty in th e control of th is m a te ria l is ex­
perienced. T he fo u n d ry is fo rtu n a te ly placed for
supplies of excellent-quality red sand in th e
d is tric t, a n d coal d u sts are purchased from
m a n u fa c tu re rs of re p u te to th e specified grades.
F o r g reen-sand w ork, only th e heavier castings
have any blacking co atin g , it being personal
experience th a t fo r green-sand castin g s of lig h t
an d m edium w eight sufficient p ro tectio n from
sand fusion is effected by th e coal d u st in th e
sand. The co n tin u al use of sea sand for cores
an d m oulds m akes th e floor sand ra th e r poor in
bond, an d th is is overcome by m aking th e facing
sands ra th e r rich in new sand.

Core Sand and Core Making

F u lly 90 p er cent, of th e cores are m ade in
sea sand, bonded w ith p ro p rie ta ry b ran d s of
core binders. A t v ario u s tim es th e a u th o r has
ex p erim en ted w ith rock sands and riv er sands,
b u t w ith sm all m easure of success, as th ese are
n o t generally reliable. W h ilst one supply may
be satisfacto ry , th e n e x t lo t from th e same source
m ay be en tirely d ifferen t in com position. Sea­
shore sand has n o t given anv tro u b le an d each
supply can be relied upon. The bin d in g
m aterials, however, are an en tirely differen t pro­
position, an d th e re is probably m ore necessity
for te s tin g these m a te ria ls th a n any o th er
fo undry m aterial.
T here are so m any ty p es of b in d er on th e
m ark et, a t all sorts of prices, t h a t one m ust
te s t o u t a b in d er in one’s own works. L ab o ra­
to ry te s ts and figures m ay be q u ite good for a
q2
 452

binder, b u t i t does n o t follow t h a t t h a t p a r ­

tic u la r b inder is su ita b le to in d iv id u al classes
of w ork. I t is n o t in ten d ed to d ep reciate la b o ra ­
to ry te s tin g . F a r from it, th e a u th o r is firmly
convinced t h a t th e chem ist is a v ita l necessity
to th e fo u n d ry in d u s try , b u t he believes t h a t
th e re are in stan ces w here p ra c tic a l conditions
have a larg e b e arin g on th e success or fa ilu re
of a m a te ria l, a n d core b in d ers come in t h a t
class.

F ig . 1 .— S t a n d a r d G lobe' V alve P attern

and Core.

I t is gen erally possible to o b tain a sam ple of

a b in d er fo r te s tin g purposes, an d personal p ro ­
cedure of te s tin g is to m ake a com parison of
th e new b in d er w ith th e one in use, as follows : -—
The new b in d e r is m easured in to th e m ix in g
mill a t th e sam e p ro p o rtio n , by volum e, of b in d e r
to sand as t h a t in p re se n t use. I t is m illed fo r
a definite tim e a n d placed on th e core bench.
An exactly sim ila r b atch of th e p re s e n t b in d er
is also prep a re d . T hen, a m easu refu l of each
binder is w eighed an d costed a t its _p a rtic u la r
price p er cw t. M ix in g tim e b ein g equ al, a
com parison of these figures w ill in d ic a te which
 453 /

b inder is th e cheap er per cvvt. of m ixed sand.

Should i t be found necessary to m ix one ty p e of
binder fo r a longer period th a n th e o th er, tim e
of m illing m u st be ta k e n into co nsideration. The
nex t te s t is fo r g reen b o u n d stre n g th by th e
o v erhanging drop te s t. The two or th re e te s t-b a r
cores are m ade in each ty p e of sand an d placed
in th e oven on th e same tr a y . B ak in g tim e
will undoubtedly v ary w ith d ifferen t ty p es of
bin der, an d p a rtic u la r notice of b ak in g tim e is
ta k e n to show which is th e ch eap er in tim e,
fuel consum ption, etc. The baked cores are th en
com pared fo r sm oothness of skin. The test-cores
are th e n subjected to a tra n sv e rse te s t, and if
one has a predeterm in ed b reak in g stre n g th , these

F ig . 2.— S e c t i o n of a
F ig . 4 . — S e c t io n of a
S ta n d a rd G l o b e
W edge V alve B ody.
V a lv e .

figures will in d icate w h eth er m ore or less b in d er

is needed per m ix in g . The cores are th en
te ste d for w ater abso rp tio n by placing in a ja r of
w a te r an d leaving for a definite tim e. Com­
pariso n can be m ade of th e w ater abso rp tio n of
th e cores by th e so ften in g . The la st p ractical
te s t is to m ake two id en tical castin g s w ith one
core in each ty p e of sand, and these can be
exam ined fo r signs of blowing, scabbing and for
th e m a n n er in which th e b u rn t sand leaves th e
castin g d u rin g fe ttlin g . The whole series of
these tests can be c a rrie d o u t w ith a sam ple
p in t of b inder, in a very sh o rt tim e, w ith o u t
h aving to reso rt to th e expense of laboratory
te stin g , and w ill show w h a t m ay be expected
from a m a te ria l in o n e’s own foundry, using
 464

one’s own p a rtic u la r processes. I t is d o u b tfu l

w hether any p a rtic u la r core job req u ire s all th e
q u alities d eterm in ed by th ese te sts, and i t is,
th erefo re, up to th e fo u n d ry m a n to ju d g e th e
b in d er according to th e d em ands of th e jo b for
w hich th e b in d er is req u ire d . F o r in stan ce, he
may n o t req u ire a green b o n d , or he m ay n o t he
p a rtic u la r ab o u t w a te r ab so rp tio n .
Three Core Mixtures Used
In th e a u th o r’s w orks, every core t h a t can
possibly be m ade in oil san d is so m ad e, th re e

F i g . 3 .— G l o b e V a l v e w it h H exagon E nds.

m ix tu res of san d being fo u n d su ita b le fo r any

ty p e of core en co u n te red . W h ere possible, cores
are m ade in halves, on flat p la te s, in a m ix tu re
of sea sand an d th in oil b in d e r. T his ty p e of
core is th e cheap est m ethod, g iv in g , w hen baked ,
a h a rd , stro n g , w ate rp ro o f core, an d can be
m ixed a t 40 p a rts of san d to 1 of b in d e r, and
as one is able to use w et san d , th e heavy cost of
d ry in g san d is avoided. T his san d h as little or
no g reen bond. F o r cores h a v in g aw k w ard shapes
or o v erh an g in g pieces t h a t d em an d th e use of a
greenbond san d , a trea c ly com pound is used and
d ry san d is essen tial. A g re a te r volum e of
b in d er m u st be used, as i t a p p e a rs t h a t th e
 455

g re a te r th e greenbond s tre n g th w ith a given

b in d er a t a given p ro p o rtio n , th e lower th e
baked tra n sv e rse stre n g th . This ap p ears to be
accounted for by th e effect of th e w ater. A te s t
recen tly m ade w ith a b in d er m ixed a t 40 of sand
to 1 of b in d er and d ry san d gave a g reen drop
of I f in. w ith a tra n sv erse baked s tre n g th of a
b reak age a t 221 lbs. on a 1-in. sq u are core a t
6-in. centres. A sim ilar m ix tu re , b u t w ith
2 p a rts of w ater added, reduced th e green drop
to 1 in ., b u t increased th e tran sv erse by over
50 p er cent, to 37^ lbs. Now, as w a te r alone
c an n o t give th e s tre n g th , and all w a te r is driven

F ig . 5 .— H eavy D uty W e d g e -T y p e V alve.

off d u rin g b akin g , th e e x tr a stre n g th m u st be

o btain ed d u rin g th e m ix in g , and probably th e
ad d itio n of w ater in th e m ix in g m ill emulsifies
th e b in d er and gives a m ore even d is trib u tio n
on th e sand g ra in s th a n when d ry sand is used.
T herefore, as w a ter reduced greenbond, and
greenbond is necessary, e x tra b in d er m u st he
added to th e dry san d to give th e desired baked
s tre n g th to th e core, th e m ix tu re being 30 of
sand to 1 of b in d er. The th ird sand m ix tu re
is sea sand and red sand in equal p roportion
an d th e oil b in d er. In th is case 1 p a r t of oil
is used to 30 p a rts of sand, as th e clay bond
a cts adversely on th e oil b in d er and e x tr a oil is
 45«

necessary to give a h ard core, in some d is tric ts ,

such as th e M idlands, th e cost of th e e x tr a oil
is offset by th e vastly ch eap er price of red san d
to sea sand, b u t in o th e r places t h a t w ould n o t
apply. The m ix tu re h as th e a d v a n ta g e , how ­
ever, of p roducin g a very stro n g green b o n d w ith ­
o u t h aving to re so rt to d ry san d . W h ilst th is
sand is m ore open th a n o rd in a ry loam core san d ,
it is, of course, n o t so porous as th e all sea-
sand m ix tu res, an d v e n tin g m u st be em ployed
or blow ing an d scabbing will p robably occur.

F ig . 6 .— C la c k -T t p e R e t e n t io n
V alve.

The m ain use for th is m ix tu re is fo r th e ro u n d

cores on th e ro ta ry m achine, th e s tro n g g reen
bond allow ing long len g th s of core to be m ade
w ith o u t crack in g and d isto rtio n , an d as th e
m achine au to m atically v en ts th e cores, th e y are
tro u b le-free. The cores when b aked a re excep­
tio n ally h a rd an d w aterp ro o f an d can be m ade
and stocked' fo r in d efin ite periods w ith o u t
d e te rio ra tio n .
Melting
The success or fa ilu re of an y "foundry depends
upon its cupola p ractice, and in th e small shop
th is section dem ands th e m ost c a re fu l contro l,
 457
»'specially in tim es of poor tra d e . T here is a
•‘(0-in. and 18-in. cupola, th e la tte r being term ed
an em ergency e u p o le tte .” In norm al tim es
sueli is th e ease, h u t u n d er th e conditions of th e
p a st y e a r or tw o th e la rg e r cupola has become
the “ em ergency ” one. C lien ts’ dem ands m ust
be m et daily, and if one is to c a st only tw o or
th re e tim es per week m uch business is lost. To
ru n th e larg e cupola fo r sm all casts would be
too costly, an d th e sm all cupola is an u ndoubted
asset to th e sm all fo u n d ry , i t being possible eco­
nom ically to m elt fo r as low as 10 cw ts., and
qu ite su itab le for casts of 2 or 3 tons. I t has,
of course, a lim ite d field fo r th e size of th e cast-

l r iG . 7 .— P ress T ool C a s t in g
U sed as P attern.

ings to be poured, as th e well of th e fu rn ace

can only hold 5 cwts. of m etal, an d if a h a lf­
to n castin g is requ ired to be c a st ho t, it is essen­
tia l to use th e la rg e r cupola. A 14-cwt. balance-
w eight, however, has heen c ast o u t of th e small
cupola, b u t th e m e ta l w as ra th e r dull. The small
cupola has been desig n ated as U nsuitable fo r
th e pro d u ctio n of good-quality m olten m etal, b u t
th e a u th o r c an n o t agree w ith such statem en ts,
personal experience being th a t, w ith carefu l con­
tro l, th e reverse is th e position. F o r in stan ce,
he uses a m etal fo r one class of c astin g where
a phosphorus co n te n t of 0.4 p er cent, is sought.
D u rin g th e p a st y ea r, chem ists h ave periodically
analysed th is m etal, an d re p o rts show th e con­
te n ts ran g ed from 0.37 to 0.43 p e r cent. P ro b ­
ably these figures prove t h a t w ith c arefu l con­
tro l th e small cupola can produce good-quality
 458

m etal of u n ifo rm analysis. All charges of m etal,

coke an d lim estone m u st be ca re fu lly w eighed,
an d , w ith th e use of a b la st g au g e a n d a tim e ­
piece, m etal can be controlled to very fine lim its.
T he cupola fre q u e n tly m elts five d is tin c t classes
of m etal fo r a 30-cwt. m elt, a ty p ic a l d a y ’s cast
being as follow s: (1) A u ste n itic iro n (nickel-
copper-chrom e) ; (2) so ft iro n fo r sm all m achine
p a rts, electric al w ork, g a u g e cases, e t c . ; (3)
m edium Si a n d low P iro n fo r p ressu re v a lv e s;
(4) low Si, low P cy lin d er iro n , a n d (5) low Si,

low C, w hite iro n . A stu d y of th is c h a rg e sheet

rev eals: (1) A u ste n itic irons a re very expensive
a n d m u st be cleared before ru n n in g in to so ft
iro n s; (2) h ig h S i, h ig h P iro n fo r lig h t c a st­
ings m u st be m elted h o t. M ig ra tio n of th is
m etal in to th e n e x t c h a rg e w ould re s u lt in leak y
valves an d , conversely, m iscalcu latio n re s u ltin g
in to c h arg e (3) bein g po u red in to lig h t castin g s
w ould cause w aste due to c a stin g s b ein g un-
m ach in ab le; (3) fo r m edium Si, low P , h ig h
M n, hot m eta l is v ita l, w hilst m ig ra tio n in to
charge (4) would cause leaky cy lin d ers. Con­
verse m ig ra tio n is n o t so serious, as th e cy lin d er
 459

iron would m ake good valves, b u t would be

ra th e r c o stly ; (4) fo r low Si, low P cylinder
iron, m ig ra tio n to ch arg e (5) would be disas­
tro u s, as t h a t is a w hite iron, and (5) in w hite
iron any m iscalculation in to charge (4) would
scrap any cylinder castings.
I t will be seen t h a t difficulties m u st occur
when castin g such a v aried lo t in sm all quan-

F ig . 9 .— D ia g r a m m a t ic Sketch or C oke
H opper M ould.

titie s, b u t w ith care an d a definite p lan of

procedure th e difficulties can be dispersed. A
good p lan to p re v en t m ig ratio n of th e charges is
to use a little e x tra coke betw een each class of
m etal, th is tem p o ra rily holding up th e m elting
an d g iving th e c u p o la-ten ter in d icatio n of th e
approach of a d ifferen t class of iron. H e m ust,
of course, have a daily charge sheet, and m ust
know th e capacity of his ladles, so th a t as he
ta p s off th e m etal he will have some knowledge
of th e position of his n e x t m etal. Thus, if he
 4(30

Inis overcharged one g ra d e an d he has no m oulds

into w hich to p o u r th e excess, he m u st p o u r
down such excess in to a pig-bed. If, on th e
o th e r h an d , he h as u n d e r-e stim a te d th e am o u n t
of a c e rtain class of iro n , he m u st leave th e
m oulds u n cast, and a rra n g e a n o th e r ch arg e of
m etal a t a la te r sta g e of th e blow.
Moulding Practice
M any a n d v aried a re th e ty p e s of castin g s
m ade in th e sm all jo b b in g fo u n d ry a n d m any a re
th e problem s to be solved. H ig h - a n d low-

F i g . 10.— S m a l l S te a m
C y lin d e r P a tte r n .

pressu re valve castin g s, fo r oil, steam an d w a te r,

are one of th e fo u n d ry ’s re g u la r lines, and
w hilst m etal com position can be a rra n g e d to give
ra p id freezing, ev ery ty p e of p a tte r n h as its own
p a rtic u la r problem . V a ry in g m e ta l thicknesses
m u st be ta k e n in to co n sid eratio n w hen s e ttin g
o u t th e job a n d a rra n g in g th e ru n n in g of th e
eastings.
F ig . 1 shows a sta n d a rd globe valve p a tte rn
an d core. The m a in difficulty en c o u n te re d is
segregation betw een th e heavy valve se a tin g an d
th e th in w all. To p re v e n t seg reg atio n th e m etal
is m ixed to produce a dense g rey iro n of m edium
silicon, low phosphorus an d m edium to ta l carbon.
T his typo of m etal will overcome th e in te rn a l
 461

seg reg atio n , b u t if th e com position is too low in

T.C. one is liable to ru n in to an o th e r tro u b le
due to e x te rn a l sh rin k ag e. The placing of th e
ru n n e r to p rev en t “ h o t spots ” is of u tm ost
im p o rtan ce. The m ost satisfacto ry position in
tliis valve being in th e back of th e in le t flange,
th is being th e fa rth e s t p o in t away from th e
ju n c tio n of th e valve se a tin g and th e body. I t
should be noted t h a t th e cover flange on th is
p a tte rn is set outside th e m ain flanges, as th is
p o in t is raised in F ig . 2, which shows th e section
of a sim ilar valve, b u t it should be noted th a t
th e cover flange in th is case is set betw een th e
m ain flanges.
The ju n c tio n of th e two flanges and th e valve
seatin g m akes a n a tu ra l “ ho t spot ” t h a t m ust
lie assisted in cooling, as th e a rra n g e m e n t of th e
ru n n e r can n o t avoid th e tro u b le. The m ost
sim ple m an n er is to in s e rt a large-headed horse­
shoe n a il in th e jo in t of th e core a t th is point.
T his form s a densener to elim in ate porosity a t
tli is p o in t, and th e n a il stem can be readily
chipped o u t d u rin g fe ttlin g .
F ig . 3 shows th e sam e ty p e of valve, b u t w ith
hexagon ends in ste a d of flanges. The ends are
bored an d screwed fine th re a d , and to ru n in th e
sam e m an n er as th e flanged types would be
d isastrous. The ru n n e r in th is case m u st be in
th e cover flange, a t th e o u tle t side so t h a t a
h o t spot is avoided a t th e valve-seat ju n ctio n .
F ig . 4 shows a section of wedge-valve body.
T he im p o rta n t p o in t is th e ju n c tio n betw een th e
flange neck and th e wedge seatin g . R u n n in g of
these types of valves is best effected in th e cover
flange. F ig . 5 shows a heav y -d u ty wedge-type
valve, te ste d to 2,000 lbs. p er sq. in. pressure,
which presents sim ilar fe a tu re s to th e previous
types, and ru n n in g should be in th e cover flange.
All types of valves illu stra te d are liable to
sh rin k ag e in th e necks of th e flanges. L iberal
v en tin g a t these p o in ts will p e rm it th e ra p id
escape of th e h o t gases an d p re v en t th is source
of trouble. M ost of th e valve-body castings
shown are m ade on h an d -ram m oulding m achines
and are very simple in pro d u ctio n . The ru n n e rs
a re arra n g e d by th e m anagem ent and are fitted
 462

on th e p a tte rn p lates w ith th e p a tte rn . T le

cores m ade in oil san d a re m ade in halves, on flat
plates, and are placed in to th e m oulds u n jo in te .
F ig . 6 shows a clack-type re te n tio n valve.
T his is probably th e m ost difficult ty p e of valve
castin g . I ts design is p a rtic u la rly u n ev en in
m etal thicknesses an d h o t spots, a n d conducive
to porosity tro u b les. N o t only a re th e re th e
th ic k an d th in sections of th e flanges an d body
walls, b u t heavy bosses in m ould an d core to
ca rry th e clack swindle. Som etim es i t is a g g ra ­
v ated by f u r th e r bosses bein g ad d ed to c a rry a
by-pass valve. E ffo rts w ere m ade to equalise
cooling by th e in se rtio n of d enseners in core and
m ould, b u t t h a t was n o t e n tire ly sa tisfa c to ry ,
an d m etal com position a p p e a re d to be th e only
solution to th e tro u b le. I t w ill be idealised, how­
ever, t h a t fo r sm all o rd ers, a n d th is ty p e is
generally fo r only one o r tw o castin g s, special
m etal charges could n o t be a rra n g e d , a n d th e
solution was fo u n d in u sin g th e sam e m e ta l w ith
a ladle ad d itio n of 1.0 p e r c en t, nickel and
0.3 p er cent, chrom e.
F o r jobbin g w ork la rg e use is m ade of oil san d
in th e m oulding p ractice. O il-sand cores a re
often u tilised to c u t o u t jo in tin g , a n d fo r sm all
dry -san d w ork th e a u th o r p re fe rs an oilsand
m ould to o rd in a ry d ry -san d p ra c tic e . N o t only
is i t safer, b u t ch eap er in cost of p ro d u ctio n .
F ig . 7 shows th e use of a n oil-sand core to aid
m oulding. The p a tte r n was se n t by th e cu sto m er
an d was a rep lic a of th e castin g . T he face h ad
to be p e rfe c t for press-tool w ork an d w as n o t to
be m achined. To m ake th is face p e rfe c t in a
green-sand m ould w ould be p ra c tic a lly im pos­
sible. The draw of th e p a tte r n w ould u n d o u b t­
edly b re a k aw ay some of th e sh a rp edges, a n d
m end ing would be a long an d ted io u s job fo r th e
m oulder. To en su re a good face, a core was
m ade from th e p a tte r n in oilsand. T his was
fa c ilita te d by b ein g able to d raw th e p a tte r n
in th e opposite d irec tio n to t h a t em ployed when
m oulding. W h en b aked, th e core w as fitte d to
th e p a tte r n an d ram m ed up in th e m ould. The
re s u lta n t castin g s h a d a clean sh arp face.
 463

C onsider m aking th e c astin g in green sand.

The castings weighed 25 cwts. an d th e m etal
thickness w as abo u t 5 in. The m ould would
need to be well ram m ed to p re v e n t swelling.
I t would req u ire p a rtic u la r care in v e n tin g and
m ending to keep a tr u e co n to u r an d p rev en t
scabbing an d blowing. On d raw ing th e p a tte rn ,
th e oil-sand core was sufficiently h a rd to p rev e n t
any breakage, and m ending, sprig g in g , v en tin g
a n d sleaking w ere e n tire ly elim in ated .
F ig . 8 shows th e section of a coke hopper
c astin g on which 50 castin g s w ere to be m ade.
The first co nsideratio n was to m ake in green
sand, v ertically , w ith draw -in facings, b u t th is
was c u t o u t on th e tim e req u ired to ram such
a bulk of sand, and th e cost of th e m etal p a tte rn
t h a t would be necessary. The second idea was
to m ake h orizontally w ith a core fo r th e cen tre,
b u t here a g ain th e core would ta k e u p too much
sand an d tim e, an d would be heavy an d bulky
to handle. This m ethod is p re fe rred to th e
form er, as th e core could be m ade w ith oil-
sand walls and floor-sand c en tre to save th e cost
of th e sand. The a u th o r th e n h ad th e idea of
m ak in g th e core in fo u r slabs to fa c ilita te
h an d lin g . H e had th e p a tte rn m ade w ith core
p rin ts, as shown in F ig . 8, by th e crossed sec­
tio n . The core slabs were m ade in. th ick .
F ig . 9 shows a d iag ra m m a tic section of th e
m ould. The bottom slab was low ered in to th e
p rin t, th e n th e two side slabs. The c en tre was
th e n filled u p w ith bricks an d floor sand a t th e
to p slab placed in position. I n th is m an n er
one m oulder m ade, cored, and cast th re e m oulds
p er 84-hr. day, an d th e core-m aking tim e for
th e th re e m oulds was 3 hr.
F ig . 10 shows a sm all-size steam cylinder p a t­
te r n . These cylinders a p p e a r to be q u ite simple
dry-sand p ractice , b u t a closer ex am in atio n
shows m any h o t spots, and m etal thicknesses in
th e sm aller sizes w ill v ary from J to 2 in. The
first a tte m p ts a t th is class of work were ra th e r
disastrous, th e m ain tro u b les being porosity and
d ir ty bores. A slig h t a lte ra tio n to m etal analy­
sis, and th e use of th e horse-nail denseners suc­
cessfully elim in ated th e porosity troubles, b u t
 464

the pin-holes in th e bore p ersisted . T his tro u b le

did not e n tire ly scrap th e castin g s, as i t was
possible, in some cases, to c u t aw ay th e holes
d u rin g boring, b u t th is e n ta ile d e x tr a m achine-
shop p ractice, a n d h ad to be p erfected .
V arious m ethods of ru n n in g w ere em ployed,
and th e m oulds c a st a t a v ery h ig h te m p e ra tu re ,

F ig . 1 1 .— M o u ld fro m O il S and ready fo r

C l o s in g .

reaching to above 1,400 deg. C. O pinions of

various e x p erts w ere so u g h t, b u t th e y could n o t
fo r some tim e overcom e th e tro u b le. T hey w ere
of th e opinion t h a t th e tro u b le was m a in ly gases
t h a t w ere tra p p e d u n d e r th e la rg e bore core,
and it was decided to e x p e rim e n t w ith oil-sand
moulds in stead of th e u su al d ry -san d p ra c tic e ,
w ith a view to m ore quickly releasin g th e gases.
 465

Fig. 11 shows a cored oil-sand mould ready

for closing. The first mould was n o t en tirely
successful, b u t was a decided im provem ent, so
it was tr ie d a g a in w ith a little m ore provision
fo r th e escape of th e gases by placing large
v en ts th ro u g h th e to p m ould over each core
p rin t, and a p erfect cylinder was m ade, and
seven others, of v ary in g sizes, were equally
successful.
The tro u b le had now been conquered as to
porosity, m achining, etc., b u t th e m anagem ent

F ig . 1 2 .— O il -B ox P attern .

was n o t satisfied w ith th e g en eral app earan ce

of th e castings, th e oil sand g iving a ra th e r
rough skin, an d causing “ ra tc h in g ” in th e
corners. V ario u s coatings of plum bagoes and
blackings w ere trie d , b u t th e nice clean skin
t h a t is associated w ith th e dry-sand m oulds could
not be obtain ed . I t should be noted t h a t in th e
dry-sand m oulds th e w et blacking was applied
before stoving, an d blacking could soak into th e
mould and p e n e tra te to a good d ep th w ith o u t
having any ill-effect on th e moulds, b u t w ith
oil sand th is could n o t be done. The moulds
were m ade in a bonded oil sand, and th erefo re
th e ad d itio n of a w et blacking would cause th e
 466

collapse of th e m ould, as th e sand w ould lose

its bond. They were th e re fo re blacked a f te r
baking, w hilst ho t, an d th e san d bein g w a te r­
proof, th e m ould was only coated w ith th e
blacking. The m an ag e m en t was compelled to
look elsew here fo r a solution of th e tro u b le , and
it tr ie d an ad d itio n of red san d to th e sea san d ,
and w hilst th is effected th e d esired im prove­
m e n t to g en eral ap p earan c e, i t fell back to th e
previous tro u b le, as th e red san d red u ced th e
p erm eab ility of th e m ould. T he only a lte rn a ­
tiv e a p p eared to be to c a st a t a lower te m ­
p e ra tu re . Now, all th is tim e , th e fo u n d ry had
been w orking on th e assu m p tio n t h a t a cy lin d er

F ig . 1 3 .— C o r e f o r F ir e E sca pe
L a n d in g P late.

castin g could n o t be p oured too h o t, a n d th e

aim had been to po u r a t a very h ig h te m p e ra ­
tu re . I t was decided to tr y m eltin g a t th e
same high te m p e ra tu re , h u t p o u rin g w hen th e
te m p e ra tu re had dropped to a b o u t 1,350 deg. C.,
and th is m easure produced a good c a stin g in all
respects. T his p ra c tic e h as been successfully
co ntinued, and n o t only h as it elim in a ted sources
of w aster castings, b u t th e p ro d u ctio n costs of
th e oil-sand m oulds a re low er th a n th e dry-
sand moulds. M oulding is considerably easier,
th e m ould can be looked u p o n as an o rd in a ry
sea-sand core d ried in a box, and sp rig s and
irons can be largely dispensed w ith on acco u n t
of th e p la stic ity of th e san d in th e g reen s ta te
and th e hardness of th e m ould in th e baked
 467

sta te . V en tin g can be tre a te d fa r less seriously

th a n in a loam m ould, on account of th e g re a te r
p erm eab ility of th e mould. No lifte rs o r gaggers
a re req u ired in th e to p m ould, b u t to allow th e
top p a r t to be clearly lifte d , th e p a tte rn m u st
be lifte d w ith th e to p box, being secured by
screws an d fishplates. W hen assem bling, th e
cores can be gen tly rubbed into th e p rin ts, en-

F ig . 14.— H y d r a u l ic R am 12 ft . lo n g .

su rin g a p e rfe c t fit w ith o u t e ith e r crushes or

flashes, a p o in t t h a t is of u tm o st im portance,
as all cores m u st be su pported by th e p rin ts
w ith o u t chaplets.
F ig. 12 shows an oil-box p a tte rn . This is a
p artic u la rly diflicult design, as th e m etal th ic k ­
ness of th e box is f t in ., and th e heavy section
shown 2 | in. by 2 in. This section is m achined,
drilled, ta p p e d , e tc ., to form oil valves an d th e
 468

slig h test porosity causes a scrap castin g . To

use an iron sim ilar to th e cy lin d er m etal o r th e
valve m etal is o u t of th e question, as th e th in
section of th e box would be too h a rd fo r m ach in ­
ing, so th e cooling m u st be assisted by th e use
of heavy cast-iron denseners in th e core fo r th e
full len g th of th e h eavy section. This is c ast in
the bottom of th e m ould, th e cores being sus­
pended to th e top box. A n o th er difficulty to be
encountered is crack in g , due to c o n trac tio n be­
tw een th e heavy section in th e bottom and th e
lig h t flange in th e to p , an d to fa c ilita te th e
rap id collapse of th e m ould a t th is p o in t, th e
m iddle p a r t of th e m ould is m ade in oil san d
and th e top an d bottom in loam.
F ig. 13 shows a core fo r a fire-escape la n d in g
p late. Ono o ften e n co u n te rs la n d in g p la te s of
v ary in g shapes an d sizes, an d p a tte r n costs
would be fa r too heavy fo r a one-off job. A t
one tim e a stan d ard -size p la te 3 ft. sq u are was
used, and all castin g s h ad to be m ade from t h a t
p a tte rn by stoppin g off or m oving th e p a tte rn
along, as th e case m ay be. Now a m ould is
made of th e p late size by strip s an d strick le
and a flat top p a rt, and th e void is filled up w ith
sections of th e core shown. This is a very sim ple
m ethod, th e cores being produced v ery quickly
by boy labour, an d th e sam e p rin cip le can be
em ployed on m any types of g ra tin g s, etc.
F ig. 14 shows a p a tte rn of a h y d rau lic ram ,
12 ft. long, t h a t h ad to be m ade. T his is a n ­
o th e r instance of th e v a ried ty p e of w ork e n ­
countered in th e sm all fo u n d ry , an d in c id e n ta lly
is one of th e very few ty p e s of castin g s m ade
w here th e loam core is ilsed. The core in th is
instance was 12 ft. 6 in. long by l i - i n . d ia ., and
was spun in loam on a |- in . b arrel.
In conclusion, th e a u th o r would like to record
bis g ra te fu l th a n k s to his p rin cip a l, M r. E d w a rd
Stevenson, fo r his perm ission to use his w orks
and practice fc r th is P a p e r.
 469

Birmingham, Coventry & West

Midlands Branch
THE FETTLING SHOP AND EFFICIENCY

By W. G. Morgan (Associate Member)

Efficiency has been defined as “ th e controlled
ap p licatio n of progress to achieve b e tte r
re s u lts .” This is a concise sta te m e n t and it
im presses a fa c to r which is extrem ely im p o rta n t,
y e t too o ften neglected, when new m ethods or
m achines are in tro d u ced . This facto r is control,
and a t th e o u tse t it should be em phasised th a t
if any a lte ra tio n s to ex istin g conditions are to
be com pletely effective, th is is th e keynote. Men
m ust be tr a in e d to new circum stances and th is
tr a in in g m u st no t finish by producing simply
o p erato rs, it is equally essential to infuse th e
s p ir it of co-operation in th e scheme.
The degree of accuracy needed in the fe ttlin g
shop depends, of course, on th e class of work
handled, and, consequently, th e equ ip m en t neces­
sary to achieve economical w orking varies
accordingly.
The finish of a castin g is highly im p o rta n t to
th e Sales D e p a rtm e n t, and no m a tte r how good
th e g en eral shape an d sk in of a castin g , poor
fe ttlin g will spoil th e ap p earan ce. Small cast­
ings usually call fo r m ore w ork and g re a te r care
because of th e ir in trica c y , an d as th e g re a te r
num b er of these have to u n d erg o m any subse­
q u e n t m achin in g operations, a knowledge of
c e rta in im p o rta n t points is req u ired or th ere
will be in ev itab le tro u b le in th e m achine shop.
P a rtic u la r instan ces will read ily occur to all of
you w here fe ttle rs blend o u t a cross jo in ted
castin g or o v erfettle a p a rt used for a sp o ttin g
face in a jig , and m an y an o th er. S m oothing th e
face of a rou g h castin g , due to a b u rn t mould
or poor sand, is a p o in t which calls for a certa in
a rtis tic skill if th e re su lt is to be acceptable.
 470

A ppearance dem ands co n sid eratio n an d should

n o t be le ft to th e m achine-shop fitte r.
T he size of th e fo u n d ry , of course, d eterm in es
th e e x te n t of th e eq u ip m en t t h a t can be eco­
nom ically used, b u t here i t should be p o in ted o u t
t h a t i t o ften pays to m odify or in s ta l new p la n t
to increase th e h an d lin g c ap acity an d reduce
costs even in sm all job b in g shops.
The wide v a rie ty an d ty p es of eq u ip m en t
available necessitates a care fu l co n sid eratio n ,
before m ak in g any a d d itio n to e x istin g condi­
tions, an d w hilst some new ideas or m achines
m ay be m entioned, it is w ished to suggest
m eans, w hich m ay be of b enefit to some if n o t
all, of m aking fe ttlin g shops capable of h an d lin g
th e ir w ork m ore efficiently.
W h ate v er m echanical e q u ip m en t is used, it
should be borne in m ind t h a t th e atm osphere
an d h an d lin g are m ore severe h ere th a n in any
o th er p a r t of th e works, and m ain te n a n c e su p e r­
vision m u st be keen a n d a d eq u ate. T his is n o t
only necessary from a safe ty p o in t of view, b u t
also from an efficiency and cost sta n d p o in t.
Pneumatic Tools
The extensive use of p n eu m atic pow er, th ro u g h
th e wide ran g e of p o rta b le tools av ailab le, has
c ertain ly provided a q uicker and m ore efficient
way of perform ing c e rta in o p eratio n s. I n a t te n ­
tio n to high-pressure a ir lines, how ever, is o ften
one of th e la rg e st sources of loss due to leaks,
etc. All pipes an d connections, ta p s an d hose
should have a weekly inspection. I t w ill save
a considerable w aste, due to carelessness, if all
tap s a re of th e sp ring-loaded p lu n g e r ty p e and
no open-end pipes allowed fo r blow ing off.
M oisture elim inato rs a n d filters red u ce th e w ear
on compressors and tools, besides h elp in g to
m a in ta in pressure. The efficiency of all p n e u ­
m atic m achines is g re a tly red u ced if th e a ir
pressure is allowed to fall below th e m inim um
advised by th e m akers, so t h a t am ple com pressor
cap acity is essential w here th e consum ption
flu ctuates freq u en tly .
An au to m atic electrical device, o p e ra te d by th e
a ir pressure, will en ab le power to be conserved by
 471

en su rin g t h a t th e com pressor works only when

th e consum ption reduces th e pressure to a m in i­
m um an d cu ts o u t ag ain when a m axim um is
reached. The use of pn eu m atic ham m ers is well
established on su itab le work. R eg u lar lu b rica­
tio n a n d th e rep lacem en t of hexagon sockets
when w orn to reduce chisel b reak ag e a r e im por­
t a n t points.
Obviously th e best steel should be procured for
chisels, an d th e co rrect h e a t-tre a tm e n t, carried
o u t u n d e r pyrom etric control, insisted upon when
tem p erin g an d h a rd e n in g . AVhere necessary, it
fa c ilita te s w orking if special benches or tre stle s
are provided, a n d o p erato rs should be supplied
w ith a fu ll ra n g e of chisels.
P n e u m a tic p o rtab le g rin d ers of th e ro to r type
are to be p re fe rre d to p iston ty p e or electrical,
on account of th e ir w eight an d size. They can
be of considerable value on m any ty p es of work,
b u t i t is desirab le t h a t th e y are cleaned and
lu b ricated every day, an d t h a t th e correct wheel
be used. I t should be possible to o b tain 100 hrs.
w ear from 6-in. by 1-in. wheel an d 150 h rs. from
a 6-in. by l |- i n . wheel. S haped wheels can also
be used w ith ad v a n ta g e . To e lim in ate u n d u e
w ear on th e d riv in g p o rtio n , th ro u g h sand and
g r i t e n te rin g these p a rts, it is u seful to in sist on
hose pipes being blown o u t before connecting to
th e g rin d e r.
Grinding Wheels
The choice of g rin d in g wheel fo r floor g rin d ers
will depend, of course, on th e ty p e of work
han d led a n d m achine used. The m a jo rity of
m achines ta k in g wheels from 16 in. dia. up to
36 in. dia. give a wheel perip h ery speed of
ap p ro x im ately 5,000 ft. per m in ., w hilst th e
la te s t high-speed m achines w ork up to 9,000 ft.
p e r m in. The speed is im p o rta n t, an d a t least
tw o spindle speeds should be provided an d used.
The im portan ce of th is will be a p p a re n t if we
consider a p a rtic u la r case. A 30-in. d ia. wheel to
ru n a t 5,000 su rface ft. p e r m in. m u st have a
spindle speed of 637 r.p .m . W hen th is wheel has
worn down to 20 in. d ia., if th e same spindle
 472

speed is m a in ta in e d , th e su rface speed will only

be 3,335 ft. per m in ., or 29 p e r cen t, re d u ctio n .
C u ttin g te sts on th is exam ple show t h a t i t tak e s
about 25 p er cen t, g re a te r tim e to rem ove th e
sam e am o u n t of m eta l a t th e slower speed, so
t h a t th e necessity of m a in ta in in g co rrect speeds
is obvious. I t is equally im p o rta n t, of course, to
use th e co rrect ty p e of wheel. The dem ands of
different w ork a re so num ero u s t h a t i t is ad v is­
able to consult a sp ecialist. N ew wheels a re so
freq u en tly being developed t h a t i t is very d esir­
able to keep in touch w ith m a n u fa c tu re rs. U n ­
due w ear on wheels is usu ally caused by loose
bearings, p a rtic u la rly in th e lig h te r ty p es of
m achines.
Core Removal and Rough Cleaning
M ethods of rem oving cores an d ro u g h cleaning
v ary w ith th e ty p e of castin g an d g e n e ra l con­
ditions. H a n d picking a n d tu m b lin g are still
th e m ost gen eral an d ch eap est in m any in stan ces.
In th is case, facilities fo r loading an d h an d lin g
castings should be p rovided to red u ce congestion
and m u lti-h an d lin g . P e rfo ra te d steel tre s tle
boxes in to which castin g s a re loaded fro m th e
foundry and in which th e y can be conveyed to
the tu m b lin g b arrels, e tc ., a re very co n v en ien t
for sm all or m edium size w ork. W hen th e la y ­
o u t an d ty p e of w ork p erm its, g ra v ity o r pow er
conveyors a re an asset in m ak in g a sm ooth an d
speedy flow of w ork. I t is advisable to consult
specialists w hen considering th e in s ta lla tio n of
th is a p p a ra tu s, b u t, sp eak in g g en erally , th e
g ra v ity ty p e can he usefu lly ap p lied to m any
plan ts, especially those h a n d lin g a la rg e n u m b er
of castings of su itab le size up to 200 lbs. in
w eight.
D esign of tu m b lin g b a rrels a re num erous, b u t
provided th ey are of steel co n stru c tio n w ith
ad eq u ate access an d d u st tig h t th e re is little to
criticise. I t should be n o ted , how ever, t h a t if
th e rollers are allowed to w ear badly, a p a r t from
noise, th e d riv in g pow er is g re a tly in creased .
T ests show t h a t as m uch as 80 p er c en t, increase
soon resu lts from th is cause.
D u st e x h a u st system s are recom m ended and
 4 7 3

insisted upon in some cases by th e F a cto ry Act,

b u t o ften leave m uch to be desired especially
when stai’tin g u p . O bservation will show th a t
m en slow down very considerably in a heavily
d u st-lad en atm osphere, a p a rt from th e general
bad effect on th e ir h ealth . The cyclone m ethod
of ex h a u st an d d u st collection is undoubtedly
b e tte r th a n th e p it ty p e.

Sandblasting
S hot-blast eq uip m en t provides a finish unob­
ta in a b le by o th er m ethods an d is essential for
some classes of w ork. W h eth e r th e suction or
pressure system is u tilised th e essential points
to w atch are th e ¡proper w orking of th e blastin g
a p p a ra tu s an d th e rep lacem en t of p a rts as they
become w orn. R e g u la r and com plete inspection,
by a person co n v ersan t w ith th e co n stru ctio n al
d etails and w orking, w ill ensure t h a t th e full
capacity is m a in ta in e d . I t is n o t uncom m on to
see shot-blast a p p a ra tu s, probably because of its
larg e bulk, located so t h a t m u lti-h an d lin g is
in ev itab le; a re a rra n g e m e n t so t h a t work can
be fed s tra ig h t to th e chippers and g rin d ers is
nearly alw ays possible and will obviously re su lt
in speeding p roduction. H ow ever, it is often
th e case in old fo u n d ries t h a t custom blinds those
in charg e to th e aspect of rea rra n g em e n t.
S pecial' ap p licatio n s of th e ro tary -ta b le type
m achine and continuous flow th ro u g h rooms are
num erous an d very in te re stin g . The im p o rta n t
p o in t to note, however, is t h a t in n early all cases
s ta n d a rd eq u ip m en t is used and efficiency ob­
tain ed by th e m an n er in which i t is operated to
deal w ith each p a rtic u la r class of work. A tu r n ­
tab le in th e floor or m ounted on th e carriag e in
shot-blast rooms will fa c ilita te th e o p erato r on
larg e work.
A New Machine
A recen t in tro d u c tio n in sh o t cleaning dis­
penses w ith compressed a ir and utilises c e n tri­
fugal force to apply th e steel shot a t high
pressure. T his m achine, which is called th e
“ W h e e la b ra to r,” is claimed to reduce cleaning
costs as com pared w ith pneum atic equipm ent.
 474

High-Pressure Water
A nother p rin cip le fo r cleaning is th e use of
a high-pressure w a te r je t, b u t w h ilst th is is
claim ed to be h ighly efficient, in t h a t i t wiH
com pletely rem ove all cores fro m in tric a te c a st­
ings an d produce a good finish, th e pro v isio n of
th e necessary w a te r sup p ly an d filter beds a re
only applicable and ju stified in special circu m ­
stances. I t m u st be a d m itte d , how ever, th a t , as
th is m achine is p ra c tic a lly a u to m a tic — i.e ., a
num ber of w a te r je ts play on a rev o lv in g -c arrier
table, th e cleaning tim e saved is fro m 70 to
90 p er cent, of o th e r m ethods an d all d u s t is
elim in ated — i t is a m ost in te re s tin g pro p o sitio n .
T he provision of special eq u ip m e n t to deal
w ith p a rtic u la r w ork th ro u g h sh ap e, size or
q u a n tity is a m a tte r w hich is th e p ro je c t of
in d iv id u al firms. M uch tim e is devoted to
evolving th e b est m eans of p ro d u c in g a m ould or
core, b u t th e question of fe ttlin g is u su ally le f t
to ex istin g eq u ip m e n t an d lab o u r. T his is a
case w hen i t is fe lt t h a t a curse a n d a th r e a t
are n o t th e only m eans of co m pleting a p ro ­
gram m e an d a t th e sam e tim e sav in g m oney.
H av in g considered some of th e av ailab le e q u ip ­
m ent for fe ttlin g castin g s, th e q u ery arises,
w h at ad v a n ta g e w ill a firm achieve by in s ta llin g
new m achines or re a rra n g in g ex istin g p la n t?
Labour Considerations
I t has been th e exp erien ce of m an y t h a t th e
in tro d u ctio n of th e p n e u m atic ham m ers, for
instance, has resu lte d in m uch o p position from
m en who have been used to h a n d h am m ers and
chisels. Y et th is opposition is ch an g ed , in a
sh o rt tim e, to a feeling of com plete dependence
on these tools, especially if a skilled o p e ra to r is
b ro u g h t in.
R esen tm en t a t changes in th e no rm al w orking
conditions is a fa c to r w hich needs ta c tfu l
h an d lin g , an d if th e m en a re to a d a p t th e m ­
selves to changed conditions th e y m u st be
b ro u g h t to th e m achine an d n o t vice versa. In
o th er w ords, th e m en m u st be tr a in e d to use
new equ ip m en t to th e fu lle st a d v a n ta g e and
realise th e savings to them selves. Only p a r tia l
 475

success can' re s u lt if th e m en are le ft to develop

solely th e ir own m ethods. The feeling of p o ten ­
tia l p ric e -c u ttin g is always p red o m in an t, and
w hether th is fa c to r en ters th e scheme or n ot
th e re should alw ays be an a tte m p t to stabilise
th e w ages in fa c ilita tin g w orking conditions.
The necessary c are in h an d lin g m achinery and
tools should n o t be m inim ised in th is d e p a rt­
m e n t w here abuse is so easily possible. If a
b e tte r id ea of tid in ess is instilled and eq u ip ­
m e n t cleaned, say once a week, it is su rp risin g
w h at a considerable outlook is created . A defi­
n ite im provem ent is possible e ith e r th ro u g h
increased p rod u ctio n for a given space o r in cost
per to n by th e in tro d u ctio n of any new p la n t
providing i t is judiciously selected, placed in its
p ro p er re latio n to th e re s t of th e p la n t and
efficiently operated .
T he im portan ce of considering in th is d e p a rt­
m e n t th e p la n t and its p roduction as a whole
should be stressed. I f e x istin g conditions are not
w orking in th e m ost economical m a n n e r th e posi­
tio n is simplified. The b e st g rin d in g wheels, th e
best steel a n d its p ro p er forgings, th e m a in te n ­
ance of all eq u ip m e n t in good condition and
keener supervision will save h u n d red s of pounds
to m any foundries.
T here is a c o n sta n t need for review ing all
ex istin g practice, for its s ta te of efficiency and
in th e lig h t of th e cap acity of new m ethods and
m achines. O bsolete p la n t can n o t be expected to
give th e b est resu lts, however well cared for,
b u t i t is su rp risin g how m any otherw ise well-
equipped foun d ries ex pect m achines in th e ir
fe ttlin g shops to la s t fo r ever.
Safety Considerations
S afety is a fa c to r everybody is ta k in g more
seriously lately . T here are in h e re n t dangers
which e x ist in any fe ttlin g d e p a rtm e n t, b u t w ith
care these can be m inim ised. The b u rstin g of
g rin d in g wheels is n o t fre q u e n t, fo rtu n ate ly , b u t
w ith th e in tro d u c tio n of high-speed m achines
giving a surface speed of 9,000 ft. p er m in ., the
fittin g of wheels is an im p o rta n t ta sk which
should be given to a responsible m an.
 476

R egulations re g a rd in g chain s, g rin d in g wheels,

d u st catchers an d g u a rd s are covered by H om e
Office reg u latio n s, b u t a tte n tio n should be d raw n
to th e research on th e effect of d u st on th e
re sp ira to ry system , giv en before th e A m erican
F o u n d ry m en ’s A ssociation by D r. E . G. M eiter.
The sa lie n t p o in t is t h a t d u st p artic le s la rg e r
th a n 0.00004 in. do n o t p e n e tra te th e lungs, and
are th erefo re n o t d angerous from a silicosis p o in t
of view. They are c a u g h t by m em branes p ro ­
vided by n a tu re in th e n asal an d o th e r re s p ira ­
tory passages, a n d are e v e n tu a lly e jec ted by
coughing an d sneezing.
I t is suggested t h a t th e b ru sh in g down of walls,
cranes an d m achin ery on w hich th e very fine d u st
collects due to its lon g er suspension in th e atm o ­
sphere would be done fre q u e n tly a n d by persons
w ith re sp ira to rs. A fine-w ater sp ra y should be
used in co n ju n ctio n w ith th e b ru sh in g , a lth o u g h
cleaning com pletely by w a te r je t is ad vocated
when possible, especially fo r walls. O bviously th e
ideal m ethod w ould be v acuum clean in g , b u t as
y et th e necessary eq u ip m e n t does n o t a p p e a r to
have been developed. I t is a p o in t n o t g en erally
ap p reciated , yet th e ir r it a ti n g effect of th is form
of d u st is well know n. M ilk an d o atm eal w a te r
w ith th e ad d itio n of c e rta in salts a re effective
palliatives.
A nother in te re stin g e x p erim en t can be m ade
by providing all benches, tre stle s, e tc ., of a
suitable h eig h t to avoid u n d u e back b en d in g .
This has th e ad d itio n a l benefit of red u cin g eye
stra in . In connection w ith vision, th e in te n sity
of lig h tin g b o th n a tu r a l an d a rtificia l is in ­
versely p ro p o rtio n a l to th e denseness of a d u st-
laden atm osphere. As m uch as 40 p er cen t, re ­
duction in lig h t in te n sity is fre q u e n tly e x p e ri­
enced, due to excessive d u st. If th e fe ttle rs
will fully ap p re c ia te th is p o in t th e tro u b le can
be g reatly reduced. W ith th e p ersonnel k e p t a t
a m inim um , th e observing of safety p recau tio n s
is essential in th e d riv e for efficiency. C areless­
ness is th e u su al cause, an d a severe a ttitu d e is
th e best d e te rre n t.
F inally, it is suggested t h a t th e follow ing c ir­
cum stances e x ist and a re responsible for th e
 477

uneconom ic conditions found in m any foundries

to - d a y :— (1) C u t selling prices re s tric t develop­
m en t ; (2) lack of tr a d e an d m oney have created
e ith e r a cynical o r a n a p a th e tic a ttitu d e , and (3)
personnel tr a in in g has been neglected an d m any
e q u ip m en t supp liers fa il to ap p re c iate t h a t a
m achine is n o t th e only th in g to s e ll; in o th er
w ords, th e ir ex perience should enable them to
suggest p o te n tia l schemes fo r im provem ent. The
one fa c to r t h a t can effectively overcome all th is
is efficiency. Efficiency as an id eal and efficiency
in ev ery d e ta il of practise.
I n conclusion, th e a u th o r wishes to express his
very b est th a n k s to th e following fo r help and
loan of slid e s :—M essrs. A lfred H e rb e rt,
L im ite d ; J . W . Jac k m a n & Com pany, L im ited ;
T ilg h m an ’s S and B last Com pany, L im ite d ;
R. J . R ichard so n & Sons, L im ite d ; Bagshawe
& C om pany, L im ite d ; S ir W . G. A rm strong,
W h itw o rth (E n g in eers), L im ited.

DISCUSSION
M r. J . W . G a r d o m , in proposing a vote of
th a n k s to th e le c tu re r, em phasised th e im p o rt­
ance of th e fe ttlin g shop, which he said could be
a guide to th e efficiency of th e foundry. M r.
M organ had sta te d t h a t a g rin d in g wheel was
25 p e r cent, less efficient when n o t ru n n in g a t
th e c o rrect speed, b u t he did n o t a p p e a r to
suggest th e use of two spindle speeds. W ith
re g a rd to shot-blast equipm ent, a description had
been given of a q u a n tity of a p p a ra tu s. H e (M r.
G ardom ) understo o d t h a t in th e M idlands equip­
m e n t had been fitted which would san d b last both
sides of a c astin g a t th e same tim e, c u ttin g th e
cost by half. A t th e p re se n t tim e g rin d in g
wheels w ere so safe t h a t th e possibility of
breakage m ig h t be alm ost d isregarded. W here
wheels w ere broken, however, it was freq u ently
due to carelessness, n o t only in fittin g , b u t in
th e re sts placed a g a in st th e g rin d in g wheel.
H e did n o t believe in h aving a fixed rest up
ag a in st th e wheel if t h a t could be avoided.
°M r. G. R . S h o t t o n , in s e c o n d in g , s a id th e
p o s s ib ilit y o f im p r o v in g e ffic ie n c y b y m e c h a n is a ­
t io n d e p e n d e d to a la r g e e x t e n t on th e c la s s a n d
 478

v a rie ty of work being h andled. F o r in stan ce,

a fo undry w orking on a very sm all class of w ork,
which was consisten t, could v ery easily he
m echanised, w hereas when a fo u n d ry w as p ro ­
ducing a big v a rie ty of sizes an d w eights th e re
were difficulties in th e p a th of m ech an isatio n.
The q uestion of th e efficiency of th e fe ttlin g shop
was always a sore one from th e p o in t of view of
costing. I t was e x trem ely difficult to a rriv e
definitely a t th e d ressin g cost of a p a rtic u la r lin e
of castings. H e w as a fra id t h a t m ost fo u n d ries
p u t on a lum p sum fo r dressing, or a t th e best
sim ply ju d g ed th e d ressing cost on th e sam e lines
as th e m oulding cost. T here was u n d o u b te d ly a
big field fo r im proved co stin g , b u t i t was
d o ub tful if th e m a jo rity of fo u n d ries considered
it w orth w hile.
The vote of th a n k s was h e a rtily endorsed by
th e m eeting.
The Pattern and Fettling Costs
The C h a i r m a n (M r. E . .J. Lewis) asked
w hether th e tu m b lin g sh o t b a rre l w7as effective in
cleaning w ork w ith in tric a te cores, o r w h eth er
th a t w as a se p a ra te o p eratio n .
M r . J . A. L a c e t suggested t h a t m ore w ork
was o ften throw n on th e fe ttlin g shop th a n it
should norm ally u n d e rta k e . They w a n ted to
relieve th e ir castin g s of superfluous m e ta l. W ere
th ey satisfied t h a t th e y had a tta c k e d th e problem
of th e fe ttlin g shop p u rely from th e fe ttlin g
p o in t of view ? W as n o t th e p a tte r n shop re ­
sponsible fo r m uch m ore fe ttlin g th a n should be
necessary? I n p ro d u cin g th e m a te ria ls in the
w orks w ith w hich he was associated th e 'q u e s­
tio n of cost w as th e first and la s t to which
a tte n tio n was devoted. I t w as useless to look
a t th e balance-sheet a t th e en d of th e y e a r to
see w hether th e y were m ak in g a p ro fit o r loss.
T h a t m u st be discovered w hile p ro d u c tio n is
going on. H ith e rto fo u n d in g h ad been reg ard ed
as th e C inderella of en g in e e rin g , r a th e r th a n th e
basic tra d e upo n w hich th e re s t h ad been su p er­
im posed. M uch subsequent cost could be
elim in ated if th e fo u n d ry p ro d u c t was tu r n e d o u t
correctly a t th e inception.
 47 9

Piece-Work Fettling
Mr. A. J . S h o r e m entioned th a t a t th e works
w ith w hich he w as connected th ey h ad p u t th e
fe ttlin g shop on a job work basis, every article
being se p arately tim ed . They m ade a very large
v a rie ty of castin g s, w eighing from 5 to n s down
to ab o u t an ounce, an d th o u san d s were tu rn e d
o u t every week. T h eir experience was t h a t by
definitely tim in g th e jobs th ey g re atly increased
th e ir pro d u ctio n th ro u g h th e shop an d c u t down
th e num ber of o perators. A t one tim e th ey had
90 m en in th e shop ; to-day th ey had somewhere
a b o u t 35.
Pneumatic Chisels
Mr. H . G . G r e e n h o u s e , re fe rrin g to pneum atic
chisels o p e ra tin g on c ast iron, said his ex p eri­
ence was t h a t a m an who was used to a ham m er
an d chisel would tra v e l fa s te r th a n th e o p erato r
of a p n eu m atic chisel, while he go t a sm oother
finish and b e tte r c u t.
M r . G . M . C a l l a g h a n said he agreed w ith the
la s t speaker to a c e rta in ex te n t. H e im agined
t h a t p n eum atic slippers would be m ore efficient
in c u ttin g off larg e risers, b u t he had no t seen
them c u ttin g th e flash from th e edge of a cast­
ing. In t h a t case th e re w as n o t so m uch resist­
ance, while th e thickness w as co n stan tly vary in g ,
an d he w ondered how th e o p erato rs got on.

Electric Files
The C h a i r m a n (M r. Lewis) said he w a s p a r­
tic u la rly in tere ste d in th e dressing of small cast­
ings, and he w ould like to know w hether M r.
M organ had h a d any experience w ith electric
files. They had had a dem o n stratio n a t his (the
C h a irm a n ’s) w orks, an d he was n o t alto g eth er
satisfied. H e was re fe rrin g to a ro ta tin g file for
finishing in tric a te w ork. I t seemed to him th a t
th e life of th e files m u st be sh o rt and th e expense
r a th e r heavy.
I n th e course of f u r th e r discussion, th e opinion
was expressed t h a t one pn eu m atic chipper would
b eat any tw o m en w ith ham m er and chisel.
 480

AUTHOR’S REPLY
Me. M organ, discussing some of th e p o in ts
raised, said sm all cores could be very effectively
cleaned in a sho t-b last tu m b lin g b a rre l. A bout
70 or 80 lbs. of th e c astin g s w ere p u t in to a
b arrel ab o u t 18 in. in d ia m e te r, a n d ab o u t 18 in.
long, an d in fifteen m in u tes th e y had p erfectly
clean castings. I f th e y were d ealin g w ith curved
cores he im agined th e job could be done sa tis­
facto rily, provided th ey g ave i t a little longer
tim e. The}' had cleaned m anifolds fo r four-
cylinder engines by sh o t-b last tu m b lin g m ethods,
b u t in t h a t case th e y first of all knocked th e core
out, because i t w as too la rg e to p u t in. H e had
n o t actu a lly seen a ro ta tin g file, b u t he im agined
t h a t if it wore o u t quickly e ith e r a flexible sh a ft
or sm all electric g rin d e r, u sin g a wheel down to
as sm all as one inch d ia m e te r, m ig h t be a n effec­
tive su b stitu te . H e ag reed as to th e v alu e of
variable gears fo r g rin d ers, b u t m an y fo u n d ries
had single speed m achines an d m an ag e m en ts
did n o t feel disposed to in tro d u ce v ariab le gears.
H is experience was t h a t w ith tw o spindle speeds
th ey obtained q u ite efficient c u ttin g even w hen
the g rin d in g wheel was w orn down alm o st to th e
bottom .
Multiple Sandblast
H e had n o t actu a lly seen th e sim u ltan eo u s
san d b lastin g of b o th sides of a c a stin g , b u t he
understood t h a t th e re w as a v ery in te re s tin g
in stallatio n w hereby fo u r m en stood, tw o on
each side of th e room , each eq u ip p ed w ith a je t.
They played, one on th e side, one on th e to p ,
one on th e opposite side, an d one on th e b ottom
of th e casting. By t h a t m eans cy lin d er blocks
were very quickly cleaned, an d w ere tra v e rse d
th ro u g h th e room from hooks ru n n in g fro m th e
roof. The san d b la stin g of tw o sides of a c ast­
ing was difficult unless th e re was special eq u ip ­
m en t fo r au to m a tic ally tu r n in g th e c a stin g or
providing suspension, so t h a t th e castin g could
be revolved quickly and easily by th e o p e ra to r.
Grinding Machine Rests
As to rests for g rin d in g m achines, he th o u g h t
a fixed rest was best, fo r th e reason t h a t th e y
 481

had som ething which was n ev er likely to move

unless th e n u ts slackened off. I f th ey had a
m ain ten an ce service sufficient to deal w ith all th e
req u irem en ts of th e fo u n d ry i t would be possible
to a d ju s t th e rests every day. H e d id n o t th in k
th e re were m any fou n d ries w here a d ju stm en ts
would be necessary m ore th a n once a day. ■

Piece Work in Jobbing Shops

In reply to M r. Shore, he m ig h t m ention th a t
a t th e w orks w ith which he (M r. M organ) was
connected th ey p aid a price p e r to n of castings,
bulking ev ery th in g in . They produced ab o u t
3,000 different types of castings a week an d n o t
m ore th a n a dozen o r two of each. I t would re­
p resen t an enorm ous am o u n t of w ork fo r them
to fix piece-work prices. In his opinion, w here
jobbing fo u n d ries tu rn e d o u t such a large
v a rie ty of castin g s i t was a m uch sim pler
an d ch eaper system to ad o p t a bulk price ra th e r
th a n to pay in d iv id u al piece-work prices. W here,
how ever, th e y w ere prod u cin g larg e q u a n titie s of
a few item s, he agreed th a t th e fixing of piece­
w ork prices was a relativ ely easy m ethod and
by f a r th e m ost satisfa cto ry . I t had been sug­
gested t h a t th e p a tte rn -m a k in g d e p a rtm e n t could
cause a g re a t deal of tro u b le to th e fe ttle r.
M uch m ig h t be done by seeing t h a t th e p a tte rn s
w ere correct. I f a fe ttle r had to contend w ith
a really badly shaped castin g , he had to b e a
genius to produce a good castin g . H e d id n o t
th in k th e fe ttlin g shop should he called upon
to re c tify tro u b les in th e foundry. The fe ttle rs ’
job was to ta k e off th e flash and ru n n e rs and
risers, an d clean th e castin g . I f th e re w e re
o th e r tro u b les th ey should be rectified by th e
m oulders an d core m akers.

Superiority of Pneumatic Hammers

W ith re g a rd to chisels an d pneum atic
ham m ers, it took him six years to in troduce
p n eum atic ham m ers in to th e ir fe ttlin g shop.
H e th o u g h t th ey trie d ev ery th in g u ndel' the sun,
and no chipping ham m er com peted a t all success­
fully w ith h an d m ethods u n til he m anaged to
find an e x p e rt o p erato r. H e b ro u g h t him in,
R
 482

and in fo u r m onths th e y h ad every m an in th e

shop w orking a p n eu m atic h am m er an d definitely
p re fe rrin g i t to th e old h a n d m ethod. I f th e
chipping done by a p n eu m atic h am m er was
in fe rio r to t h a t of h an d ch ip p in g th e y would
re je c t it. H e assured th e m , how ever, t h a t th ey
g o t su p erio r resu lts from p n eu m a tic ham m ers.
They chipped castin g s from 20 lbs. up to 5 to n s
in w eight. W here la rg e ru n n e rs an d rise rs
were concerned th e y d id n o t use p n eu m atic
ham m ers, p re fe rrin g a sledge h am m er an d a la rg e
chisel, held by m eans of a clam p. H e d id n o t
consider t h a t a p n eu m atic h am m er was an effec­
tiv e tool fo r fetch in g off b ig risers. In th e case
of non-ferrous m etals th e y w ere faced w ith a
different problem . T here was c o n sta n t re sist­
ance to th e chisel, as a g a in s t th e in te r m itte n t
resistance of cast iro n , a n d from w h at he had
seen th e p n eu m atic h am m er should score ev ery
tim e, even on sm all w ork, over h a n d m ethods on
non-ferrous w ork, provided th e y used su ita b le
benches, or clam ps, or jig s, to hold th e castin g s.

Mechanisation and Efficiency

Mr. M organ added t h a t m e ch a n isatio n was
not necessarily efficiency. Efficiency depended
uipon th e m an n e r in w hich e q u ip m en t was
operated. The only w ay to discover w h a t e q u ip ­
m en t could be used efficiently on th e class of
of w ork being produced w as to v is it o th e r
foundries an d see w h a t th e y w ere doing. V ery
few fo un dries o p e ra ted eq u ip m en t ju s t as th e y
bought it. M ost of th em im proved on it, n o t
because th e eq u ip m en t w as poor, b u t because it
was n o t ex actly su ited to th e ir p a rtic u la r w ork.
If people would visualise efficiency from th e p o in t
of view of g e ttin g th e b est o u t of w h a t th e y
had got, an d n o t necessarily from th e p o in t of
view of p u ttin g in new eq u ip m e n t, o r only
in stallin g i t if it w as necessary, h e th o u g h t
fe ttlin g shop efficiency would be achieved.

4
 483

Lancashire Branch
SOME ASPECTS OF NON-FERROUS FOUNDING

By A. Logan (Member)

Introduction
In these days when ream s of tech n ical lite ra ­
tu re flood th e co u n try , an d scores of lectu res are
g iven before tech n ical societies each session, it
becomes increasin g ly difficult to say or w rite
a n y th in g o rig in a l o r novel upon such a g eneral
su b ject as “ non -ferro u s fo u n d ry w o rk .” Yet,
when one comes to consider th e m a tte r, i t will
be realised t h a t th e problem s of th e p resen t are
ju s t exactly th e problem s of th e p ast, although
perhaps intensified. In ten sified , t h a t is, by th e
m ore ra p id r a te of life in g en eral ; by th e hig h er
o u tp u t expected ; by th e m ore s trin g e n t economic
conditions, an d by th e g re a te r physical dem ands
of m odern en g in ee rin g . I f ever th e re was a tim e
w hen science (usin g th e te rm in its broadest
sense) has g o t to pu ll its w eight, i t is the
p resen t. E very a d v a n ta g e m u st be ta k e n of the
most econom ical m ethods of p roduction. U nneces­
sary h an d lin g of m a te rials m u st be elim inated.
W asters m u st be c u t down to th e lowest possible,
an d so one could go on. I t m eans, in sh o rt, th a t
every fo u n d ry o p eratio n m u st be carefully
scru tin ised , stu d ie d an d overhauled.
Special Conditions
The question of sound buying of raw m aterials
is one w hich is v ita l in n o n -ferrous fo u n d ry work,
for a brass fou n d ry can sin k o r swim en tirely
on th e re s u lt of its buying of m etals alone, a p a rt
from any question of tech n ical efficiency or in ­
efficiency; b u t as such bu y in g is seldom en tirely
in th e hands of th e p ra ctica l fou n d ry m an , i t is
n o t proposed to deal w ith th is p a rtic u la r point.
The question of th e m ost economical m ethod of
production is' a big su b ject, and i t is impossible
 484

to deal w ith it sa tisfa c to rily on g e n eral lines.

I t is essentially a th in g w hich m u st be stu d ied
in th e in d iv id u a l fo u n d ry , w ith a fu ll know ledge
of th e ty p e of w ork to be produced. I t is seldom
in non-ferrous w ork t h a t one finds sufficient off
any one p a tte rn to ju s tify th e ty p e of m echanised
foun dry which is becom ing m ore g e n e ra l in th e
ferrous w orld. A t th e sam e tim e , a g re a te r selec­
tio n an d v a rie ty of m o u ld in g m achines a n d
appliances ap p ears on th e m a rk e t each y e a r, a n d
am ongst th e n u m b er av ailab le, i t should n o t be
very difficult to find a ty p e w hich w ill be a p ay ­
ing proposition fo r sm all num bers off, o r even fo r
sheer jobbing work.

Core-Blowing Machines
W ith in th e la s t y e a r o r so, a new ty p e of
m achine has a p p e a re d —th e core-blow ing m achine
—fo r th e ra p id p ro d u ctio n of cores w hich are
blown by m eans of com pressed a ir. T his m achine
is rev o lu tio n ary in re p e titio n fo u n d rie s, a n d is
g rad u ally being ap p lied to jo b b in g w ork also.
I t has g re a t possibilities. W ith th e q u estio n of
m achine adoptio n is also bound u p th e q u estio n
of unnecessary h a n d lin g of m a te ria ls. W ith
rap id m ethods of p ro d u ctio n , th e q u estio n of
sand control comes to th e fore. P e rso n ally , th e
a u th o r is stro n g ly of th e opinion t h a t th e fu tu re
will see th e u n iv ersal ad o p tio n of a unified
system of sand control. T his is a n a tu r a l de­
velopm ent, w h eth er a fo u n d ry is on re p e titio n
w ork o r n o t. In th e fo u n d ry of th e fu tu re , th e
whole of th e m oulds w ill be knocked o u t over a
knock-out g ra tin g , w hence th e san d w ill be con­
veyed to a c e n tra l clea n in g an d p re p a ra tio n
p la n t, th e re to be cleaned, renew ed, a n d m ade
up to a definite sta n d a rd , an d th e n issued fo r
use as req u ired . The physical p ro p e rtie s of th e
issued sand will be know n and u n d e r c o n tr o l;
and th e re will th e n be one less v a ria b le fo r th e
foundrym an to contend w ith.

Waster Elimination
“ W asters m u st be e lim in a te d ” is a s ta te m e n t
which i t is easier to m ake th a n to rem edy,
 <185

for, a fte r all, are n o t n in e-te n th s of th e foundry-

m a n ’s w orking hours occupied by th is p a rtic u la r
problem ? The problem s of th e p resen t were also
th e problem s of th e p a st. N owhere m ore th a n
in foundryw ork is i t realised t h a t knowledge is
n o t accum ulative. I f each g e n eratio n could
s t a r t w here th e la st le ft off, th e n foundry
problem s would probably all have been solved
by now ; b u t, u n fo rtu n a te ly , i t is n o t so. The
sam e m istakes co n stan tly recu r. The problems
which one fo un d ry m e t and overcam e in th e p ast
will be m et an d tussled w ith by an o th e r, and
will probably even re c u r la te r in th e same
foundry.
F o undrym en , an d th e casting of m etals, is,
a fte r all, th e p ra c tic a l app licatio n of ce rtain
definite physical and chem ical principles— and it
all depends upon how closely th e p ractical o p era­
tio n s follow th e th eo retically -co rrect principles,
as to how good or bad th e finished re su lt will be.
I t follows from th is, th ere fo re , t h a t i t should be
th e aim of th e fo u n d ry m an to acquire some
know ledge of th e first principles involved, and
th e n , w hen tro u b le arises, he is in a sound posi­
tio n to tack le i t logically. This all seems a little
p la titu d in o u s ; b u t h av in g fo r tw e n ty years
viewed fo undry problem s from th e calm d etach ­
m e n t of th e lab o rato ry ; and now, being actively
concerned an d d irectly responsible for foundry
pro d u ctio n , th e tr u th of th is sta te m e n t is
b ro u g h t home to th e a u th o r more and m ore every
day.
Casting Temperature
The a u th o r has on m any occasions advocated
control of castin g te m p e ra tu re and o u tlined th e
reasons a n d sta te d th e benefits to be obtained.
I t is only w ith in th e la st y ea r, however, t h a t a
policy of com plete control has been p u t in to
o p eratio n which involves th e recording of th e
com plete te m p e ra tu re and h isto ry of every
crucible of m etal m elted. T his necessitates, in
th e first place, consecutively num b erin g each
c astin g w ith a cast-on serial num ber, w here th ere
is m ore th a n one off th e p a tte rn . Complete
records are th e n k e p t w hich show th e m ake-up
of th e charge, th e tim e in th e fire from ch arg in g
to p o u rin g , th e te m p e ra tu re of p o u rin g and
exactly w h at castin g s a re p o u red , w ith th e
sequence in w hich th e y a re p o u red if m ore th a n
one m ould is c a st fro m one crucible.
T his is necessary in o rd e r to a rriv e a t an
ap p ro x im ate p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re fo r th e su b ­
sequent castin g or castin g s. I t w ill be obvious
th a t a crucible, w hen once lifte d fro m th e
fu rn ace, commences to cool fa irly ra p id ly . I f th e
ty p ical cooling curves fo r th e various-sized
crucibles in use are know n, th e ap p ro x im a te te m ­
p e ra tu re a t any tim e a fte r th e o rig in al te m p e ra ­
tu r e has been ta k e n can be fa irly accu ra te ly
obtained. The converse holds also, a lth o u g h n o t
to such a g re a t degree, p erh ap s, as th e s ta te of
th e fu rn ace w ill obviously affect th e r i s e ; b u t by
ta k in g a te m p e ra tu re b e a rin g as th e cru cib le is
being su p erh eated , to its p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re , i t
is possible to p re d ic t th e tim e w hen th e crucible
will have reached th e re q u ire d te m p e ra tu re and
be read y to be w ith d ra w n fo r c a stin g . The
m ethod actu a lly a d o p ted is to ta k e a n in itia l
te m p e ra tu re usually w hen w ith in a b o u t 50 deg.
C. of th e req u ired te m p e ra tu re , th e n th e tim e
th e crucible will reach th e re q u ire d te m p e ra tu re
can be e stim a te d to w ith in a m in u te o r so. A
check te m p e ra tu re is th e n ta k e n a t th e e stim ate d
tim e, an d th is is ra re ly fo u n d to be f a r o u t.
The a d v a n ta g e of th is system is t h a t th e re is
no possibility of o v e rh e a tin g o r “ stew in g ” of
th e charge. F u rth e rm o re , th e e x a c t tim e th e
m etal will be read y is know n in adv an ce, an d
arra n g e m e n ts to d eal w ith i t can also be m ade
in advance. T his m eans t h a t th e c ra n e is on
th e spot w a itin g to d raw th e crucible a t th e
rig h t m om ent, an d th e previously-w arned
m oulder is read y to skim a n d ca st as soon as th e
pot is w ithdraw n .

Sound Castings
The question of sound castin g s is very m uch
bound u p w ith m eltin g p ra ctice an d te m p e ra tu re
control, an d in a tte n tio n to th is p o in t will in e v it­
ably m ean a heavy bill fo r “ w asters ” if th e
 487

m eltin g is uncon tro lled or le ft to th e ju d g m e n t

of even th e m ost p e rfec t of m elters o r fu rn ace-
m en. The fa c t is n o t sufficiently realised , and
i t is im possible to over-em phasise th e p o in t, th a t
th e re is no such th in g as bein g able to ju d g e
the correct c astin g te m p e ra tu re of even an y one
alloy fro m day to d a y ; m uch less ca n i t be done
w here a n u m b er of d ifferent com positions a re in
use. H u m a n ju d g m e n t c a n n o t be relied upon
to give th e sam e te m p e ra tu re d ay a f te r day. I t
w ould seem unnecessary, a n d in fa c t almost
childish, to re ite ra te th is e lem en tary sta tem e n t,
which has been m ade scores of tim es, v e t how
m any fo u n d ries com pletely o r sy stem atically exer­
cise te m p e ra tu re co n tro l? Dozens of instances
could be given w here th e fu m a ce m a n h as been
asked to in d ic a te w hen, in his ju d g m en t, th e
m etal h ad reach ed th e co rrect castin g tem p e ra­
tu r e . I n th e case of one alloy alone, A d m iralty
g u n m etal, d u rin g a period of n in e m onths, th e
outside lim its fo u n d in th is w ay w hen checked
by p y ro m eter w ere 1,080 to 1,300 deg. C.— giving
th e alm ost incredible ra n g e of 220 deg. C .; and
th is by an experienced m an definitely aim ing a t
a c e rta in te m p e ra tu re , w ith one alloy.
T he co rre c t castin g te m p e ra tu re of phosphor-
bronze is notoriously difficult to ju d g e by eye,
an d th e u su al “ rule-of-thum b ” m ethod is to
draw th e crucible a t a n obviously too h ig h te m ­
p e ra tu re , an d allow to sta n d a n d cool w hilst
v ario u s “ know ing ” m oulders observe an d com­
m une to g e th e r, th e while one of th e ir num ber
g e n tly an d g racefu lly draw s a skim m er across
th e to p surface. One h e sitate s to th in k w hat
th e p ercen tag e of w asters can be u n d e r these
conditions.
I f th e m a tte r is carefu lly considered, it will
be a p p reciated t h a t th e only logical th in g to do
is to co n tro l th e te m p e ra tu re by p yrom eter en­
tire ly , a n d give th e o p e ra to r in charge of th e
in s tru m e n t th e fu ll a u th o rity an d complete con­
tro l of th e castin g te m p e ra tu re of every mould
poured. I n th e sm all fo u n d ry , th is would
n a tu ra lly be c arried o u t by th e fo re m a n ; b u t in
 488

h u g e foundries, th e a m o u n t of w ork involved

necessitates th e services of a special m an . H is
d u ties would include th e fixing in ad v an ce of th e
c astin g te m p e ra tu re fo r every m ould m ade, th e
responsibility fo r seeing t h a t th e crucible was
d raw n im m ediately th e te m p e ra tu re was reached,
which w ould give th e co rrec t castin g te m p e ra ­
tu re , and th e reco rd in g of th e com plete p a r t i­
cu lars of ev ery m ould p oured.
Economy Realised
I t m ig h t be arg u e d t h a t th e re te n tio n of an
o p e ra to r to contro l c astin g te m p e ra tu re s which
were previously ju d g e d by th e fu rn a c e m a n or
m oulder is uneconom ical a n d u n n ecessary ex ­
pense. On th e co n tra ry , i t h a s been fo u n d to be
excellent economy—th e re d u c tio n of w aste rs an d
b e tte r eastings g en erally fa r o u tw eig h in g th e
cast of th e service. I t will fu r th e r be a p p re ­
ciated t h a t i t is desirable to rem ove th e whole
question of te m p e ra tu re in to th e h a n d s of a
person who has no axe to g rin d o th e r th a n th e
production of th e m ost n early p e rfe c t c a stin g .
The fu rn acem an m ay be ru sh ed —th e re fo re , th e
u rg e is to g e t th e crucible o u t before it s co rre c t
castin g te m p e ra tu re is reach ed . T his fre q u e n tly
happens, and personal ex p erien ce h a s shown t h a t
erro rs on th e low side a re m ore comm on, a n d ju s t
as h arm fu l, as e rro rs on th e h ig h side. A t th e
same tim e, erro rs on th e h ig h side do occur.
The fu rn acem an m ay be occupied w ith some job
which d is tra c ts his a tte n tio n o r th e m o u ld er m ay
n o t have th e m ould read y . U n d e r th is system of
control, these difficulties a re e lim in ated .
One of th e g re a te s t difficulties in th e p a st
which discouraged an y a tte m p t a t sy stem atic
te m p e ra tu re contro l, was th e v ery p ra c tic a l diffi­
cu lty of g e ttin g a p y ro m eter w hich w ould be
sensitive enough to give a reaso n ab ly ra p id re a d ­
ing, an d y e t su b sta n tia l eno u g h to w ith sta n d th e
fre q u e n t im m ersions. A p ra c tic a l p y ro m eter h as
been evolved by th e lab o ra to ry w hich m eets th e
conditions very well, a n d d etails of its co n stru c ­
tio n a re given in case th e y m ay be of in te re s t
to others.
 489

Type of Pyrometer Recommended

F ig . 1 shows th e com plete p yrom eter and
in d icato r. The le n g th of th e tu b e p o rtio n is
4 ft. 6 in ., and th is is necessary to reach to th e
m etal level in th e fu rn ace w ith o u t discom fort to
th e person u sin g it, an d also to keep th e cold

F igs. 1 to3.—F ig . 1 (Top) Complete P yro­

meter and I ndicator ; F ig . 2 (Middle)
Sheath prepared for I mmersion, and
F ig . 3 (Bottom) Sheath after 160
I mmersions.

ju n c tio n a t a low te m p e ra tu re . The tu b e con­

sists of fused silica an d is in. dia. w ith 2|-inm .
th ic k walls. I t is closed a t one end. The
therm ocouple itself consists of two w ires of
0.016 in . d ia ., one of p u re p la tin u m an d the
o th er of platin u m -rh o d iu m . These w ires which
originally are 6 ft. long, a re fused to g e th e r a t
one en d and th e free ends are coiled on drum s in
 490

th e cold ju n c tio n box. One w ire is encased in a

th in fused silica c a p illiary tu b e , inside th e m ain
tu b e. F ro m th e ju n c tio n box, th e leads go aw ay
to th e in d ic a to r, w hich is of th e d ead -b e a t ty p e .
If one ta k e s a b a re silica tu b e such as
described, an d im m erses i t a tim e o r tw o in a
p o t of liq u id bronze, i t will n o t be long before
th e e n d disap p ears, as th e a tta c k is fa irly ra p id .
U n d er these conditions, p erh a p s six o r e ig h t im-

F ig . 4.—Structure of Sound Material.

m ersions m ig h t be o b ta in e d before th e sh e ath

finally gave up th e g host a n d p re se n te d one w ith
a crucible of bronze c o n ta in in g sm all am o u n ts of
th e ra re elem ents, p la tin u m an d rh o d iu m . As
th e p la tin u m w ires cost Is. 6d. an inch, a n d th e
silica sheaths cost 13s. each, th is is n o t to be
recom m ended. A ctually, th e life of a sh e a th in
th e fo u n d ry averages ap p ro x im a te ly 160 odd
im m ersions, and th e way th is is o b ta in e d is to
give i t a * -in. co atin g of plum bago a n d china
 491

clay (F ig . 2). A fte r every fo u r o r five im m er­

sions th e re m n a n t of co atin g is scraped off, and
a n o th e r co atin g app lied . The o b ject is to p re v en t
m olten m etal ever com ing in to c o n ta c t w ith th e
sh eath .
A y e a r's experience has shown th is a rra n g e ­
m en t to be perfectly p ra c tic a l—th e sheaths
av erag in g , as sta te d , over 160 im m ersions
(F ig . 3). A t in terv a ls, it is necessary to an n eal

F i g . 5.— S tructure of U nsound M aterial .

th e p la tin u m w ires, a n d w hen th e tw o o r th re e

inches a t th e h o t ju n c tio n begin to discolour w ith
c o n sta n t use, th ey a re clipped off, and a new
ju n c tio n fused to g e th e r. The am o u n t t h a t was
c u t off is now fed fo rw ard from th e sp are on
th e dru m s in th e cold ju n c tio n box. I t is ju s t
as well, of course, to have a com plete spare
couple an d sh eath rea d y to connect up a t a
m om ent’s notice. The a c tu a l ru n n in g costs fo r
sheaths w orks o u t a t ap p ro x im ately Id . per
im m ersion.
 492

Casting Temperature
W ith re g a rd to a c tu a l castin g te m p e ra tu re ,
th is has been d e a lt w ith by m any o th ers, as well
as by th e a u th o r, on n u m ero u s occasions, so
t h a t it is n o t proposed to add m uch m ore on
th is p o in t. Obviously, th e re is a ra n g e of cast­
ing te m p e ra tu re fo r ev ery alloy, a n d w ith in th is
ran g e th e re w ill be a co rrec t c a stin g te m p e ra tu re
for any in d iv id u al c a stin g w hich will give th e
m axim um degree of soundness. In th is connec­
tio n , i t should be rem em bered t h a t th e re is no
such th in g as a p erfectly sound ca stin g . P e r­
fectly sound, in th is case, b ein g ta k e n to m ean
a castin g in which ev ery cubic inch is th e m ax i­
m um density of w hich th e alloy is capable. T his
is reg u lated larg ely by u n ifo rm ity o r otherw ise
of section, m ass, ca stin g te m p e ra tu re , r a te of
cooling, freedom from dissolved gases, oxides,
etc. Of these, castin g te m p e ra tu re is th e only
fac to r which is u n d e r im m ed iate d ire c t con tro l,
and i t follows t h a t th e ca stin g will ap p ro ach
th e m axim um b est possible, ju s t in so f a r as it
ap p ro x im ates to th e co rrect c a stin g te m p e ra tu re
—w hatever t h a t m ay be fo r th e p a rtic u la r alloy
an d object being cast. The te rm s “ ju s t r i g h t,”
“ h o t,” or “ d u ll,” w hich a re common fo u n d ry
parlance, are absolutely valueless. W h a t m ay
be re g a rd e d as “ h o t ” by one m an m ay be
“ ju s t r ig h t ” to a n o th e r, a n d b o th m ay give
opposite versions la te r th e sam e d a y ; an d , in
any case, be 50 deg. or m ore fro m th e tr u th .
The only sensible actio n , th e re fo re , is to elim i­
n a te th e h u m an elem ent altogether"; find o u t by
experience w h at th e n o rm a l castin g ra n g e fo r a
p a rtic u la r alloy really is, th e n p u t th e whole onus
of p re -ju d g in g th e req u ire d ca stin g te m p e ra tu re
of every castin g on to one m an, whose responsi­
b ility i t will th e n b e to see t h a t th e c a stin g is
cast a t th e req u ired te m p e ra tu re .
An alloy such as A d m ira lty g u n m e ta l req u ires
to be su p erh eated ab o u t 200 deg. C.— t h a t is to
say, th e norm al castin g te m p e ra tu re is ro u n d
ab o u t 1,180 deg. C. T h ere is a n o rm al c a stin g
ra n g e of 30 deg. e ith e r side of th is —say, from
 493

1,150 to 1,210 deg. C . ; y e t it is still possible to

po u r castings as low as 1,060 deg. 0 . (b u t n o t
sound). T his fa c t m akes i t obvious t h a t w ith o u t
p ro p er te m p e ra tu re control th e m a jo rity of c a st­
ings will have a ten d en cy to e rr on th e too-low
side ra th e r th a n on th e too-high, fo r th e d angers
of castin g too high are know n and ex ag g erated ,
a n d th e o u tw ard signs, such as g re a te r am o u n t
of fum e an d g re a te r liveliness, a re read ily recog­
nisable ; w hilst th e re are no such obvious p o in ters
to in d ic a te th e low side of th e co rrect castin g
te m p e ra tu re . T his is f u r th e r proved by th e fur.
n acem an ’s erro rs, which are m ore o fte n on th e
low side. The tim e fa c to r is a g a in s t i t to com­
mence w ith. E v ery second th e crucible stands,
i t is cooling. The skim m ing m ay be p ro tra c te d ;
th e re m ay be a slig h t delay for someone o r some­
th in g ; o r w here th e re is sm all w ork being cast,
an u rg e to cast ju s t a n o th e r m ould if th e re is
m etal le ft over.
The p ra c tic a l effect of th is is ra th e r c o n tra ­
dictory. I f th e castin g s be n o t subjected to
p ressure tests, th e n probably th e deleterious
effect m ay n o t be very noticeable to th e casual
observer. In fa c t, th e castin g s m ay ap p e a r quite
sound w ith a g re a te r freedom from “ p ip in g .”
If subject to pressure tests, however, th e g re a te r
m icroscopic porosity will definitely be shown up
in a high p ercen tag e of failu re s. W here a cast­
ing is poured below its correct c astin g tem ­
p e ra tu re , th e m e ta l does n ot rem ain liq u id long
enough to “ feed ” sa tisfacto rily . This is due
to th e castin g se ttin g as a whole alm ost imme­
d iately th e m ould is filled, caused by th e in su f­
ficient am o u n t of su p e rh e a t being lost by th e
m etal on its tra v e l th ro u g h th e mould.
T he co rrect ca stin g te m p e ra tu re ensures suf­
ficient su p erh ea t, so t h a t a m ore progressive
solidification tak es place. The first m etal ru n ­
ning th ro u g h th e m ould undoubtedly gives u p a
considerable pro p o rtio n of its su p erh eat to th e
w alls of th e m o u ld ; th e po rtio n of th e castin g
fa rth e s t aw ay from th e ru n n e r is th erefo re th e
coolest, an d solidification commences th e re.
T here will th e n be a te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t
 494

th ro u g h o u t th e m ould, from th e p o in t fu r th e s t
aw ay from th e ru n n e r, to th e la s t m etal poured
in to th e head.
I f sufficient su p e rh e a t has been g iven, th e re
will th e n alw ays be sufficient h o t “ live ” m e tal
a d ja c e n t to th e p o rtio n u n d erg o in g solidification
to follow up an d “ fe e d .” I t only rem ain s, th e n ,
to en su re t h a t th e ru n n e r a n d h ead is am ple,
an d t h a t th e in g a te is larg e eno u g h to rem ain
liquid a n d allow th e la s t p o rtio n of th e castin g
to feed from th e r u n n e r ; o therw ise, w hen th e
g a te is c u t off, a “ p ipe ” ru n n in g in to th e c a st­
ing will he disclosed.
Cold>Cast Castings
C astings poured to o cold do n o t e x h ib it
“ p ip in g ” a t th e g a te . The u n so u n d n ess is

F ig . 6.— T ypes op R u n n e r H e a d s a s s o c ia te d
w ith C a s tin g T e m p e ra tu re .

m ainly d is trib u te d th ro u g h o u t th e castin g .

M achining an ou tsid e face m ay rev eal n o th in g ,
h u t a pressure te s t will p robably show i t u p . A
section of such a ca stin g , w hen su b je c te d to a
“ deep e tc h ,” w ill clearly rev e al its p o ro sity to
th e nak ed eye, w h ilst i t is equally obvious if a
section is exam ined u n d e r th e m icroscope.
S tro n g , sound, dense g u n m eta l, co rrectly cast,
an d fa irly ra p id ly cooled, e x h ib its a d efinite d en ­
d ritic stru c tu re .
F ig . 4 rep rese n ts th e s tru c tu r e of sound
m a te ria l of 21 to n s p e r sq. in . an d 40 p e r cen t,
elongation. W eak, low -density g u n m e tal, seen
u n d er th e m icroscope, looks w eak, h a v in g none
of th e stro n g in te rlo c k in g d e n d ritic a rr a n g e ­
m ent. This ty p e of s tru c tu re , as show n in
 495

F ig . 5, is usually accom panied by a c tu a l voids

or cavities—giving porosity u n d er te s t, and being
of low specific g ra v ity , th e exam ple shown h aving
a specific g ra v ity of only 8.2. Some years ago,
in a sim ilar P a p e r, th e a u th o r published a
d iag ram in d ic a tin g th e ty p e of ru n n e r head
usually associated w ith th e th re e phases—cast
“ too h o t,” “ norm al ” and “ too cold.” F ig . 6
illu s tra te s th is diagram .

F ig . 7.—Section of R cjnner Head

showing Defect.

Gas Evolution
I n th is connection i t should be noted th a t th e
m a te ria l poured too h o t does no t always in d icate
itself as shown in th is way. T he qualification is
needed th a t , w hen th is ty p e of h ead is found, it
in d icates t h a t th e m e ta l has, in ad d itio n , been
dam aged d u rin g m eltin g by th e absorption of
excessive oxides an d gas. This phenom enon can
be observed, a p a rt from any te m p e ra tu re effect,
in a castin g poured fro m correctly-m elted m etal
w hich has been poured into a ladle w ith a dam p
lin in g . The steam evolved is sp lit up into
hydrogen and oxygen ; th e oxygen causes severe
 496

o x id atio n , an d th e hyd ro g en a p p a re n tly dis­

solves. On solidification th is is released, and
th e effect on th e castin g can be im agined. This
ty p e of head, th e re fo re , is really evidence of th e
gas evolution which ta k e s place a t th e m om ent
of solidification. In s te a d of a norm a] sh rin k ag e
due to feeding, th e re is a n ex p an sio n due to th e
gas evolution. An exam ple of such a ru n n e r
head is shown in F ig . 7. T his was fro m a larg e

F ig . 8.—On Deep E tching the Serious

Character o r the Defect shown in
F ig . 7 is R evealed.

valve, w hich req u ire d a b o u t 800 lbs. of m e ta l to

cast. Two 400-lb. crucibles w ere co rrectly
m elted an d w ith d raw n fro m th e fu rn a c e a t a
te m p e ra tu re ju s t sufficiently h ig h en o u g h to
give th e req u ire d c a stin g te m p e ra tu re a fte r
tra n s fe rrin g to a J-to n ladle. U n fo rtu n a te ly ,
the ladle was n o t p erfectly d ry , a n d a wild
ebullition took place. A fte r a few m om ents th is
ceased, b u t th e dam ag e was alrea d y done. A fte r
sta n d in g a few m om ents on th e com pletion of
po u rin g th e m ould, th e r u n n e r h ead suddenly
 497

commenced to rise. F ig . 7 shows a section c u t

th ro u g h th is head. A p a rt from th e a c tu a l gas
bubbles, th e re s t of th e m a te ria l ap p ears to th e
eye, to be fa irly sound. I t is only when i t is
subjected to a deep etch , however, th a t th e full
e x te n t of th e unsoundness is revealed. T his is
shown in F ig . 8.
A considerable spongy, gassy, area is seen in
th e cen tre, an d above th is is a n a c tu a l gas

Jfjo. 9 .— S h o w in g T e a r b e tw ee n S e c tio n s.

bubble. I t will be noticed t h a t th e chilling of

th e m etal on th e to p of th e head has re stricted
th e escape of gas, an d caused th e gas to push
its way th ro u g h th e p asty solidifying m etal o u t
to th e corners and sides. The gas evolution in ­
creasing as th e solidification proceeds, has caused
a gas pressure to be b u ilt u p , and th is lite ra lly
blows th e head up . I t should be noted th a t
w ith th is ty p e of head is alm ost in v ariab ly asso­
ciated th e app earan ce of beads of “ tin sw eat ”
(th is being the d elta or tin -ric h co n stitu e n t).
 498

This, being th e la st c o n stitu e n t to solidify,

accum ulates a t th e ce n tre of th e se c tio n ; b u t th e
gas p ressure ap p e ars to force i t up an d o u t, an d ,
tra v e llin g by w ay of th e gas fissures, is found
ro u n d th e outsid e rim of th e head. An actu a l
specim en c u t fro m th is h ead h a d only a specific
g ra v ity of 7.8. A d m itted ly th e head is th e
w orst p a r t of th e ca stin g , b u t it is obvious t h a t
no castin g a tta c h e d to such a h ead could pos­
sibly be expected to sta n d m uch in th e way of a
pressure te s t. The unsoundness is d is trib u te d
th ro u g h o u t all sections, an d alth o u g h on m achin-

F ig . 10.—H alf W orm -W heel C a stin g .

ing it m ay n o t a p p e ar very “ loose ” o r porous,

y et a section “ deep e tc h e d ,” o r ex am in ed u n d e r
the microscope, will im m ed iately in d ic a te th e
reason fo r fa ilu re . As s ta te d , th is p a rtic u la r
illu s tra tio n w as th e re s u lt of a dam p ladle, b u t
th e sam e effect re su lts w hen m e ta l is m elted
u n d er bad conditions, g iv in g rise to o x id atio n
and excessive gas ab sorp tio n .

Foundry Faults
One of th e g re a te s t difficulties th e fo u n d ry m an
encounters is t h a t of b ad design. A lm ost ev ery ­
one who presen ts a P a p e r on fo u n d ry w ork m en­
tio n s th is point, y e t th e position seems to g e t no
 499

b e tte r—ra th e r th e reverse, fo r m odern condi­

tions, w ith th e dem and fo r w eig h t red u ctio n ,
seems to ag g ra v a te m a tte rs. I t is common p rac­
tice now to have b ran ch o r “ T ” pieces w ith a
flange of 1 in . th ick a tta ch e d to bodies w ith
sections only -rs in. to £ in. Solid bosses of
2 in . d ia. on sections § in. th ic k are also fre ­
q u en tly encountered . Such an exam ple is show-n
in F ig . 9. This illu stra te s th e te a r which occurs

F ig . 11.— T he C onnecting R ib between

Two H eavy S ections is T obn .

if th e heavy boss is n o t efficiently chilled.

U sually, on in v e stig a tio n , i t will be found th a t
such a boss req u ires to be bored o u t fo r some
fittin g . The obvious th in g , of course, is to have
i t cored o u t, b u t w here th is is definitely ru led
ou t, th e n th e only p ra c tic a l rem edy is to use a
fairly heavy in te rn a l chill. F ig . 10 illu stra te s a
castin g form ing a h a lf wormwheel, w here th e re
are tw o heavy-section rim s connected by a lig h t
section. The heavy sections a r e 3 in. th ic k and
a re connected by a section f in. th ic k . I t is easy
to see t h a t tro u b le can be a n tic ip a te d w ith such
 500

a casting. F ig . 11 shows how th e co n n ectin g rib

betw een th e two heavy sections has to rn . C o rrect
castin g te m p e ra tu re can do m uch to m inim ise
difficulties of th is kind.
The valve lid shown in F ig . 12 is a common
ty p e of castin g , y e t i t p resen ts difficulties—
especially if, as is u su ally th e case, th e flange
is th ick en ed up o u t of p ro p o rtio n to th e
rem ain d er of th e c astin g . F ig . 13 shows w here
tro u b le is experienced. A n o th er ty p e of defect

F i g . 12.—V alve-L id C a stin g .

which is due to th e m ould is shown in F ig . 14.

T his occurs w ith g reen -san d w ork, a n d ta k e s th e
form of sm all holes w hich look alm ost e x actly
like th e worm holes one finds in old wood. These
usually ex ten d , as show n in F ig . 15, p a ra lle l to
th e body, a n d ru n th ro u g h th e fillet in to th e
flange. They a re u su ally fo u n d on th e u n d ersid e
of th e castin g —th e b o tto m h a lf of th e m ould__
b u t very occasionally th ey m ay occur in th e to p
half. I t will be noticed fro m F ig . 15 t h a t th e
norm al skin of th e ca stin g is d istu rb e d a t th is
point, an d shows b rig h t m etal w ith a so rt of
 501

flow-line effect. T his gives th e clue to th e

trouble, fo r th e cause is excessive dam pness of
th e sand a t his p o in t, e ith e r th ro u g h using a
low -perm eability san d o r a san d too w e t; or,
ag ain , i t m ay he due to th e excessive use of
th e swab. W h ate v e r th e cause, th e resu lt is an
intense evolution of gas over th is sm all area,
an d as th e evolution is g re a te r th a n th e p er­
m eability of th e san d c an cope w ith , a gas pres­
sure is b u ilt u p w hich ta k e s th e line of least

F ig , 13.— S hows wilerf, D efect was

found .

resistance— which is th ro u g h th e still-liquid m etal

of th e flange. A t th e m om ent of solidification
th e gas which is still passing is tra p p e d , and
th e holes found a fte rw a rd s are th e resu lt.
W hen th e core is responsible fo r excessive gas
g e n eratio n —g re a te r th a n th e ven ts can cope
w ith—-which m ay easily occur in a very th in oil-
san d core which is insufficiently baked—th e effect
is as shown in F ig . 16. T his rep resen ts a bulk­
head piece. As soon as th e flange was m achined,
 502

th e larg e cav ity was disclosed in th e to p h a lf of

th e e n d flange. F ig . 17 shows th e to p h a lf of
th e castin g a f te r saw ing th ro u g h on th e p lan e of
th e m ould jo in t. The core in th is case was
9 in. long an d only \ in. d ia m e te r, an d it is
a p p a re n t t h a t th e sm all v en t being un ab le to
ca rry off th e ru sh of gas, and a p ressu re conse­
quently developing, th is h as released itse lf by
bubbling th ro u g h th e still-liq u id m etal of th e

F ig . 14.— S hows W ormhole T ype of

D efect .

flange, w here it was e v en tu a lly tra p p e d on

solidification.
Consideration of “ Burning On ”
F o r some reason th e te rm “ b u rn in g o n ,” by
w hich is m e a n t th e w elding o r re p a irin g of a
castin g by th e a p p lic a tio n of m olten m e ta l of
th e sam e com position, is only spoken of in fo u n ­
dries w ith b a ted D reath a n d in h u sh ed w hispers.
T here seems to be some stig m a a tta c h in g to th e
process w hich re n d e rs i t necessary to re fe r to
i t co v erth an d only a fte r g lan cin g a ro u n d to
 503

m ake sure t h a t no one is overhearing. The

orig in of th is a ttitu d e probably dates back to
th e dim a n d d is ta n t p a st when th e process was
reso rted to by some u n scrupulous persons to
enable castin g s to be accepted which m ig h t o th e r­
wise be rejected , th is being accom plished by care-

F ig . 1 5 .— D e f e c t e x t e n d in g thhough
F il l e t in t o F l a n g e .

fully “ b u rn in g on ” p reviously-prepared special

test-b ars. E veryone has h eard stories of th is
kind, a n d such stories, w h eth er su b sta n tia te d or
not, ap p e a r to h av e b ro u g h t th e process of
“ b u rn in g on ” in to d isrep u te. H owever, in
these en lig h ten ed tim es i t is n o t necessary for
anyone to re so rt to such m alp ractices to m eet
 504

even th e m ost s trin g e n t specification. I t is tim e,

th erefo re, to rid ourselves of all p re ju d ic e in
the m a tte r, a n d ex am in e th e process an d resu lts.
If th e resu lts in d ic a te t h a t i t is possible to m ake
a re p a ir which is as sound a n d stro n g as th e
re s t of th e castin g , and w ith o u t any d e trim e n t to
th e fu tu re life a n d w orking of th e c a stin g , th e n
i t is tim e to accep t th e process as a defin ite
fou n d ry o p eratio n , a n d allow its use w here neces­
sary. A fte r all, th e re a re m an y q u ite le g itim a te
occasions w here i t m ay be used w ith p ra c tic a l

F ig . 1 6 .— A “ C ore B low ” has c a u sed

t h is D efect .

an d economic a d v a n ta g e , an d it is d esirab le to
clear it of th e suspicion a n d d is tru s t w hich
su rro u n d it.
I t should be realise d t h a t i t is possible to m ake
a “ b u rn ” which is a p e rfe c t weld, a n d w hich
is v irtu a lly one a n d th e sam e w ith th e m e tal
of th e castin g . T his poink can easily be proved
by ta k in g sets of d u p lic a te g u n m e ta l te st-b a rs.
One of th e p a ir can be m achined a n d te s te d “ as-
c a s t.” The o th er c an be c u t in tw o e q u a l p o r­
tio n s a n d th e n “ b u rn e d ” to g e th e r a g a in . I f
correctly “ b u rn e d ,” i t w ill be fo u n d to give
alm ost equally good te s t resu lts, com pared w ith
 505

th e o rig in al b a r. U sually th e B rin ell hard n ess is

increased a t th e a re a w here th e “ b u rn ” has
been c a rrie d out.
Original, ,bars. After cutting
. . . " and
rejoining.
Tensile .. 19.4 tons per sq. in. 18.4 tons per sq. in.
Elong. .. 24 per cent. 15 per cent.
Brinell .. 85 95

F ig . 1 7 .— S h o w s T o p H alf o f
C a s t in g after S a w in g
TH R O U G H TH E PLA NE OF
M ou ld J o in t .

A t th e sam e tim e , i t m u st l>e a d m itte d th a t

u n d er bad conditions, a n d w ith careless m an ip u ­
lation, unreliable resu lts m ay be o b tain ed , so
t h a t in every case, w here th e “ b u rn in g up ” ot
an im p o rta n t castin g is contem plated, th e p u r­
chaser or u ser is e n title d to know and accord his
sanction beforehand.
I t m u st be a d m itte d t h a t th e “ b u rn in g ”
to g e th e r of a sim ple sectioned te s t-b a r does not
give resu lts w hich can be in te rp re te d as being
re p re se n ta tiv e of w h at m ay occur in a casting.
 506

W here a castin g is com plicated or of u n eq u al

section, definite stresses will be se t up w hen
“ b u rn in g ” is a tte m p te d . The sud d en h e a tin g
up of local areas w ith th e co rresponding sudden
expansion, which is resisted by a d ja c e n t n o n ­
expanded cold areas, m ay re s u lt in a stress of
sufficient m ag n itu d e to cause a crack. T hen,
indeed, th e case is hopeless. The rem edy—or,
ra th e r, th e way to circu m v en t th is h a p p e n in g —
is to p re h e a t th e whole costing. T here is a lim it
to w h at can be done in th e w ay of p re h e a tin g ,
especially if th e castin g is of considerable m a s s ;
so t h a t th e m a jo rity of c astin g s s t a r t w ith a

F ig . 18.— A n E x p e r im e n t a l l y - B urned
C a s t in g .

severe h andicap in th is resp ect. A t th e con­

clusion of th e “ b u rn in g -o n ” process, th e c astin g
is usually covered up w ith san d a n d le ft to cool
o u t u n d istu rb ed . If , w hen th e ca stin g is d is­
in te rre d , th e “ b u rn ” a p p ears to he a p ro p e r
weld, and is sound, and th e castin g is s till all in
one piece, th e fo u n d ry m an usu ally calls i t a good
d ay ’s w ork, and is satisfied. B u t th is , i t should
be pointed o u t, is being ju s t a little o p tim istic.
How does th e fo u n d ry m an know th a t , alth o u g h
th e casting is still in one piece, it m ay y e t be
in such a s ta te of in te rn a l stress t h a t i t is alm ost
crack in g ? How can he be c e rta in , fo r in stan ce,
t h a t on p u ttin g i t in to service th e e x tr a w orking
 507

stresses, especially w here accom panied by h eat,

m ay ju s t be sufficient to c a rry it over th e b o rd er­
line an d cause th e c astin g to b re a k down? I t is
c e rta in t h a t q u ite a num ber of cases of b rea k ­
down of th is k ind have occurred when castings
w hich have been “ b u rn e d ” have been p u t in to
service. The breakdow n m ay n o t occur im m edi­
ately , b u t m ay only ta k e place a fte r a period
of service.
I t has been a d m itte d t h a t i t is seldom possible

F ig . 19.— C a s t i n g after b e in g
B u r n e d -o n .

to h e a t th e castin g sufficiently before “ b u rn in g ,”

to ensure reasonable freedom from stress on th e
com pletion of th e process; b u t th e re is n o th in g
to p re v e n t th e castin g being annealed afterw a rd s
to rem ove any re sid u al stress. A nnealing a t a
te m p e ra tu re of 700 to 750 deg. C. for a sh o rt
period, followed by a reasonably slow cooling,
should be all t h a t is sufficient to give a casting
(providing th e “ b u rn in g on ” has been done
correctly, and it is a sound weld) which is as good
as a sound o rig in al castin g . I f th is p ractice
 508

became u n iv ersal, th e re w ould th e n be no m ore

prejudice a g a in s t th e process of “ b u rn in g o n .”
I t should be rem em bered t h a t an y n o n -ferro u s
castin g w hich has been “ b u rn e d up ” h as, to
th e eye of th e m e ta llu rg ist, th e w ord “ b u rn ”
w ritte n upon it u n til th e day i t ceases to be a
easting. In o th e r w ords, once a c a stin g h as been
“ b u rn ed u p ,” th e evidence is th e re fo r all tim e.
E ven an n ealin g , w hilst i t rem oves th e in te rn a l

F ig . 20.— M a c r o - E t c h in g fro m the

R e p a ir e d C a s t in g .

stress, an d changes th e in n e r m ic ro -stru c tu re of

th e cry stal, does n o t cause a re c ry sta llisa tio n ,
an d th e new c ry sta l a rra n g e m e n t caused by th e
b u rn in g process rem ains. F ig . 18 illu s tra te s an
experim entally-burm ed ca stin g , w hilst F ig . 19
shows a section of a ca stin g w hich w as re p a ire d
by th e b u rn in g -u p process fo r e x p e rim e n ta l p u r­
poses. F ig. 20 shows a m acro -etch in g of a slice
c u t from th e castin g . The c a stin g successfully
w ithstood th e n orm al p ressu re te s t, b u t was c u t
 509

up for ex am in atio n . The p e rfe c t ju n c tio n of th e

added m etal w ith th e m a te ria l of th e original
castin g is shown in th e photo-m icrograph
(F ig . 21). As fa r as actu a l physical s tre n g th is
concerned, i t can be accepted th a t , w here th e
b u rn in g has been carefu lly done, th e welded
p o rtio n will have equ al, if n o t g re a te r, stre n g th
com pared w ith o th e r p a rts of th e same castin g ,

F ig . 2 1 .— A P e r f e c t W e ld e ffe c te d by
B u r n in g -o n .

an d assum ing th e castin g has been suitably

annealed, no fe a r as to its fu tu re need be e n te r­
ta in e d .
Necessity for Standardisation
I f one considers th e fo u r m etals—copper, tin ,
lead an d zinc— an d rem em bers t h a t i t will be
possible to alloy th e m (w ith th e exception of
lead) in proportio n s ra n g in g from 1 to 99.9 per
ce n t., i t will be ap p rec ia te d t h a t th e n u m b er of
possible com binations is trem endous. This does
 5 1 0

seem to h av e been realised by th e chief e n g i­

neers, designers, co n su lta n ts, e tc ., of all th e firms
who buy non -ferro u s c a s tin g s ; and a peru sal of
rep re se n ta tiv e specifications shows a n am azing
collection of alloys (litera lly ru n n in g in to h u n ­
dreds), m any of w hich v a ry only by h alf-p er-
cents. To th e av erag e n o n -ferro u s fo u n d ry , th is
m ay n o t be a serious m a tte r, as, if th e fo u n d ry
is only m aking fo r its own p a rtic u la r e n g in ee r­
ing d e p a rtm e n t, i t m ay only be called u p o n to
ca st one or tw o alloys w hich have been ad opted
an d m ore o r less sta n d a rd ise d by th e p a rtic u la r
firm. W here, how ever, th e fo u n d ry is p roducing
castings to outsid e ord ers fo r a nu m b er of firms
which each specify th e p a rtic u la r alloys which
th ey req u ire (an d n o t only specify, b u t see t h a t
they g e t th em ), th e n th e n u m b er of slightly
v ary in g com positions in use a t th e sam e tim e,
w ith th e necessity fo r c a re fu l co n tro l a n d segre­
g a tio n of th e various m ix tu re s an d re tu rn s , in ­
volves a considerable a m o u n t of e x tr a w ork and
expense. The rid icu lo u s a n d uneconom ic asp ect
of th e question is fu lly a p p re cia te d w hen i t is
realised t h a t th e vario u s com positions are all for
th e sam e or sim ilar purposes, a n d i t does n o t
ta k e long fo r th e no n -ferro u s fo u n d e r to realise
th a t some s ta n d a rd is a tio n is u rg e n tly req u ire d .
L eaving o u t of th e question th e ra n g e of lig h t
alloys a n d special com positions for specialised
services, non-ferrous c astin g s a re used by th e
designer for g en eral c o n stru c tio n a l purposes
w here stre n g th and pressure tig h tn e s s w ith o u t
b rittlen ess is desirable. These co n d itio n s a re m e t
by alloys of th e gu n m etal-b ro n ze class— alloys of
copper, tin an d zinc, w ith possibly- some lead.
W here a co n stru ctio n al p a r t is also called upon
to possess w ear resistan ce, som ething in th e
phosphor-bronze ra n g e is in d ic a te d . I t is no
secret t h a t th e N o n -F e rro u s S ub-C om m ittee of th e
T echnical C om m ittee of th e I n s titu te of B ritis h
F oundrym en have u n d e r co n sid eratio n th e p re ­
p a ra tio n of a ran g e of sta n d a rd g u n m eta ls a n d a
ran g e of sta n d a rd phosphor-bronzes. I f th ese are
ev entually approved a n d accep ted by th e B .S .I.
 511

a n d adopted by in d u s try g enerally, i t is con­

sidered th a t th e m a jo rity of th e w eird asso rt­
m en t of alloys in p riv a te specifications could
be abolished, w ith very g re a t saving a n d benefit
all round. This, when i t m aterialises, will be a
very big achievem ent w ith far-re ac h in g p ractical
resu lts, a n d is deserving of all th e consideration
an d su p p o rt i t can g et.
Sand Control
S an d an d san d con trol has been briefly referred
to ea rlie r. One of th e g re a t difficulties in th e
p a st has been th e lack of su itab le a p p a ra tu s for
san d te stin g . Anyone who wished to in v estig ate
sands had first to m ore or less devise some form
of a p p a ra tu s. The re s u lt was t h a t i t was very
difficult to com pare one se t of published results
w ith any o th e r se t of results.
The S ands Sub-C om m ittee of th e Technical
C om m ittee have sp e n t a considerable am o u n t of
tim e g e ttin g to g e th e r a su itab le se t of sta n d a rd
sa n d -te stin g a p p a ra tu s, a n d th is is now available.
T his is a very p ra c tic a l an d q u ite ro b u st a p p a ra ­
tu s , an d a lab o ra to ry is n o t essential for its use.
I t is suggested t h a t every progressive foundry
should have a set of th is a p p a ra tu s and carefully
check th e p ro p ertie s of th e san d in use fo r each
purpose. System atic use over a period of norm al
good w orking w ould yield a se t of figures which
could be ta k e n as a basis. Any d e p a rtu re from
these figures will th e n in d ica te some irre g u la rity
which should be accounted for. In th is way it
should be possible to c u t o u t guesswork an d work
to s ta n d a rd conditions ; in ad d itio n , i t will prob­
ably be found t h a t th e use of th e a p p a ra tu s will
in d icate w ays in which a saving can be m ade.

D IS C U S S IO N
T he B r a n c h - P r e s i d e n t (M r. A. P hillips) re ­
fe rre d to th e question of bu rn in g -o n , which was
a p ra c tic e which has som etimes to be
reso rted to in fo u n d ry w ork, and suggested th a t
it was a su itab le su b ject to be ta k e n up by th e
N on-F errous T echnical C om m ittee w ith th e large
 512

n a tio n a l buy in g a u th o ritie s possessing in sp ectio n

d ep a rtm e n ts. I t could be proved t h a t b u rn in g -
on was a sa tisfa c to ry fo u n d ry m ethod, w o rth y of
acceptance. T h ere was am ple evidence t h a t
non-ferrous p ra c tic e was m ore difficult to con tro l
th a n ferro u s, an d t h a t w hen tro u b le occurred
th e re was o fte n considerable d o u b t as to th e
best w ay of overcom ing it. The te c h n ica l P ress
co n tained a fo rm id ab le lis t of de-oxidising an d
de-gasifving agen ts, and th e re a d e r was u n c e rta in
w hat course to ad o p t. S uch a lis t m ig h t co n tain
phosphorus, silicon, copper, boron, soda ash, sal
am m oniac, zinc, chloride, charcoal, glass, boron-
carbide, etc. Could M r. L ogan o u tlin e w h a t
fluxes he used in his p ractice, because i t w as
obvious t h a t he h a d in itia te d good m ethods in
his fo u n d ry , ju d g in g by th e slides shown. W h a t
elem ents could be ad d ed to g u n -m e ta l a n d th e
brasses in o rd er to re n d e r th e m etal m ore fluid
or to have m ore life ju s t before p o u rin g ? A
fu r th e r p o in t was w h eth er th e le c tu re r con­
sidered t h a t phosphorus in creased th e te m p e ra ­
tu r e of brasses in g u n -m etal w hen i t was ad d ed
ju s t p rio r to p o u rin g .
Som etim es m e ta l w as le ft in th e fu rn aces, an d
becam e soaked, and absorbed v ario u s oxides such
as copper oxides, tin an d zinc oxides. W as th e re
any way in w hich these could be recognised
easily? I f th ey w ere p rese n t, th e n th e y h a d to
lie elim in ated . A n o th er p o in t he w ould lik e to
p u t fo rw ard fo r co n sid eratio n w as in connection
w ith A dm iralty g u n -m etal, 88 :10 :2. T hough it
was deemed th e re h a d been a c o rre c t m e ltin g
control associated w ith a c o rre c t p o u rin g
te m p e ra tu re a t ab o u t 1,160 deg. C ., i t w as some­
tim es found t h a t th e re w as a v ery porous s tru c ­
tu re . I t would be in te re s tin g to le a rn how th is
could be avoided, a n d also w h a t p re c a u tio n s m u st
be ta k e n to avoid th is.
A f u r th e r in te re s tin g p o in t w as w ith re g a rd
to th e ad d itio n of lead to brasses a n d g u n -m etal.
L id M r. L ogan consider t h a t th e a d d itio n of
lead, a p a rt from its cheapness, h a d any' a d v a n ­
tages in th e case of g u n -m etal or th e b rasses?
 513

I t w ould be useful, also to have in fo rm atio n as

to how to p rev en t seg reg atio n of th e lead in very
h igh-leaded bronze, such as 20 per cent, leaded
bronze. D id M r. L ogan add iron p y rites or an y ­
th in g sim ilar? D e-gasifying and de-oxidising
copper was som etim es a cause of tro u b le in
copper castings, th o u g h , a p p a re n tly , some people
w ere able to m ake th em easily. W h a t did M r.
L ogan consider was th e best m ethod of asc erta in ­
ing th e correct am o u n t of silicon to add to copper
to de-oxidise it an d obviate th e usu al cauliflower
to p ? A p o in t which had been m entioned by th e
le c tu re r was th e sta n d a rd isa tio n of alloys.
One firm, which a t one tim e had 36 different
ty p es of non-ferrous alloys, a fte r review ing them
w ith th e v arious engineers, was able to reduce
them to 14 an d produce all th e castin g s t h a t
were necessary. W ith re g a rd to p o u rin g tem ­
p e ra tu re , he suggested t h a t it would be good
practice fo r anyone who h ad a pyrom eter to
stam p th e co rrect p o u rin g te m p e ra tu re on th e
bo ard, if i t w ere a b oard p a tte rn , or on th e
p a tte rn itself, fo r th e in fo rm atio n of th e
m oulder. I t was essen tial in alum inium fo u n d ry
practice to have p y ro m eter control, and he would
like to be inform ed as to th e m ake of th e p a r­
tic u la r pyrom eter shown upon th e sc re e n ; also,
if th e re was an y tim e lag, which was d e tri­
m en tal som etim es in fo u n d ry p ractice when using
a pyrom eter w ith a covered sheath.
M r . L o g a n sta te d t h a t he purposely raised th e
question of burning-on because i t had now
reached a stage when it should be e ith e r approved
or else finally discarded. I t should no longer be
reg ard ed a s being in an y way a discreditable
m ethod. H is own view was t h a t i t was a reliable
process w hen correctly ca rrie d o u t w ith th e
necessary p recautio n s. The ca stin g should th e n
be q u ite successful in a c tu a l use. The suggestion
m ade by th e B ra n c h -P resid e n t was a n excellent
one, nam ely, t h a t th e N on -F erro u s Technical
C om m ittee should place th e su b ject on th e ir
agenda an d definitely exam ine th e process, subse­
qu en tly issuing a re p o rt of th e ir conclusions.

s
 514

The q uestion of fluxes was, of course, a p o in t

which was usually raised in a discussion re la tin g
to non-ferrous fo u n d in g . H is own ex p erien ce
was t h a t th e less one h a d to do w ith p ro p rie ta ry
fluxes, and, indeed, th e less one h a d to do w ith
fluxes a t all, th e b e tte r. I t was u su ally fo u n d
t h a t th e flux questio n , like th e p a te n t m edicine
question, was based on fallacies. T here were
very m an y fluxes on th e m a r k e t in th e form of
p ro p rie ta ry com positions, an d th e w o nderful
claim s w hich w ere p u t fo rw ard in re sp e ct to
m any of th em could n o t be m a in ta in e d . P e rso n ­
ally, th e only m a te ria l of th is k in d h e used was
charcoal. P ro v id ed th e r e was co rre c t m e ltin g
p ractice, th e n ch arcoal w as th e only covering
necessary. V ery o ften b rassfo u n d ers ex p erien ced
e n tire ly unnecessary tro u b les sim ply th ro u g h bad
m eltin g p ractice an d in c o rre c t o r no c o n tro l of
castin g te m p e ra tu re . P ro v id in g th e m e ta l w as
reasonably tr e a te d a n d raised to its c o rre c t te m ­
p e ra tu re as ra p id ly as possible, a n d t h a t i t h a d
an efficient covering of charcoal, th e n , in h is
opinion, th e less one h a d to do w ith fluxes th e
b e tte r.
The question of th e ad d itio n of o th e r elem ents,
of course, was q u ite a le g itim a te one. I n th e
case of A d m iralty g u n -m etal an d o th e r bronzes,
phosphor-copper o r p ho sp h o r-tin could be added
as a very definite asset, an d w ere th e only a d d i­
tio n s he would m ake to an alloy of th e bronze
class. They w ere only m ade in sm all am o u n ts,
so t h a t probably th e re w as a c tu a lly no phos­
phorus rem ain in g in th e c astin g a t all. O ne did
n o t w a n t an y phosphorus le f t in th e finished
castin g , because o therw ise one w ould finish u p
w ith a phosphor-bronze c a stin g of g u n -m etal.
T here was no increase of te m p e ra tu re w ith a
phosphorus ad d itio n , an d he th o u g h t t h a t th e
im pression t h a t th e re w as a te m p e ra tu re g a in
arose from th e g re a te r flu id ity o b ta in e d w hen
phosphorus was added. T h ere w as a c e rta in de­
oxidising effect w hich re n d e re d th e m a te ria l
m ore fluid. T his a p p eared to in crease th e te m ­
p e ra tu re , b u t such w as n o t th e case.
A p o in t h ad been raise d as to how to deoxidise
 515

m etal. The ru n n e r h ead w hich had been shown

on th e screen was oxidised m etal, th o u g h th ere
w ere m any stag es n o t so a p p a re n t, from cor­
rectly m elted g u n -m etal to one w hich was hope­
lessly oxidised. T here w ere m any degrees of
o x id atio n , an d usu ally th e oxidised m a te ria l
caused porosity. I t could he easily recognised
by m eans of th e microscope, b u t it would be
very difficult, probably n o t even possible, to
recognise an oxidised m etal by m erely looking
a t i t w ith th e u n a id e d eye. W hen a section was
etched a n d exam ined microscopically, th e effect
w as im m ediately a p p a re n t. I t was n o t an easy
m a tte r to g e t rid of o x id atio n , and, in his
opinion, all p ro p rie ta ry fluxes w ere p ractically
useless from t h a t p o in t of view. P ro b ab ly th e
only th in g to do w as to use up th e oxidised
m a te ria l in sm all am ounts.
The a d d itio n of lead to a bronze was definitely
ad v an tag eo u s in cases w here pressure tig h tn ess
was desirable. A s tra ig h t A d m iralty gun-m etal
or s tra ig h t bronze w ith o u t lead was notoriously
difficult to g et sound. An a d d itio n of 1 p er
cent, lead was ex trem ely h elpful, and would
make a m a te ria l difference in th e pressure tig h t­
ness of a castin g . B e arin g bronzes c o n tain in g
20 p e r cent, lead were n ev er free from segrega­
tion unless nickel was added. By th e ad d itio n
of nickel, which had a m uch h ig h e r m elting
p o in t, th e re was a considerable increase in th e
ra te of so lid ificatio n ; in o th e r w ords, th e
m a te ria l solidified before th e lead h ad a chance
to segregate.
H e had n o t h a d considerable experience w ith
reg ard to cu p ro -silico n ; t h a t is, w ith p u re copper
castings w here only silicon would be allowed.
F o r tu rb in e w ork th e re was a n alloy which was
really a low -tin bronze c o n ta in in g 98 p er cent,
copper an d 2 p er cen t, tin w ith a phosphorus
ad d itio n . This could be c ast successfully, and
was v irtu a lly a copper castin g . H e h ad had very
little experience of p u re copper castin g s as such,
ex cep t t h a t cupro-silicon could be added, and
th a t boron-copper w as q u ite a good ad d itio n .
s2
 5 1 6

H e was very g lad to h a v e th e B ran ch -P resi-

d e n t’s confirm ation of th e necessity fo r s ta n ­
d a rd isatio n , w hich was a consum m ation long
overdue.
The red u ctio n of 36 alloys down to 14 h a d been
m entioned. I f a system of sta n d a rd is a tio n was
ad o p ted i t m ig h t be possible to red u ce, say, th e
36 alloys down to six o r e ig h t, a n d ev e ry th in g
could be done t h a t h a d been done previously w ith
th e 36. One h ad only to produce such a v a rie ty
of alloys of t h a t k in d to realise th e difficulties of
checking th e com position an d th e re tu rn s of
heads, ru n n e rs a n d borin g s, to realise w h a t an
unnecessary expense was involved.
The suggestion t h a t th e c o rre c t c astin g te m p e ­
ra tu re m ig h t be p u t on th e p a tte r n was a very
good one. H e w as, personally, try in g to evolve
a system w hereby all such fe a tu re s w ere m ark e d
on th e p a t t e r n ; nam ely, th e finished w eight, th e
w eight of th e a rtic le as-cast, th e c o rrec t m ethod
of g a tin g , a n d th e castin g te m p e ra tu re . The
nex t tim e th e sam e p a tte rn cam e to th e fo u n d ry
to be cast all th e necessary p a rtic u la rs w ould be
seen a t a glance. I t w ould be realise d t h a t a
p a tte rn successfully c a st six m o n th s p reviously
m ig h t re tu r n a g a in to th e fo u n d ry , a n d , due to
changes in personnel, a d ifferen t se t of m oulders
m ig h t have to deal w ith i t a n d find o u t w h a t
were th e co rrect conditions fo r t h a t p a rtic u la r
p a tte rn . Once a p a tte rn h a d been co rrectly c ast,
th e n all d etails of t h a t k in d should be p u t u pon
th e p a tte rn so t h a t th e re should he no q u estio n
ab o u t th e rig h t m ethod of d ealin g w ith i t in
fu tu re .
The pyrom eter shown on th e screen w as in a
sense “ home m a d e .” I t w as evolved in th e
lab o rato ry to m eet th e co n d itio n s of th e fo u n d ry .
F o r a long tim e th e fo u n d ry could n o t p u t any
continuous system of te m p e ra tu re co n tro l in to
o p eratio n because of th e difficulty of fin d in g a
pyrom eter w hich w ould do th e job sa tisfa c to rily .
The in s tru m e n t w hich h a d been show n w as defi­
n itely p ractical an d could be p u t in to use fo r
long periods w ith o u t tro u b le . The av erag e
 517

num ber of im m ersions per sh eath was 165, includ­

ing b reakages from all causes, an d in some cases
th ey o b tain ed as m any as 260 im m ersions. There
was n o t a g re a t tim e lag. The silica sh eath was
2^ m m . th ick . The plum bago coatin g did n ot
give a very g re a t lag, so t h a t i t was q u ite a
p ra c tic a l o p eratio n to in s e rt i t in every crucible
an d ta k e th e te m p e ra tu re . The m ethod was th a t
th e fu rn ace m an in d icated when he th o u g h t th e
te m p e ra tu re was w ith in ab o u t 50 deg. of th e
co rrect p o in t. The tim e ta k e n to b rin g th e pot
to th e re q u ired te m p e ra tu re was know n ; so th e re
was no qriestion of th e tim e lag affecting the
m etal or le ttin g th e m etal g e t too hot.
M n. J . A. R e y n o l d s (P rescot) suggested t h a t a
system w hich he saw described some years ago for
recording th e various facto rs for th e control of
th e c astin g process would probably be b e tte r th a n
th e a tte m p t to m a rk th e p a tte rn . I f th e p a tte rn
was a sm all one i t would be exceedingly difficult
to m ake i t in to a catalo g u e. I t w ould be difficult
to show, on a p a tte rn , th e ty p e of ru n n e r. I t
m ight be possible to in d ic a te its position, b u t
be difficult to show w h eth er i t was h o rn g a te or
flatgat© or was given a check in th e down g ate,
or even in d icate th e h e ig h t. The system he
referred to was used in connection w ith alu ­
m inium castings. A c a rd index was used and in
some in stan ces a little sketch was included show­
ing th e h isto ry of th e castin g , and sometimes
even a history of one or tw o unsuccessful
atte m p ts.
W ith re g a rd to th e question of oxid atio n , th e
fa c t should n o t be lost sig h t of t h a t m etal could
also fa il by being m elted in a too strongly reduc­
ing atm osphere, p a rtic u la rly when oil firing was
used.
In m any instan ces engineers, in th e ir specifica­
tions an d co n tracts, recognised b u rning-on, b u t
stip u la te d t h a t special perm ission m u st be
obtained in all cases.
M r. L o g a n , in reply, said, w here oil firing was
in o p eratio n , i t was a very definite p ractical
p o in t t h a t castings could fa il by being m elted
 518

in a too stro n g ly re d u cin g atm osphere. The

tro u b le was la rg e ly due to th e so lu tio n of
hydrogen in th e m etal, w ith , possibly, carbon
m onoxide also. The effect w ould be, gen erally
speaking, to produce a gassy m e tal w hich w ould
show unsoundness d u e to gas bubbles o ccu rrin g
a t th e m om ent of solidification sim ilar to th e
tro u b le experienced w hen m e ta l was p o u red in to
a dam p ladle.
M r . R e y n o l d s in q u ire d w h a t was th e best
m ethod for rem oving larg e risers from non-
ferro u s castings. H e believed ch ip p ers w ere
being used for alu m in iu m , b u t he h a d n o t seen
them ad vocated for n o n -ferro u s m etals g en erally .
W as it b e tte r to use a b an d saw or a h ack saw ?
M e . L o g a n said some castin g s w ere to o b ig to
p u t u n d e r a b a n d saw , w hile in o th e r cases a
ru n n e r would be m ore easily rem oved if sim ply
nicked th ro u g h a n d bro k en off. I t was r a th e r a
slow o p eratio n to use a b an d saw u n d e r some
circum stances, an d he was u n d e r th e im pression
t h a t th e g re a te r p ro p o rtio n of th e w ork done in
th e fo u n d ry w ith which he was connected were
nicked an d th e n bro k en off w ith a sledge h am m er.
T his did n o t, p erh ap s, seem p a rtic u la rly scien­
tific', b u t i t w as ra p id an d cheap. A g it-c u ttin g
m achine was also used.
M r . J . J a c k s o n said t h a t he h a d ex p erien ced
tro u b le w ith a castin g w hich w as in th e shape
of an o rd in a ry dum b-bell used fo r physical-
e u ltu re purposes. The c a stin g w as ab o u t 5 in .
long, 21,- in. d ia ., a n d reduced in th e c e n tre like
a dum b-bell. The ca stin g w orked in a lig n u m -
v ita step in w ate r, a n d a fte r tw o y e a rs’ service,
owing to excessive w ear on th e p a rtic u la r m e ta l
used, a n o th er m eta l was su b s titu te d , w hich cer­
ta in ly stood up to w ear re m a rk a b ly well. T he
m etal now being used w as 84 copper, 3 lead ,
8 tin and 5 p er cen t. zinc. The castin g s
originally m ade w ere c ast in th e h o riz o n ta l posi­
tio n . F o r fa cility an d cheapness of m ach in in g
it was found b e tte r to ca st as a solid block
vertically, ru n n in g fro m th e b o tto m , th e n c u ttin g
o u t th e neck. E x cellen t castin g s w ere o b ta in e d
in t h a t m an n er. W ith th e m e ta l now used it
 519

was possible to cast ho rizo n tally an d g e t a

perfect castin g , b u t i t h ad n o t been found pos­
sible to g e t a p e rfe c t c astin g v ertically as th e re
w ere sm all in d en ts.
M r. L ogan rep lied t h a t w ith o u t know ing
fu r th e r d etails an d c u ttin g sections and exam in­
ing specim ens u n d e r th e microscope he could
not hope to thro w m uch lig h t upon th e p a r ti­
cu lar p o in t. H e suggested t h a t if M r. Jackson
m ade his castin g in th e v ertic a l position, w ith
a n e x tr a head which could be cu t off, he m ig h t
g e t rid of th e sponginess in th e cen tre.
M r . J a c k s o n said he cast some stocks 30 i n .
long, an d c u t th e to p p a r t aw ay, b u t th e tro u b le
was s till a p p a re n t. W hen cast ho rizo n tally th e
percen tag e of w asters over m any th o u san d s was
som ething like 11 p er cen t., covering th e whole
fo u n d ry an d m oulders' fa u lts. In th e o th e r case
i t was no b e tte r th a n 50 p er cen t, a t p resen t.
The cost of m ach in in g was ex actly h a lf when
reducing from th e stock. They were co n tin u in g
th e castin g h o rizo n tally , b u t because th e y had
cast all th e others v ertically an d saved so much
in m ach in in g , he w an ted to co n tin u e w ith th a t
saving.
M r. A. S u t c l i f f e asked w h eth er M r. Logan
th o u g h t non-ferro u s castings could be m ade
successfully by u sin g a sm all cupola o p erated a t
a very low b la s t pressure. M any brass m oulders
disliked oil-sand cores on account of th e m etal
e a tin g in to them . H e would be pleased to lea rn
if a su itab le m ix tu re could be suggested.
M r. L o g a n said t h a t successful m oulding
depended upon th e co rrect u tilisa tio n of scientific
principles. I f th e m oulder did n o t g e t correct
resu lts, i t w ould be because he was no t using
co rrect principles. T herefore, by producing a
sound castin g was apply in g co rrect principles
w hether he was aw are of i t or not.
C upola m eltin g fo r non-ferrous w ork m ig h t be
possible. H e had h e a rd of cupolas being used
fo r copper m eltin g an d copper pro d u ctio n . H e
w ould like to h av e a chance of in v estig a tin g th e
m a tte r f u r th e r if possible.
W hen he first adopted oil-sand cores in th e
fo u n d ry he was m et w ith th e suggestion t h a t
 520

th ey would n o t be sa tisfa c to ry , th o u g h personally

he th o u g h t th ey should be. W hen he cam e to
in v estig ate th e m a tte r he fo u n d t h a t w here
tro u b le had been experienced in respect of oil-
sand cores in no n -ferro u s w ork it had been
in v ariab ly due to th e fa c t t h a t too coarse a
sea san d h ad been used. H is p resen t p ractice
was to use a fa irly fine sea sand w ith o u t any
fu r th e r ad d itio n s o th e r th a n th e core com pound.
H e could n o t rem em ber h av in g h ad any tro u b le
w ith badly-shaped cores o r m etal e a tin g in. W ith
sections of 3 or 4 inches th ick , su rro u n d in g an
oii-sand core th e r e was a rou g h n ess on th e
inside due to th e excessive h e a t h av in g b u rn e d
out th e bond, b u t w hen it was trim m ed off i t was
u n im p o rta n t. The sea sa n d t h a t he used was
th e S eaton C arew blown sand.
M r. S u t c l i f f e in q u ired w h a t difference th e re
would be by using h alf M ansfield an d h a lf sea
sand.
M r. L o g a n th o u g h t t h a t probably some of th e
in h e re n t benefits of th e oil-sand core w ould be
lo st; th e re would be a closing up of th e core.
T here w ould probably be tro u b le due to im p e r­
m eability. By usin g fine sea san d , fre e fro m any
ioam ad d itio n , th e po ro sity was re ta in e d . I f th e
core boxes w ere lig h tly ram m ed th e r e was
n o t likely to be an y trou b le.
M r. J . S. G. P r i m r o s e (M an ch ester) said
th e re was definitely a g re a t a d v a n ta g e in th e use
of lead in resistin g th e effect of steam in low er­
ing th e stre n g th of gu n -m etal.
A t th e conclusion of th e proceedings th e
B r a n c h - P r e s i d e n t , M r. A. P h illip s, drew th e
a tte n tio n of th e m em bers to th e service which
was given by th e v arious tech n ic a l sub-com ­
m ittees by sup p ly in g confid en tial answ ers to any
problem s posed. The co m m ittees in clu d ed m an y
m en of high em inence in th e v ario u s phases of
castings m a n u fa c tu re .

Vote of Thanks
M rW . N o r m a n C o o k , S en io r V ice -P re sid en t
.
of th e B ranch, proposed t h a t a very h e a rty vote
 521

of th a n k s be accorded to M r. L ogan for his ex­

trem ely in te re stin g com m unication, saying th a t
it was only occasionally th a t th e su b ject of non-
ferro u s fo unding was discussed by th e mem bers
of th e B ranch. H e ag reed w ith m ost of th e
sta te m e n ts co n tain ed in th e P a p e r, an d p a rtic u ­
larly so w ith re g a rd to th e tro u b les experienced
by sm all found ries in respect to non-ferrous
founding.
M r. W. H . M e a d o w c r o f t (B urnley) seconded
th e vote of th a n k s, rem ark in g t h a t M r. Logan
had been very courageous in ta lk in g ab o u t
w asters an d in placing fo u n d ry people all upon
one level.
The vote of th a n k s was c a rrie d unanim ously by
acclam ation.
M r . L o g a n , in r e s p o n d in g to t h e v o te of
t h a n k s , w a s o f o p in io n t h a t to t h a n k th e le c t u r e r
b e fo re th e c o n c lu s io n o f t h e d is c u s s io n w a s so m e­
w h a t i n t h e n a t u r e o f c o u n t in g o n e ’ s c h ic k e n s
b e fo re t h e y w e re h a t c h e d . V e r y o fte n th e
d is c u s s io n w a s t h e m o s t v a lu a b le p a r t o f th e
p ro c e e d in g s .
 522

London Branch
POROSITY IN NON-FERROUS METAL CASTINGS

By G. L. Bailey, M.Sc. (Member)

T he object of th is lec tu re , w hich is a n ex trem ely
wide one, is to review in g en eral te rm s th e th re e
m ain causes of p o rosity in castin g s, nam ely (1)
sh rin k ag e ; (2) th e ev olution of dissolved gases,
an d (3) th e e n tra p p in g of gases. To review so
w ide a field in g e n eral te rm s in ev itab ly involves
covering a c e rta in am o u n t of g ro u n d w hich is
very elem entary , an d for th is indulgence is asked.

Shrinkage
W hen a m etal is c a s t th e re a re ch an g es in
volum e betw een th e ea stin g te m p e ra tu re an d
atm ospheric te m p e ra tu re , w hich changes u su ally
occur in th re e definite stages, a n d a re n early
alw ays co n tractio n s. T here is in g e n e ra l a con­
tra c tio n in th e liq u id m eta l as i t cools to th e
freezing p o in t, a c o n tra ctio n in volum e on solidi­
fication, an d a fu r th e r c o n tra c tio n in th e solid,
betw een th e freezin g p o in t and atm o sp h eric te m ­
p e ra tu re .
As a ty p ical exam ple of c o n trac tio n in a p u re
m etal, liq u id alu m in iu m betw een 900 deg. C.
an d 657 deg. C. c o n tra c ts 3 per cen t, in volum e.
A t 657 deg. C. th e r e is a volum e c o n tra c tio n of
6.5 p e r cent, on solidification, a n d on f u r th e r
cooling to atm ospheric te m p e ra tu re s th e r e is a
steady c o n tractio n in volum e in th e solid,
a m o u n tin g to a b o u t 5.5 p e r cent.
Table I gives n u m erical values, re la tin g to a
num ber of d ifferen t m etals a n d alloys, for th e
co n tractio n in volum e of th e liq u id on cooling
from 100 deg. above th e m e ltin g p o in t to th e
m eltin g p o in t, th e c o n tra c tio n in volum e on
solidification a n d th e c o n trac tio n in volum e of th e
solid on cooling from th e m eltin g p o in t to atm o ­
spheric te m p e ra tu re .
 523

P a tte rn m a k e rs ’ sh rin kag e, or th e allowance for

c o n tractio n in p ractice, is concerned alm ost en­
tire ly w ith th e co n trac tio n in th e m etal a fte r it
has solidified. T here is a lin e a r co n tractio n of
from 1 to 2 per cen t, in th e common m etals, b u t
in o rd in a ry fou n d ry p ractice p a tte rn m a k e rs’
sh rin k ag e is dep en d en t on q u ite a nu m b er of
o th e r factors, an d w hilst 1 p er c en t, is a fairly
average figure, th e p a tte rn m a k e rs’ sh rin kag e can ­
not be calculated from th e a c tu a l change in
volum e or in len g th of th e m etal u n d e r perfectly

T able I.— Volume. Changes in Metals and Alloys on

Cooling.
C o n tra ctio n
C o n tra ctio n
in volum e
in volum e
o f liq u id on
C o n tra ctio n o f so lid on
cooling
in vo lum e cooling from
th ro u g h
on so lid i­ m elting po int
100 deg. C .
fication . to a tm o s­
d o w n to th e
p h e ric
m e ltin g
te m p eratu re .
po int.

P e r cent. P e r cent. P e r cent.

T in . . 1. 07 2.9 1.4
Lead 1 .0 3 .1 3 .0
Z in c 1 .4 3 .8 4 .5
A lu m in iu m . . 1.35 6.5 5.5
R e d b rass, 1 .0 5 .0 5 .2
85/5/5/5
Copper 1 .9 4 .1 6 .4

u niform conditions. One reason for th is is th a t

in some types of castin g a p a r t of th e c ast m etal
is solid before th e m ould is full ; such factors
m ake i t u n satisfa c to ry to apply a c o n sta n t value
fo r p a tte rn m a k e rs’ sh rin k ag e to castin g s of any
one alloy of any size or shape.
The figures for change in volume given in
T able I are ty p ical of g en eral non-ferrous castin g
alloys, b u t i t c a n n o t he said t h a t all m etals be­
have sim ilarly. Some m etals e x p an d on solidi­
fication ; bism uth is th e classical exam ple. In
g rey-cast irons also th e re is an expansion on
solidification, b u t th e re o th er volume changes
 524

occur such as t h a t accom panying th e se p a ra tio n

of g ra p h ite .
C o n tractio n in volum e on solidification is th e
facto r responsible for in te rn a l sh rin k ag e porosity.
I ts first an d m ost obvious effect is in “ p ip in g ” ;
th e free liquid m etal su rface co n tra c ts, th e m etal
sinks in th e “ pipe ” an d f u r th e r liq u id is added
to m a in ta in th e h ead . U n d e r id eal co n d itio n s
th e added liq u id m e ta l should com pletely feed
th e c o n tractio n ; b u t in all ty p e s of c a stin g th e re
is a t some stag e solidification of m e ta l a t one
p o in t across th e sectio n of th e c a stin g , fo rm in g
a “ b rid g e ,” which in te rfe re s w ith th e feed in g of
th e re m ain in g m a te ria l.
The avoidance of c o n tra c tio n due to solidifica­
tio n sh rin k ag e a n d to sh rin k a g e of th e liq u id
m etal is, p a rtic u la rly in th e case of p u re m e ta ls
an d those alloys w hich solidify a t one c o n sta n t
te m p e ra tu re , largely a m a tte r of design. F ig . 1
illu stra te s co n tra c tio n a n d feed in g in d iffe re n t
tj p e s of ingot. Two ex tre m e cases a re shown,
illu s tra tin g th e effects t h a t a re liable to occur in
a tte m p tin g to feed solidification sh rin k ag e . In
in g o t A ” th e re is a larg e feed er head w ith a
narrow section w here th e feed er h e ad jo in s th e
castin g a n d an increase in th e section of th e c a st­
ing below th e ju n c tio n . Such a c a stin g w ill in ­
ev itab ly co n tain a c o n tra c tio n c a v ity due to
solidification occu rrin g across th e n arro w section
before th e low er p a r t is solid. H o w ev er big th e
feeder head, if th e co n n ectin g p o rtio n solidifies
first th e co n tractio n c a n n o t be fed . In g o t “ B ”
shows th e o th e r ex trem e, th e id eal co n d itio n in
w hich th e c a stin g is so sh ap ed t h a t solidification
occurs progressively from th e botto m u p w ard s.
Then, by m eans of a c o m p arativ ely sm all feed in g
head, th e sh rin k ag e in th e to p p a r t of th e c a s t­
ing, w hich will be th e la s t p a r t to solidify, can
be fed ad eq u ately an d a com pletely sound c a stin g
results.
T he cases illu s tra te d in F ig . 1 a re very sim ple,
b u t th e y enable th e whole q uestion of th e feeding
of sh rin k ag e in castin g s of d iffe re n t ty p e s in a
m etal or alloy solid ify in g a t a c o n sta n t te m p e ra ­
tu r e to be ex p lain ed . One could e n u m e ra te a
 525

large num ber of instan ces of castin g s co n tain in g

a ch ange in section from large to sm all, w here
th e effect illu s tra te d in F ig . la , is occurring.
F eeding of sh rin k ag e of th e la rg e r section
th ro u g h th e sm all section, can n o t be expected.
The tim e has passed when fo undrym en deliber­
ately p u t a co nstrictio n a t th e base of th e ru n n e r
so t h a t i t w ould be easy to knock off th e head,

F ig . 1 .— C o n t r a c t io n and F e e d in g in D if f e r e n t
T ypes of I ngot.

b u t such cases of b ad design have been known

to occur.
These rem ark s ab o u t th e feeding of co n tractio n
apply to a c e rta in e x te n t to alloys as well as to
pure* m etals. B u t th e re is a v ariab le fa c to r in
c e rta in alloys, which is of im portance in th is
connection, nam ely, th e te m p e ra tu re ran g e of
freezing. A p u re m etal solidifies a t a c o n stan t
te m p e ra tu re , b u t alloys very o ften solidifv over
a ran g e of te m p e ra tu re .
 526

A copper-tin alloy c o n ta in in g 10 p er cen t, tin ,

for instance, begins to solidify a t 1,000 deg. C.,
an d solidification u n d er eq u ilib riu m conditions is
n o t com plete u n til th e te m p e ra tu re has fallen to
ab o u t 850 deg. C. ; in p ractice, owing to th e fa c t
th a t th e alloy is n o t in e q u ilib riu m , i t is n o t
com pletely solid u n til th e te m p e ra tu re is down
to a b o u t 800 deg. So long a freezin g ra n g e has
a very m ark ed effect on th e d is trib u tio n in a
castin g of porosity due to sh rin k ag e.
In alloys possessing a freezin g ra n g e changes
in volum e on cooling a re sim ilar to those occur­
rin g in a p u re m etal. The a c tu a l co n tra c tio n on
solidification, how ever, is sp read over an in te rv a l
of te m p e ra tu re . I n th e case of th e alu m in iu m -
copper alloy co n ta in in g 7 p e r cen t, copper, th e re
is a co n tractio n in volum e of 7 | p e r c e n t, on
solidification, occu rrin g over a ra n g e of te m ­
p e ra tu re of from ab o u t 640 to 540 deg. I n con­
sid erin g th e effect of th is, one has to rem em ber
th e m ethod of solidification of an alloy of th is
type.
Case of Cast Iron
F ig . 2 rep resen ts a d ia g ra m m a tic illu s tra tio n
of solidification in cast iron. T he fa c t t h a t th e
m etal is cast iro n is of no special significance ;
th e p rin cip le is ty p ic a l of th e solidification of all
m etals. W hen a liq u id m etal begins to c ry s ta l­
lise, th e in d iv id u al cry stals grow first in skeleton
form ( “ d en d rites ” ). B ran ch es a re th ro w n off
from th e o rig in al axis an d leave in te rstic e s,
which g rad u ally fill up as so lidification is com­
p leted. A n etw o rk of d e n d rite s is th u s form ed
w ith in te rd e n d ritic spaces w hich a re g ra d u a lly
filling up. The low est-m eltin g -p o in t m a te ria l is
betw een th e arm s of th e d e n d rite s of p u re r m etal
w hich first sep ara te, and final solidification
occurs in a larg e nu m b er of sm all a reas th r o u g h ­
o u t th e m ass. Such an effect is clearly seen in
cast bronzes, w here th e cop p er-rich arm s of th e
d en d rites which are first form ed an d th e in te r-
d e n d ritic tin -ric h m a te ria l a re clearly visible in
th e m ic ro stru ctu re.
I n th e case of a p u re m e ta l (w hich solidifies
in th e sam e way alth o u g h a t one te m p e ra tu re ,
th e te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t in th e castin g needs
to be only very slig h t to cause com plete
solidification to occur in a very sm all zone
in th e casting. The wall of th e castin g m ay
be com pletely solid, th e c en tre com pletely liquid,
an d , if th e re is a n y th in g of a te m p e ra tu re
g ra d ie n t, th e a c tu a l tra n s itio n zone m ay be very
sm all indeed. I f solidification be very slow, th e n
th e te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t becomes very flat, and
even w ith a p u re m etal q u ite a la rg e a re a of th e

.it
Jteni.-it*
• * * ! * » vOeoonT* DENDRITE G R O W T H
x c a s t ir.o n .
A ; c c ; . C ________________________________________

F ig . 2 .— D e n d r it e G row th in C ast I ro n
(A llen ).

castin g m ay be in th e in te rm e d iate , p asty zone,

p a rtly liq u id an d p a rtly solid. B u t such con­
d itio n s of absolutely fla t te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t
are n o t freq u e n tly ob tain ed in castings. W ith
an alloy, how ever, w hich solidifies over a ran g e
of te m p e ra tu re , such as 90 :10 tin-bronze, solidi­
fication commences a t 1.000 deg. C., an d i t is n o t
com plete u n d er o rd in a ry casting conditions u n til
a te m p e ra tu re of 800 deg. C. is reached. In
o th er words, unless th e re is a very steep te m ­
p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t indeed, a larg e a re a of th e
castin g con tain s p rim a ry d e n d rites w ith in ter-
d e n d ritic liquid.
 528

Intergranular Porosity
F ig . 3 shows th e d e n d ritic s tru c tu r e in a c a st
brass, and i t can re a d ily he im ag in ed t h a t in th e
solidification of a m ass of m e ta l in th is way
w here a larg e h u lk is a t any one tim e in th e

F ig . 3 .— D e n d r it ic S tructure in C ast
B rass.

pasty ” condition, i t is in e v ita b le t h a t th e re

should be a fine ty p e of in te r-c ry sta llin e s h rin k ­
age cavity d is trib u te d th ro u g h o u t th e m ass a fte r
solidification. As th e m e ta l low er down in th e
castin g solidifies, h o t liq u id fro m th e to p c a n n o t
percolate th ro u g h th e m ass of p asty m a te ria l to
 529

feed th e sh rin k ag e a t th e bottom . In general,

th e re fo re , w here th e re is a mass of pasty m etal
solidifying com paratively slowly, i.e., w ith o u t
any very steep te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t, th e re will
bo d is trib u te d m ore or less evenly th ro u g h o u t th e
whole mass a very fine ty p e of sh rin k ag e cavity.
T his fine in ter-c ry sta llin e porosity, such as is
o b tain ed for instan ce in tin bronzes, is n o t easily
visible to th e naked eye and very often w h at

E f f e c t Of R a t e Of S o l id if ic a t io n On
Un c c u n o n ess C f 5% T in B r o n z e

F ig . 4 .— E f f e c t of R a te of S o lid ific a tio n

ON U n S O U N D N E S S OF 5 PEU CENT. T l N B R O N Z E .

ap p ears to be a p erfectly sound fra c tu re contains

in fa c t a considerable am o u n t of porosity,
causing a low d en sity, leakage u n d er hydraulic
te s t, discoloured fra c tu re and m echanical
w eakness.
The m ore u nifo rm th e te m p e ra tu re th ro u g h o u t
th e castin g d u rin g solidification (i.e., th e slower
th e ra te of cooling), th e la rg er th e zone of pasty
m a te ria l and, w ith in lim its, th e more serious the
porosity. In chill castings, w here th e re is a
steep te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n t d u rin g solidification,
 530

th e liquid an d solid m etal a re se p a ra te d by a

com paratively sm all zone of p a sty m a te ria l, and
m uch sounder m etal resu lts. In th e cen tre of a
chill-cast b a r, how ever, w here th e cry stals grow ­
ing from th e tw o sides m eet, th e re is th e sam e
difficulty w ith re g a rd to feed in g in t h a t th e
liqu id m etal from th e to p can n o t feed th e
sh rin k ag e down th e c e n tra l colum n w hen once
th e b rid g in g by th e p rim a ry cry stals occurs.
I n o rd er to keep th e r a te of solidification as
ra p id as possible th e ca stin g te m p e ra tu re should
n o t be unnecessarily h ig h . P ro v id e d th e m etal
can be cast w ith o u t e n tra p p in g a ir, cau sin g cold
shuts, e tc ., th e low er th e castin g te m p e ra tu re
th e b e tte r th e castin g from th e p o in t of view of
sh rin k ag e alone.
The effect of r a te of solidification on th e
unsoundness of l |- i n . d ia m e te r b ars of 5 p er
cent, ti n bronze (an alloy w ith a fa irly w ide
freezin g ran g e) is shown in F ig . 4. The low er
curve re la te s to m e tal tr e a te d w ith n itro g e n in
ord er to e lim in ate effects due to dissolved gases,
an d th e unsoundness in th ese b a rs can be con­
sidered to be due only to sh rin k ag e. In such
cases th e slower th e ra te of solidification th e
g re a te r th e unsoundness. E ven w ith th e q u ick ­
e st ra te of cooling em ployed, i.e ., ca stin g in a
1-in. th ick solid copper m ould, th e re was still
considerable porosity, eq u iv alen t by d en sity
d e te rm in a tio n to 1 p e r cen t, of th e volum e of
th e b ar. W ihh a m a te ria l h av in g no fre ez in g
ran g e— fo r in stan ce, 6 0 :4 0 brass— th e b a r w ould
u n d e r these conditions have been alm o st e n tire ly
sound.

Piping
The effect of sh rin k ag e is m ost obvious in th e
a ctu a l p iping, an d th e effect of c a stin g te m p e ra ­
tu re on p ip in g is in te re stin g . F ig . 5 shows th e
d ep th of p ip in g in a series of phosphor-bronze
bars ca st in d ry-san d m oulds a t d iffe re n t te m ­
p e ra tu re s, w ith in th e ra n g e from 1,200 deg. to
about 1,025 deg. The b a r c a st a t th e low est
te m p e ra tu re showed little p ip in g , an d h a d a h ig h
density. As th e c a stin g te m p e ra tu re was in-
 531

creased, th e d ep th of pipe increased, reach in g a

m axim um in th e b a r c ast a t 1,150 d e g .; a t c a st­
ing te m p e ra tu re s above 1,150 deg. th e d e p th of
pipe a g ain decreased, being sim ilar in th e b a r
ca st a t 1,200 deg. C to t h a t poured a t 1,025 deg.
C. The e x tr a liq u id sh rin k ag e in th e high-tem -
p e ra tu re b a r has been n eu tralised by th e evolu­
tio n of gases d u rin g solidification, th e re su lt being
a sim ilar pipe b u t m uch increased in te rn a l u n ­
soundness.

F i g . 5. — L ongitudinal S ections through

R unners of P hosphor -B ronze B ars cast at
D ecreasing T emperatures from 1,200 deg . C.
to 1,025 deg . C.

Dissolved Gases
C e rta in gases are soluble to some e x te n t in
nearly all liquid m etals. T ak in g m etals and
alloys as a whole, h ydrogen is probably th e m ost
readily soluble gas. E x cep tin g cases such as th e
solubility of hydrogen in p alladium , w here th e
solid m etal absorbs enorm ous volumes of hydrogen
a t q u ite low te m p e ra tu re an d gives th em off as
th e te m p e ra tu re is raised, th e solubility of
hydrogen in solid m etals is sm all. A t th e m elting
p o in t th e re is a considerable increase in solubility,
 an d as th e te m p e ra tu re of th e liq u id m e ta l is
raised th e re is in m ost cases a f u r th e r steady
increase of gas solubility.
C opper, fo r in stan ce, a t 1,500 deg., dissolves
over 1 m illigram m e of h y d ro g en p e r 100 gram m es
(a larg e volum e, a lth o u g h a sm all w eig h t). As
th e te m p e ra tu re falls to th e m eltin g p o in t, th e
solubility of hydrogen slowly decreases. A t th e
m eltin g p o in t th e re is a sud d en drop of solu­
b ility , an d th e n f u r th e r cooling in th e solid
b rin g s ab o u t a co n tin u o u s slig h t fall. I t is th e
sudden change in so lu b ility a t th e m eltin g p o in t,
causing gas to be given off d u rin g solidification,
t h a t gives rise to th e p o rosity due to dissolved
gases. I n nickel th e effect is m ore m ark ed , a n d
th e decrease in th e solubility of h ydrogen a t th e
m eltin g p o in t m uch la rg e r.
In p ractice th e re a re tw o im p o rta n t fa cto rs
affecting th e b eh a v io u r of dissolved gases. One
is th e increase gen erally in so lu b ility of a gas
in a liquid m etal w ith increase of te m p e r a t u r e ;
th e o th e r is t h a t th e solubility of a g as in a
liquid m etal is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e sq u are ro o t
of th e p ressure of t h a t gas in c o n ta c t w ith th e
m etal surface.
W hile th e re m ay be a considerable drop in th e
solubility of th e gas on solidification, th e degree
to w hich th e gas is evolved depends on th e ra te
of cooling. As in alloys, d iffe re n t s tru c tu re s are
o btainable, d ep end in g on th e r a t e of cooling, so
th e re are d iffere n t s ta te s of e q u ilib riu m w ith
re g a rd to th e evo lu tio n o f dissolved gases on
solidification. I f solidification is v e ry slow, th e
gas m ay be evolved com pletely. On th e o th e r
h an d , in a chill-cast m e ta l, th e gas m ay be re ­
ta in e d in solution in th e solid m e ta l, p ro d u cin g
no effect on th e soundness of th e c a stin g .
R e fe rrin g a g a in to F ig . 5, th e g en eral effect of
s a tu ra tin g 5 p e r cen t, tin -b ro n ze w ith h ydrogen
was, in th is case, to double th e po ro sity w here
th e ra te of cooling was ra p id , an d to tre b le o r
q u ad ru p le i t a t th e slow r a t e of cooling occur­
rin g in a dry-san d m ould. (T he in te rm e d ia te
drop in unsoundness w as d u e to o th e r fac to rs
 533

w hich n eed n o t he d e a lt w ith here.) W ith still

slower ra te s of solidification, th e gas is enabled
to escape, and, if co n tin u ed , th e curve would
la te r fall ag ain . F ig . 6 shows th e effect of ra te
of cooling on th e am o u n t of gas evolved in a
series of sm all b a rs of cast copper. I n each case
th e copper was s a tu ra te d w ith hydrogen, and th e
ra te of cooling decreased in successive b a rs from
th e to p dow nw ards. I f th e b a r cooled very
quickly, th e hydrogen was re ta in e d in solution

F ig . 6.—E ffect of R ate of C ooling on the

S oundness of C offer saturated w it h
H ydrogen (A llen ).

in th e copper. As th e ra te of cooling decreased,

th e hydrogen unsoundness increased, h u t here
a g ain th e v ery slow ra te a t which th e hydrogen
would escape, leav in g a sounder in g o t, w as n ot
reached.
Length of Freezing Range and Gas Content
I n th e case of alloys w ith a freezin g ran g e th e
<ras has g re a te r difficulty in escaping. Assum ing,
of course, th a t th e p ipe is still open, an y gas
given off in th e ce n tre of a v e rtic a l colum n of
liquid in a ca stin g can escap e; gas will be en­
tra p p e d only w here a b rid g e is form ed. B u t m
 534

an alloy w ith a freezin g ra n g e w here th e re is a

larg e m ass of p a sty m etal, as solidification p ro ­
ceeds, th e gas is c o n c e n trate d in th e in te r-
d e n d ritic liqu id w hich is th e la s t m a te ria l to
solidify. W hen th e final solidification occurs,
th erefo re, th e re is a considerable increase of gas
evolution a n d th e gas t h a t is evolved in betw een
th e p a rtia lly solid cry stals c a n n o t escape. In
ex trem e cases, such as t h a t of phosphor-bronze,

F ig . 7.— T ypical C urve show ing E q u ili ­

brium R elations between H ydrogen
and Oxygen in the M olten C opper
(A llen and H ew itt ).

w here th e freezin g ra n g e is even lo n g e r th a n in

an o rd in a ry bronze, gas m ay be evolved a t a
te m p e ra tu re of, say, 700 deg ., w hen th e re is still,
th ro u g h o u t a larg e a re a of th e c a stin g , liq u id
m etal betw een th e p rim a ry solid cry stals. S uch
gas evolution inside th e c astin g m ay a c tu a lly
force o u t th e liq u id m eta l th ro u g h a n y chan n els
t h a t are still open to th e su rface, a phenom enon
known as “ t i n sw e a t.” W h erev er ti n sw eat
ap p ears, it is due to in te rn a l gas ev o lu tio n fore-
 535

in g o u t of th e ca stin g th e tin-trich liquid which

is th e la s t of th e m a te ria l to solidify.
So f a r consid eratio n has been given only to a
single gas which dissolves in th e m etal and is
evolved on solidification. B u t th e re are o th e r
causes of gas porosity, such as reactio n betw een
two soluble m ate rials producing an insoluble
com pound on solidification. In th e case of
copper, hydrogen and oxygen are both soluble
in th e liquid and on solidification of copper con­
ta in in g both these gases in solution steam is
form ed, which is insoluble and form s gas holes.
The am ount of hydrogen and oxygen t h a t can
e x is t to g e th e r in solution in m olten copper is
b a la n c e d ; th e one bears a d irect ra tio to th e
o th er. A ctual curves for th e equilib riu m be­
tw een hydrogen and oxygen have been worked
o u t by Allen and are of th e type shown in F ig . 7.
I f th e oxygen c o n te n t of m olten copper is low,
th e n th e hydrogen co n ten t in eq u ilibrium w ith
it w ill be h igh , an d conversely. This m eans th a t
in a gassy copper c o n tain in g a larg e volume of
hydrogen, severe o x id atio n followed by rem oval
of excess oxygen will give m etal m uch fre e r
from gas.
How Gases Originate
Soluble gases find th e ir way in to th e m etal
from a num b er of sources. They m ay be p resen t
in th e raw m a te ria ls; hydrogen, fo r instance, is
p resen t in larg e q u a n titie s in cathode copper in
w hich i t is re ta in e d d u rin g th e actu a l electro­
lysis. Secondly, some gases p resen t in th e fu r­
nace atm osphere such as hydrogen and su lp h u r
dioxide will dissolve in th e m olten m etal if they
are p e rm itte d to come in to co n tact. T hirdly,
th e re m ay be gases in th e fu rn ace atm osphere
which will re a c t w ith th e m olten m etal lib e ra tin g
hydrogen. C hief in im portance in th is category
is steam , w hich will re a ct w ith m any m olten
m etals form in g a n oxide film, which m ay dis­
solve or be slagged off, and hydrogen which goes
in to solution. R eactio n of th e m olten m etal
w ith steam is a very common an d p rev alen t
source of hydrogen pick-up.
 536

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Table I I ta k e n from th e resu lts ob tain ed by

P ro f. H anson an d D r. S la te r d u rin g th e ir re­
search fo r th e B ritish N o n-F errous M etals
R esearch A ssociation, gives some figures for th e
density of alum in iu m and alum inium -alloy cast-
ings which have been tre a te d w ith steam when in
th e fu rn ace, an d illu s tra te s th e very serious

A.—Virgin Aluminium B.—O.P. Exposed out-

(O.P.). Not exposed. doors for 2 months.

F ig . 8 .— E f f e c t of E x p o su re to C o r r o s iv e
C o n d itio n s on S ou n d n ess of A lu m in iu m
SUBSEQUENTLY CAST (H .A N SO N AND S L A T E R ).

d eterio ratio n of th e m etal m elted u n d er these

conditions.
H ydrogen can also be absorbed by solid
alum inium before m elting. P ro f. H an so n and
D r. S la te r have shown t h a t if alum inium is
exposed to corrosive conditions, hydrogen is a c tu ­
ally dissolved in th e solid m etal d u rin g corrosion.
This does n o t m ean t h a t a piece of sound
 538

alu m in iu m exposed to corrosive co n d itio n s be­

comes unsound, b u t t h a t hyd ro g en is dissolved
in th e solid m etal a n d causes p in-holing on sub­
seq u en t re-m elting a n d re-castin g . In th e ex p e ri­
m en ts re fe rre d to, a stock of v irg in alu m in iu m
of u n ifo rm com position, from th e same bulk
supply, was o b tain ed . Some of th is was Im m e­
d ia te ly re-m elted an d re -c a st; th e ca stin g showed
only slig h t p in-ho lin g (see F ig . 8 a ) . A fu r th e r
q u a n tity of th e o rig in a l m a te ria l was exposed o u t
of doors fo r tw o m onths a n d becam e badly
co rro d e d ; w hen re-m elted a n d re-c a st th e re s u lt­
in g c a stin g was v ery u n so u n d (F ig . 8 b ) . The
effect persists if th e corrosion p ro d u c t is rem oved
before re-m elting. How fa r th is re a ctio n occurs
w ith o th e r m etals is n o t know n, b u t zinc ap p e a rs
to behave sim ilarly .

Removal of Dissolved Gases

P assin g to th e rem oval of dissolved gases,
o x id atio n of copper c o n ta in in g hyd ro g en has
alread y been re fe rre d to. The sam e ap p lies to a
c e rta in e x te n t to ti n bronzes from w hich by
su itab le o x id atio n a c e rta in a m o u n t of h ydrogen
can be rem oved. A n o th er m ethod, m ore g e n e r­
ally applicable th o u g h used w ith v a ry in g degrees
of success, is very slow solidification in th e fu r ­
nace. I t has alread y been m en tio n ed t h a t slow
solidification allows dissolved gases to escape
from th e m etal com pletely. I f a m e ta l is th e r e ­
fore allowed to solidify in th e fu rn a c e a n d is
th e n ra p id ly re-m elted a n d re-cast i t w ill have
given u p m uch of its dissolved gas. T h ere are
p ra c tic a l difficulties in th is, in t h a t i t is an
expensive m a tte r to solidify a 600-lb. p o t of
alum inium in th e fu rn a c e a n d re-m elt a n d re-cast
it. B u t th e p rin c ip le is in te re s tin g a n d im ­
p o rta n t.
A n o th er su itab le m ethod is vacuum m eltin g .
Fig. 9 shows some re su lts o b ta in e d in G erm any
by R ohn, who has m elted la rg e c h a rg es of a
nickel-chrom ium alloy (3,500 k g .) in vacuo, and
has rem oved larg e volum es of gas d u rin g th e
a c tu a l m eltin g period in a v acu u m fu rn ac e .
A prom ising m eth o d of e lim in a tin g dissolved
gases, an d one w hich h as been a p p lie d in a
 539

v ariety of ways, is tr e a tm e n t w ith some in e rt

gas, such as n itro g en , chlorine, tita n iu m te t r a ­
chloride, etc. I t has been m entioned t h a t th e
solubility of a gas in a m etal is p ro p o rtio n al to
th e square root of th e gas pressure. If , th e re ­
fore, gases co n ta in in g hydrogen are sw ept off
from th e su rface of a m elt of m etal which con­
ta in s th is gas in solution, hydrogen will pass
o u t of th e m etal in a n a tte m p t to establish
eq u ilib riu m . The co ntinuous rem oval of, or th e

Fig. 9.—Removal of Gases from 3,500-kg.

Charges of Nickel-Chromium A llo t b y
Vacuum Melting (Rohn).

low ering of th e p ressure of, th e soluble gas on

th e su rface of th e m e ta l brin g s o u t th e gas from
solution. A rc h b u tt has done th is by bubbling
n itro g en th ro u g h alu m in iu m ; P ry th e rc h has done
it w ith n itro g e n in copper, an d H an so n and
S la te r have used n itro g e n a n d chlorine in
alum inium .
F ig . 10 shows th e im provem ent effected in
3L11 alloy by tr e a tm e n t w ith m ix tu res of
n itro g en and chlorine, o r w ith chlorine. I n th e
sam e way, R osenhain, G rogan and Schofield have
540
 541

tr e a te d alum iniu m alloys w ith tita n iu m te t r a ­

chloride ; th e bubbling of tita n iu m te tra c h lo rid e
th ro u g h th e m a te ria l in a sim ilar way perm its
th e gases in solution to escape m ore readily.
A p a rt from these m ethods of gas rem oval,
m uch can be done to p re v e n t gas porosity in
alum inium , by avoiding th e use of corroded
alu m in iu m an d by avoiding w a te r vap o u r in th e
fu rn ace atm osphere— e.g., from dam p coke,
fluxes g iving off w a te r, dam p refracto ries, e tc.—
an d by avoiding a h y d ro g en -co n tain in g atm os­
phere. I t has been th e custom to m elt in a
red u cin g atm osphere to avoid oxid atio n , b u t w ith
m any ty p es of m etal i t is now recognised t h a t it
is fa r less h arm fu l to m elt in an oxidising
atm osphere. P hosphor bronze is fa r m ore liable
to 4‘ tin sw eat ” if m elted in a red u cin g th a n in
an oxidising atm osphere.
T he im p ortance of avoiding th e use of dam p
re fra c to rie s has been shown by Z eerlederan,
H an so n and S la te r. F o u r castings were m ade
in new crucibles u sin g th e same -ingot. All
except th e one which was d ried for 16 hours a t
red h e a t showed im perfection. I t is very diffi­
cu lt to dry refra c to rie s com pletely. H e a tin g to
500 or 600 deg. in th e fu rn a c e before p u ttin g in
th e charge is n o t sufficient and several charges
are necessary before th e re fra c to ry is really dry.
Entrapped Gases
T here is little to add ab o u t th e th ir d cause
of porosity, i.e., e n tra p p e d gas, th e causes of
w hich are fa irly obvious. They include bad
design, b ad v en tin g , th e in jectio n of gases w ith
th e stream , e tc .— and th e re is little th a t one can
usefully say on th e sub ject, beyond th e g eneral
s ta te m e n t t h a t too low a castin g te m p e ra tu re
m u st be avoided if e n tra p p e d gases are to be
avoided. Gases are alw ays in jected w ith th e
stream of m etal d u rin g castin g , an d can n o t be
avoided by o rd in a ry to p -p o u rin g m ethods in
w hich th e stream c arries down gases from th e
atm osphere, w h atev er t h a t m ay be. The te m ­
p e ra tu re m u st be sufficiently high to enable such
 5 4 2

larg e bubbles of gas to escape before th e

m a te ria l solidifies.
An a tte m p t has been m ade to review th e m ain
causes of porosity in n o n -ferro u s m e ta l castin g s
from a g en eral p o in t of view, an d th e ap p lica­
tio n of th is g en eral know ledge can only be le ft
to p a rtic u la r cases to th e in d iv id u a l fou n d ry m en
directly concerned.
 543

Scottish Branch (Falkirk Section)

LIGHT CASTINGS FOR ENAMELLING

By H. B. McNair (Associate Member)

I n d ealing with, th e su b ject of lig h t castings
fo r enam elling, it is n o t in te n d e d , in th is P a p e r,
to develop th e m eta llu rg ic a l aspect too g reatly ,
b u t to t r e a t th e problem as i t applies to th e
p ra c tic a l fo u n d ry m an . I n so f a r as th e la tte r is
concerned, he is re q u ire d to produce castings
w hich will a t least have the following pro p er­
t i e s : — F reedom from d isto rtio n or breakage
d u rin g th e enam ellin g process, a n d freedom from
surface defects o r inclusions likely to in te rfe re
w ith th e a p p licatio n of th e enam el o r th e p ro p er­
tie s of th e finished p ro d u ct.
T he first of these p ro p ertie s, i.e., th e ab ility of
th e m a te ria l to w ith sta n d physical changes
d u rin g en am ellin g, is p a rtly a question of design
an d p a rtly one of s tre n g th of m ate ria l. I t is n o t
in ten d ed to discuss th e design of castin g s for
th is purpose, as th e su b ject m e rits a fu ller tr e a t­
m e n t th a n can be a tte m p te d here, b u t to confine
th e issue to those facto rs u n d e r th e co ntrol of
th e cupola an d th e m oulding shop. W hen th e
su rface of a castin g , from a green-sand m ould,
is sand blasted previous to enam elling, a n um ber
of sm all holes an d dark-coloured patches m ay be
laid open, usu ally in th e v icin ity of ru n n e rs and
g ates. These inclusions can o ften be scraped
o u t, leaving rough depressions in th e surface,
w hich m u st be filled in w ith some compound
before th e enam el can be applied. In ad d itio n
to th is, th e castin g m ay fra c tu re d u rin g th e
a n n ealin g o r su b seq u en t tre a tfh e n t, although
analysis, design a n d o th e r facto rs m ay a p p e a r
q u ite norm al.
In tr a c in g th e probable cause of these defects,
it is fo u n d t h a t w hen m olten m e ta l e n te rs a
m ould, im p u ritie s from a t least th re e d istin c t
sources im m ediately begin to accu m u late.
F irstly , th e b e a t an d flow of th e iro n cause a
c e rta in a m o u n t of erosion of th e m ould, a n d th e
d ir t so form ed will n a tu ra lly rise to th e u p p e r
surface of th e m etal, accu m u late an d fo rm a
d irty p a tc h on th e surface. Secondly, th e m eta l
g en erates steam from th e m o istu re in th e facin g
sand, re su ltin g in a su rface o x id a tio n accom­
pan ied by a lib e ra tio n of hydrogen, th e la t te r
escaping th ro u g h th e v en ts of th e m ould along
w ith th e o th er gaseous p ro d u cts. I f such o x id a­
tio n does ta k e place to an y m ark ed degree, th e
resu lt will be a scale sim ila r to t h a t form ed on
w rought iron in a sm ith shop. The th ird source
of tro u b le is associated w ith th e m e tal itself, an d
m ay be caused by im p u ritie s in th e m a te ria ls
charged, o x id atio n d u rin g m eltin g w ith th e fo r­
m atio n of com plex oxides, a n d by slag m echanic­
ally re ta in e d by th e m etal. These th re e , th e n ,
are th e m ain sources of tro u b le, an d no m a tte r
how carefu l th e m oulder m ay be, d ir t w ill alw ays
accum ulate from th e m m ore o r less.
Cupola Control and M aterials Used
i n m ak in g a selection of raw m a te ria ls fo r th e
cupola m elt, relian ce is u su ally placed upon
analyses e ith e r d eterm in ed in th e la b o ra to ry o r
ta k e n in good fa ith from th e su p p liers. In th e
case of pig-iron, a p a r t from th e c o n stitu e n ts
alread y m entioned, th e re a re im p u ritie s p re se n t
to a g re a te r or less degree w hich m ay d e trim e n t­
ally affect th e re s u lta n t c a stin g . These are
generally in th e form of complex oxides, a n d can
be recognised u n d e r th e m icroscope a t low m ag ­
nification. The p ra c tic a l fo u n d ry m an will ag ree
th a t th e re a re such irons, sound as re g a rd s
analysis, t h a t a re m echanically w eak a n d b rittle ,
and are to be re g a rd e d w ith suspicion. T his
weakness is undo u b ted ly due to th e im p u ritie s
m entioned, an d will be fo u n d difficult to e ra d i­
cate, th e u su al m ethod bein g to “ d ilu te ” th e
im p u rities by th e a d d itio n of a p ig -iro n of
su p erio r q u ality .
The o rd in a ry m ethod of cupola flu x in g by cal­
cium carb o n ate (lim estone) o r calcium fluoride
 545

(flux) has little o r no effect on th e rem oval of

such im p u rities, and a deoxidiser m u st be em­
ployed e ith e r in th e cupola itself or in th e bogies.
There a re a n u m b er of such deoxidisers on th e
m a rk e t, such as ferro-m anganese, carbon-free
m anganese, fe rro -tita n iu m , ferro-chrom e, etc.
R ed u ctio n by m anganese o r its alloys w ith iron
is th e m ost p o p u lar m ethod, how ever, an d a cer­
ta in am o u n t of success can be expected if th e
procedure is ca rrie d o u t correctly. The best
resu lts will usu ally be ob tain ed by ad d itio n s of
carbon-free m anganese in b riq u e tte form to th e
bogie, as th e affinity of m anganese for oxygen
and su lp h u r is so g re a t t h a t cupola ad d itio n s are
a p t to re s u lt in a heavy loss of th e m anganese
before th e la t te r can effect an y deoxidation of
th e m etal. D efinite im provem ent can be
obtain ed , how ever, by ad d itio n s to th e m etal in
th e bogie, an d if p ro p erly c a rrie d o u t, im proved
physical p ro p ertie s will re su lt. W hen using m an­
ganese in th is form , it is generally claim ed th a t,
as only 0.20 p e r cen t, to 0.40 p er cent, m anganese
is req u ired to deoxidise th e m etal, any excess
m anganese will pass in to th e m etal, and have a
refining actio n upon it. These claims a p p ea r to
be borne o u t in p ractice to a c e rta in e x te n t, th e
ten sile an d tran sv e rse stre n g th s being increased
by am ounts up to ab o u t 10 p e r cent. W hen ferro ­
m anganese or spiegeleisen is used, however, th ere
is a d a n g e r of th e m anganese being to ta lly taken
u p by th e iro n w ith very little scavenging or
red u ctio n of th e oxides. The m anganese here is
in th e form of a double carbide of iron and m an­
ganese, an d before th e m anganese is free to effect
any red u ctio n th is double carb id e m u st be broken
down. The breakdow n ta k e s place com paratively
slowly, an d only a t fa irly h ig h te m p e ra tu re s, so
t h a t unless these facto rs are in its fav o u r, most
of th e m anganese will find its w ay into th e m etal
w ith o u t any reactio n upon th e oxides, and will
probably re s u lt in a loss of flu id ity and chilled
castings. B riefly, th e n , th e m echanical stre n g th
can be definitely im proved by d eoxidation, b u t
p referab ly by free m anganese ad d itio n to th e
T
 546

bogie. The d an g ers of u sin g d irty , ru s ty , or very

lig h t scrap in th e cupola need h ard ly be stressed
here, as th is p o in t has been labo u red re p eated ly
in technical jo u rn a ls. Such p ra c tic e will u sually
produce an iron m echanically w eak, fo r th e
reasons alread y s ta te d , a n d d e o x id atio n by some
m ethod m u st be reso rted to.
A f u r th e r source of oxide inclusion in th e
m etal is in th e b last con d itio n . I t is in d isp u t­
able t h a t a low b la st p ressu re, in co n ju n c tio n
w ith th e p ro p e r volum e of a ir, w hich is m ore
im p o rta n t, will give good resu lts, b u t i t is o fte n
im possible—especially w hen fa n speed, b la s t m ain
size a n d tu y e re a re a s a re fixed—to d eliv er th e
necessary w eight of a ir p er m in u te to g ive th e
h o tte st an d m ost efficient m eltin g . I f a n in ­
crease in fa n speed is possible a n d is a tte m p te d
in an effort to increase th e m e ltin g r a te an d
m etal te m p e ra tu re , th e n in all p ro b a b ility o x id a­
tio n of th e m etal will occur. A g ain , a dense coke
or one w ith a poor co m b u stib ility w ill te n d to
give a slower com bustion, an d th e re fo re a low er
m eltin g ra te , an d i t follows, if th e com bustion
is slower th a n u su al, a n d if th e sam e volum e of
a ir is passing th ro u g h th e cupola, th e r e m u st be
an excess of a ir o r oxygen over th e re q u ired
am o u n t, an d th is w ill re a d ily cause o x id a tio n of
th e m etal. I f , th e re fo re , fa s t a n d efficient m elt­
in g conditions a re desired, th e co m b u stib ility of
th e coke should be as h ig h as possible, a n d if in
a d d itio n o x id atio n is to be avoided, th e a ir con­
d itio n , both volum e a n d p ressu re, should be
a d ju s te d accordingly.
Cupola Cokes
G enerally, in fo u n d ry p ra ctic e , th e q u estio n of
ash and su lp h u r c o n te n ts of coke is a secondary
co n sideration, m o re a tte n tio n b ein g p a id to
calorific value an d com b u stib ility , i.e ., th e pos­
sible m eltin g ra te a tta in a b le . B u t a c tu a lly th e
ash, and th e re fo re th e su lp h u r c o n te n t, of th e
coke is extrem ely im p o rta n t in view of th e pos­
sible su lp h u r pick-up. I t has been show n by
e x p erim en t t h a t p ractica lly all th e su lp h u r
originally p re se n t in th e ch arg ed m e ta l is re­
ta in e d in th e re-m elted iro n , w hile fro m 30 p er
 547

cent, to 50- p e r cen t, of th e su lp h u r in th e coke

is picked up by th e charge. The am o u n t of sul­
p h u r picked up ap p ears to depend on a t least
th re e facto rs, nam ely, (1) th e p ercen tag e of sul­
p h u r alread y p resen t in th e m e ta l; (2) th e p er­
centage of su lp h u r in th e coke- and (3) th e tem ­
p e ra tu re of th e m olten m etal, a n d slag. The
first tw o facto rs are closely rela te d , so th a t th e re
is no ad v a n ta g e in s ta rtin g off w ith a low -sulphur
charge if th e coke has a high su lp h u r con ten t,
as th e re s u lta n t m elt will probably be h ig h in
su lp h u r. V ery little of a definite n a tu re has
been done on th e cupola in th e ex am in atio n of
th e su lp h u r pick-up w ith v aria tio n s in ash and

F ig . 1 .— S u l p h u r I ncrease in P ig - ir o n
RE LA TED TO A S H IN CO K E,
su lp h u r conten ts in th e coke, b u t some work has
been done on th e ir effects on b last-fu rn ace w ork­
ing, an d an ex a m in a tio n of th e resu lts m ig h t be
in te re stin g . In a published re p o rt by C. S.
Gill, he gives a com parison betw een ash c o n ten t
of th e coke charged an d th e average su lp h u r in
th e re s u lta n t p ig-iron. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e sul­
p h u r con ten ts of th e cokes are n o t included, b u t
it is assum ed th ey were proportio n al to th e ash
contents. H e took hourly analyses of coke and
pig-iron over a period of 29 hours, and his re-
s n l+ ,s c r r n n V i^ r l n r^ » c lin w n in T ^ ig . 1 . t 2
 548

P ersonal observations on th e cupola te n d to

show t h a t th e “ pick-up ” in th e m elt rise s v ery
sharply when th e ash an d th e su lp h u r in th e coke
rise com paratively slightly. The th ir d fa c to r,
i.e ., th e m etal te m p e ra tu re , has a d efinite b e a r­
ing on th e su lp h u r c o n te n t of th e m elt by v irtu e
of th e increase in solubility in th e iro n of th e
m etallic sulphides, w ith increase in te m p e ra tu re .

Limestone Fluxing
In tu r n in g to th e q u estio n of elim in a tio n of
su lp h u r from th e m elt, th e re a re tw o m ethods
open to th e fo u n d ry m an . The first m ethod is
lim estone fluxing. The a d d itio n of lim esto n e to
th e cupola charg e by a b o u t 25 p e r c e n t, of th e
coke w eight will re s u lt in a lim e c o n te n t in th e
slag of ab o u t 30 p e r c e n t., a t w hich p o in t th e
m axim um am o u n t of d e su lp h u risa tio n is su p ­
posed to have been reach ed , th e slag c o n ta in in g
ab o u t 0.8 p er cen t, su lp h u r. The a d d itio n of
fluorspar (calcium fluoride) will pro d u ce a m ore
fluid slag, b u t th e re d u c tio n of s u lp h u r is
affected very little . I t is re g ard e d as c e rta in ,
how ever, t h a t a fluid lim e slag is a b e tte r de­
su lp h u risin g a g e n t th a n a viscous one. These
tw o conditions will probably a rise in th e shallow
well an d in th e deep-well cupolas. I n th e la t te r ,
w here th e slag is considerably below th e fusion
zone, its te m p e ra tu re falls, a n d i t becomes vis­
cous and loses its d esu lp h u risin g p ro p e rtie s. As
m entioned previously, i t is only th e su lp h u r in
th e coke w hich is affected, th e lim estone a d d i­
tio n ap p e a rin g to h ave no effect on th e su lp h u r
in th e charged m etal.
The second m ethod of d e su lp h u risa tio n e n ta ils
th e use of high-m anganese pig in th e ch a rg e or
th e use of free m anganese o r m an g an ese alloys,
as m entioned previously, fo r th e re d u c tio n of
oxides. I n th is case, how ever, i t is b e st t h a t
th e reactions ta k e place in th e cupola, as they
depend on th e w ell-known law t h a t “ th e ra tio
of th e F e S : M nS in th e slag to th e F e S : M nS in
th e m etal is a c o n s ta n t.” T h erefo re, if th e
su lp h u r in th e m etal te n d s to rise, p a r t of it
will pass in to th e slag to m a in ta in th e c o n sta n t,
 549

provided th e slag is reasonably rich in M nO and

FeO . T his is probably w hat occurs, especially
w hen free Mia is added to th e charge, as, allow­
ing for th e m axim um of 0.40 p er cent. M n re­
q u ired fo r d eo xidatio n , th e excess of M n added
does n o t seem to re a p p e a r wholly in th e m etal,
b u t is probably oxidised an d e n te rs th e slag
c ith e r as M nS o r MnO. Over a considerable
num ber of te s ts th e h ig h e st p ercen tag e of M n
recovered was app ro x im ately only 10 p er cent,
of t h a t added in th e free sta te to th e charge.
The cost of th is m ethod is a little high, and th e

K = (MN x S)
F ig . 2 .— S h o w in g I n f l u e n c e o r T e m f e b a t u b e
on S u l ph u r -M an gan ese C o n ten t.

resu lts are a p t to v ary considerably, p a rt of th e

d esu lp h u risin g effect being probably n egatived
by a f u r th e r “ pick-up ” due to superh eated
m etal. T his will te n d to occur d u rin g th e first
ho u r of th e m elt, when conditions a re in favour
of hot an d fa s t m eltin g , re su ltin g in an increased
solubility of su lp h id e s-in both slag and m etal.
The g ra p h (F ig . 2) shows th e solubility of K
(M n X S) a g a in s t te m p e ra tu re .
The g ra p h will ex p lain m any of th e c a s t i n g
losses due to d ir ty surfaces, an d holes l y i n g j u s t
u n d e r th e skin. E x a m in a tio n of m any of t h e s e
defective castings h as shown th e su lp h u r concen­
tr a tio n a t th e su rface to be o ften as high as th ree
 550
tim es th e su lp h u r in th e c a stin g (th e lower
p a rt), an d in n early every case th e m eta l h a d
been ta p p e d very h o t a n d h ad been d raw n some
considerable distan ce aw ay, th e drop in te m p e ra ­
tu r e due to th e tim e fa c to r allow ing th e sulphide
to be throw n o u t of solu tio n , cau sin g seg reg atio n .
In a P ap er* on “ The E lim in a tio n of
S u lp h u r from I r o n ,” m en tio n is m ade of
th is decrease in solubility, w ith decrease in te m ­
p e ra tu re , as a m eans of su lp h u r re d u c tio n , b u t
it can only ap p ly when th e m e ta l is in c o n ta c t
w ith slag an d when th e fa ll in te m p e ra tu re w ill
n o t affect th e flu id ity of th e m etal. I n steel-
m ak in g it is claim ed t h a t by th is m ethod, if th e
m anganese c o n te n t an d th e te m p e ra tu re a re
correct, 75 p e r cen t, of th e to ta l su lp h u r can be
rem oved.
Soda Ash Treatm ent
Of late, th e re has been an in c re a sin g ten d en c y
am ongst iro n fo u n d ers to w ard s th e use of soda-ash
fo r d esu lp h u risa tio n of th e m elt, u su a lly in th e
bogies. The reactio n s can be set down sim ply as
a decom position of th e sodium c a rb o n a te in to
sodium -oxide an d carbon dioxide. T he fo rm er
u n ite s w ith th e slag p artic le s a n d iro n oxide an d
sulphide inclusions, fo rm in g a v ery m obile slag
of low d en sity w hich rises th ro u g h th e m e ta l,
an d ac tin g as a cleanser, absorbs some of th e
su lp h u r p resen t. The carbonic-acid gas, b u bb lin g
up th ro u g h th e m etal, w ill assist in th e lib e ra ­
tio n of occluded gases an d im p u ritie s of low d en ­
sity , which m ay be m echanically tra p p e d in th e
m etal. I t is claim ed th a t, by th e a d d itio n of
from | p er cen t, to 1 p e r cen t, of soda-ash, up
to 50 p e r cent, of th e su lp h u r p re se n t can be re ­
moved from th e m etal. I t is e ssen tial, how ever,
th a t clean bogies be used, i.e., bogies fre e from
cupola slag, as th e presence of silicates w ill re ­
su lt in a re su lp h u risa tio n of th e m eta l. F o r
th is reason, soda-ash c an n o t be used as a cupola
ad d itio n . I n p ractice, th e tim e re q u ire d fo r th e
o p eratio n is a definite h an d ica p , an d th e rem oval
of th e la s t tra c e s of th e “ soda ” slag is diffi­
cult. The resu lts to be ex p ected a re lim ite d to
* Foundry Trade Jo u rn al, Vol. 40, No. 760
 551

a p a rtia l a n d v ariab le d esu lp h u risatio n , no a p p re ­

ciable im provem ent in m echanical p ro p ertie s
having been personally n o ted , a lth o u g h th e re de­
finitely is a reductio n in th e p ittin g o r m ark in g
of th e su rface of castin g s w here these are due to
sulphur.

In passing from d esu lp h u risatio n , it m ig h t be

advisable to m en tio n th e g en eral a ttitu d e of
several a u th o ritie s on th is question. They m a in ­
ta in th a t, “ if th e m anganese be k e p t a t a su it­
able figure, th e re does mot a p p e a r in th e o rd in ary
way to be any necessity fo r d esulphurising, p a r­
tic u la rly if cupola conditions are good and
ad eq u ate lim estone ad d itio n s are m ade to th e
c h a rg e .” The la tte r sta te m e n t, i.e ., “ if cupola
conditions are good,” req u ires a little ex p lan a­
tio n , fo r if h o t m etal, and th erefo re h o t slag,
are being ob tain ed , th e solubility of both these
fo r su lp h u r will te n d tow ards a m axim um . The
m anganese co n te n t, which is sta te d to balance
th e su lp h u r, is calculated a t 1.7, m u ltip lied by
th e su lp h u r co n te n t, plus 0.3 p er cent, m an ­
ganese. I n th is ra tio th e su lp h u r is said to ex ist
as m anganese sulphide, and th e iron is a t its
so ftest w ith respect to these two elem ents. W hile
th is ru le will generally hold good, it is liable to
be u p se t by o th e r facto rs. An instance which
m ig h t be m entioned, amd w ith which m ost
foundrym en a re probably fa m ilia r, is th e form a­
tio n on th e surface of castings of w h at is know n
as “ sh a g re e n .” This ta k e s th e form of small
pellet-like extru sio n s, u su ally in clusters on a
flat surface, which a re extrem ely difficult to
rem ove by fe ttlin g . On carefu l rem oval and
e x am in atio n , these pellets m ay be found to con­
ta in ab o u t 30 p er cent, su lp h u r and th e balance
iron, a p p ro x im atin g to th e iron-iron-sulphide
eu tec tic, w hich co n tain s 85 p e r cent, iro n sul­
phide an d 15 per cent, iron and which has th e
v ery low m eltin g p o in t of 980 deg. C. I f su lp h u r
p rin ts a re ta k e n of th e c astin g in th e im m ediate
n eighbourhood of these e x tru sio n s, su lp h u r segre­
g a tio n will be found to have ta k e n place. The
 552

castings will be h a rd , an d will in g e n e ra l be

m echanically weak. Y et in n early every case
which has been noticed th e m anganese w as in
excess of t h a t req u ired for sta b ilisa tio n of th e
su lp h u r. I n one case th e su lp h u r was 0.07 p er
cent, (average) an d th e m anganese 0.82 p e r c e n t.,
a ra tio in w hich th e su lp h u r should h ave e x isted
as m anganese sulphide, an d as th is h as a v ery
high m eltin g p o in t (1,610 deg. C.), no e x tru sio n
should have occurred, b u t th e seg reg atio n and
th ro w in g o u t of iro n sulphide seem ed to c o n tra ­
d ic t th is gen eral ru le. The re m ain in g consti­
tu e n ts w ere m ore o r less in accordance w ith th e
usual p ractice.

Moulding Sands and Facings

A ssum ing t h a t a good sound iron, relativ ely
free from im p u ritie s, is available, th e r e rem ain s
th e equally im p o rta n t q uestion of th e s u ita b ility
of th e m oulding m a te ria ls, or, w h a t is still m ore
im p o rta n t, th e facin g m a te ria l of th e m ould.
The chief p ro p e rtie s re q u ire d of a g reen -sand
mould come u n d e r th re e h e a d in g s : P e rm e a b ility ,
S tre n g th an d R efracto rin ess. The re fra c to rin e ss
of a sand, i.e., its ab ility to re sist th e co n d itio n s
of red u ctio n and fusion w hich exists in th e m ould
w hen cast, is controlled by th e am o u n t and
n a tu r e of c e rta in c o n stitu e n ts of th e san d , such
as clay (h y d rate d alu m in iu m silicate), felsp ar
(alkali alum iniu m silicate) an d o th e r m in erals.
These m ay be very fusible a n d m ay te n d to low er
th e refracto rin ess of th e sand, cau sin g “ b u rn in g
o n .” This p ro p e rty of th e san d , how ever, is
rarely of v ita l im p o rtan ce in g rey -iro n p rac tic e ,
as tro u b le from th is source is in fre q u e n t, so t h a t
th e m ain p o in ts to be considered a re p e rm e ab ility
an d s tre n g th .
P erm eab ility is defined as th e p ro p e rty of a
m a te ria l for allow ing th e passage of gases
th ro u g h it, an d if th e co n d itio n s w hich e x is t
w ith in th e m ould when c a st are bo rn e in m ind,
th e d esirab ility for a fa irly h ig h d eg ree of p e r­
m eability will be u n d ersto o d . W ith p robably
5 per cent, to 10 p er cen t, m o istu re a n d u p to
 553

‘20 p er cent, coal d u st in th e sand, th e re w ill be

a fa irly ra p id g en eratio n of steam and gas when
th e liquid m etal fills th e m ould. One volume of
w ater a t o rd in a ry te m p e ra tu re becomes about
2,800 volum es of steam a t 1,200 deg. C., and th is,
if escape is n o t easy an d ra p id , will, in con­
ju n c tio n w ith th e gases from th e binders, cause
a back p ressu re in th e m ould resu ltin g in fa u lty
surfaces an d blowholes. The stre n g th of th e sand
is its p ro p e rty for re ta in in g its shape and r e s is t
ing a b reak down when th e pressure an d flow
of th e m olten m etal act upon it, an d th is p ro p erty
a n d th e perm eab ility are governed by m ore or
less th e sam e factors. These a re : -—The size and
shape of th e p a rtic le s; th e am o u n t and d is trib u ­
tio n of th e bonding m a te ria l p re s e n t; th e
m o istu re c o n te n t; an d th e a p p a re n t density of
th e m ould, i.e ., th e am o u n t of ram m ing to which
th e sand has to be subjected. The m echanical
analysis of a ty p ica l san d shows t h a t i t contains
tw o m ain c o n stitu e n ts. The first of these, form ­
in g 80 p er cent, an d m ore of th e to ta l w eight,
is composed of sh arp sand, i.e ., g ra in s of silica
or q u a rtz , w hich have no stre n g th in them selves
an d d epend on th e second c o n stitu e n t for bond.
This second c o n stitu e n t can be term ed clay,
an d e x ists norm ally as a h y d ra te d alum inium
silicate. V ary in g am ounts of o th er m aterials are
also p resen t, an d of these m ig h t be m entioned
h y d ra te d iron oxide, which m ay be p resen t in
am ounts up to 4 p er cen t. F a r from being re­
gard ed as a h a rm fu l c o n stitu e n t, it is found
th a t sands which c o n tain proportions of th is
oxide will usually have a longer life th a n those
w ith o u t it. This is due to th e ab ility of th e
oxide to absorb w a te r an d reform th e h y d rated
oxide, th ereb y m a in ta in in g th e bond or stre n g th
of th e sand. The clay bond has n o t th is pro­
p erty of re v e rtin g to th e h y d ra te d sta te on th e
a d d itio n of w ater, so t h a t if th e stre n g th of th e
sand depends p rin cip ally upon it, th e re will he a
g ra d u a l w eakening of th e m a te ria l, an d i t will
be found necessary to stre n g th e n i t by th e ad d i­
tio n of new sand. S ince th e stre n g th of th e sand
depends on th e clay bond, i t w ill th e re fo re vary
 554

as th e proportion of th e clay v aries, a n d as th e

clay is stro n g e r in th e h y d ra te d sta te , i t follows
t h a t in d irectly th e stre n g th of a san d w ill v ary
according to th e am o u n t of m o istu re p resen t.
This s ta te m e n t is gen erally c o rrect up to a c er­
ta in m oisture co n te n t a n d will be m en tio n ed
la te r.
These sta te m e n ts assum e t h a t o th e r fa c to rs do
not adversely affect th e m a te ria l, e.g., th e size
of th e q u a rtz g ra in s which, th eo retically , should
be uniform , a n d th e d istrib u tio n of th e clay bond
a ro u n d th e p articles. I t has been shown (in a

l-t IS 1-6 1-7 IS

A p p a r e n t D e n s it y

F ig . 3 .— I n f l u e n c e of M il l in g on the

P r o p e r t ie s of Sand.

P a p e r on “ S and T e s tin g ” by W . Y. B u c h a n a n —
P roceedings of th e I.B .F ., 1931-32) t h a t th e r e is
a m ark ed increase in th e s tre n g th an d p erm e­
ab ility of a sand when i t is p ro p erly m illed.
F ig . 3 shows th e stre n g th of th e san d in lb s ./
sq. in. a g a in st a p p a re n t d en sity , a n d i t c an be
seen t h a t a fte r 10 m in u te s’ m illin g an in crease of
ab o u t 50 p er cen t, in th e s tre n g th w as o b ta in e d .
The perm eability of th e san d was also increased
by ab o u t 30 p e r cen t, a f te r th e 10 m in u te s’ m ill­
ing. A ssum ing, th e n , t h a t th e san d is well
milled, its s tre n g th a p p e a rs to dep en d on th e
apparent- density of th e m ould a n d th e m o istu re
 555

co n ten t, an d i t will be fo u n d t h a t upon these

fa cto rs also depends th e perm eability. F o r a
com parison of th e stre n g th s an d p erm eabilities
of sand w ith v ary in g densities and m oisture con­
te n ts , several in stru m e n ts or a p p a ra tu s have
been devised, b u t as y et no common ground of
ag reem en t has been reached. A y e a r or tw o
ago th e B ritish C ast Iro n R esearch A ssociation
gave d etails of a san d -testin g equip m en t (m odi­
fied since th e n ), which, th o u g h severely criticised,
m akes definite advan cem en t tow ards th e problem
of san d control in th e foundry. The eq u ip m en t
re fe rre d to consists, am ong o th er th in g s, of a
com pression te s te r fo r th e d eterm in atio n of th e
s tre n g th of a sand u n d er d ire ct crushing load,
and a perm eability in s tru m e n t for d eterm in in g
th is p ro p erty . M ore especially in th e case of th e
com pression a p p a ra tu s are objections raised,
m ainly to th e size of th e test-piece (which is
2 j in. by 1 sq. in..) an d to th e irre g u la rity of
th e ram m ing obtain ed by h an d . M odifications
have been trie d a n d b e tte r resu lts are claim ed
by len g th en in g th e corebox and using a definite
w eigh t of sand fo r each density required, th e
core being form ed by com pression to th e usual
size by m eans of th e steady dow nw ard pressure
of a rod of equal d ia m ete r to th e core, th e pres­
su re being applied m echanically. The perm e­
ab ility te s t consists in ram m ing a cylinder of
800-c.c. capacity, d ete rm in in g th e a p p a re n t den­
sity by w eighing, an d passing coal gas a t a reg u ­
la te d p ressure u pw ard s th ro u g h th e cylinder, and
n o tin g th e tim e req u ired fo r th e ig n itio n of th e
gas a t th e u p p e r end of th e cylinder. To ob tain
some idea of th e conditions u n d e r which m ax i­
m um stre n g th an d perm eab ility are obtained,
a series of test-pieces are ram m ed to various den­
sities b u t a t a c o n sta n t m oisture co n ten t. The
re su lts are o b tain ed an d p lo tted graphically.
The m o istu re co n te n t of th e sand is th e n altered
an d th e o p erations re p ea ted , u n til a series of
curves a re obtain ed c o rre la tin g a p p a re n t density,
m oisture co n ten t, stre n g th an d perm eability.
G enerally, th e resu lts of such te sts show t h a t up
to a c e rta in p o in t th e h a rd e r a san d is ram m ed
th e stro n g er i t will become, b u t a fte r th is p o in t
 556

th e stre n g th will be reduced due to th e d e stru c ­

tio n of th e clay bond ro u n d th e g rain s.
The perm eability will g en erally dro p as th e
a p p a re n t density rises, fo r th e sam e reason as
before, i.e ., a filling-up of th e in te r-g ra in spaces
by th e clay bond. I t w ill he fo u n d difficult to
directly com pare th e resu lts of te sts of d ifferen t
sands because of th e difference in a p p a re n t
den sity when ram m ed u n d e r th e sam e applied
load or pressure. One san d , when its stre n g th
is plotted a g a in st a p p a re n t d en sity , m ay a p p e a r

F i g . 4 .— I n t e r r e l a t io n s h ip or C o m p r e ss io n
S trength, P e r m e a b il it y and A pparent
D e n s it y .

to give b e tte r resu lts th a n an o th er, when actu a lly

th ey m ay n o t be q u ite so good. The g ra p h s
(F ig. 4) m ay illu s tra te th is p oint.
From th e curves in F ig . 4 i t w ould a p p e a r
t h a t san d “ E ” is su p erio r as reg a rd s stre n g th
to e ith e r “ Y ” or “ M .” I t was found by tr ia l,
how ever, t h a t fo r sim ilar ram m in g stre n g th s,
th e a p p a re n t densities of “ E ,” “ Y ” and
“ M ” were respectively 1.42, 1.58 a n d 1.66.
These are ap p ro x im ate figures, being th e m ean
of several test-pieces ram m ed by h a n d w ith as
n e a r as possible th e sam e stre n g th . I f th e
stre n g th s are now com pared a g a in st equal ra m ­
m ing stre n g th s, “ E ” is seen to fa ll slightly
below both “ Y ” an d “ M ,” an d a glance a t th e
perm eability curves f u r th e r stre n g th e n s th e
opinion t h a t if a com parison of sands is to be
a tte m p te d , i t would be m ore p ra c tic a l to plot
ram m ing stre n g th s a g a in s t com pression and
perm eability. In th e perm eab ility curves th e
b alance a t first a p p e a rs to be heavily ag a in st
san d “ E ,” b u t if ram m in g stre n g th s are ag ain
considered th e difference is reduced to a m arked
degree. I t will be noticed t h a t th e g rap h s are
p lo tted w ith sands co n ta in in g a definite mois­
tu r e p ercentage. I t was sta te d in a P a p e r on
“ S ands an d S a n d -testin g ” by D r. Skerl, in
th e I n s titu te of B ritish F ou n d ry m en Proceedings
fo r 1930-31, t h a t “ th e sand has little or no
s tre n g th w ith only sm all am ounts of w ater, b u t
by in creasin g th e m o istu re c o n te n t th e stre n g th
is in creased u n til a percen tag e is reached a t
w hich th e sand is stro n g est. F u rth e r ad d itio n
of w a te r re su lts in a decrease in th e stre n g th of
th e s a n d .” I n a la te r P a p e r by W . Y. B uchanan
i t was s ta te d t h a t th e la tte r p a r t of th e s ta te ­
m e n t w as h a rd ly correct. H e showed from a
series of curves ob tain ed w ith d ifferent m o istu re
c o n ten ts, t h a t on c alc u latin g th e d ensities to a
s ta n d a rd m oistu re c o n ten t (he m entioned 5 per
cent, m oisture) th e differences in stre n g th dis­
a p p e a r an d th e curves alm ost coincide. R esu lts
show th is to be fa irly correct, th e re being a rap id
increase in s tre n g th up to a c e rta in m oisture
c o n te n t above w hich th e re ap p ears to be little
increase or decrease in stre n g th u n til a H 20
c o n te n t is reached which destroys th e p lasticity
of th e sand. T he m o istu re c o n ten t a t which th is
m axim um s tre n g th is o b tain ed will, as sta te d
before, v a ry w ith th e am o u n t of bonding m a te ­
ria l p resen t. I n F ig . 5 th e curves show th e com­
pression stre n g th of “ M ” san d fo r various
m o istu re conten ts, a n d illu s tra te th e above ex­
p la n a tio n of th e a p p a re n t drop in stre n g th w ith
increased m o istu re above th a t req u ired for
m axim um stre n g th .
 The resu lts of th e p e rm eab ility te s ts c a n n o t
be ex p lained in th e above m a n n e r, th e perm e­
ab ility of alm ost every san d in cre a sin g w ith an
increase in m o istu re co n te n t considerably above
th e optim um req u ire d for m ax im u m s tre n g th ,
even when allowance was m ade fo r th e increase
in a p p a re n t den sity due to th e a d d itio n a l m ois­
tu re . F rom th e com pression curves, how ever,
th e m axim um stre n g th is seen to be o b tain ed
w ith a m oisture c o n te n t of a b o u t 4.8 p er c e n t.,
an d h ig h er m oistures a p p e a r to low er th e
s tre n g th , b u t if th e densities are ^calculated back
to a 4.8 p er cent, basis i t will be fo u n d t h a t th e
curves alm ost coincide. The e x a m in a tio n of
several types of sand shows re su lts all te n d in g to

A pp a r en t Df n o tv

F i g . 5 .— I n f l u e n c e of M o is t u r e C ontent
on A p p a r e n t D e n s it y a n d C o m p r e ss io n
Strength.

su p p o rt th e belief t h a t th e re is a n o p tim u m mois­

tu re c o n te n t a t w hich th e san d is stro n g est, a n d
t h a t increase in m oistu re above th is a n d up to a
c e rta in p o in t, h as little effect on th e s tre n g th of
th e sand.
Coal Dust
As i t is custom ary to m ake a d d itio n s of coal
dust, rock sand or o th e r “ b in d ers ” to th e facin g
sand, an ex am in atio n of th e ir effects on s tre n g th
and perm eability should be considered, especially
in view of th e d iv ersity of opinion re g a rd in g
th e ir functions. By in creasin g ad d itio n s of rock
sand up to 10 p er cent, a slig h t in crease in
 559

stre n g th was shown w ith little o r no difference

in th e perm eability. A dditio n s of coal d n st, how­
ever, in am o u n ts u p to 10 p e r'c e n t., gave resu lts
which m ig h t ag ain give rise to confusion, th ere
a p p e a rin g to be a steady increase in stre n g th as
th e coal-dust ad d itio n s w ere increased.
F ig . 6 shows curves of “ M ” sand w ith and
w ith o u t coal d u st a t th e m o istu re co n ten ts a t
w hich th e y w ere stro n g est. I f allowance is made
as before fo r th e difference in a p p a re n t density
due to th e b ig difference in w eight betw een equal
volum es of coal d u st an d sand, th e n th e curves
come rem ark ab ly close to g eth er. R esu lts on

F ig . 6 .— I n f l u e n c e of C oal D u st on th e
P r o p e b tie s o f M o u ld in g Sand.

o th e r sands showed v ery m uch th e sam e resu lts,

suggesting t h a t u p to a t le a st 10 p e r cent, th e re
is no a d v a n ta g e g a in e d in stre n g th by th e ad d i­
tio n of coal d u st. The re su lts a re only in accord­
ance w ith w h at should be expected, as coal d u st
has no bond or stre n g th in itself, an d should,
th e re fo re , if an y th in g , te n d to decrease th e
s tre n g th of th e san d . On th e o th er h an d , th e
p erm eability was in m ost cases reduced by th e
a d d itio n of coal d u st, th e decrease being g re a te st
in th e case of th e san d which showed th e h ighest
p erm eab ility w ith o u t ad d itio n s. I t would ap p ear,
th erefo re, t h a t th e a d d itio n of coal d u st will
have no beneficial effect on th e facin g san d e ith e r
as reg ard s s tre n g th o r perm eab ility , i.e ., up to
th e percen tag e alread y m en tio n ed . I f an y bene­
fits are to be derived from its a d d itio n , th e n th e y
m ust e x ten d in some o th e r d irectio n .
Several a u th o ritie s m a in ta in t h a t th e tr u e
fu n ctio n of coal d u st is to give th e su rfa ce of
th e castin g a b e tte r colour a n d finish, said to be
caused by th e film or t a r r y v a p o u r volatilised
from th e coal on h e a tin g . A P a p e r by J . P illo n
in th e Proceedings of th e I.B .F ., 1931-32, f u r th e r
states t h a t th e p erce n ta g e of coal d u st added
should v ary according to th e th ic k n e ss of th e
m etal to be cast. A gain, i t h a s been fre q u e n tly
sta te d in technical P a p e rs t h a t th e a d v a n ta g e
from th e use of th is m a te ria l lies in th e increased
perm eability ob tain ed , due to th e fo rm a tio n of
coke p articles from th e coal d u st. These s ta te ­
m ents a p p ear to c o n tra d ic t each o th e r, fo r if a
gaseous lay er betw een th e m etal an d th e m ould
is aim ed a t, th e n p erm eab ility can be of little
account. F u rth e r, th e fo rm atio n of coke p artic le s
from th e coal d u st obviously m eans a n in creased
volume of m a terial, w hich can only ta k e place a t
th e expense of th e p erm eab ility of th e sand,
which would a p p e a r to be m uch m ore im p o rta n t
th a n t h a t of th e v ery fine pores of th e sm all
p articles of coke, an d , even allow ing t h a t an y
ad v an ta g e is gain ed in p erm eab ility , th is m u st
be co u n teracted by th e in creased volum e of gas.
As fo r th e s ta te m e n t t h a t th e fine blue finish on
a castin g is due to th e use of coal d u st, th e sam e
effect can be read ily o b tain ed from th e use of a
well-milled and g rad ed san d co n ta in in g a f a ir
p ro p o rtio n of th e h y d ra te d ferric-o x id e bond p re ­
viously m entioned^ an d w ith no coal-dust a d d i­
tio n . In so fa r, how ever, as a fine su rface
finish an d colour fo r enam elling w ork is con­
cerned, th e re w ould seem to he no reaso n fo r
aim ing a t th is, th e n proceeding to d estroy i t by
sandblasting. L ike coal d u st, blacking an d p lum ­
bago have no stre n g th in them selves, a n d if
applied to th e mould, will a t le a s t re s u lt in a
decreased perm eability . P erso n al ex p erien ce h as
shown t h a t in no case has e ith e r b lack in g or
plum bago been beneficial to th e su rfac e of a
 561
castin g fo r enam elling, unless th e facin g sand
has been extrem ely poor, and t h a t usually th e
flow of m etal causes th e m a te ria l to he
“ washed ” into pockets o r seam s, re su ltin g in a
disfigured surface when th e castin g is sand­
blasted.
Gating and Pouring
The question of g a tin g a n d p o urin g of th e
m ould, like t h a t of design, is one in which each
ty p e of c astin g requ ires in d iv id u al consideration.
W henever possible, however, g ates should always
be on th e edge an d n o t on th e face of th e cast-
ing, an d should ex ten d along its len g th as fa r
as is p ra ctical. An economy in g ates will only
re s u lt in an ad d itio n a l burden being th ro w n upon
th e facin g sand which is directly opposed to th e
flow of m etal, w ith a consequent “ te a rin g up ”
of th e form er. The inference, th erefo re, is to
fill th e m ould as easily an d as quickly as pos­
sible. The pouring te m p e ra tu re will th e n depend,
to a g re a t e x te n t, on th e m ethod of p o uring and
g a tin g . The ru s tin g of castings, which occurs
when th ey are allowed to lie in co n tac t w ith
m oist sand, is a fre q u e n t source of annoyance to
th e enam eller, as i t is m a in tain ed th a t, even
a f te r san d blastin g , th e ru s t will p ersist and
cause tro u b le d u rin g th e enam elling process. An
e x am in atio n of several such castings revealed
t h a t th e d ep th to which th e ru s t had p e n e tra te d
was co m p arativ ely slig h t, an d th e rem oval of th e
ru s t by an abrasiv e o r by filing before sand
b lastin g gave surfaces which enam elled perfectly.
T his w ould suggest t h a t “ b lastin g ” th e su r­
face, e ith e r w ith sand or steel g rit, is by no
m eans th e b est m ethod of rem oval of th e ru st,
an d i t m ig h t be adv an tag eo u s, in such cases, to
th o roughly clean th e surface before sand blastin g
by m eans of an abrasive.
Conclusion
In sum m ing up, personal experience has shown
t h a t th e re are tw o chief sources of trouble.
F irstly , th e re is m eta l ren d ered unsound e ith e r
by m echanically-retain ed inclusions or by “ u n ­
balanced ” su lp h u r. Such iro n can be consider­
ably im proved by deoxidation o r desulphurisa-
tio n . The second source of tro u b le is th e
 5 6 2

m oulder’s san d h eap, a n d w ith o u t d e tra c tin g in

an y way from th e ab ility a n d carefu ln ess of th e
average m oulder, i t m ay be s ta te d t h a t by f a r
the g re a te r po rtio n of th e tro u b le w hich develops,
especially in re latio n to d ir ty a n d deform ed su r­
faces, org in ates in th e sand. I f m ore a tte n tio n is
paid to th e m a in te n an ce of a su ita b le san d ,
stro n g an d perm eable, th e p erce n ta g e of enam el-
ling-shop re je c ts w ill drop accordingly, a n d th e
foundrym an will find him self able to tu r n his
a tte n tio n , in g re a te r d e ta il, to th is problem .

I
 uuo

Lancashire Branch
THE PRODUCTION OF SPECIALLY HARD CAST
IRONS FOR ALLOYING AND HEAT-TREATMENT

By W. T. Griffiths, M.Sc. (Member)*

In th e p ast, when a cast-iron p a r t was re­
q uired to be h a rd , th e m ethod ad o p ted was to
change th e form of carbon from so ft g ra p h ite
to h a rd iro n carbide, a change produced e ith e r
by v ary in g th e com position o r by chilling.
A lthough iron carbid e is extrem ely h a rd , th e
m a trix of w hite iro n is soft, an d th e hardness
of th e iron, w hich is th e average of t h a t of th e
tw o co n stitu e n ts, is n o t sufficient fo r some
prese n t-d ay req u irem en ts. In a d d itio n , iron
carbid e is b rittle , so th a t, should a high
carbon c o n te n t be em ployed in o rd er to increase
th e am o u n t of h a rd carbide a t th e expense of
th e so ft m a trix an d th ereb y raise th e hardness,
th e stre n g th a n d resistan ce to shock is reduced.
I n recen t years m uch in te re st has been aroused
by th e p ro p ertie s o b tain ab le in cast iro n by in ­
creasin g th e h ard n ess of th e m a trix . This
m a trix m ay be h ard en ed by th e in tro d u c tio n of
alloying elem ents or by h e a t-tre a tm e n t o r by a
com bination of both. I n irons in which m edium
h ard n ess only is requ ired , h a rd en in g by alloying
a n d by h e a t-tre a tm e n t has a g re a t ad v an ta g e
over h a rd e n in g by chilling, because rough
m ach in in g can be ca rrie d o u t while th e castings
a re in th e soft condition, leaving a t th e m ost
only a lig h t g rin d in g o p e ra tio n to be u n d e rta k e n
a fte r th e h ard en in g . I n ap p licatio n s w here th e
m axim um possible h ard n ess is desired, h a rd en in g
of th e m a trix m ay be combined w ith h ard en in g
by chilling, so t h a t h ig h h ard n ess levels are
reached w hich a re com parable w ith those o b ta in ­
able in th e h a rd e s t steels.
* I n th e absence of the au thor, th e Paper was presented by
D r. Pfeil.

*
 The Relationship between Alloy Steel and Alloy
Cast Iron
An u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e effects of alloying
elem ents an d of h e a t-tre a tm e n t on th e p ro p e rtie s
of cast iron is fa c ilita te d by considering cast iron
as a steel co n ta in in g g ra p h ite flakes o r iron
carbide. The effect of alloying elem ents an d of
h e a t-tre a tm e n t on steel has been th o ro u g h ly
stu d ied over a period of m an y years, an d some
of th e ch a ra c te ristic s of alloy steels m ay use­
fully be considered here.
Steel consists essen tially of th e tw o elem en ts,
iron an d carbon, a n d th e value of steel as an
en g in eerin g m a te ria l is larg ely bound u p w ith
th e fa c t t h a t iro n can ex ist in tw o form s, one
of w hich is stable a t o rd in a ry te m p e ra tu re s an d
does n o t dissolve carbon to any g re a t e x te n t,
w hilst th e o th e r is stab le a t h ig h te m p e ra tu re s
an d able to dissolve carbon u p to a b o u t 1.8 p e r
cent. A t te m p e ra tu re s over, say, 800 deg. C.,
th e steel is a solid so lu tio n of th e carbon in w h at
is know n as gam m a iro n . W hen th is solid solu­
tio n is slowly cooled, th e g am m a iro n changes
in to alp h a iron in th e region of 750 to 600 deg.
C., an d th e carbon is p re c ip ita te d as a com­
pound of iro n a n d carbon know n as c em e n tite.
I n carbon steels c o n ta in in g less th a n 0.9 p e r
cent, carbon th e cem e n tite is p re s e n t as an in t i­
m a te m ix tu re w ith a c e rta in a m o u n t of iro n , th e
m icroscopical c o n stitu e n t th u s form ed being
know n as p e a rlite .
W hen th e h ig h -te m p e ra tu re solid so lu tio n is
cooled ra p id ly as, fo r ex am ple, by q u en ch in g in
w a te r or oil, th e change of one form of iro n to
th e o th e r an d th e p re c ip ita tio n of th e carbon
from solution ta k e s place a t te m p e ra tu re s
ap p ro ach in g o rd in a ry te m p e ra tu re s, a<nd th e re­
su lt of th is lo w -tem p eratu re tra n s fo rm a tio n is
th e p roduction of w h a t is te rm e d m a rte n site and
a h ard en ed steel.
The change in th e form of th e iro n involves
a change of volum e, and by m eans of a d ilato -
m eter th e expan sio n o r c o n tra c tio n ta k in g place
in th e tra n sfo rm a tio n can be observed. F ig . 1
 565

shows, graphically , th e change in len g th of a

steel specim en on h e a tin g and cooling. In th e
left-h a n d curve th e u n ifo rm exp an sio n on h e a t­
ing to a te m p e ra tu re of 720 deg. C. w ill be
observed. A t th is te m p e ra tu re th e previously-
m entioned tra n sfo rm a tio n commences, th is being
accom panied by a co n tractio n which continues
up to a te m p era tu re of 840 deg. C., when th e
change is com plete, an d th e re su ltin g solid solu­
tio n of carbon in iron ex p an d s norm ally, th o u g h ,
as will be seen, a t a m ore ra p id r a te th a n th e
iron did below 700 deg. C.
On cooling slowly th e solid solution co n tracts
to 780 deg. C. w hen th e reverse tra n sfo rm a tio n

F i g . 1 .— D i l a t a t i o n C u r v e s o f 0 .3 5 p e r cent .
C arbon S t ee l .

commences, accom panied by an e x p a n s i o n w h i c h

is com pleted a t 6 8 0 deg. C., a fte r which u n i f o r m
c o n tractio n of th e steel continues to room tem ­
p e ra tu re .
The cen tre curve shows th e effect of increasing
th e ra te of cooling from high te m p e ra tu re s. I t
will be noted th a t th e breakdow n of th e higb-
te m p e ra tu re solid solution (au ste n ite ) is now
delayed u n til 6 3 0 deg. C. and is com pleted as
low as 5 4 0 deg. C.
I n th e rig h t-h a n d curve is shown th e effect
o f th e ra p id cooling which resu lts in a hardened
steel. In th is case u n ifo rm c o n tractio n goes on
u n til a te m p e ra tu re of 3 4 0 deg. C. is reached,
and i t will be noted th a t, since th e ra te of con­
tra c tio n of th e a u ste n ite is h ig h er th a n t h a t of
 5 6 6

th e fe r rite a n d p e a rlite m a trix , w hen th e tr a n s ­

fo rm atio n does commence th e re s u ltin g e x p a n ­
sion is g re a te r th a n t h a t w hich occurs w hen th e
change ta k e s place a t h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re s,
an d th e steel, in th e h ard e n e d co n d itio n , is in a
m ore fullv -ex p an d ed co n d itio n th a n w hen cooled
slowly.
T his lo w -tem p eratu re ex p an sio n is of con­
siderable im portance w hen consid erin g th e effect
of quenching, since, ta k in g place a t a low te m ­
p e ra tu re and, in gen eral, a t d ifferen t tim es in
different p a rts of th e quenched a rtic le, i t ten d s
(unless su itab le p recau tio n s a re ta k e n ) to set up
considerable stresses w hich m ay cause crack in g
or fra c tu re .
In g en eral, th e effect of alloying elem ents in
steel is to reduce th e r a te of cooling necessary
in o rd er to lower th e tra n s fo rm a tio n to th e tem ­
p e ra tu re s a t w hich th e h a rd e n in g ta k e s place.
In o th e r words, one can h a rd e n th e steel w ith o u t
such d ra s tic quenchin g . In d e e d , i t is possible,
w ith a su itab le alloy c o n te n t, to produce
h a rd e n in g w ith extrem ely low ra te s of cooling
D ifferen t alloying elem ents, of course, a c t in
d ifferen t w ays an d to a d ifferin g e x te n t, b u t
have only a useful effect on th e quen ch in g o p era­
tio n w hen th e y are in solution. N ick el dissolves
com pletely in th e steel a n d rem ain s in solu tio n
(both a t low an d h ig h te m p e ra tu re s) so t h a t i t
has th e effect of low ering th e change b o th on
h e a tin g an d on cooling.
U nlike nickel, chrom ium form s a carb id e w hich
is less read ily soluble in th e m a trix th a n iro n
carbide, w ith th e re s u lt t h a t chrom ium steels
m u st be h eate d to a h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re a n d fo r
a lon ger tim e th a n nickel steels to en su re th e
solution of th e chrom ium in th e a u ste n ite , fo r
otherw ise th e chrom ium w ould be ineffective in
th e h ard en in g . M anganese an d m olybdenum a ct
in som ew hat th e sam e w ay as chrom ium . They
te n d to form carbides, w hich m u st be ta k e n in to
solution if effective h a rd e n in g is to be produced.
Silicon te n d s to ren d e r th e h a rd e n in g o p e ra tio n
m ore difficult, an d su b s ta n tia l am o u n ts of th is
 567

elem ent a re fonnd only in special steels n o t re­

q u ired to be h arden ed .
I t is im p o rta n t to n o te t h a t low ering of th e
tra n sfo rm a tio n te m p e ra tu re alone is n o t sufficient
to develop h ig h h ard n ess, a n d th e presence of
su b s ta n tia l am ounts of carb o n a n d its sep aratio n
fro m solution d u rin g th e tra n sfo rm a tio n are
essen tial fe a tu re s of h ard e n in g .
C a st iro n s differ from steels in a t le ast tw o
im p o rta n t ways. F irs tly , th e ir carbon c o n te n t
is m uch h ig h er th a n t h a t of th e av erag e steel,
so t h a t a larg e am o u n t of th e carbon is n ev er
ta k e n in to solutio n , b u t ex ists as g ra p h ite in
grey irons or as carb id e in w h ite irons. This
m eans also t h a t th e carbon co n te n t of th e cast-
iron m a trix is m a in ta in e d a t a h ig h er level th a n
is u su a l in m ost alloy steels. This also resu lts in
th e tra n sfo rm a tio n on ra p id cooling being a t
still low er te m p e ra tu re s th a n those in d icated in
th e rig h t-h a n d curve of F ig . 1, so t h a t d u rin g
th e h a rd e n in g tr e a tm e n t considerable volume
changes a re likely to be ta k in g place even a t,
say, boiling-w ater te m p e ra tu re . Secondly, th e
silicon co n te n t in c a st iro n is m uch h ig h er th a n
t h a t u su al in steels, a n d , of course, has an im por­
t a n t effect, n o t only on th e h a rd e n in g ch arac­
te ris tic s due to quenching h u t also in d eterm in in g
w hether th e iron is grey o r w hite. In th e same
w av as one has to ta k e in to account th e effect of
silicon, one can n o t neglect th e effect of th e addi­
tio n of o th e r alloying elem ents on w h a t m ig h t be
term ed th e essen tial q u alities of cast iro n , and
p a rtic u la rly on th e cond itio n in w hich th e carbon
ex ists.
N ickel has a refining effect on th e g ra p h ite in
grey c ast iro n s, as a re s u lt of which th e stre n g th
p ro p ertie s of th e iro n s are im proved. N ickel
also te n d s to p rev e n t chilling, o r th e fo rm atio n
of h a rd iro n carb id e in stea d of g ra p h ite . Sili­
con has th e well-known effect of red u cin g chill in
cast iro n , b u t i t te n d s to coarsen th e g ra p h ite
an d to w eaken th e iro n . C hrom ium has a high
affinity fo r carbon, fo rm in g complex iron-
ehrom ium carbides, th ere b y in creasin g th e te n ­
dency of iro n to chill. Since chrom ium is liable
 568

to se p a ra te as carbide, m uch of th e chrom ium

added to cast iro n m ay be ineffective w ith re­
spect to th e h ard e n in g of th e m a trix . M an ­
ganese an d m olybdenum have effects on th e con­
d itio n of th e carbon in c a st iro n sim ilar to t h a t
of chrom ium , b u t to a less m ark ed degree.
Grey Alloy Iron
T u rn in g now in m ore d e ta il to th e effects of
alloy ad d itio n s on cast iron, i t is co n v en ien t
first to discuss th e s itu a tio n re g a rd in g grey -iro n
castings. D u rin g th e p a st te n y ears a good deal
of a tte n tio n has been p aid to th e h e a t-tre a tm e n t
of th is ty p e of alloy iron. T hree P a p e rs on th is
subject have recently been published by J . E .
H u r s t,1 2 3 w hile in F ra n c e researches h ave been
u n d e rta k e n by G uillet, G alibourg an d B a lla y .4
The P a p e r which H u r s t gave before th e I n s ti­
tu te of B ritis h F oun d ry m en in 1932 on “ H a r d ­
e n in g Cast' Iro n ” is of special in te re s t. I n th is
P a p e r th e effect of nickel on d e p th of h a rd e n in g
in b ars I f in,., 4 in. an d 5 | in. in d ia m e te r was
d e a lt w ith, th e irons being stu d ie d c o n ta in in g
from 0 to 4 p er cent, nickel in steps of 1 p e r
cent. H u r s t’s w ork d em o n strates well th e sim i­
la r response of c a st iro n an d of steel to alloy
additions.
As has alread y been e x p lain ed , th e g en eral
effect of alloy ad d itio n s in steel is to low er th e
ra te of cooling necessary to produce th e h a rd e n ed
condition. A n im p o rta n t effect of a re d u ctio n
in th e critic a l cooling ra te is to p e rm it th e de­
velopm ent of h ig h h ard n ess th ro u g h o u t heavy
sections, w hich c an n o t be cooled ra p id ly even if
w ater-quenched. H u r s t showed t h a t th e a d d itio n
of nickel progressively in creased th e h a rd n e ss in
th e cen tre of th e oil-quenched b ars. I n a 5 |-in .
1 J . F,. H u r st, “ O il H a rd en in g a n d A ir -H a r d e n in g C a st I r o n s ,”
P r o c e e d in g s , I .B .F . V o l. X X I V , p a g e 37 3 .
2 J . E . H u r st, “ F u r th e r E x p e r im e n ts o n O il-H a r d e n in g a n d
A ir -H a r d e n in g C ast Ir o n s," F o u n d r y T r a d e J o u r n a d , "1931,
v o l. 45, p p . 3 4 5 -3 4 8 .
3 J . E . H u r st, “ H a rd en in g C a st Iro n , H a rd en ed a n d T em pered
C a st Iron a n d N itro g e n -H a rd en ed C a st I r o n ,” P r o c e e d in g s I . B . F . .
V o l. X X V , p a g e 146.
4 L . G u ille t, J . G alib ou rg a n d M . B a lla y , ‘ ‘ E e c h e r c h e s su r la
T r em p e m a r te n s itiq u e e t le T r a ite m e n t th e r m iq u e H u r c is s a n td e s
F o n t e s ,” R e v . d e M et., 19 3 1 , v o l. 2 8 , p p . 5 8 1 -5 9 6 .
 569

d ia. p lain iron b a r a hard n ess of only ab o u t

200 B rinell could be developed in th e centre.
A 1 per cent, nickel a d d itio n was n o t effective,
b u t 2 p e r cent, of nickel gave a su b sta n tia l im ­
provem ent in hard n ess p e n e tra tio n , and, in th e
iro n c o n tain in g 3 p er cent, nickel, a hardness
of 360 B rinell was developed a t th e cen tre of
an oil-quenched 5 |-in . d ia. b ar.
I n th e P a p e rs re fe rre d to in fo rm atio n is also
given on th e effects of h e a t-tre a tm e n t and alloy
elem ents on tensile stre n g th and o th er m echani­
cal p ro p erties, while E v e re st5 has shown how
th e w ear resistance of cast iron m ay be increased
by alloy ad d itio n s combined w ith h e a t- tr e a tm e n t;
i t is unnecessary to go fu r th e r in to th is aspect
of th e su b ject here.
Chilled Alloy Iron
T here a re c e rta in ap p licatio n s w here n e ith e r
th e hardness level o b tain ab le by chilling, nor
t h a t w hich can be developed by h e a t-tre a tm e n t,
is sufficient fo r presen t-d ay requirem ents. To
m eet th is s itu a tio n chilled alloy irons have been
developed, th e extrem ely high hardness of which
is d ep en d en t in p a r t on th e hal'd carbide which
form s one of th e c o n stitu en ts, and in p a r t on
th e developm ent of th e h a rd condition in th e
m a trix by th e in tro d u ctio n of alloy elem ents.
The alloy co n te n t necessary fo r th e production
of th is su p er-h ard c ast iro n depends on th e size
of th e castings, w hich in tu r n determ ines th e
ra te of cooling. F o r small p a rts such, for
exam ple, as th e p lates fo r centreless g rin d ers,
th e to ta l alloy co n te n t m ig h t be as low as 3£ per
c e n t .; for large castings, however, an alloy con­
t e n t of over 6 p e r cen t, m ay be necessary since
ra p id cooling is impossible. A u ap p licatio n of
o u ts ta n d in g im p o rtan ce is in connection w ith
specially h a rd casf^iron rolls for products
req u ired w ith a high finish, although th e re are
num erous o th er ap p licatio n s w here extrem ely
high hardness, com bined w ith h ig h stre n g th and
h igh resistance to w ear in a relativ ely cheap
m a te ria l is in increasin g dem and.
5 A . B . E v e r e st, “ C a st Iro n w ith H ig h e r N ic k e l A d d itio n s,
F oundry T r a d e J o u r n a l , 1 932, v o l. 4 6, p p . 193, 2 17 , a n d 226.
 570

In d eterm in in g su itab le com positions fo r any

p a rtic u la r ap p licatio n , acco u n t m u st be ta k e n of
th e v arious facto rs w hich, in them selves, affect
th e chilling propensities a n d h e a t- tr e a tin g ch a ra c ­
te ris tic s ; th e d e te rm in a tio n of th e b est com posi­
tio n s fo r any p a rtic u la r ap p lic a tio n , th e re fo re ,
becomes a little complex. W ith a view to assist­
in g those in te re ste d in th is ty p e of m a te ria l,
ex p erim en tal w ork has been u n d e r way in th e
lab o rato ries of th e R esearch a n d D evelopm ent
D e p a rtm e n t of th e M ond N ickel C om pany d u rin g
several years. The resu lts of th is research do
n o t give a com plete answ er to all th e q uestions
w hich can arise in connection w ith th ese u n u su ­
ally h a rd cast irons, b u t th e y a re given h ere as
some co n trib u tio n to w ard s th e g re a te r u tilisa tio n
of w h at are undo u b ted ly likely to be extrem ely
useful m aterials. The su b jec t m ay be con­
veniently d e a lt w ith u n d e r tw o h e a d in g s : (1)
chilling ch ara c te ristic s, (2) h ard n ess and
stru c tu re .
Experimental Procedure for Chill Tests
Of th e first im p o rtan ce in m an y a p p lica tio n s
is th e d ep th of chill, an d since th is is effected
by all th e common alloying elem ents i t is n o t
sufficient to confine stu d ies of alloy iro n s to h a rd ­
ness m easurem ents a lo n e ; an y m ix tu re stu d ie d
should be balanced in com position w ith resp ect
to chilling c h a racteristic s. F o r th e la b o ra to ry
ex p erim en ts 20- to 30-lb. ch arg es w ere m elted in
a gas-fired crucible fu rn a ce u n d e r sta n d a rd condi­
tions, in cluding m eltin g tim e, m axim um te m ­
p e ra tu re reach ed in th e fu rn a c e a n d th e c a stin g
te m p e ra tu re . The iro n was c a st in to a san d
m ould p roducing a block of re c ta n g u la r section,
6 in. by 1 in . a t th e botto m , 7 in . by 2 in . a t
th e to p , an d w ith a h e ig h t of 6 in. T he botto m
face of th is c astin g w as c a st a g a in s t a chill p la te
12 in. by 8 in. by 2 in. th ic k , w hich was p re ­
heate d to 100 deg. 0 . a n d co ated w ith clay-
blacking w ash. The c a stin g was cooled undeT
s ta n d a rd conditions, involving cooling in th e
m ould to a dull-red h e a t, an d subsequently
s trip p in g and cooling in a n a ir b last. A fte r
th is tr e a tm e n t th e castin g w as fr a c tu re d and
 571

th e ch ara c te ristic s of th e fra c tu re d surface

noted.
I n all th e m ix tu re s it w as th e aim to produce
a chill d ep th of 2 i n . ; com positions which failed
to g ive re su lts of such an o rd e r w ere rejected ,
m odifications were m ade and fu r th e r tr ia ls cast.
I n one case, fo r exam ple, p er cent, nickel
w as added to an iron, as a re s u lt of which a
chill d e p th of only 1 in. was o b tain ed . W hen,
how ever, a 3^ p er cent, nickel a d d itio n was
accom panied by | p er cent, chrom ium , a chill
d e p th of 4 in. was obtained. An in term e d ia te
com position c o n tain in g 3^ p er cen t, nickel and
p er cent, chrom ium gave th e desired chill
d e p th of 2 in . P roceeding along these lines, th e
effects of vario u s alloys in balanced p roportions
w ere stu d ied , w ith respect to stru c tu re and
hardness.
The Chilling Characteristics of Alloy Iron
Two unalloyed irons were employed fo r th e
p re p a ra tio n of th e alloy m ix tu res, and th e com­
positions of th ese two irons a re given b elow : —

Composition in per cent.

Element.
Low Carbon Iron. High Carbon Iron.

Total Carbon 2.63 3.57

Silicon 0.54 0.49
Manganese 0.37 0.64
Sulphur 0.13 0.11
Phosphorus 0.36 0.47
In Table I a series of alloy m ix tu re s m ade
from th e low-carbon iro n are d e a lt w ith, figures
being given fo r com position and d ep th of chill.
The term “ d e p th of chill ” refers to th e portion
w hich, to th e n ak ed eye, a p p ears free from
m ottle. I n some cases th e com positions are given
in brack ets, in d ic a tin g th a t th e y were n o t ob­
ta in e d by analysis.
I t will be seen from these figures t h a t th e
unalloyed iron gave a 4-in. d ep th of chill. The
ad d itio n of 2 p er cent, nickel accom panied by
0.29 p e r cent, chrom ium in C6 le ft th e chill d ep th
unchanged ; 3.64 p er cen t, nickel to g e th e r w ith
 572

0.28 p er cen t, chrom ium reduced th e chill in m ix­

tu re C3 to 2 in .; 2 per c en t, nickel to g e th e r
w ith ad d itio n s of 0.5 p er c en t, silicon a n d 0.46
p er c en t, chrom ium gave a chill d e p th of 1.25 in .
in C7, an d a com parison betw een m ix tu re s C6
and C7 shows th e 0.5 p er cen t, silicon is m ore
pow erful in red u cin g chill th a n is 0.17 p er cen t,
chrom ium in in creasin g it. S im ilarly a com­
parison betw een m ix tu re s C3 a n d C9 shows th a t,
a t th e 3.5 p e r c en t, nickel level, an a d d itio n of
T a b le I .—Compositions and Chilling Characteristics o f Alloy Cast Irons.

Chilling Characteristics.
Composition. Inches.

Mark. Mo D epth W idth

T.C. Si Mn Ni Cr
per per per per per p er of of Grey.
cent. cent! cent. cent. cent. cent. Chill. Mottle.

Base iron... 2.58 0.51 0 .48 Nil Nil ‘Nil 4 2 0

C6 2.46 (0.5) (0-5) 2 .02 0 .2 9 Nil 4 2 0

C3 (2.5) 0 .5 3 (0.5) 3.64 0.28 Nil 2 2 2

CT 2.62 1.05 (0.5) 2 .1 0 0 .46 Nil n 2i 28

C9 (2.5) (1.0) (0.5) 3 .58 0 .5 2 Nil H 2* 2i

C12 2.46 (1.5) (0.5) (2.0) (1.0) Nil 2| 3* 0

C1I 2 .36 1.55 (0-5) 3.80 1.23 Nil 3* 2i 0

C73 2.69 (0.5) 2.86 ' 2.52 Nil Nil 1* 41 0

C98 (2.75) 1.90 5.15 Nil Nil Nil 1Î H 0

C10Î 2.76 2.65 7.80 Nil Nil Nil 48 0

C68 2,70 (0.5) (0.5) 3.62 0 .4 0 0.28 i| 3 >i

C79 2.73 (0.5) (0.5) (3.5) 0.25 0 .7 2 ii 2|

0.5 p er cen t, silicon is m ore pow erful th a n 0.24

per cen t, chrom ium .
The resu lts fo r m ix tu re C73 d e m o n stra te th e
b alan cin g of nickel by m anganese, a n d th e con­
clusion m ay be draw n t h a t m an g an ese is ab o u t
as effective in pro d u cin g chill as nickel is in
rem oving it. I n th is co nnection, how ever, i t is
necessary to b e a r in m in d th e re la tio n sh ip be­
tw een m anganese an d su lp h u r. S u lp h u r causes
chill, b u t m anganese a d d itio n s w hich combine
w ith su lp h u r n eu tralise th e su lp h u r chill and
th ereb y soften th e iro n As a re s u lt of th e re ­
searches ca rrie d o u t by th e B ritis h C a st Iro n
R esearch A ssociation' i t h as been fo u n d t h a t th e
6 A. L. N o r b u ry , " M a n g a n e s e in C a st Ir o n ," F o u n d r y T r a d e
J o u r n a l , 1 9 2 9 , v o l. 41, pp. 7 9 -8 3 .
 573

n e u tra lisa tio n of su lp h u r requires 0.3 per cent,

m anganese plus t h a t q u a n tity req u ired to form
th e com pound M nS (th a t is, ab o u t tw ice th e sul­
p h u r co n ten t), hence i t is only th e m anganese
a d d itio n al to th is am o u n t which h as a chilling
effect. M ix tu re C73 con tain ed 0.13 per cent,
su lp h u r req u irin g fo r its n e u tra lisa tio n 0.56 per
cent, m anganese, th u s 2.3 p er cent, m anganese
is le ft to balance th e 2.5 p er cent, of nickel.
M aking due allowances fo r carbon co n ten t v a ria ­
tions it m ay be concluded t h a t 2.3 p er cent,
m anganese is barely sufficient to balance 2.5 per
c en t, of nickel.
The figures fo r alloys C98 an d C101 show th e
b alancing of m anganese by silicon, and in d i­
cate t h a t an increase in m anganese co n ten t of
4.5 p er cent, is balanced by an increase in silicon
c o n te n t of 1.5 p er cen t., while 7 p er cen t, m an ­
ganese is balanced by 2 per cent, silicon. Silicon
therefore is ab o u t th re e tim es as effective in
reducing chill as is m anganese in producing it.
M ix tu res C68 and C79 show th a t m olybdenum
has little effect on chill, a com parison betw een
these two m ix tu res in d ica tin g t h a t 0.44 per cent,
m olybdenum has ab o u t th e sam e effect as 0.15 per
cen t, chrom ium , a ra tio of 3 to 1.
T able I I deals w ith a series of irons of h igher
carbon content, th e alloys co n ta in in g 3.25 per
cent, carbon.
I t will be seen from these figures, firstly, th a t
th e base iron gave a lower chill d ep th th a n the
base iron previously discussed, due, of course, to
th e effect of carbon in decreasing th e chill d epth.
A study of th e th re e irons C15, C16 and C17,
co n tain in g app ro x im ately 3.25 p er cent, nickel,
indicates th a t an increase of silicon c o n te n t from
0.5 to 1 p er cent, ren d ers necessary a chrom ium
ad d itio n of aro u n d 0.35 per cen t., while a silicon
ad d itio n of 1 per cen t, necessitates a chrom ium
ad d itio n of ju s t over 0.8 p er cen t. Sim ilarly,
m ix tu res C25, C26 an d C27 show t h a t in the
presence of 2 p er cent, nickel a 1 per cent,
silicon ad d itio n is n eu tralised by 0.9 per cent,
chrom ium . I t m ay be concluded, th erefo re, th a t
when th e carbon c o n te n t is 3.25 p er c e n t., th e
 574

g rey in g effect of silicon is n e u tra lise d by ra isin g

th e chrom ium co n te n t by a n a m o u n t eq u al to
about th re e -q u a rte rs of th e silicon a d d itio n , a
conclusion sim ilar to t h a t based on th e low-
carbon irons.
The effect of nickel m ay be d eriv ed fro m a
com parison betw een th e m ix tu re s C18 a n d C15,
which shows t h a t 3.5 p e r cen t, nick el is m ore
th a n n e u tra lise d by 1.21 p e r c en t, chrom ium .
M ix tu re C25 shows th e 2 p e r c en t, n ick el is
n e u tra lise d by 0.5 p er cen t, chrom ium , w hile a
T able- I I .—CompositionA and Chilling Characteristics of Alloy Cast Irons.

Chilling Characteristics
Composition. Inches.

Mark.
T.C. Si Mn Ni Or Mo Depth W idth
perv p er per per of of Grey.
cent. ce" ce" cent. cent. cent. Chill. Mottle.

C18 3.25 0.48 0.55 Nil Nil Nil 1* 11 3

015 3.25 0.49 (0.5) 3.52 1.21 Nil 2* 3* 0

C16 3 .28 1,03 (0.5) 3.47 1.56 Nil n 41 0

C17 3 .22 1.56 (0-5) 3 .45 2.04 Nil 2i 31 0

025 3.23 (0.5) (0.5) 2.05 0 .4 8 Nil 1* 1* 3

C26 (3.25) (1.0) (0.5) 1.96 1.1 NU 2 4 0

C27 3 .Î 8 (1.5) (0.5) 2.02 1.42 Nil n 4| 0

C19 3.24 0 .50 (0.5) 6.00 1.41 Nil H 41 0

C20 3 .26 1.48 (0.6) 4 .92 2 .2 0 Nil 2 4 0

C23 ' ... 3 .19 (0,5) 0 .6 0 4.27 1.35 Nil 2 4 0

C32 3.21 (0-5) 1.05 (♦•5) 1.15 Nil 2 4 0

030 3.17 (0.5) 2.02 4 .4 9 1.0 NU 2 4 0

C34 (3.25) (0.5) (2.0) (3.0) 0 .9 0 Nil 3 3 0

055 (3.25) (0.5) (0.5) 4.52 1.35 0.63 21 31 0

077 (3.25) (0.5) (0.5) (4.0) (1 2 5 ) (0.75) 21 31 0

com parison betw een m ix tu re s C18 an d C19 shows

th a t 5 p er cent, nickel is co u n te rb a la n c e d by
1.4 p e r cent, chrom ium . These re su lts ta k e n
to g e th e r in d icate t h a t nick el n e u tra lise s th e
chilling effect of o n e -q u a rte r of its w eig h t of
chrom ium .
A com parison betw een m ix tu re s C23 a n d C30
d em o n strates t h a t an in c re m e n t of 1.4 p e r cen t,
in m anganese dem ands a re d u c tio n of 0.35 p er
cent, in chrom ium , from w hich it. follows t h a t
m anganese acts in th e sam e d ire c tio n as ch ro ­
m ium , b u t w ith a ch ill-producing effect only one-
 575

q u a rte r as inten se. M ix tu re C32 represents

an o th e r ty p e of balanced nickel-chrom ium -
m anganese iron.
The effect of m olybdenum in high-carbon irons
is shown by com parisons betw een m ix tu res C55
an d C23. M ix tu re C55 co n tain ed 4.52 per cent,
nickel, as a g a in st 4.27 p er cent, in C23, b u t even
m aking allowance fo r th is, i t is clear t h a t molyb­
denum has only a w eak chill-producing effect,
its efficiency in th is d irectio n being ab o u t one-
th ir d t h a t of chrom ium .
C o nsideration of th e resu lts co n tain ed in these
two tables, to g e th e r w ith th e stu d ies which have
been m ade on a n u m b er of o th er alloy irons,
allows th e following conclusions to be reached : —
(1) U n d er th e conditions adopted fo r th is re­
search iron co n tain in g ab o u t phosphorus 0.4,
su lp h u r 0.1, m anganese 0.5 and silicon 0.5 per
cent, gave a chill d ep th of 2 in. when th e carbon
co n ten t w as 2.9 p er cent.
(2) A ny increase o r decrease in carbon c o n ten t
from 2.9 p er cent, could be co u nterbalanced by
th e a d d itio n or w ith d raw al of th re e -q u a rte rs as
m uch chrom ium .
(3) The a d d itio n of nickel could be c o u n ter­
balanced by th e a d d itio n of o n e-q u arter as much
chrom ium .
(4) Silicon presen t in excess of 0.5 per cent,
could be balanced by th e ad d itio n of th ree-
q u a rte rs as m uch chrom ium .
(5) M anganese1p re se n t in excess of th e am ount
req u ired to n eu tra lise th e effect of su lp h u r (in
th is case in excess of ab o u t 0.5 p er cen t.) h a d th e
sam e effect as o n e-q u a rte r th e am o u n t of
chrom ium .
(6) M olybdenum h ad th e sam e effect as one-
th ird as m uch chrom ium .
I t will be seen th a t, in th e above conclusions,
th e effects of th e elem ents carbon, nickel, silicon,
m anganese an d m olybdenum have been com pared
w ith th e effect of chrom ium , an d th e re fo re th e
relativ e effects of any tw o elem ents can be de­
duced. F o r exam ple, if 3 p er cent, of nickel were
 576

added to cast iro n th e chill d e p th w ould rem ain

co n stan t if th e carhon c o n te n t w ere low ered by
1 p e r cent. S im ilarly, i t m ay he deduced t h a t
an increase in silicon c o n te n t fro m | to 1 p er
cent, w ould be n e u tra lise d by in cre asin g th e
m anganese co n ten t by l i p e r cent.
I t is necessary to em phasise t h a t th e chill
dep th produced in c a st iro n as well as o th e r
c h a ra cteristics depend on fac to rs o th e r th a n com­
position, m ore especially on th e source of th e
iron, on th e m eltin g conditions a n d on th e m a n ­
n e r in w hich alloy a d d itio n s a re m ade. T h ere­
fore, th e conclusions given above c a n n o t a m o u n t
to m ore th a n a g u id e to th e selection of m ix tu re s
su itab le fo r com m ercial u tilisa tio n , an d in n e arly
every case sm all a d ju s tm e n ts in com position
would be necessary to ta k e acco u n t of th e v a ri­
ables to w hich c ast iro n is sub ject.
The Hardness and Structure of Chilled Alloy Iron
I t has already been p o in ted o u t t h a t th e alloy
contents re q u ired to give e x tre m e h ard n ess in
chilled iron depend on th e r a te of cooling w hich
can be applied, and in some im p o rta n t a p p lica ­
tio n s extrem ely slow cooling only is possible.
A tte n tio n has, th e re fo re , been giv en to th e h a rd ­
ness an d o th er p ro p e rtie s of b o th slowly-cooled
an d of relativ ely rapidly-cooled chill castin g s.
In th e course of th is research in fo rm a ­
tio n regarding- th e h ard n ess a n d s tru c tu r e of
rapidly-cooled chilled alloy iro n was o b tain ed
from studies of th e chill test-pieces, th e p re p a ra ­
tio n of which has alread y been d e a lt w ith . For
th e in v estig atio n in to th e p ro p e rtie s of slowly-
cooled chilled alloy iro n , v ario u s m ix tu re s w ere
cast in to a 1^-in. square iro n m ould. As soon
as solid, each c astin g was tra n s fe rre d to a well-
lagged electric fu rn ace, p reh e ate d to 1,000 deg.
C. In th is fu rn ace th e c astin g s w ere allowed
to cool to room te m p e ra tu re over a period of
th re e days, follow ing w hich hardness" d e te rm in a ­
tio n s were m ade an d th e m ic ro stru c tu re
exam ined.
A lthough th e h ard n ess of c ast iron is comm only
expressed by seleroscope values, diam o n d h a rd ­
ness d eterm in atio n s are m ore sa tisfa c to ry on
 577

chilled iro n in th e la b o rato ry , a n d th e hardness

figures which follow were ob tain ed on th e V ickers
diam ond hardness te s tin g m achine.
I t will be observed from th e figures in
T able I I I , which deals w ith slowly-cooled cast­
ings, t h a t only in a few cases were hardness
values below 500 o b tain ed . The generally high
hardness-level m a in ta in e d was due to th e fac t
th a t th e m ix tu res em ployed fo r these ex p eri­
m en ts w ere selected on th e basis of p relim in ary
te s ts to co n tain a sufficiently h ig h alloy c o n ten t
T a b le I II -—The Hardness ojSlotdy-cooled Chilled Codings.

Composition.
Vickers
Mark. Diamond
T.C. Si Mn Ni Cr Mo Hardness.
per cent. per cents p er cent.

C19 ............... 3.24 Nil 0 .5 5.00 1.41 Nil 645

C20 ... 3.26 1.48 0 .5 4.92 2.20 Nil 556

C23 ............... 3.19 Nil 0.60 4.27 1*35 Nil 685

C34 ............... 3 .25 Nil 2 .0 3.0 0 90 Nil 610

C98 ............... 2.75 1.90 5.15 Nil Nil Nil 467

C 1 0 1 ............... 2.76 2 65 7.80 Nil Nil Nil 519

C65 ............... 2.71 Nil (0.5) 3.69 0.55 0.26 397

C66 ............... (2.75) Nil (0.5) (3.75) (0 5 ) 0.51 536

C67 ............... 2 74 Nil (0 5) 3.72 0 58 0.75 607

C 7 0 ............... 3.19 Nil (0.5) 3.74 1 07 0 24 405

C71 ............... (3.25) Nil (0.5) (3.75) (1.0) 0.52 578

C72 ............... 3.24 Nil (0.5) 3 77 1.04 0.77 665

to re n d e r likely th e a tta in m e n t of high hardness

in sp ite of slow cooling.
T he tw o m ix tu re s C19 an d C20 had hardness
values te n d in g to show t h a t silicon has a soften­
in g influence. R a isin g th e silicon by 1 per cent.,
which p e rm itte d th e in tro d u c tio n of 0.8 p er cent,
e x tr a chrom ium w ith o u t a lte ra tio n of chill, re ­
su lted in a h ard n ess loss of 89 points. This
e x p e rim e n t alone is n o t sufficient to prove th a t
silicon has a so ften in g influence, b u t general
experience w ith chrom ium in c a st iron an d th e
re su lts of a n u m b er of ex p erim en ts n o t d ealt
w ith in th is P a p e r m ake i t c e rta in t h a t th e
lower hardness of m ix tu re C20 as com pared w ith
C19 is due to th e 1 per cen t, hig h er silicon
c o n te n t of C20.
u
 578

M ix tu re C34 d em o n strates th e possibility of

o b tain in g high h ard n ess values in alloy iro n s in
w hich th e greying-effect of nickel is p a rtly n eu ­
tra lise d by th e ch illing effect of m anganese.
M ix tu res C98 and C101 re p re se n t iro n s in
which th e elem en t p ro d u cin g th e h a rd en ed
m a trix is m anganese, th e chillin g effect of w hich
is n e u tralised by silicon. The m anganese-silicon
com bination, it will be observed, is n o t so effec­
tiv e as m ost of th e o th e r m ix tu re s, in w hich
hardness n u m erals n e a rly 200 p o in ts h ig h e r w ere
developed in several cases.
The m ix tu re s C65, C66 an d C67 a re id e n tic a l
in com position, ex cep t w ith resp ect to molyb­
denum , while m ix tu re s C70, 071 an d C72 differ
also only w ith resp ect to m olybdenum c o n te n t,
b u t co n tain 0.5 p e r cen t, m ore carb o n a n d 0.5
p e r cent, m ore chrom ium th a n th e first th re e
m olybdenum m ix tu res. C65 an d C70 w ere of
low h ardn ess, b u t m ix tu re s C67 an d C72, each
of which co n tain ed a b o u t 0.75 p e r cen t, m olyb­
denum , w ere of h ig h h ard n ess. So f a r as c a n be
.judged from these resu lts, m olybdenum has a
h ard e n in g effect ab o u t eq u al to t h a t of nickel ;
th u s m ixture, C23 a n d C72 h ave a b o u t th e sam e
hardness a n d differ in com position by th e re­
p lacem ent of 0.5 p e r c en t, nickel, plus 0.31 p er
cent, chrom ium by 0.77 p er cen t, m olybdenum .
A com parison betw een th e low -carbon, low-
chrom ium group C65, C66 a n d C67 a n d th e high-
carbon, high-chrom ium gro u p C70, C71 a n d C72
serves to dem o n stra te t h a t h ig h e r c arb o n and
chrom ium co n ten ts do n o t necessarily produce
o u ts ta n d in g hardn ess in crem en ts.
C onsidered broadly, th ese figures in d ic a te t h a t
th e fo u r elem ents nickel, chrom ium , m an g an ese
and m olybdenum differ to no su b s ta n tia l e x te n t
in th e p roduction of h ig h h ard n ess, a lth o u g h
none of these elem ents can be used singly, a n d ,
fu rth e r, th a t , when th e to ta l alloy c o n te n t ex­
ceeds 6 p er c e n t., a h ig h h ard n e ss w ill be
reached in spite of v ery slow cooling.
W ith respect to sm all p a rts re q u ire d of
specially high hard n ess, in te re s t lies p rin c ip a lly
 579

in m ix tu re s of low er alloy co n te n t, since th e

p a rts m ay conveniently be cooled a t a relativ ely
ra p id ra te . Table IV co n tain s th e hardness
re su lts o btained on a series of alloy iro n s, m any
of w hich w ould be su itab le fo r small- and
m edium -size castings.

F i g . 2 .— A X i-C r C h ille d C a s t I r o n , s h o w in g
M a rte n s iiic M a trix , x 500.

The first tw o m ix tu re s d em o n strate th e effect

of ad d in g 2 p er cen t, nickel balanced by 0.29 per
cen t, chrom ium to a low-carbon chilled iron.
The effect of th is alloying was to raise th e h a rd ­
ness from 464 to 498 due to a change in th e
s tru c tu re of th e m a trix from coarse to fine
v2
 580

p earlite. M ix tu res C18 a n d C25 d e m o n strate a

sim ilar m ild h a rd e n in g effect by a 2 p e r cen t,
nickel a d d itio n to a h ig h e r carbon iro n . To
produce a balanced m ix tu re th e nickel was accom­
pan ied by 0.48 p er cen t, chrom ium , an d th ese tw o
alloys to g e th e r raise d th e h ard n ess fro m 536 to
571.
M ix tu re s C6, C7 a n d C12 an d also C25, C26
an d C27 show th e h ard n ess changes accom pany­
ing chrom ium ad d itio n s b alanced by silicon, th e
a d d itio n of ab o u t 0.75 p er cen t, chrom ium accom-

T able IV .— The Hardneis oj Rapidly-cooled Chilled Casting!

Composition.

Mark. Diamond
T.C. Si Mn Ni Cr Hardness.
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. p er cent.

Base iron ... 2.58 0.51 0 .4 8 Nil Nil 464

C 6 ............... 2.46 (0.5) (0.5) 2.02 0.29 498

C 7 ............... 2.62 1.05 (0.5) 2 .1 0 0 .4 6 527

C 12............... 2.46 (1.5) (0.5) (2.0) (1.0) 543

C 1 8............... 3.25 0 .5 0 .5 Nil Nil 536

C 2 5............... 3.25 0 .6 0 .5 2 .0 0 .5 571

C 2 6............... 3.2 5 1 .0 0 .5 2 .0 1.1 599

C27............... 3 .25 1.5 0 .5 "2.0 1 4 613

C 3 ............... (2.5) 0.5 3 (0.6) 3.64 0.28 710

C’l l ...... 2.36 1.55 (0.5) 3 .80 1.23 583

C 1 5............... 3.25 0 .5 0 .5 3 .5 1.25 803

C 17............... 3.25 1.5 0 .5 3 .5 2 .0 613

panied by a b alan cin g a d d itio n of 1 p e r c en t,

silicon raised th e h a rd n e ss by 42 to 45 p o in ts.
M ix tu res C3 an d C15 c o n ta in e d a b o u t 3£ p er
cent, nickel w ith 0.28 an d 1.21 p e r c e n t, chrom ium
respectively, an d b o th w ere h a rd e r th a n th e c o rre­
sponding unalloyed iro n s by 250 p o in ts. B o th
th ese irons had a h a rd m a rte n sitic m a trix , th e
ty p ical a p p earan c e of w hich is shown a t 500 d ia ­
m eters in F ig . 2. I t is sig n ifica n t, how ever, t h a t
in th e slowly-cooled con d itio n s th ese tw o irons
developed h ard n ess values of only 345 a n d 429
respectively, show ing t h a t th e h a rd e n in g was as
m uch a fu n ctio n of ra te of cooling as of alloy
co n ten t.
 581

M ix tu res C l l an d C17 gave resu lts of special

in te re st, showing t h a t chrom ium ad d itio n s
balanced by silicon h ad , a t th e 3 | per cen t, nickel
level, a definite so ften in g influence. In one case
the hardness fall a ttrib u ta b le to th e 1 p er cent,
silicon ad d itio n was n early 200 points an d in th e
o th er case more th a n 100 points.
The resu lts in Table IV d em o n strate clearly
th a t th e best hardness in castings cooled relatively
rap id ly is to be o b tain ed w ith a t least 3J per
cent, nickel, a low-silicon co n te n t an d a chrom ium
level d ep en d en t on th e carbon c o n ten t in such a
m an n er as to develop th e co rrect chilling
c h aracteristics.
The Effect of Alloy Additions on Spread of Mottle
W hen, to chilled c a st iron, alloy ad d itio n s are
m ade in such p ro p o rtio n s t h a t th e d ep th of chill
rem ains co n sta n t, th e w id th of th e m ottle zone
increases to an e x te n t d ep en d en t on th e q u an ­
tity of alloys added an d th e p a rtic u la r com bina­
tio n of alloys w hich is em ployed. This spread
of th e m o ttle is som etim es considered objection­
able on th e gro u n d s t h a t i t reduces th e e x te n t
of th e grey b acking upon w hich toughness is
believed to depend.
M icroscopical ex am in atio n shows t h a t in cer­
ta in ty p es of alloy iron fine nodules of g ra p h ite
m ay occur even in t h a t p o rtio n of th e casting
which, to th e nak ed eye, a p p ears to consist of
c lear chill. In th e course of some of th e labora­
to ry exp erim en ts, sections a t rig h t-an g les to th e
chilled surface were exam ined u n d e r th e m icro­
scope w ith a view to d etec tin g th e dep th a t which
th e first nodules of g ra p h ite ap p eared , and th e
conclusion was reached th a t high-chrom ium con­
t e n t irons w ere specially susceptible to th e
presence of fine g ra p h ite nodules n e a r th e chilled
face an d w ith in th e po rtio n which appeared
chilled to th e n ak ed eye. The ex am in atio n of
th e fra c tu re s of th e chilled test-pieces demon­
s tra te d also th e pronounced effect of chrom ium
in sp read in g th e m ottle.
I t has alread y been p ointed o u t th a t, to pro­
duce a fully-hard en ed chilled iron, th e presence
of a to ta l alloy c o n te n t of a t least 6 p er cent, is
 582

necessary. To produce a su ita b le d e p th of chill

i t is essen tial t h a t p a r t of th is alloy c o n te n t
should be m ade up from elem ents in creasin g th e
chill an d p a r t from elem ents decreasing th e chill.
If, th erefo re, chrom ium be o m itte d , m an g an ese
or m olybdenum m u st ta k e its place, a n d alth o u g h

F ig . 3.—The Structure of C19 1 in .

BELOW THE SURFACE. X 50.

these elem ents are p erh ap s less effective th a n

chrom ium in sp read in g th e m o ttle, th e i r use does
not com pletely overcome th e difficulty.
The am o u n t of elem ents of th e ch illin g ty p e
req u ired in iron depends on th e carb o n c o n te n t
an d some a d v an ta g e in avoiding th e sp rea d of
 583

m o ttle m ay be g ain ed by low ering th e carbon

co n ten t. A n in te re stin g exam ple of th e effect of
chrom ium in sp read in g th e m ottle was obtained
on tw o m ix tu res, C19 an d C20 (see Table I I ),

F i g . 4 .— C 2 0 , c o n t a i n i n g a h ig h e b Ck
C o n te n t th a n C 19, s h o w s G b a p h ite
N o d u l e s AT 1 IN . BELOW TH E SU B F A C E .
X 50.

both of w hich co n tain ed 3 j per cen t, carbon and

5 p er cen t, nickel. M ix tu re C 1 9 co n tain ed 0.5
p er cent, silicon and 1 .4 1 per cent, chrom ium ,
while m ix tu re C 2 0 co n tain ed 1 . 4 8 per cent, silicon
and 2 . 2 per cent, chrom ium . A lthough these two
 584

m ix tu res appeared to th e n ak ed eye to have

ap p ro x im ately th e sam e d ep th of chill, m icro­
scopical ex am in atio n showed t h a t w hereas in th e
lower chrom ium m ix tu re th e re was a n e n tire
absence of g ra p h ite to a d e p th of f in . fro m th e
chilled face, in th e h ig h e r chrom ium m ix tu re

Fig. 5.—A Graphitic Spot shown in

Fig. 4. x 500.

g ra p h ite m odules w ere p re se n t w ith in \ in. of

th e face. F ig s. 3 an d 4 show a t 50 d iam eters th e
s tru c tu re in these tw o irons a t a d e p th of 1 in.
from th e chilled su rface, while th e F ig . 5 shows
a t th e h ig h er m agnification of 500 d ia m e te rs th e
n a tu re of one of these so ft g ra p h itic spots.
 585

Precautions in Producing Irons of Specially High

Hardness
I n th e p roductio n of alloy chilled iro n c e rta in
p recautions m u st be ta k e n if th e best resu lts are
to be obtained. F irstly , i t is n o t w o rth while
a d d in g alloys to low -grade iron, an d fo r p re fe r­
ence a su b sta n tia l pro p o rtio n of th e charge would
consist of low su lp h u r-co n te n t cold-blast iron.
F ro m a tech n ical p o in t of view, th e electric f u r ­
nace is th e best proposition fo r m eltin g , b u t
com pletely successful resu lts have been obtained
w ith o u t difficulty in th e a ir fu rn ace.
Some alloy elem ents are read ily oxidised
d u rin g m eltin g an d w hile th e ch arg e is being held
to a d ju s t th e te m p e ra tu re or com position. N ickel
a n d m olybdenum are n o t su b ject to m elting
losses, b u t carbon, silicon, m anganese and chro­
m ium a re read ily oxidisable elem ents. Since
losses of tw o of these elem ents decrease th e chill
w hile losses of th e o th er two increase th e chill,
changes in chilling c h arac te ristic s are n ot ex­
cessively ra p id , an d w ith carefu l fu rn ace eontrol
no difficulties should arise in th is connection.
The presence of alloy elem ents in cast iron
a lte rs c e rta in of th e ch ara c te ristic s upon which
control is commonly based and in p a rtic u la r th e
“ b re a k ” of th e iro n is changed to an e x te n t
som ew hat disconcerting when first experienced.
Iro n co n ta in in g chrom ium is generally less fluid
th a n o rd in ary iron, b u t difficulties due to th is
arise b u t seldom.
W here control depends larg ely on th e results
of chill tria ls , th e in tro d u ctio n of alloys ten d s
to affect th e ju d g m e n t of th e o perators, owing
to th e sp read of th e m o ttle zone caused by th e
chill-producing elem ents. The com position in
such cases should be ad ju ste d u n til th e desired
d ep th of clear chill is produced in th e tr ia l and
th e dispersed m ottle zone should n o t be allowed
to affect ju d g m en t.
I n g en eral i t is best to add nickel a t an early
stage. The easily-oxidised elem ents chrom ium
a n d m anganese should be held back u n til th e
charge is m olten, an d even th e n n o t all th e chro­
m ium should be added u n til i t has been estab ­
lished t h a t th e ch ill-depth is insufficient. Silicon
 586.

should be avoided as a m ean s of final a d ju s t­

m ents, fo r th e silicon can be k e p t a t a m inim um
w ith ad v a n ta g e in alloy chilled iro n . As th e
chill becomes g re a te r its d e p th a p p e a rs m ore
responsive to chillin g a d d itio n s, a n d ad d itio n s,
especially of ferro-chrom e, should he m ade
g u ard ed ly to w ard s th e en d . T e m p e ra tu re and
tim e also m odify th e chill d e p th a n d th e g en eral
effect of holding a ch arg e in th e fu rn a c e is to
deepen th e chill.
As has been in d ic a te d previously, special a tte n ­
tion m u st be p aid to th e cooling of h ig h ly alloyed
chilled iron, p a rtic u la rly w here heavy sections
are concerned, since th e tra n sfo rm a tio n which
produces h ard n ess goes on, w ith its accom panying
volum e changes, p ra c tic a lly down to n o rm al te m ­
p e ra tu re s. C are m u st be ta k e n t h a t th e cooling
proceeds, even a t th ese low te m p e ra tu re s , as
uniform ly as possible th ro u g h o u t th e a rtic le .
U neven cooling, by fo r exam ple ex p o su re to cold
w ind or to ra in , is likely to se t u p stresses w hich,
even if th e y do n o t cau se obvious c ra c k in g a t
once, m ay lead e ith e r to sm all in c ip ie n t c rack ­
ing o r definite fra c tu re w hen th e a rtic le is p u t
in to service.
W hen m axim um h ard n ess has been developed
by alloying an d chilling, m ach in in g is difficult.
The p a rts to be m achined should th e re fo re be
cast w ith th e m inim um m ach in in g allowance
com patible w ith th e su rface finish re q u ired .
G rin d in g is gen erally necessary fo r th e chilled
p a rts of highly-alloyed iro n , b u t p o rtio n s c ast in
sand m ay be m achined in th e la th e w ith special
tools. I t is possible also in some cases to “ le t
down ” th e h ard n ess of a p o rtio n of a c a stin g
by a te m p e rin g h e a t-tre a tm e n t, th e re m a in d e r
being k e p t cool by w a te r so t h a t th e h ard n ess is
unaffected.
The possibility of a tta in in g ex trem e h ard n ess
in cast iron by ap p ly in g to it th e ex p erien ce
already gain ed of th e effect of alloying elem ents
and h e a t-tre a tm e n t in steel seems likely to lead
to m any in te re stin g ap p licatio n s g iv in g a new
 587

rield of usefulness to th e m a te ria l in which all

foundrym en are in tere ste d . I t is hoped t h a t th e
d a ta set fo rth in th is P a p e r m ay he of some use
to th em in th is connection.
I n conclusion, th e a u th o r wishes to place on
record his ap p reciatio n of th e assistance he has
received from his colleagues, D r. P feil an d M r.
H a lle t— who c arrie d o u t th e g re a te r p a r t of th e
ex p erim en tal w ork re fe rre d to — and to them and
D r. E v erest for collaboration in th e p re p a ra tio n
of th is P a p e r.

DISCUSSION
A vote of th a n k s to th e a u th o r and D r. P feil
was proposed by M r. J . S. G. P r i m r o s e ,
who said i t would be q u ite a revelation
to m ost of th e m em bers to th in k th a t by
an n ealin g , a n d w h at th ey w ould re g ard as th e
softening of c a st iro n , i t could be m ade to
possess, w ith th e ad d itio n s m entioned, w hat
would be described as exceedingly h a rd surfaces.
M r. E . L o n g d e n seconded th e vote of th a n k s,
s ta tin g th e cru x of th e rem ark s concerning
specially h a rd c a st irons and th e alloying
elem ents was t h a t th e h ard n ess was obtained
in co njunctio n w ith increased s tre n g th an d less
brittlen ess. The value a n d stre n g th of a cast
iron depended largely upon th e am o u n t of, and
condition of, th e carbon c o n te n t; any d ep th
of chill could be o b tain ed by controlling th e
carbon co n te n t by th e use of silicon, m anganese,
su lp h u r, chrom ium and to ta l carbon. By m eans
of th e special alloys o u tlin ed th e req u ired depth
of chill was m a in ta in e d , b u t w ith g re a te r
stre n g th an d resistance to th e d u ty or th e work
th a t th e chilled rolls h a d to fulfil. H e recalled
th a t it was commonly un d ersto o d in th e chilled-
roll tr a d e t h a t fo r h o t rolling hig h -su lp h u r con­
te n t w as taboo, w hile fo r cold rolling i t was
perm issible. I t a p p eared t h a t special alloying
elem ents could be produced w ith g re a te r benefit
to th e rolls which were used fo r h o t rolling.
W ith reg ard to th e crack in g which occurred in
 588

chilled rolls, probably th e in fo rm a tio n co n tain ed

in th e P a p e r would go a long way to a id chilled-
roll m an u fa c tu re rs. E ven old-established firms
had n o t a t th e ir disposal th e in fo rm a tio n which
had been com m unicated t h a t afte rn o o n . T here
were various types of cracks in connection w ith
chilled rolls. T here was a v e rtic a l crack which
was a ttrib u te d to th e m e ta l m ix tu re o r com posi­
tio n p rin cip ally , alth o u g h th e re w ere o th e r
reasons, an d th e re w ere also h o rizo n tal
cracks w hich w ere a ttrib u te d to b ad m ould­
ing p ractice, such as re sistan ce to th e con­
tr a c tin g castin g by th e m ould, etc. H e sta te d
t h a t th e w hite chilled a re a could n o t be m a ­
chined. P ro b ab ly he m e a n t th e m etal w ith very
high B rin ell hardnesses, otherw ise i t w as common
to m achine chilled rolls. H is com pany m a n u ­
fa c tu re d m achines w hich ru n a t m uch g re a te r
speeds th a n h ith e rto .
The vote of th a n k s was c a rrie d u nanim ouslv
by acclam ation.

Alloyed Roll Practice

D r . P f e i l , in resp o n d in g to th e vote of th a n k s ,
said t h a t he h ad n o t been able to discuss in
d e ta il th e m echanical p ro p e rtie s of alloy chilled
irons, and, in view of M r. L o n g d en ’s rem ark s,
i t m ig h t be as well to em phasise th a t , by m eans
of alloy ad d itio n s, a su b sta n tia lly in creased h a rd ­
ness was o b tain ed over t h a t of p la in chilled iron
of th e sam e carbon c o n te n t; th u s a p la in chilled
iron h av in g a h ard n ess of 50 S hore could be
raised to 70 o r 80 Shore by p ro p e r alloying,
while a h ig h er carbon chilled iro n , g iv in g a
h ard n ess of p erh ap s 70 Shore, could by alloying
have th e h ard n ess raised to 90 o r 100 Shore.
H e w as well aw are t h a t o rd in a ry chilled rolls
could be tu r n e d , h u t th ese su p e r-h a rd alloy
chilled irons w ere n a tu ra lly m ore difficult to
m achine, an d special tools h ad to be em ployed
for th e h a rd e s t v arieties. H e d id n o t know
w h ether M r. L ongden was re fe rrin g to th e c rac k ­
ing of rolls d u rin g m a n u fa c tu re o r to fire-crack­
ing in service.
 5 8 9

M r. L ongden : I n fire.
D r. P f e il said t h a t he did n o t know enough
ab o u t th e roll tr a d e to deal w ith th is point.
Brinell Hardness Machinability
The C hairman (M r. P h illip s) said i t h ad been
show n in th e P a p e r how to ap p o rtio n th e
elem ents in o rd er to m a in ta in a c e rta in dep th
of chill. Those m em bers who w ere called upon
in th e fu tu r e to m a n u fa c tu re chilled castin g s
w ould no d o u b t use th e excellent Tables which
had been placed before them . R e fe rrin g to h a rd ­
ness a n d m achin ab ility , som etimes castin g s
showed a B rin ell nu m b er o f ab o u t 250 hardness.
These were m achined q u ite readily. A gain, th e re
m ig h t be a c astin g show ing a B rinell hard n ess
of, say, 230 and w hich w as very difficult to
m achine. H e w ould like to have an e x p lan a tio n
of why a castin g which h ad a h ig h e r B rinell
num ber, which was an in d icatio n of its hardness,
was m ore read ily m achined th a n a n o th er cast­
in g w hich h ad a low er B rin ell num ber.
M r . A. S utcliffe (B olton) asked w hether
chilled bowls could be m ade from cupola m etal,
a n d w h eth er th e w h ite or grey p o rtio n liquefied
first on rem eltin g such scrap. H e h ad b ro u g h t
fo u r sam ples fo r th e m em bers to exam ine. One
w as a p o rtio n of a high-speed cylinder which
h ad been in use a considerable num ber of years.
A second, a pulley, was m ade by T. Jacksons,
of B olton, a firm which was now o u t of e x ist­
ence. H e sm ashed th e pulley an d found th a t
i t h ad an exceedingly close g ra in .
M r. Glen P rim rose said i t was cold-blast
iron.
Effect of Elements on Crucible Life
M r. J . A. R eynolds in q u ire d w h eth er th e
le c tu re r v'ould give him th e benefit of his ex­
perience w ith high-alloy irons, and prin cip ally
of th e a n ste n itic form , as to th e ir effect on
crucibles. H e h ad h ad a few y e a rs’ experience of
th e high-m anganese, nickel an d copper ty p e,
w hich seemed to ro t th e crucible. A fte r less th a n
a dozen h eats i t seem ed to e a t aw ay th e clay, and
th e g ra p h ite seemed to coat th e m olten iro n , so
 59 0

t h a t when th e castin g s w ere p o u red th e y w ere

sim ply covered by flakes of g ra p h ite a n d th e
m etal was sluggish an d porous.
W as th e re any rem edy fo r t h a t s ta te of th in g s?
H e would like to ad d t h a t chilled rolls could be
tu rn e d . They w ere tu r n e d in his own w orks, in
common w ith o th er rolling m ills, b u t w ere n o t
tu rn e d like o rd in a ry ca st iro n w ith a big speed
an d feed. The tu r n in g was done w'ith a fa irly
wide tool, an d th e c u t m ade a t a low s p e e d ;
th e roll barely tu r n in g ro u n d . The rolls w ere
g ro u n d to th e finished dim ensions. H e h a d h ad
a fa ir am o u n t of experience of alloy iro n s. H e
was ra th e r su rp rise d th a t th e le c tu re r should
have used (even fo r e x p e rim e n ta l purposes)
several alloy elem ents w hich seem ed to b alance
or fight one an o th er. T he m a jo rity of iro n s he
had used w ith success h ad been of th e low-silicon
ty p e w ith nickel alone. H is ex p erien ce w as t h a t
using higher-silicon irons req u ire d chrom ium
adding, w hich increased th e cost, a n d added
a n o th e r com plication. C hrom ium was difficult
to control, being m ore easily oxidised, a n d it
resu lted in h a rd spots in th e m etal. I t was
more difficult to o b tain co n sisten t re su lts w ith
chrom ium alloyed w ith nickel an d h ig h silicon
th a n was possible w ith low silicon an d nickel
alone.
Effect of Molybdenum
H e had trie d m olybdenum , b u t i t was th e m ost
expensive c o n stitu e n t he h a d used. Could th e
le c tu re r s ta te w h at w as th e effect of m olybdenum
w ith, say, 1 p er cen t, silicon, 3 p e r cen t, carbon
and 0.5 p er cen t, m an g a n e se; because if i t p re ­
sented any p o in ts of in te re s t or a d v a n ta g e over
th e elem ents he h ad used alread y he w ould cer­
ta in ly m ake some m ore ex p erim en ts. H e fo u n d ,
upon read in g all th e a u th o ritie s av ailab le, t h a t
th e resu lts o btain ed w ere ra th e r c o n fu s in g ; some
S tating t h a t it was a h a rd e n e r, w hile, in some
instances, o th ers s ta te d i t was a so ften er.

Replacing Nickel by Copper

M r. H. E. B e a r b s h a w asked w h eth er
D r. P fe il had any views to com m unicate
 591

respecting th e su b stitu tio n of copper for nickel.

H e w ould like to ra n g e him self on th e side of
th e le c tu re r and p o in t o u t t h a t fo u n d in g p ra c­
tice h ad now reached a s ta te of extrem ely high
developm ent. I t was th e ty p e of in fo rm atio n
co n tain ed in th e P a p e r which was going to lead
up to th e only avenue in which th e iro n fo u n d in g
in d u stry could exist. H e fe lt ra th e r sorry for
th e le c tu re r when he commenced to re a d th e
P a p e r, because, know ing th e L ancashire B ranch
as he did, he knew th e le c tu re r was going to
be im m ediately in conflict w ith th e m oulders and
th e p a tte rn m a k e rs. I t should be p o in ted o u t
t h a t th e ir branches of th e tra d e were intensely
developed an d did n o t leave m uch room for im ­
p rovem ent, which was all to th e ir cred it. The
only avenue for fu r th e r developm ent was th e
one ou tlin ed in th e P a p e r, and i t was w orthy
of carefu l consideration.
T he C hairman wished to su p p o rt th e s ta te ­
m en t of M r. B eardshaw ab o u t th e use of alloy
irons in th e n e a r fu tu re . W hen a le ctu rer came
am ong th em an d spoke of m a rten sitic , au sten itic,
p e a rlite and cem en tite stru c tu re s th ey need not
be alarm ed a n d th in k th e P a p e r did n o t apply
to them . I t was m erely phraseology, m eaning
th a t m a rte n sitic s tru c tu re s were h a rd and
a u ste n itic stru c tu re s soft, and so o n ; in fa ct,
th ey cam e in to c o n ta c t w ith th em everyday in
d ifferen t term s.
AUTHOR’S REPLY
D r . P f e il said t h a t th e hardness of c ast iron
was an av erag e value of a t least tw o con­
s titu e n ts , and g enerally more th a n tw o co n stitu ­
ents. One of these co n stitu e n ts m ig h t be very
h a rd , b u t sm all in q u a n tity , w ith th e bulk of th e
m etal soft, as a re s u lt of which a low average
hardness would re su lt. In a n o th e r case th e re
m ig h t be a com plete absence of very h a rd con­
s titu e n ts , and y et th e bulk of th e m etal
consisted of fa irly h a rd m a teria l. The iron
co n tain in g th e h a rd p articles m ig h t give th e
lower hardness value of th e tw o, and y e t prove
th e m ore difficult to m achine, owing to th e tool
 592

edge being dam aged by th e h a rd p articles.

M ach in ab ility could n o t be ju d g e d e n tire ly on
th e basis of h ardness, a n d he h a d exp erien ce of
irons so fter th a n 230 B rin e ll w hich w ere ex ­
trem ely difficult to m achine. H e re fe rre d p a r­
tic u la rly to im properly-alloyed a u ste n itic cast
irons co n ta in in g nickel, copper a n d chrom ium .
M ach ining difficulties in irons of th is ty p e could,
however,, read ily be overcom e by a d ju s tin g th e
com position so t h a t th e iro n was in th e stab le
a u ste n itic condition .

Influence of Manganese on Crucible Life

In reply to M r. R eynolds, D r. P fe il said
t h a t m anganese was a re a d ily oxidisable elem ent,
an d in non-ferrous alloys, as in iro n , m anganese
in q u a n tity was liable to cause tro u b le , owing
to th e fo rm atio n of m anganese-oxide a n d th e
high affinity of th is oxide fo r th e siliceous
m a te ria l from w hich cru cib les a n d fu rn a c e lin in g s
w ere commonly m ade. W here high -m an g an ese
m ix tu res w ere m elted in clay g ra p h ite crucibles,
th e m anganese w ould be liable to oxidise, com bine
w ith th e clay, an d form slag, an d th e re b y free
th e g ra p h ite . H e d id n o t th in k i t w as possible
to overcome th e difficulty ex c e p t by p re v e n tin g
o x idation, a som ew hat difficult p ro p o sitio n .
M r. R eynolds, like M r. L ongden, raised
th e question of m ach in in g chilled iro n . W ith th e
tools o rd in a rily used fo r chilled iro n i t was
a com m ercial pro position to m achine th e less
h a rd v arie tie s of chilled alloy iro n , b u t w here
th e m axim um hard n ess w as developed in th e
iron, tu r n in g in th e la th e was n o t th e b e st pro­
position fo r th e b arre ls of rolls, a lth o u g h satis-
factor}' fo r th e necks.

Balancing the Elements

W ith re g a rd to th e ad d in g of alloy elem ents
in balanced proportio n s, he th o u g h t M r. R eynolds
was re fe rrin g to g rey iro n a n d n o t to chilled
iron. In th e case of g rey iro n th e a d d itio n of
nickel was best accom panied by a low ering of
th e silicon c o n te n t. A lth o u g h iro n caused
difficulties in m achining, due to th e presence of
 593

h a rd spots, nickel ad d itio n s m ig h t be m ade w ith ­

o u t o th e r changes in com position. In grey iron,
alth o u g h a nickel ad d itio n im proved m achin-
ab ility , it also stren g th en e d th e iron, due to its
g rain -refin in g influence. Chilled iron was a d if­
fe re n t proposition, for all alloying elem ents
affected th e d ep th of chill, some increasing it
a n d others decreasing it, an d , th erefo re, one
alloy elem ent alone was n o t usually satisfacto ry .
The control of chrom ium a d d itio n s to iro n was
m ore difficult th a n t h a t of nickel or m olybdenum ,
owing to th e ease w ith which chrom ium was
oxidised. F u rth e rm o re , high-chrom ium levels in
chilled iron cause a sp read in g of th e m ottle
zone. C hrom ium has a som ewhat sim ilar effect
in grey irons, w here its presence is liable to
in tro d u ce m ottle, w ith accom panying m achining
difficulties.
Role of Molybdenum
H e th o u g h t i t w as co rrec t to describe molyb­
denum as a h a rd e n e r of iron, as i t h ad a
tendency to increase th e chill, b u t he did no t
know on w h at gro u n d s m olybdenum could be
described as a so ften er fo r iron. F rom th e
ex p erim en ts w hich have been carried o u t in th e
L a b o rato ry of th e R esearch and D evelopm ent
D e p a rtm e n t of th e M ond N ickel Com pany on
chilled alloy iron, he would be inclined to
describe th e action of m olybdenum as in te r­
m ed iate betw een t h a t of chrom ium an d th a t of
nickel. H e th o u g h t t h a t m olybdenum m ade iron
easier to h ard en by quenching, b u t did n o t know
of any ex p erim en ts d em o n stra tin g t h a t molyb­
denum was m ore effective in t h a t d irection th a n
o th er elem ents.
M r. B eardshaw raised th e question of copper
in ca st iron. N e ith e r steel nor ca st iro n would
re ta in a su b sta n tia l am o u n t of copper, unless
some o th er elem ent were in tro d u ced as a ca rrie r.
The usu al elem ent to employ was nickel, and
a good exam ple of th is action was given by the
a u ste n itic corrosion-resisting and h eat-resistin g
irons, which co n tain ed ab o u t 7 p e r cent, copper,
to g e th e r w ith 14 p er cent, nickel. The iron
could be m ade a u ste n itic w ith o u t th e copper,
*
 594

b u t from th e p ra c tic a l p o in t of view i t w as an

a d v an ta g e to have copper as p a r t of th e alloy
condition. H e ag reed w ith M r. B e ard sh aw ’s
rem arks concerning alloy iro n s, a n d w as q u ite
c e rta in t h a t these m a te ria ls w ould be used in
increasing q u a n titie s in th e fu tu re . By alloying,
an iron could be ren d e re d su ita b le fo r m any
ap p licatio n s w here p lain iro n was n o t good
enough, a n d fo u n d ry d ire c to ra te s who tu rn e d
th e ir a tte n tio n to these specialised p ro d u cts
w ould reap an ad v a n ta g e.
 595

Lancashire Branch (Preston

Section)
THE MANUFACTURE AND APPLICATION OF
CENTRIFUGAL CASTINGS

By T. R. Twigger (Associate Member)

A good deal of in te re stin g in fo rm atio n re­
la tin g to th e c e n trifu g a l castin g of m etals m ay
be found in v ario u s tech n ical jo u rn als covering
th e p a st te n o r fifteen years, b u t perh ap s of
even g re a te r in te re s t is th e larg e num ber of
p a te n t specifications re la tin g to th e process, for
these show in no u n c e rta in m a n n er th e hopes
an d asp ira tio n s of th e ir au th o rs and th e p a r­
tic u la r difficulties which th ey hoped to overcome.
I t is very probable t h a t th e idea of using
ce n trifu g a l force to im prove th e q u ality of cast­
ings or to fa c ilita te pro d u ctio n by avoiding th e
use of cores h a d o ften exercised th e m inds of
o u r fo rb ears in th e fo u n d ry in d u stry , b u t th e
first official record a p p ears to be th e w onderfully
com plete p a te n t ta k e n o u t in 1809 by A nthony
G. E c k h a rd t. This in v e n to r n o t only ap p reciated
th e possibilities of using b o th h o rizo n tal and
v e rtical m oulds, an d envisaged th e castin g of
spherical bodies by ro ta tin g th e mould round
tw o axes, b u t shows in his eighteen illu stratio n s
a num b er of cases w here th e mould (itself r o ta t­
ing) revolves a t a d istan ce from th e m ain axis
of ro ta tio n . Also claim s were m ade for th e
castin g of b a rs an d hoops o r rings by using
suitably-grooved moulds, b u t no m ention is m ade
of how th e rin g s w ere to be removed. I n his
description of th e process E c k h a rd t refers to th e
desire to produce castin g s “ m ore p erfect and
n e a t.”
I t is th e purpose of th is P a p e r to give
a n o u tlin e of th e p resen t applications of c e n tri­
fu g al-castin g m ethods, p a rtic u la rly those w ith
which th e a u th o r is in tim a te ly connected ra th e r
 596

th a n to a tte m p t a review of th e developm ent

of c e n trifu g a l-c a stin g m ethods. T h is h as to
some e x te n t been done by o th e rs.1 I t m ay, how­
ever, be of in te re s t to illu s tra te h ere tw o essen­
tially p ra c tic a l ap p licatio n s as illu s tra te d in th e
c e n trifu g a l castin g of ty re s fo r railw a y wheels,

F ig . 1.—A n E arly A ttempt at Centrifugal

C asting by W h iteley .

using a v e rtical axis as proposed by J . W hiteley

in 1865 (F ig. 1), an d a horizontal-m ould pro­
cess, p a te n te d by W . Thomson in 1873, fo r th e
castin g of lead tubes, w hich w ere a fte rw a rd s
form ed in to sheet (see F ig . 2). The v ario u s

F i g . 2. — A S econd
A ttempt made in-
1873.

m ethods in use a t th e p re se n t tim e m ay be

broadly divided in to tw o classes—those u sin g a
m ould ro ta tin g on a v ertic a l ax is an d those° in
which th e axis is h orizo n tal. In each class it is
obvious t h a t th e m ould m ay be e ith e r of m etal
or lined w ith m a te ria l of a re fra c to ry n a tu r e . In
ao 7 TOC' I B F ’ 1 9 1 9 - 2 0 - F o u n d ry T r a d e J o u r n a l , J u l y 1 5,
 597

th e ease of m etal m oulds th e re m ay be a fu rth e r

subdivision, depending on w h eth er th e moulds
are used h o t or cold. The v ertical-ax is m ethod
h as been extensively used in th is c o u n try for
th e p rod uction of bronze g e ar wheels an d bushes,
it being claim ed th a t th e com bination of rap id
cooling an d fluid p ressu re gives a g re a te r density
an d finer d istrib u tio n of th e copper-tin
e u tecto id .
I n view of th e W hiteley p a te n t alread y m en­
tio n ed i t is of in te re st to note th a t railw ay and

F ig . 3.— Centrifugal C asting M achine

U SE D BY TH E B R IT IS H P lS T O N C O M PA N Y .

tram w ay wheels are now produced c en trifu g ally ,

ad v a n ta g e being ta k e n of th e process to secure
g re a te r h ardness an d resistance to w ear in th e
rim by th e ad d itio n of ferro-m anganese a t th e
com m encem ent of pou rin g , th is h igher m an­
ganese steel going to th e outside of th e c astin g
while th e cen tre rem ain s relativ ely soft and
ductile.
I n ad d itio n , p a rtic u la rs have recently been
published of a v ertic a l axis m achine.2
The h o rizo n tal ax is m ethod ap p ears, however,
to be in m uch m ore w idespread use, being used
fo r th e pro d u ctio n of larg e to n n ag es of pipe by
2 F o u n d r y T r a d e J o u r n a l , J u l y 2 3 , 19 3 1 .
the S ta n to n a n d Staveley C om panies, th e form er
using w ater-cooled m etal m oulds as com pared
w ith th e sand-lined m oulds used by th e second-
m entioned firm.
A p a rt from th e p ro d u ctio n of pipe, th e h o ri­
zontal axis m ethod finds ex ten siv e a p p lic a tio n
in th e pro d u ctio n of castin g s fo r p isto n rin g s,
cylinder liners, valve se a t in se rts a n d b rak e-
d ru m lin ers, a p o rtio n of th e cy lin d er lin e r c a st­
ings being produced in san d -lin ed m oulds, b u t
th e rem ain d er of th e castin g s m en tio n ed a re

F ig . 4.— A M achine used for C ylinder

L in e r s .

produced in m etal m oulds o p erate d a t a fa irly

high te m p e ra tu re .
The m achine used by th e a u th o r’s firm fo r th e
production of iro n castin g s fo r p isto n rin g s,
cylinder lin ers and valv e-seat in se rts are illus­
tr a te d in F ig . 3, w hile F ig . 4 shows th e m achine
used fo r th e la rg e r castin g s fo r p isto n rin g s and
b rak e-d ru m liners. The essen tial fe a tu re s of
these m achines (which are th e su b je ct of p a te n ts)
are th e read y m eans of e x tra c tio n of th e c a stin g
and th e provision of m eans fo r com pensation
for th e v ary in g expan sio n of th e m ould u n d e r
h eat. As will be seen from F ig . 5, th e m ould
is essentially cylin d rical, being closed a t one end
 599

w ith a “ fro n t p la te ” (the hole in w hich, in

co n ju n ctio n w ith th e am o u n t of m etal poured
in, governs th e thickness of th e casting) and
closed a t th e o th e r end by a “ p lu n g er ” which
in th e case of th e sm all m achine has only a very
sm all m ovem ent, th e castin g being exposed by
w ith d raw in g th e m ould over th e p lunger. In
th e case of th e m achine fo r castin g s up to 30 in.
d ia. th e fro n t p late holder is draw n forw ard
an d th e castin g th e n ejected from th e mould
by m oving th e p lu n g er itself forw ard. F ig . 6
illu stra te s m ore closely th e m ould and plunger
a rra n g e m e n t on th e sm aller m achines.
The o p eratio n of castin g consists of closing
th e m ould ag ain st th e fro n t p late u n d e r sp rin g
pressure, in tro d u c in g dry m a te ria l of a re fra c ­
to ry n a tu re to form a protective coating on th e
_ _ iv iu u lu \ rr~n
P L U N G E R FOR 'F R O N T P L A T E
FORCING OUT ' REGULATES INSIDE
CASTING DIA OF CASTING

k CASTIN G

BO R E O F M O U LD REG U LA T ES
OUTSIDE 01A OF CA ST IN G

F i g . 5.— S how ing T ype of M ould U sed .

m ould, an d p o u rin g in to th e ro ta tin g mould

th ro u g h th e ru n n e r tro u g h th e requisite q u a n ­
ti ty of m olten m etal, any excess over the
q u a n tity req u ired to give th e desired thickness
being ejected th ro u g h th e hole in th e “ fro n t
p la te .” * W hen th e c astin g has solidified th e ro ta ­
tio n is stopped, a h an d -b rak e applied to b ring
th e m achine to rest, and th e m ould opened for
th e e x tra c tio n of th e casting. I t will be noticed
th a t cores a n d ru n n e rs are com pletely elim i­
n a te d , th e only su rp lu s m etal being th e piece
ab o u t J in. w ide on th e p la in end of th e castin g
(which being slightly ro u g h an d chilled by con­
ta c t w ith th e p lu n g er is c u t off on ro ta ry
m achines), an d th e flash which is form ed if excess
m etal e n ters th e fro n t p late. On rem oving th is
th e castin g is tru e d by g rin d in g th e base end on
special m achines so t h a t th e base is perfectly
 600

square w ith th e axis of th e castin g , th u s e n su rin g

accuracy when th e ca stin g is chucked for
m achining.
Rotation Speed
In connection w ith th e p ro d u c tio n o p eratio n s,
th e speed of ro ta tio n of th e m ould, its w orking
te m p e ra tu re an d its life m ay be m en tio n ed . The
m ould 0 1 1 all b u t th e la rg e r sizes is itself cen tri-
fugally cast from a special h igh-chrom ium ca st
iron an d is h e a t-tre a te d before m ach in in g , being
secured in a cast-iro n holder w hich is bolted to

F ig . 6 .— C l o s e - u p V ie w of M ou ld
and P lu n g er .

the m achine. The “ p lu n g ers ” are likew ise of

high-chrom ium ca st iro n . The speed of ro ta ­
tio n is governed by th e d ia m e te r of th e castin g ,
th e norm al ran g e on th e B ritis h P is to n R in g
Com pany m achines being 1,400 r.p .m . fo r 2 in.
dia. to 400 r.p .m . fo r 30-in. d ia. castin g s.
Life of Moulds
The life of th e m ould varies considerably, being
very m uch less on th e la rg e r sizes th a n fo r th e
sm aller castings. The co n d itio n s a re obviously
severe, since, althou g h th e m ould te m p e ra tu re
as in d icated before p o u rin g th e m e tal m ay be
no m ore th a n 500 deg. C., th e in te rio r of th e
 601

m ould m ust m om entarily a tta in a te m p e ra tu re

ap p ro ach in g t h a t of th e m olten m etal, b u t a life
of over 2,000 castin g s on th e sm aller sizes is
q u ite common, and figures of over 4,000 have on
occasion been reached. The question of the
m ost su itab le m a te ria l is a m a tte r of co n stan t
ex p erim en t, and it is fairly c e rta in t h a t finality
has by no m eans y e t been reached. In general,
it m ay be sta te d th a t cast iron has been found
g reatly su p erio r to steel, as i t is free from the
w arp in g tendenc y of th e la tte r m aterial.
N o description of any process would be com­
plete w ith o u t some m ention of its ad v an tag es
an d lim itatio n s. I t will be obvious t h a t th e pro­
cess, especially in th e case of m oulds worked hot,
is essentially continuous, dem anding a co n stan t
supply of m olten m etal over a norm al w orking
day. The process can, th erefo re, only be worked
to m axim um ad v an ta g e w here sufficient machines
can be reg u larly em ployed to ta k e th e o u tp u t
from a continu o u sly -ru n n in g cupola. W here
th is obtains th e process, alth o u g h largely m e­
chanical, has its own p ecu liar difficulties, i t being
only too easy to produce castings showing
porosity when m achined in th e bore or which
co ntain “ pinholes ” ex te n d in g to v ary in g depths
th ro u g h th e casting.
E qually it is possible if th e closest con tro l is
n ot exercised over m etal com position an d mould
te m p e ra tu re to produce castin g s which are eith er
excessively h a rd an d difficult to m achine or
which, on th e o th er h an d , have too low a com­
bined carbon c o n te n t an d , consequently, bad-
w earing properties. The process, in short, calls
for a specialised technique which can only be
a tta in e d by long an d costly experience. There
are, however, a d v an tag es which g re a tly out­
weigh th e disad v an tag es of san d castings, pro­
vided th e c e n trifu g a l process is o p erated on a
satisfactory footing.
These ad v an ta g es m ay be divided in to two
h e a d in g s :— (1) Im p ro v em en t in q u ality of cast­
ings and (2) im provem ent in stre n g th pro p erties
of the m a te ria l. U n d er th e first h ead in g i t is
sufficient to say t h a t of th e cylinder lin e r and
 602

p isto n -rin g pots produced by th e a u th o r’s firm

th e percen tag e of cy lin d er lin e rs re je c te d in th e
m achine shop is ex trem ely low, especially when
it is considered t h a t th e slig h test flaw m eans
rejection, a n d th e to ta l scrap th ro u g h m a te ria l
defects on p isto n -rin g p ro d u ctio n , w here each
1 rin g goes th ro u g h a very larg e n u m b er of o p e ra ­
tio n s, is norm ally betw een 3 an d 4 p e r c en t. The
absence of san d avoids th e u su al fe ttlin g o p e ra ­
tio n s an d n a tu ra lly gives less w ear on th e m a­
ch in in g tools. In ad d itio n , th e re is obviously
no risk of sand inclusion in th e c a stin g when

F i g . 7 .— P r o p e r t ie s of C e n t r if u g a l l y -
cast M a t e r ia l .

m etal m oulds are used. I t will be obvious th a t,

w hile c e rta in p rec au tio n s have to be ta k e n , cen­
tr ifu g a l castings are p ra c tic ally self-feeding,
since solidification progresses evenly fro m th e
outside of th e castin g .

Quantity of Product
As reg ard s th e q u a lity of th e m a te ria l, pro­
vided th ere is ad eq u ate m eta llu rg ic a l con tro l, th e
use of m etal m oulds ensures a rem a rk ab ly close
g ra in and fin e-g rap h ite d is trib u tio n , to g e th e r
w ith a hig h -ten sile stre n g th a n d e la stic ity an d
freedom from excessive p e rm a n e n t set, th re e
facto rs Which a re of th e g re a te s t im p o rtan c e in
m a te ria l re q u ired fo r p isto n -rin g p ro d u ctio n .
As will be seen from th e c h a rt, F ig . 7, n o t only
 603

aré th e s tre n g th p ro p e rtie s exceedingly good b u t

th e values are rem ark ab ly u n ifo rm along th e
len g th of th e eastin g . I t should be noticed th a t
since it w ould be im possible to c a st a se p arate
te s t-b a r w hich w ould re p re se n t a c e n trifu g al
castin g an d im practicab le to m achine test-b ars
of th e usual form from th e castings, th e pro­
cedure adopted is to m achine te s t sam ples of rin g
form from th e castin g s them selves, as laid down
in B ritish S ta n d a rd Specifications 4.K .6 and
5004.
The uniform ly close g rain of c e n trifu g a l chill
castings is of g re a t value in connection w ith the
im provem ent of th e s tre n g th and w ear-resisting
p ro p ertie s of c a st iro n by h e a t-tre a tm e n t. This
is now reg u larly p ractised on a num ber of a u to ­
mobile com ponents, th e p rin cip al exam ples in th e
case of ce n trifu g a l castin g s m ade by th e a u th o r’s
firm being piston rin g s and cylinder liners. The
la tte r will be refe rred to in more d e ta il la te r.
As an exam ple of th e p ro p ertie s which may
be o b tain ed by o il-h ard e n in g and tem p erin g
c e n trifu g ally -cast iro n th e following figures may
be given : —
Sample. Chemical Composition
Total carbon 3.35
Combined carbon 0.72
Silicon 1.87
Sulphur 0.071
Phosphorus . . 0.48
Manganese . . 0.60
Oil hardened
830 deg. C.
Tempered
350 deg. C.
As-cast. 20 mins.
EN (Nominal Young’s
modulus of elasticity) 1 6 .4 x 1 0 s*
Tensile strength .. 19.Of 2 1 .2 |
Brinell hardness .. 240 415
* Lbs. per sq. in. t Tons per sq. in.
As will be seen from photom icrographs F igs. S
and 9 th e o p eratio n of h ard en in g an d tem p erin g
resu lts in a change in th e stru c tu re from fine
p earlite in th e norm al condition to m artqnsite-
sorbite a fte r h a rd en in g and tem p erin g , th e re
 604

being no change in th e phosphide o r g ra p h ite

co n ten ts or th e ir d is trib u tio n . The la tte r fa c t
is no d o u bt of very g re a t im poi’ta n c e , since th e
excellent resistance to w ear of c a st iro n in both

F ig . 8 .— -P e a r l it ic S tructure of U n­
hardened C e N T R IF U G AL L Y -CAS Ï C Y L IN D E R
L in er , x 1,000.

th e norm al an d h a rd e n e d an d te m p e re d con­
d itio n s is u ndou b ted ly bound up w ith th e oil
pockets form ed by th e g ra p h ite flakes o r voids.
I t will be noticed t h a t n o t only is th e B rin e ll
hardness value doubled, b u t t h a t th e stre n g th
values, f a r from being im p a ire d by th e h e a t-
tre a tm e n t, are g i'e a ter th a n in th e as-cast con-
 605

d itio n . In a d d itio n i t has been shown3 th a t

th e resistan ce of th e m a te ria l to fra c tu re u n d er
rep eated im p act is very considerably increased
by h ard e n in g an d tem p erin g .

F ig . 9 .— S t r u c t u r e o r H a r d e n e d and Tem ­
pered C e N TU IFU G ALLY-CAST C Y L IN D E R
L in e r , x 1 ,0 0 0 .

Some Applications of Centrifugal Castings

I t will be noticed th a t , a p a r t from castin g s
produced by th e v ertical axis process, c e n tri­
fu g al castin g is ad o p ted only fo r a rticles of
essentially cylindrical form . The difficulties
3 T . R . T w ig g e r , F o u n d r y Trade J o u r n a l , D e c e m b e r 17,
1931.
 606

a tte n d in g th e use of jo in te d m oulds a re consider­

able, a n d do n o t a p p e a r to m ake th e ir use
economical. F o r exam ple, so f a r as th e a u th o r

F ig . 1 0 .— G r o u p o f C a s t in g s m a d e by the
C e n t r if u g a l P r o c e s s .

is aw are, air-cooled cylinders h av e n o t so fa r

been a tte m p te d . The b e tte r p la n a p p e a rs to be
to use bushes or lin e rs of cy lin d rical fo rm in
suitably-shaped holders. T his m ethod is ex te n -

F lG . 11. C e NT K IFU G ALLY-CAST “ W ET ”

L in e r .

sively adopted fo r cylinder lin ers, valve seat

in serts and b rak e-d ru m lin ers, ca stin g s fo r which
are c e n trifu g ally (chill) c ast by th e a u th o r’s
firm in a d d itio n to th e castin g s re q u ired for
p isto n -rin g productio n .
 607

A gro up of such castin g s is shown in F ig . 10.

The p isto n -rin g an d cylin d er-lin er castin g s are
m ade from a high -g rad e cy linder-iron m ix tu re
conform ing to A ir B oard Specification 4.K .6,
sm all ad d itio n s of nickel and chrom ium being
sta n d a rd practice. F o r valve-seat an d brake-
d ru m castin g s a special nickel-chrom ium m ix tu re
is used to give a d d itio n a l w ear an d h eat-resist­
ing p ro p erties. T ypical illu stra tio n s of cylinder
liners are shown in F ig s. 11 an d 12. In the

F ig . 12.— C e n t r i f u g a lly -c ast “ D ry ”

L in e r .

case of th e w et liners, in which th e lin e r form s

th e a c tu a l cylin d er b a rre l, th e cylinder block is
g re a tly simplified, while w ith e ith e r w et o r dry
types th e use of liners overcomes th e possibility
of h av in g to scrap th e block th ro u g h porosity
in p erh ap s only one bore.
The g re a t ad v a n ta g e of cylinder lin ers is,
however, th e ab ility to use stro n g , close-grained
m a te ria l of good resistan ce to w ear w here it is
m ost req u ired , a cond itio n which is difficult to
m eet in th e o rd in a ry type of cylinder block, and
th e ease of subsequent renew al when w ear has
become pronounced. This is of very considerable
value, especially in th e com m ercial vehicle field.
 608

An illu s tra tio n of a renew able v alve-seat in s e rt

m ade from a B ricom ium c e n trifu g a l c a stin g is
given in F ig . 13. I n th is case th e c y lin d er block
is m achined to such a size t h a t th e in s e rt is
fitted w ith an in terfe re n c e fit of n o t less th a n
0.006 in ., w hich is necessary to en su re t h a t th e
in se rt does n o t come loose in service. F o r valve

ABLE V A L V E -S E A T
I n ser t.

seats it is considered th e b est p ra c tic e to fully

harden th e m a te ria l an d th e n te m p e r a t te m p e ra ­
tu re s w hich will give m a te ria l in w hich th e seat-
ings can be form ed w ith a c u tte r a fte r th e in s e rt
has been pressed in position.
Brake-Drum Liners
C ast iron is u nqu estio n ab ly th e m ost sa tisfa c ­
to ry b ra k in g m a te ria l on acco u n t of its h ig h
coefficient of fric tio n an d on acco u n t of th e f a c t
th a t i t does n o t score like steel. W hile com plete
drum s of cast iro n are used in some in stan ces,
composite drum s consisting of lin ers of c e n tr i­
fu g al ca st iron pressed in steel d ru m s a re also
used, an d th is m ethod is used on an ex ten siv e
scale fo r renew ing w orn steel drum s. A n illus­
tr a tio n of a ty p ical com posite s tru c tu r e is given
in F ig . 14. As a lread y m en tio n ed , in th is
in stan ce a special nickel-chrom ium alloy ca st iro n
is used in order to give good w ear a n d h e a t-
resistin g properties. The chrom ium is of p a r­
tic u la r ad v a n ta g e in th is resp ect, as i t im proves
th e th e rm a l con d u ctiv ity of th e iro n an d so
accelerates th e flow of h e a t from th e b ra k in g
surface.
 609

Service Results
T he follow ing figures w hich h ave been obtained
in com m ereial-vehiele service w ill he o f in te re st.
I n th is field th e conditions a re p a rtic u la rly
severe an d very close a tte n tio n h as to be p aid
to th e p rin c ip a l en g in e a n d chassis w earing
p a rts . A m ongst th ese , cy lin d er bores, valve
seats a n d b rak e d ra in s a re p a rtic u la rly im por­
ta n t . R e p o rts in d ic a te t h a t on steel d ru m s lin ed

F ig . 14.— B r a k e -D ru xi L ever.

w ith c e n trifn g a lly chill cast iro n m ileages of a t

least 100,000 m ay be o b tain ed , th e lin ers even
a fte r th is m ileage bein g q u ite free from scoring.
I n th e case of th e cylinder bores, lin ers of c e n tri­
fu g a l m a te ria l h av e offered a definite co n trib u ­
tio n to th e serions q uestion of cylinder w ear.
As alread y m entioned, th e y have th e ad v an ta g e
th a t th e bore can he of ideally su itab le m a te ria l.
This is best exem plified by h ard en ed and tem ­
p ered cast-iro n cylinder lin e rs w hich are now in
verv w idespread use. I t will be obvious t h a t to
x
 610
produce a cylinder block h av in g a B rin ell h a rd ­
ness in th e bore of 450 w ould be q u ite im p ra c ­
ticable, especially when one considers th e diffi­
cu lty th e re w ould be in m ach in in g . Such a
hardness can, how ever, re a d ily be a tta in e d on
h ard en ed an d tem p ered ch ill-cast c e n trifu g a l
liners. I t has been fo u n d t h a t w hen such liners
are fitted in to an in tern al-co m b u stio n en g in e th e
m ileage p er 0.001-in. cy lin d er w ear is increased
by app ro x im ately 100 p er cen t, w hen u sin g cen-
trifu g a lly cast p isto n rin g s. I t has, how ever,
been found t h a t if th e h a rd e n e d a n d tem p ered
liners are used in c o n ju n ctio n w ith h a rd e n e d and
tem pered piston rin g s, still f u r th e r im p ro v em en t
in life is ob tain ed . A re c e n t re p o rt on h a rd en ed
and tem p ered cylinder lin ers used w ith h a rd en ed
and tem pered pisto n rin g s in a D iesel en g in e for
road tra n s p o rt w ork in d icates t h a t th e w ear
ranges from 0.0003 in. to 0.001 in. p er 10,000
miles. The lower figure is equal to 33,000 m iles
per 0.001-in. cy lin d er w ear. I t is s ta te d t h a t
w ear is always confined to a very sm all p o rtio n
of th e lin er n e a r th e to p of th e stro k e, no w ear
being detectable in any o th e r p a r t a f te r 40,000
miles of ru n n in g .
I n a n o th e r case a p etro l en g in e, also used for
com m ercial-vehicle w ork, fitte d w ith h a rd e n e d
and tem pered lin ers an d h a rd en ed a n d tem p ered
p iston rings, showed a fte r 100,000 m iles a w ear
eq u ivalent to 12,500 m iles p e r 0.001 in . cylinder-
bore w ear. An ad v a n ta g e of h ard e n e d a n d te m ­
pered c e n trifu g ally -ca st lin ers over m a te ria ls
h av in g only a superficial su rface h ard n ess is
th a t, being u n iform ly h a rd all th ro u g h , th ey can
be reg ro u n d so as to o b ta in a f u r th e r life should
th is be desired.
The above resu lts, coupled w ith th e fa c t t h a t
a fte r exhaustive te s ts one of th e p rin c ip a l
builders of engines fo r com m ercial vehicles in
th is co u n try has sta n d a rd ise d th ro u g h o u t on
hardened an d tem p ered c e n trifu g a l (chill) cast
liners indicates w ith o u t q uestion th e g re a t
advance rep resen ted by th is m a te ria l. I n con­
clusion, th e a u th o r would acknow ledge his
th an k s to th e d irecto rs of th e B ritis h P isto n
R in g C om pany, L im ited , fo r perm ission to give
th is P ap er.
 611

Birmingham, Coventry and West

Midlands Branch
PATTERNMAKING

By F. C. Edwards (Associate Member)

I n discussing th e subject of p a tte rn m a k in g ,

two p o stu lates should be k e p t constantly in m ind,
th e first being t h a t a p a tte rn (unlike, say, a
piece of fu rn itu re ) is n o t an end in itself, b u t
an in te rm e d ia ry betw een design an d c a s tin g : a
m ould-form ing ag en t. The second p o stu late is
th a t th e degree of refinem ent economically ju s­
tifiable in any specified p a tte rn will v ary w ith
th e accuracy or q u a n tity of th e castings re­
q u ired . An early reco g n itio n of these postulates
a n d th e ir co-relationship should go fa r to ex ­
plain m any of th e a p p a re n t co n trad ictio n s m et
w ith in th e a r t an d c ra ft of p a tte rn m a k in g , and,
as a corollary, help one more ju stly to estim ate
th e m erits and dem erits of any p a rtic u la r
p a tte rn .
I t should be understood, fo r exam ple, th a t th e
p a tte rn fo r a “ one-off ” job—say, a tool-jig or
fixture, w hich m ay n ev er be req u ired a g a in —
will generally lack those aids to quick and
accu rate castin g pro d u ctio n dem anded in repe­
titio n work. T his does n o t m ean, of course, th a t
th e m ak in g of a “ lack -lu stre ” p a tte rn is as
sim ple as its unfinished ap p earan ce m ay sug­
gest ; on th e c o n trary , since one is expected to
produce a p a tte r n of th is k in d in, perhaps, one-
half or o n e-th ird of th e tim e sp en t on a sim ilar
p a tte rn for p ro d u ctio n w ork, constructive
th o u g h t m u st tra v e l a t double or treb le its
norm al speed. The elim in atio n of non-essentials,
and th e adoption of sh o rt cuts, becomes a neces­
sity. H ere, as elsewhere, successful sh o rt cuts
im ply a clear view of th e objective along w ith
th e d iscrim in ativ e ab ility to select th e one best
p a th to its a tta in m e n t.
x2
 612

The Rule of the Craft

W ith these “ one-off ” jobs, a g a in , th e p a tte r n ­
m aker (quite properly) enjoys g re a te r la titu d e
of action. H e is licensed to in flict on th e
fo undry “ ex h ib itio n ” w ork w hich w ould n e v er
be to le ra te d w ith o rd in a ry “ p r o d u c tio n ” p a t­
te rn s. T his licence, how ever, is lim ite d to
possible m oulding m ethods, an d does n o t cover
th e im possible co n tra p tio n , w hich occasionally
finds its way in to th e fo u n d ry to em b a rrass th e
m oulder and h u m ilia te its c re a to r. T h a t is to
say, although th e m ost u n o rth o d o x ex p e d ie n ts
m ay be em ployed in th is class of w ork, th e
facu lty of inventiveness c an n o t be allowed to r u n
rio t. Im a g in a tio n m u st be su b serv ien t to p ra c ­
tical politics. F o r th e m oulder of th e job m ay
n o t hap p en to possess t h a t flair fo r e x e c u tin g
th e “ im possible ” in which th e “ invincibles of
th e old school ” p ard o n ab ly gloried. T hen th e
p a tte rn m a k e r is called u p o n to e x p lain th e way
o u t ! I f his m ethods a re based on logical reaso n ­
ing from experience, all is well—since th e
m oulder, given th e cue, in v a ria b ly proves equal
to th e occasion: his reach exceeds th e p a tte r n ­
m ak er’s grasp. If , on th e o th e r h a n d , speed has
obscured th e lessons of ex p erien ce, o r d eth ro n ed
logic, th e p a tte rn m a k e r is found g u ilty of b re a k ­
ing th e first rule of his c r a f t: “ A p a tte r n m u st
be m ade to m ould ! ”
T his leads to a reco g n itio n of th e tu itio n a ry
value of th e “ rush , one-off ” jobs. B y speeding
up th o u g h t action, an d allow ing insufficient tim e
fo r th e b alancing of pros an d cons, “ ru sh ”
jobs in ev itab ly en g en d e r q uestionable p ractices
—in th e concrete. These form v aluable object
lessons to th e young p a tte rn m a k e r on “ w h a t
not to do ” ! W ith th e a c tu a l p a tte r n before
him , th e m oulder is in a b e tte r positio n to ex­
press his likes an d dislikes th a n he could be
expected to do from a h y p o th e tic a l case based
upon a b lu e-p rin t.
Yet m ore fo rtu n a te is th e n o v itia te p a tt e r n ­
m aker—from an ed u catio n al p o in t of view— when
his m istakes rem ain u n d ete c te d u n til th e y are
 613

b u rled . F o r ju s t as th e actu a l, wooden m istake,

if observed, converts th e ta c itu r n m oulder in to
a voluble (and valuable) c ritic , so it enables th e
still less a rtic u la te m ould to preach an excellent
serm on. A nd th e m ould never misses a m is ta k e !
These serm ons in sa n d ,” m oreover, are n o t only
very lively, b u t (as th e a u th o r can vouch from
personal experience) th e y live in th e m ind as
p erm an en t p ictu res—ineffaceable, u n fo rg e tta b le !
A p a tte rn , th e n , t h a t sticks doggedly to th e
m ould is w orth one’s a tte n tio n d u rin g its ex­
h u m atio n —from th e p o in t of view of “ w h at n ot
to d o .” H ere th e p a tte rn m a k e r becomes an
in te re ste d sp ecta to r. To sta n d by, sheepishly
im p o ten t, conscious t h a t he is responsible for th e
mess, as m ould e ru p tio n follows th e small-scale
e arth q u a k e , is an experience calculated to
aw aken th e p a tte rn m a k e r’s sym pathy for th e
m o u ld er; to develop his fo u n d ry sense; haply, to
e x ten d his v o c a b u la ry ; an d , generally, to
accelerate his e d u c a tio n !

Early Lessons
The a u th o r vividly rem em bers one of his first
lessons on “ how n o t to m ake a p a tte rn ” —
a lth o u g h it occurred over fo rty y ears ago. In
th is case, th e p a tte rn (it is only fa ir to rem ark)
was supplied by an outside firm, and was in th e
n a tu re of a b edp late, m easu rin g ab o u t 7 ft. by
4 f t. and 12 in. in d ep th , as m oulded. The
p a tte r n h ad been ram m ed up in th e m ould, and
p re p a ra tio n s w ere in han d for its w ith d raw al.
A fte r several m en h ad ex h au sted all th e ir av ail­
able energy, applied in every available m an n e r,
in an a tte m p t to sep a ra te mould and p a tte rn ,
and th e fo u n d ry m an ag e r (the a u th o r’s fa th e r,
by th e way) had a rriv e d a t th e last shred of his
patien ce, an overhead crane finally exhum ed th e
“ body ” —m ore or less dism em bered. Needless
to say, th e m ould— or, ra th e r, w h at was le ft of
i t a fte r th e o u tra g e —was useless !
Such a lesson could never be fo rg o tten . The
tro u b le o rig in ated in th e im p ro p er construction
of th e p a tte rn — a cross section of which is shown
 614

in F ig . 1 as m oulded, t h a t is, tab le-sid e dow n­

w ards (to secure a clean m ac h in in g su rface).
The bottom p late, A, h a d been g lu ed to g e th e r
as one piece, w ith close jo in ts , an d allowed to
ex ten d th e fu ll w id th of th e job. T hen th e
varnish was deficient in shellac. H e re w as ju s t
th e ideal com bination of b a d p ra c tic e to c re a te
m ischief. No provision w h atev er h a d a p p a re n tly
been m ade for com bating th e influence of m ould
m oisture. The dam age w ould n o t have heen so
g re a t had th e sides of th e p a tte r n been allowed
to ex ten d th e fu ll d e p th of th e job. T his, a t
least, would have p rev en ted th e “ step ” effect

FIC .I

H — SW OLLEN PA T T E R N 4 O ' i -

F I G .2

of th e p ro tru d in g base p la te . M oreover, th e

p a tte rn w ould have been, as a whole, f a r m ore
m oisture proof if i t h a d been given, say, tw o
coatings of really good shellac v a rn ish , in stead
of th e single-coat “ m ake-believe ” !
A fte r a n ig h t in th e dam p m ould— or (m em ory
fails on th is p oin t) it m ay have been all th e
week-end (a very objectionable p rac tic e w hen i t
can be avoided)—th e p late ex p an d ed . Glue and
b rads (screws were now here to be seen), w hich
before co n tact w ith th e m ould, h a d k e p t th e p la te
flush w ith th e outside of th e fra m e, proved
ineffective ag ain st th e su p erio r force of m ould
m oisture. The lower p a r t of th e m ould w as forced
outw ards, and th e p la te itself p ro jected q u ite
enough to ensure t h a t p a tte r n an d m ould would
never p a rt com pany— on peacefu l te rm s ! F ig . 2
shows th e pushed-out sides (slig h tly e x ag g e ra te d
 615

fo r purposes of illu s tra tio n ) and th e p ro jectin g

p late, B. The lesson m ig h t be s ta te d as th e
second ru le of p a tte rn m a k in g : A p a tte rn should
be co nstructed in such a m an n er as to ren d er
negligible th e influence of mould m oisture.
Inverse Seasoning
The above ru le is based on th e well-known
n a tu r a l phenom enon of sh rin k ag e across th e
g ra in t h a t tim b e r undergoes as its m oisture
ev ap o rates w hen exposed to d ry in g conditions.
W ell-seasoned tim b er, of course, is usually em­
ployed fo r p a tte rn m a k in g . I t should he k e p t
in m in d , how ever, t h a t a p a tte rn is n o t a piece
of f u r n itu r e , b u t a m oulding ag en t, and, as such,
i t is b ro u g h t in to close c o n ta c t w ith m oist, and
even steam in g -h o t sand, in which i t m ay be
bu ried fo r several hours, or, in th e case of a
large p a tte rn , for some days. T hen, as m oisture
is re-absorbed th ro u g h th e pores of th e wood, th e
action of seasoning is re v e rse d ,. an d th e tim b er
te n d s to expand across th e g rain .
I t follows t h a t th e m ore carefully seasoned
th e tim b e r em ployed in a p a tte rn , th e g re a te r th e
need fo r an ti-g ro w th m easures in construction.
Of th e various m ethods p ractise d to achieve
th is end, th e p rin c ip a l a r e : — (1) The “ open
jo in t,” which localises any expansion o r sh rin k ­
age t h a t m ay occur, and leaves th e overall dim en­
sions p ractically c o n s ta n t; (2) th e outside fram e
w ith panelled cen tre, which also rem ains con­
s ta n t u n d e r extrem es of d ry in g , and m oisture-
s a tu ra tin g conditions, an d (3) segm ental con­
stru ctio n . This la t te r m ethod is of alm ost u n i­
versal ap plication . I t is sim ple, as well as re li­
able. By glueing to g e th e r a nu m b er of pieces
of wood (segm ents) in such a m a n n e r t h a t th e
stra ig h t, stable g ra in of one piece is u tilised to
co rrect th e possible w arp in g tendencies of its
neighbours, an interlocked, dependable whole is
secured. I n th is way alm ost every conceivable
shape—m in u te or g ig an tic, m ulti-angled or poly­
planed—can be m ade to “ sta y p u t.” The correc­
tiv e in te ra c tio n of a m u ltitu d e of segm ents
n eu tralises p o te n tia l evils an d produces a reliable
stru c tu re .
 616

Pattern Usage
H ere, th e a u th o r begs leave to digress, fo r a
m om ent, from “ P a tte rn m a k in g ” to “ P a tt e r n
u sag e.” I t is one th in g to m ake a p a tte r n proof
a g a in s t norm al m ould h u m id ity , b u t a n e n tire ly
different m a tte r to re n d e r i t in v u ln erab le to
every form of m o istu re a tta c k — fo r in sta n ce , th e
m oulder’s w a te r p o t ! A d m itted ly , m ould jo in ts
m ay need a little e x tra m o istu re bond before
th e p a tte rn is w ith d raw n . G ra n te d , too, th a t
th e m oulder can scarcely be ex p ected to realise
(as th e p a tte rn m a k e r n a tu ra lly does) th e dele­
terio u s effect upon th e jo in t of a p a tte r n (s p a r­
ingly v arnished, as a ru le), o r on th e lig h t-p la te
ty p e of co n stru ctio n , of re p e a te d “ shower
bath s ” 1
C onsider fo r a m om ent th is b an e fu l p ractice.
T he w ater—u n d e r pressure, as i t is flung from
th e w ater brush— is d riv en in to th e exposed
crevices, an d percolates, m ore or less, in to th e
in te rio r recesses of th e p a tte rn , w here i t de­
vitalises th e glue, an d gives rise, sooner o r la te r,
to th e d isin te g ra tio n of th e whole stru c tu re . The
a u th o r feels con strain ed , th e re fo re , n a tu ra lly
w ith th e u tm o st diffidence, to su g g est a w arn in g
on th is p o in t fo r th e g u id an ce of th e m oulder
who w ould have his p a tte rn re ta in its o rig in al
sta te of perfection. The w a rn in g would be m ost
effective, of course, if i t could be m ade to issue,
a t th e a p p ro p ria te m om ent, g ram ophone-fashion,
from th e p a tte rn ! I f th is be found in co n v en ien t
(and th e a u th o r m u st confess he has n o t y e t
m anaged to tr y o u t th e m ethod), th e w a rn in g
m ig h t be clearly inscribed on th e jo in t, o r th e
p la te of th e p a tte rn , so th a t , as th e m oulder
was about to app ly th e cold douche, he w ould
r e a d : “ D n n 't w a ter th e p a tte r n ; i t is n o t a
garden p la n t! ”
The im portance of R u le No. 2 is fu r th e r exem ­
plified in th e following case, w here in a tte n tio n
to th e rule led to th e d e p reciatio n , in less th a n
a m onth, in th e value of a p a tte rn , from th ir ty
pounds sterlin g — its cost, to th ir ty pence— its
sale price as scrap !
 617

Learning from Experience

U pon ta k in g charge of a p a tte rn shop, some
y ears ago, th e a u th o r found, in course of con­
stru c tio n , a p latfo rm p a tte rn , n ine fe e t by eig h t
feet, w ith a panel th re e -q u a rte rs of an inch in
thickness. The panel was form ed of two- close-
jo in te d , m ahogany slabs of equal thickness, w ith
th e g ra in of th e wood on one side ru n n in g a t
r ig h t angles to t h a t of th e o th er, th e whole
being securely screwed to g eth er. I t was imme­
diately obvious to th e a u th o r t h a t th is a tte m p t
to defy n a tu r a l law would prove abortive. As
th e p a tte rn was n e arin g com pletion, however, he
decided to allow th is gross e rro r of construction
to d em o n strate its own unw orthiness. The slight
ad d itio n a l cost i t w as fe lt would be am ply ju s ti­
fied in th e accelerated ed u catio n of all concerned.
N o finer lesson could have been sta g e d ! I t
should be noted t h a t th e p a tte rn was req u ired
to be in service alm ost continuously. This m ean t
d ay -after-d ay subjection, for several hours, to
th e expansive influence on each side of th e plate
of th e m o ist and m ore o r less steam ing sand.
T his expansive action, m oreover, on account of
th e g ra in of one side ru n n in g a t right-angles
to t h a t of th e o th er, was sim ilarly rig h t-an g led
in its o p eratio n , on th e respective sides of th e
p la te . Im ag in e th e e ffe c t: N ine fe e t of well-
seasoned m ahogany te n d in g to ex p an d across th e
g ra in a g a in s t th e re s tra in in g force of th e len g th ­
w ise g ra in of an o th e r piece, which, in tu r n , ten d s
to e x ten d its e ig h t fe e t of cross-grain w hilst
re m a in in g c o n sta n t in le n g th ! The re s u lt was
ta n ta lis in g to th e m oulders. Increasingly
charg ed w ith m oisture, th e flat p late rap id ly
assum ed a k in d of saucer shape.
Now, m oulders h av e c e rta in , coercively-per-
suasive m ethods of dealin g w ith re fra c to ry p a t­
te rn s. U sually, th e p a tte rn succum bs to th e
tre a tm e n t. T h a t th e p a tte rn m a k e r does no t
always, agree w ith th is tr e a tm e n t is beside th e
point— i t secures th e desired re su lt. In th e case
u n d er consideratio n , however, th e m oulders
realised th e y had ca u g h t a “ T a r ta r ! ” N e ith e r
by coaxing n o r coercion could th e p la te be in ­
duced to lie on th e bed p rep ared for it. In vain,
 618

th e m oulders piled up 56-lb. w eig h ts on each

corner. The p la te won !. As th e w eights w ere
rem oved, i t reg ain e d its self-d eterm in ed , con­
cavo-convex shape, w ith th e resiliency of a lam i­
n ated sp rin g !
C onsider th e m ain essen tials to be observed in
m aking a reliable p a tte rn of th e above ty p e .
I t is desired to produce a fla t p late , 9 ft. by
8 ft. an d f in. in thickness. Now, a wooden
p late of such an a re a a n d th ick n ess is bound to
sag, and, generally, to ta k e th e shape of th e
surface upon which i t rests. I t is n o t sufficiently
rig id in itself to re m a in tr u e w ith o u t su p p o rt
(even if i t were p erfectly tr u e to comm ence
w ith), and one has to d epend upon th e m oulder
to strickle off a level bed u pon w hich th e p a tte rn
will be laid p re p a ra to ry to th e ram m in g -u p p ro ­
cess. I t is im p o rta n t to n o te t h a t since one is
obliged to depend u pon th is bed to give to th e
plate its co rrect su rface shape, i t m u st clea rly be
a com plete dependance. T h a t is to say, th e
p a tte rn will n o t only n o t be expected to possess
rig id ity , b u t m u st be co n stru c te d so t h a t i t c an ­
not develop rig id ity u n d e r any conceivable c ir­
cum stances in w hich i t m ay be placed in th e
foundry. To th e en d of its days, in sh o rt, it
m ust rem ain as passive as a p ancake.

Two Essentials
The two o u tsta n d in g essen tials, th e n , in a
p a tte rn of th is k in d , a r e : S u ita b le m a te ria l an d
proper constructio n . I f e ith e r of th ese fac to rs
be neglected, i t m a tte rs n o t how c a refu lly th e
p a tte rn be m ade in o th e r respects, o r how
accu rate m ay be its d im ensions; i t is bound to
prove, sooner or la te r, a com plete a n d —a s in
th e exam ple re fe rre d to —a very costly fa ilu re .
F u rth e rm o re , th e loss m ay conceivably a m o u n t
to m any tim es th e cost of th e p a tte rn . The pro b ­
ab ility being, of course, t h a t th e first tw o or
th re e tr ia l casting s will m easure u p correctly .
The fou n d ry will th e n proceed fu ll speed ah ead .
A fte r th is, th e size of th e scrap h eap will de­
pend upon th e num b er of p lates im m ed iately on
order, an d th e tim e t h a t elapses before th e y a re
 619

req u ired in th e assem bling d e p a r tm e n t! (This

points to th e ad v isab ility of an occasional in ­
spection of p a tte rn s in co n sta n t use. H ere,
“ o u t of sig h t, o u t of m ind ” som etim es proves
to be an expensive a ttitu d e .)
Now, sipce th e p late u n d er co nsideration is
in ten d ed to be a “ s ta n d a rd ” p a tte rn , t h a t is,
one which will he in co n sta n t use, d u ra b ility
should be secured, as fa r as possible. The te rm
“ as fa r as possible ” is used advisedly; i t m ust
be d u ra b ility , plus reliab ility . One m ig h t em ­
ploy m ahogany, for in stan ce, which is much
h a rd e r, an d consequently m ore d urable th a n
yellow pine. I t s very stre n g th , however, fatally
m ilitates ag a in st its adoption in c e rta in s itu a ­
tio n s. W here it is inclined to w arp , especially
if i t has w ide, exposed surfaces, th e absorption
of m oisture ren d ers i t (as was shown in th e
case m entioned) com pletely in tra c ta b le . Yellow
p ine will n o t w ear so long, h u t by a suitable
a rra n g e m e n t of g ra in i t will rem ain tr u e to its
o rig in al shape u n til—like O liver W endell H olm es’
“ One-Hoss S hay ” — irb goes to pieces all a t once,
by senile decay !
H e re one is faced w ith th e d irect q u e stio n :
Should th e p a tte rn be constru cted of a m aterial
w hich is exceedingly h a rd and durable, and
w hich m ay p e rm it of, say, th re e th o u san d c ast­
ings being m ade before it is w orn o u t, b u t
w hich, on acco u n t of its in h e re n t tendency to
w arp, m ay become q u ite useless before th re e cast­
ings have been m ad e; or, should a lig h te r and
m ilder m a te ria l be used, of a d m itted ly less d u ra ­
b ility , h u t upon which one can rely for, say, one
th o u sa n d castin g s? W ell, p a tte rn m a k in g is n o t
g a m b lin g ; i t is a scientific, creativ e a r t. P in e
(p in u s strobus) should, th erefo re, be employed
fo r th e body of th e p a tte rn , a t least, because,
w hatever m ay be its p o te n tia l re fracto rin ess, as
pine, it is possible, by a p p ro p ria te m ethods of
co n stru ctio n , to keep i t u n d e r com plete control.
Type of Construction Necessary
W h a t form of co n stru ctio n is likely to prove
m ost reliable in th is case? I t has been p re­
viously m entioned t h a t tim b e r is n o t affected by
 620

m oisture length-w ise of th e g ra in . T his is th e

key to th e s itu a tio n . The co n stru c tio n of th e
p a tte rn should be such t h a t th e length-w ise g ra in
of th e tim b e r p erm a n e n tly con tro ls th e overall
dim ensions of th e p la te , w h ilst e lim in a tin g , or
a t least overcom ing, w h atev er w a rp in g ten d en c y
m ay be p resen t.
Now, a “ fram ed -u p ” s tru c tu re , as shown in
F ig. 3, com pletely satisfies th ese con d itio n s. The
whole of th e g ro u n d w ork is of yellow pin e. The

9 - 0 - --------!

FIG. 4

outside fram e, w ith “ h alf-lap ” co rn ers, is

stiffened by th e c e n tre cross, w hich is “ h a lf­
lap ” dovetailed, a n d securely screwed in to th e
sides an d ends of th e p la te. T he re m a in in g
spaces a re closed in w ith o p en -jo in t panels. The
ends of th e panels, i t should be n o ted , a re re ­
bated down to fit on a m ahogany s trip of § in.
sq uare section. T his strip is glued a n d well
nailed along th e in n e r edges of th e fra m e , as
seen in en larg ed section a t C, F ig . 4. The h a rd ­
wood strip , of course, o b ta in in g su p p o rt from
th e body of th e fram e by th e long n ails, D , is
more dependable th a n th e yellow-pine lip would
be, reb ated on th e inside of th e fram e.
W ith a fo u n d atio n of yellow ptine, one m ay
safely employ m ahogany fo r th e s u p e rstru c tu re .
Such h a rd e r, closer-grained m a te ria l is less v u l­
nerable to those u ltra-v icio u s v en t-w ire stab s,
 C21

an d th e concussive effect of m isguided ram m er

blows, for which th e sa lie n t fe a tu re s of a p a t­
te r n seem to possess a so rt of m agnetic a ttr a c ­
tio n ! Since th e w id th of these m ahogany tr a p ­
pings, ag ain , is com paratively small, th e dele­
te rio u s effect of any p o ten tia l w arp in g tendency
on th e p a r t of any piece, t h a t is n o t locally
nullified by a com plem entary tendency on th e
p a rt of an a d jo in in g piece, m ay be reg ard ed as
negligible. In a w ord, one should m ake th e
m ost efficient use of th e len g th way of th e g rain
(upon which one m ay im plicitly rely), w hilst
keeping th e w idth of every piece in th e stru c ­
tu r e w ith in m anageable bounds.

Q uite a n ap p reciab le a d v an ta g e of th e above

m ethod, from th e foundry p o in t of view, is th e
e n tire absence of b a tte n s which are required to
hold th e p late to g e th e r w ith th e fram eless
m ethod of co n stru ctio n . Such b a tte n s, m ore­
over, in th is class of w ork, would need to be in
th e to p -p a rt box, since stopping-off would deface
th e surface.
Making Large Circular Plates
L arg e circ u la r p la tes m ay also bo constructed
on th e foregoing plan . In these, however, in ­
stead of th e outside fram e being “ halved ”
to g e th e r (which, of course, is feasible), a rin g is
b u ilt up of segm ents, an d th e c e n tre panelled as
before. A ny d ev iatio n from th e single-plane
p late usually n ecessitates a corresponding v a ria ­
tio n in th e co n stru ctio n of th e p a tte rn . An
 622

exam ple of a p la te p a tte rn , w hich was a ctu a lly

req u ired to be concavo-convex in form , is illus­
tr a te d in F igs. 5, 6 an d 7. This p la te is 3 f t.
6 in. in d iam ete r, w ith a f-in . panel. I t has
seven 6-in. dia. holes m idw ay betw een th e o u t­
side an d th e ce n tre of th e p a tte rn , an d fo u r­
teen sm all-diam eter holes n e a r th e rim . These
are shown in th e rig h t-h a n d h a lf p la n of th e
castin g , F ig . 6.
Now, i t w ould be ab su rd to ex p e ct such a
flimsy p a tte r n —m ade, t h a t is, ex actly lik e th e
castin g — to rem ain tr u e w hilst being ram m ed up
in th e m ould'; some so rt of e x te rn a l su p p o rt is
im p erativ e. A d m itted ly , a m etal p a tte rn m ig h t
be em ployed, if sufficient c astin g s w ere on o rd e r
to ju s tify th e expense. E v en th e n , a wooden
p a tte rn w ould first be necessary. H e re , one m u st
reso rt to th e p a tte r n m a k e r s w ell-known “ c a ta ­
ly tic a g e n t ’’— his Open Sesam e in all so rts of
construction an d m oulding problem s— th e core­
p rin t. By th e em ploym ent of seg m en tal cores,
as shown in d o tte d section, a t E , F ig . 5, a re ­
liable w orking p a tte r n m ay be p roduced, w hich,
w ith f a ir tr e a tm e n t, should la s t fo r a t lea st a
th o u sa n d castings.
As w ill be seen in F ig . 5, th e a n n u la r core­
p rin t exten d s well over th e edge of th e p a tte rn
(a t le a s t 2 in .), an d serves as th e o u tsid e b e a r­
in g fo r th e cores. The fo u rte e n ro u n d cores—
which are form ed on th e m a in cores— a re posi­
tio n ed by' long w ell-tap ered c o re p rin ts— F ,
F ig . 5—on th e u n d e r side of th e p a tte rn , as
m oulded. T he seven 6-in. d ia. holes in th e web
of th e castin g —w hich, fo rtu n a te ly , p rovide
fu r th e r b earin g s for th e m ain cores— a re form ed
in th e corebox, F ig . 7. I t should be n o ted t h a t
th e ra d ia l jo in ts of th e cores pass th ro u g h th ese
la rg e holes. This reduces fe ttlin g : i t elim in ate s
th e possibility of fin to th e e x te n t of th e d ia ­
m eter of th e holes. The sm all, o u te r holes,
positioned in th e c e n tre of th e ir resp ectiv e
facings in th e corebox (which form s th e u p p e r
surface of th e castin g ), a n d located by th e core­
p rin ts, F , em erging from th e c e n tre of th e
facin g on th e low er side of th e p a tte rn , en su re
 623

th e absolute accuracy of each facin g over its

c o u n te rp a rt.
The co n stru ctio n of th e p a tte rn is fe a tu re d on
th e le ft-h a n d h alf of P ig . 6. T he u p p e r q u a rte r
re fe rs to th e to p side, as m oulded— E , F ig . 5.
A double row of segm ents, G, form s th e o u te r
rin g , w hich is reb a ted on th e inside to receive
th e o p en -jo in t panels, H . This ensures a n u n ­
sh rinkable an d un w arp ab le fo u n d atio n . S tiffen­
ing is secured by superim posing a lay er of ra d ia l
segm ents, J , seen in th e lower left-h a n d q u a rte r
of F ig . 6. I t should be no ted t h a t th e ra d ia l
segm ents do not e x ten d to th e p erip h ery of th e
p a tte rn . T h eir p e rim e ter is bounded by a n n u la r
segm ents, K . T his is a refinem ent in construc­
tio n (p erh ap s n o t of v ita l im portance), in ten d ed
to seal th e absorb en t end-wise g ra in from mois­
tu r e a tta c k . I t also confers a b e tte r m oulding
su rface on th e edge of th e co rep rin t.
Two fe a tu re s in th e corebox, F ig . 7, deserve
n o tic e : th e flats, L, an d th e locatin g piece, M.
Now, in a so-called th eo re tic a l a rran g e m e n t of
th e job, these pieces a re q u ite superfluous. One
m ig h t assum e, a p p a re n tly by unshakeable logic,
t h a t perfectio n w ould be a tta in e d if th e outside
c o re p rin t e n d of th e corebox was m ade exactly
one-seventh of th e p erip h ery of th e p a tte rn , and
th e sm all holes in th e corebox were a rra n g e d to
form long, ta p e re d pins on th e core, of th e re­
q u ired relatio n sh ip w ith each o ther, and w ith th e
co re p rin ts on th e p a tte rn . The m oulder would
th e n m erely need to position th e cores in th e
m ould, one a f te r th e o th er, replace th e cope, and
c a st th e job.
A Perfect Defence
This m ode of reaso n in g is very common. I t is
also very ex p e n siv e ; fo r i t is a prolific source of
scrap— an d th e fo u n d ry p a y s ! The p attern ,
m aker, of course, easily ex o n erates him self.
T here ap p ears to be no answ er to th e specious
arg u m e n t t h a t he has worked to co n tractio n rule
an d b lu e-p rin t. H e proves, by m eans of te m ­
plates, t h a t p a tte rn an d corebox possess th e
req u ired relatio n sh ip w ith each o th er. The
m oulder m ay sense in ju stice, b u t c a n n o t prove it.
The evidence a g a in s t him is too dam ning. The
624
625
 626

scrap is t h e r e ; an d th e p a tte rn m easures u p to

b lu e-p rin t q u ite correctly. N evertheless, th e
p a tte rn m a k e r is e ith e r very in ex p erien ced , or
dishonest, w ith him self, if, th o u g h proved in n o ­
cent, he does n o t feel, to some e x te n t, g u i l t y !
The a u th o r c an n o t deny th a t, on m ore th a n one
occasion, his relu ctan ce to reverse a v e rd ic t given
in his fav o u r has over-ruled his h a tre d of m oral
cow ardice !
The p lain tr u th , w hich c an n o t too o fte n be
re ite ra te d , is t h a t any th e o ry of p a tte r n a rra n g e ­
m ent w hich leaves o u t of acco u n t re le v a n t
foundry p ractice is fu n d a m e n ta lly w ro n g in
principle. Sound logic (as D r. Jo h n so n w ould
say) p rim arily im plies sound prem ises. Accu­
racy, an d p erfect ag reem en t of p a tte r n an d
corehox are not, in them selves, reliab le c rite r ia
of first-class p a tte rn m a k in g . B efore th e core is
finally housed in th e m ould, it m u st be m ade,
removed from its corebox, d ried an d positioned.
And before th e m ould can receive th e core, th e
p a tte rn m u st be w ith d raw n . Now, unless these
essential operations a re in tellig e n tly a n tic ip a te d
by th e p a tte rn m a k e r, v arious in te rfe re n c e s m ay
creep in “ like a th ie f in th e n ig h t.” The re su lt
m ay easily be com plete c h a o s ! A nd th is in
spite of— indeed, p erh ap s on acco u n t of— a too-
exclusive a tte n tio n to dim ensional accuracy to
th e neglect of fo un d ry req u ire m e n ts. H ence,
accuracy, per se, is n o t sufficient. The goal to
aim a t is th a t optim um a rra n g e m e n t of p a tte r n
and corehox which “ locks, bolts and b a rs ”
a g a in s t o p eratio n in terferen ces.
I n th e case u n d e r co n sid eratio n , th e a c u te
angles of th e corebox ( th a t is, m inus th e pieces
L )—in co n ju n ctio n w ith th e sides of th e box
unavoidably deficient in ta p e r— do n o t conduce
to easy core w ithdraw al. This m eans th e possi­
bility of core d isto rtio n . The pieces L elim in a te
th e offending corners w ith o u t m a te ria lly d e tr a c t­
ing from th e b earin g of th e core in th e core­
p rin t. Such corners, m oreover, a re well ta p e re d .
The block, M, again , provides a core location
th a t can be k e p t in view. F o r th e p ro je c tin g
“ dowels ” of core, form ed by th e sm all holes,
 627

N , F ig . 7, prove in p ractice (w ith apologies to

G. K . C hesterton) to be locations t h a t cannot
be lo c a te d ! I t w ould be found tjia t, as th e core
is being placed in th e m ould, th e outside, over­
h an g in g corop rin t, seen in F ig . 5, sh u ts o u t th e
view of th e sm all p ro jectin g cores before they
e n te r th e im pressions form ed by th e coreprints,
F . The o u ter edge of th e co rep rin t, E (F ig . 5)
is recessed to correspond w ith th e space le ft in
th e core by th e block, M. As a fu r th e r aid to
accuracy, hardw ood blocks are supplied, shaped
to fit th e recesses, b u t sufficiently deep to be
securely g rip p ed by th e outside of th e m ould, as
seen a t O (F ig . 6). These are also m ade, say,
2 in . deeper th a n th e c o rep rin t, and serve as
m ore reliable guides th a n green-sand cores.

Plywood as an Asset
B efore ta k in g leave of th e construction aspect
of p a tte rn m a k in g , a passing reference should be
m ade to plywood. No one needs to he rem inded,
of course, t h a t plywood does n o t sh rin k . This is
a valuable asset in p a tte rn m a k in g . One may use
i t (as th e a u th o r reg u la rly does) in w idths, say,
up to 3 ft. an d over, w ith o u t fe arin g any v a ria ­
tio n of dim ensions. T his could n ot be done w ith
o rd in a ry wood. The fa c t th a t it may be ob­
ta in e d in sheets of from slightly u n d er § in. to
in. in thickness, com bined w ith an u n v ary in g
thickness-dim ension of each sheet, m akes i t a
very useful a u x ilia ry in p a tte rn m ak in g .
An a u x iliary , however, is n o t a panacea. P ly ­
wood is no cure-all. To be useful, i t m u st he
understood. A nd rea l u n d e rstan d in g comes,
mostly, from experience. “ Plywood is of no
use fo r p a tte rn m a k in g !” said a p attern sh o p
m an ag er to th e a u th o r some tim e ago. N a tu r­
ally, th e a u th o r th e n asked his frien d if he had
given i t a tr ia l. The answ er was a contem ptuous
“ N o !” Such an a ttitu d e is no t, perhaps, u n ­
common. Y et i t is n e ith e r scientific nor ju stifi­
able. Plyw ood, of course, has its w eak p o in ts;
b u t these, when know n, m av he avoided. It
does n o t ta k e very long to discover th a t, although
plywood does n ot sh rin k , it m ay w arp. Even
 629

th e 1-in. gauge m a te ria l (m ade up of seventeen

lam in atio n s), given a sufficient w idth, or u n ­
evenly exposed, m ig h t, conceivably, d eviate to
some e x te n t from th e p lan e tr u th , if allowed tim e
u n lim ited to im bibe m ould m oisture.
E d u catio n here, as in th e a r t an d c ra f t of
p a tte rn m a k in g g enerally, is largely a m a tte r of
ind u ctiv e reasoning from e x p e rim e n t and obser­
vation. An occasional m istake is th e best tu to r !
In th is way, th e e n te rp risin g p a tte rn m a k e r
learns ju s t how fa r plywood m ay be tru ste d . I t
is difficult to fo rm u late ru les for univ ersal g u id­
ance, since p a tte rn s v ary so widely in shape and
dim ensions. One m ay safely use plywood, how­
ever, w here th e g en eral s tru c tu re of a p a tte rn is
sufficiently rig id to n e u tra lise w hatever w arp ­
ing tendency m ay be presen t. As a “ d ru m ­
h ead ” connecting m edium , plywood excels. I t
does n o t develop “ shakes ” ; i t has no open
jo in ts to annoy th e m oulder w ith loose sand as
he w ithdraw s th e p a tte rn ; an d its m u ltip le cross-
lam in atio n s in v e st th e w ide sheet w ith a “ mild-
steel ” ta u tn e ss q u ite u n a tta in a b le w ith ordinary
wood. To th e conservative p a tte rn m a k e r, th en ,
sceptical as to th e serviceability of plywood, th e
a u th o r’s advice is : “ T ry i t . ”

Application of Plywood
A ty p ical exam ple (from actu a l practice) of th e
em ploym ent of plywood, in a “ drum -head ”
cap acity , is illu s tra te d by F ig . 8. This rep re­
sents th e gen eral s tru c tu re of a sh u te p a tte rn ,
3 ft. wide by 4 ft. long. The finished p a tte rn
co n tain s o th er m em bers, which are o m itted from
th e sketch fo r th e sake of clarity . The job was
first m ark ed o u t on a sheet of plywood, § in.
in thickness. This was c u t to shape, and
securely glued an d screwed to th e outside fram e—
w hich had been se p arately con stru cted . As will
be g a th ered from th e sketch, such a fram ew ork
possesses sufficient rig id ity , in itself, to nullify
any possible w arp in g tendency on th e p a rt of th e
plywood. The m ain purpose of th e plywood is
t h a t of a gen eral connecting m edium , which can
 630

be relied upon to keep th e overall shape and

dim ensions co n stan t.
The fa c t t h a t plywood has no w eak “ sh o rt
g ra in ” is a stro n g a rg u m e n t fo r its em ploy­
m en t in such p a tte rn s as t h a t shown in F ig . 9.
I t will be seen t h a t th is com ponent lies in tw o
planes. The connection (m erely th e sm all-
d iam eter boss) betw een th ese planes is so fra il
th a t to a tte m p t to m ake such a p a tte r n ex actly
th e shape of th e c a stin g would be to c o u rt
d isaster—probably before th e p a tte rn reached th e
foundry, and, certa in ly , before i t h a d been w ith ­
draw n from th e m ould. F ra ilty is co n v erted in to
s tre n g th , however, and m oulding is sim plified,
by th e em ploym ent of th e c o re p rin t, P (th e core­
box for which is seen in F ig . 10).
H ere, ag ain , plywood form s a n id eal fo u n d a ­
tio n . The various cen tre lines a re m a rk e d on
th e non-shrinkable p late, a n d th e job b u ilt u p on
it. W hen th is p o in t is reached, i t pays to
“ h asten slowly.” The im m ediately obvious th in g
to do is to trim th e plywood ro u n d to th e shape
of th e p a tte rn . B u t th e obvious, h ere, is n o t
advisable.
A p a tte rn is essentially a m oulding tool. As
a tool, its serviceab ility m u st ev er ta k e p re­
cedence over its ra n k as a “ w ork of a r t . ” To
trim th e plywood n e atly ro u n d to th e shape of
th e p a tte rn m ig h t im prove its a p p earan ce as a
w ork of a r t, b u t would considerably d e tr a c t from
its value as a m oulding tool. I t w ould rob th e
p a tte rn of m uch available s tre n g th —lite ra lly , of
its b u ilt-in backbone. Since th e plywood form s
p a r t an d parcel of th e stru c tu re , th e n , why n o t
allow some of i t to rem ain as a connecting piece
between th e w eak, o u tly in g lim b an d th e s to u t
c o rep rin t— sim ilarly as shown in F ig . 9? The
core au to m atically stops off one end of th is con­
necting piece, along w ith th e stiffen in g b a tte n
and th e m oulder m akes sh o rt w ork of th e o th e r
end. I t is understood, of course, t h a t if m any
castings were req u ired a m etal p a tte r n w ould
be made.
A Pipe Barrel Pattern
A som ew hat d iffe re n t ty p e of p a tte rn is illus­
tr a te d in F igs. I I to 15. The c astin g (to rn to
 631

fa c ilita te p o rtra y a l) is shown in F ig . 11. The

special fe a tu re of th is castin g is th e elbow, Q,
w hich, in con ju n ctio n w ith th e m idriff, R , p re­
sents one or two in te re stin g m oulding problems.
I t w ill be seen t h a t th e m idriff form s a “ dead
end ” to th e pipe b a rre l, and th u s p rev en ts th e
adoption of th e double-end b e arin g for th e m ain
core. I t should be noted t h a t th e pipe was re ­
q u ired to be petrol-proof. This m e a n t th a t
arran g em en ts had to be m ade for anchoring th e
m ain core w ith o u t re so rtin g to ch ap let su p p o rt.
T he close pro x im ity of th e gap, S, in th e base
m ade i t in ex p ed ien t to m ould th e job w ith th e
jo in t th ro u g h th e elbow.
T he a ctu a l m ethod adopted was as follow s:
The p a tte rn , seen in F ig . 12, was jo in te d th ro u g h
th e cen tre, to m ould upside down to t h a t shown.
The inside elbow core was form ed on th e m ain
pipe core, as seen a t T (F ig . 13)—which shows
one-half of th e corebox. The o u ter end of th e
elbow core w as form ed as a “ Tee ” piece— U
(F ig . 13). I n o rd er to in s e rt th is tee piece
in to its co rep rin t, V (F ig . 12), th e c o rep rin t, W ,
was em ployed—th e core fo r which was m ade ou t
of th e corebox show n in F ig . 14. This core
served as th e m ain anchorage m edium for th e
elbow end of th e pipe, besides form ing th e
u n d e rc u t po rtio n of th e o u te r p a r t of th e elbow.
In coring up th e mould, th e recessed surface
(X , F ig . 14) of th e an ch o rin g core is linked up
to th e neck (Y, F ig . 13) of th e m ain core, and
th e tw o are in serted in to th e mould to g eth er.
Two long nails d riv en th ro u g h slots previously
m ade in th e anchor core in to th e body of th e
mould effectually holds down th e m ain core. A
little finishing, of course, is necessary w here th e
anchor core jo in s th e green-sand mould. F o r
th e base of th e job, a core is m ade from th e box
seen in F ig . 15 (to rn to fa c ilita te p o rtra y al).
I t should be noted t h a t an o u tw ard ta p e r—Z—
is given to th e base co re p rin t. This is n o t of
im m ediate assistance to th e m oulder, h u t, re­
flected in th e corebox, a t Z (F ig. 15) facilita te s
core w ith d raw al. A n o th er welcome fe a tu re in
 632

the eyes of th e m oulder is th e absence of a “ se t­

off ” w here th e co re p rin t m eets th e flange. As
a gen eral p rin cip le, th e “ sh a rp co rn er ” of san d
should be avoided w h erev er p o s s ib le ; such
corners a re easily d istu rb e d as th e core is bein g
lowered in position— n o t to m en tio n th e g re a te r
risk of low ering th e cope over th e core— an d th e
m olten m etal does th e r e s t ! I n th e case seen in
F ig . 12, th e generous o u tw ard bevel, Z, fo rm in g
th e “ k e y -s to n e ” co re p rin t, is fo u n d to be an
adequate lo catin g m edium fo r th e core.
I t m ay here be of in te re s t to m en tio n t h a t th e
la s t exam ple, ow ing to in creased o rd ers fo r c a st­
ings, was converted in to a m e ta l p a tte rn . This
m e a n t increasing th e o verall le n g th of th e
p a tte rn , to th e e x te n t of th e sh rin k a g e ta k in g
place in p roducing th e iro n p a tte r n from th e
existing wooden one, an d ad d in g in ., fo r con­
tra c tio n , all ro u n d th e base'. S trip p in g an d
carry in g plates w ere m ade fo r m achine m oulding.
No a lte ra tio n w as m ade to th e coreboxes.
Metal Patterns
M etal p a tte rn s, of course, re q u ire sim ila r
a tte n tio n to m oulding p rin cip les as wood
p a tte rn s. The use of th e strip p in g p la te , how­
ever, reduces th e need for excessive ta p e r .
W here com paratively heavy c o re p rin ts occur on
m etal p a tte rn s , i t is b e tte r to cast th e o utside
shape in its e n tire ty —t h a t is, as a shell— and
block up th e in te rio r w ith wood, ra th e r th a n
rem ove th e co rep rin ts a lto g e th e r a n d subse­
q u en tly fit wood p rin ts. In th is W'ay, th e shape
and position of th e c o re p rin ts is a s s u re d : i t is
p a r t an d parcel of th e castin g , a n d ru n s no risk
of fu tu re displacem ent.
Importance of Varnish
By no m eans th e le a st im p o rta n t p a r t of a
p a tte r n ’s equipm ent is its coat. H e re th e
“ n u d is t colt ” can n o t be too stro n g ly d e p recated !
E very p a tte rn w orthy of th e nam e deserves
p a in tin g . And y et, “ handsom e is as handsom e
does,” for p a in t, in p a tte rn m a k in g , has a th r e e ­
fold f u n c tio n : i t p ro tects th e wood from m ould
m o istu re ; it gives su rface sm oothness; an d it
 633

im p a rts in stru c tio n to th e m oulder. The

exam ples alread y re fe rre d to in th is P a p e r of
th e deleterious efFects of m ould m oisture on wood
sufficiently em phasise th e first-m entioned need
of p a in t. And th e fa c t t h a t a p a tte rn has to he
w ith d raw n from th e m ould—or (a w eightier
reason) th e mould w ith d raw n from th e p a tte rn —
is, a g ain , sufficient em phasis on th e need for th e
second-m entioned purpose of paint-sm oothness.
As a m edium of in s tru ctio n to th e m oulder, dis­
tin c tiv e p a in tin g is, of course, invaluable. Core­
p rin ts, and those p a rts of th e p a tte rn w here th e
core will “ c u t th ro u g h ” in th e castin g , should
be of a differen t colour to th e p a rts which are to
form th e castin g . M achined faces, ag ain , should
be clearly in d icated . Such indications will often
d eterm in e th e “ way of m ould in g ,” th e position
of risers, as well as th e g a tin g of th e job. Those
p o rtio n s of th e p a tte rn n o t required to he p ro ­
duced in th e castin g —stre n g th e n in g bars,
b a tte n s, e tc .—should be orn am en ted w ith th e
w ell-known “ zebra strip e s .” The absence-—or
even th e am b ig u ity —of such in stru ctio n s has
b ro u g h t m any a castin g to th e scrap heap. In
th e case of th e fra il p a tte rn , indeed, it m ay not
be amiss to rem in d th e m oulder, in legible,
p a in te d sc rip t, t h a t he “ should tem p er th e wind
to th e shorn lam b ” — or some such “ a rre stin g ”
p h ra s e !
Pattern Colours
W h ate v er k in d of p a in t is used, i t should be
capable of d ry in g , say, in a few m inutes.
P a tte rn m a k in g is n o t, usually, a leisurely occu­
p atio n . As soon as p a tte rn s are com pleted—
o ften, indeed, before th e y are commenced—th e re
is an u rg e to “ g e t th em in to th e sa n d .” P a in t,
th e re fo re , m u st d ry h a rd , and quickly. Shellac
v arn ish satisfies these conditions. The colouring
pow der should be finely gro u n d . Two colours are
sufficient fo r all purposes. Since d istin ctio n is
th e aim , yellow chrom e an d s p irit black serve
adm irably. The body of th e p a tte rn m ay he
yellow and th e co rep rin ts black. The m achined
surfaces should be in d icated by “ M ” or
“ m ach in ed .”
 634

Apropos of p a tte rn colouring, a recently-issued

B ritish S ta n d a rd Specification (No. 467— 1932)
contains a scheme fo r th e m a rk in g a n d colouring
of p a tte rn s. The object, presu m ab ly , b ein g to
id e n tify th e m etal of th e castin g from th e colour
of th e p a tte rn . The colour c h a rt places m etals in
tw o cate g o ries: " iro n an d steel, and non-
fe rro u s." The u tility of th is specification is
extrem ely problem atical—if n o t precisely nil.
Of w h at p ra c tic a l use, fo r in sta n ce , a re th re e
colours— as suggested by th e specification— as a
m eans of d ifferen tiatio n betw een th e v a st a rra y
of m etal m ix tu re s in common use to -d ay ?
“ Iro n an d steel ” m ay m e a n : “ lig h t, g en eral
cast ir o n ,‘‘heavy, g e n e ra l” cast iro n , “ cy lin d er ”
cast iro n ,” stcel-m ix, m alleable iro n an d a host
of o th er v aria tio n s of F e —n o t to m en tio n th e
innum erable differen t classes of steel. “ Non-
fe rro u s,” a g ain , m ay m e a n : B rasses, gunm etals,
bronzes, alum inium alloys, w h ite brasses, b a b b it
m etals, m agnesium alloys, zinc-base alloys— w ith
a legion of o th e r s !
The specification is fu r th e r stu ltified by th e
fa c t t h a t i t is no uncomm on th in g fo r castin g s to
be requisitioned off p a tte rn s o rig in ally m ade for
an o th er k in d of m etal. A lum inium castin g s, for
exam ple—to secure lightness— a re m ade from
p a tte rn s which are o rd in a rily used fo r iro n c a st­
ings. S teel castings, a g a in —to secure an acces­
sion of stre n g th — are re q u isitio n ed off p a tte rn s
m ade, originally, to produce iro n castin g s. In
such cases— an d th e y a re n o t so in fre q u e n t as to
be negligible— th e specification could only be m et
if th e p a tte rn in q uestion possessed th e
cham eleonic,pow er of ch an g ing its co at to s u it
th e exigencies of th e s itu a tio n !
The m ost serviceable lin k betw een p a tte rn and
m etal is found in th e very sim ple p ra c tic e of
giving each p a tte rn a d istin ctiv e nu m b er— p re ­
ferably in raised ch a ra c ters—a n d q u o tin g th is
num ber on th e castin g req u isitio n form . The
m oulder reads, say : “ One poise castin g , p a tte rn
No. B34, m etal, lig h t g en eral ca st ir o n .”
A nother requisition m ay read : “ One poise cast-
ing, p a tte rn No. B34, m etal, a lu m in iu m .”
 635

H ere th e re is no possibility of confusion. I t will

be u nderstood, of course, t h a t in all cases where
p a tte rn s are used for m etals of d ifferen t con­
tra c tio n s, th e p a tte rn m a k e r will su itab ly a d a p t
th e p a tte rn . In sm all w ork, no alte ra tio n may
be necessary.
Numbering Forms
“ N um bering ” form s th e la st phase of p a tte rn -
m ak ing. P a tte r n id en tificatio n should be simple,
speedy and c e rta in . “ W rong p a tte rn given
o u t ” is one of th e w orst of m any reasons for
scrap. This m ay be th e fa u lt of th e p a tte rn
storekeeper, or th e o rd erin g d e p a rtm e n t may
be to blam e, b u t i t should rarely — if ever—
happen. Successful w orks m anagem ent—like th e
control of an arm y in th e field—largely hinges
upon th e fa c ility w ith which orders are in te r­
p reted . An o rd er should never p erm it of more
th a n one in te rp re ta tio n , an d should im m ediately
convey to th e executive concerned th e re q u ire ­
m ents of h e a d q u arte rs. The fa c t t h a t th is
“ easily-digestible food for action ” m ay en tail
difficulty in its p re p a ra tio n m u st n o t be p er­
m itte d to m ilita te a g a in s t sim plification. Such
difficulty, indeed, is both proof and ju stification
of th e policy of sim plification. Surely, w here
d oubt is likely to arise in th e process of tr a n s ­
latio n , i t is b e tte r d e a lt w ith a t th e source from
w hich th e o rd er em an ates th a n a t a subsequent
stage !
In th e w ell-ordered foundry, castings a re m ade
from p a tte rn s each b earin g its own p a rtic u la r
m ark of identificatio n . This m ark is e n tere d in
th e p a tte rn sto re s reg ister, or ca rd system , w ith
th e num b er of th e locker in which th e p a tte rn
will be k e p t w hen n o t in use. W henever a cast­
ing is required, th e id entification m ark is speci­
fied on th e o rd er received by th e p a tte rn stores.
This stores is usually common to all th e various
d e p artm en ts of th e firm—th a t is, one in which
all th e p a tte rn s fo r every d e p a rtm e n t are housed.
Since m any castin g s are req u ired th e same day
as th e o rd er is received, it is essen tial t h a t th e
storek eeper should be able to locate th e required
p a tte rn , or p a tte rn s immediatel}-.
 636

W ith th e p a tte rn stores common to all d e p a rt­

m ents, th e n , one m ay n o t u n fa irly assum e t h a t
each o rd erin g d e p a rtm e n t— w h eth er of w orkshops
or draw ing office, is m ore co n v e rsa n t w ith its own
req u irem en ts th a n th e p a tte rn stores could be ex ­
pected to be. E ac h of th e fo rm er, m oreover,
handle b u t a fractio n of th e p a tte r n o rd ers d e alt
w ith by th e la tte r . The re q u isitio n of one
p a tte rn m eans, to th e p a tte rn sto rek eep er, one
p a tte rn to be located from a collection of m any
thousands. One should b ear in m in d , a g a in , th a t
p a tte rn s have n o t only to be given o u t, b u t th ey
m u st also be collected from th e fo u n d ry a n d re ­
tu rn e d to th e ir place in th e stores.
H ere lies th e key to th e ty p e of p a tte r n id en ­
tification m ost likely to lead to efficient h a n d lin g .
The system adopted, w h ilst serviceable, of course,
to th e o rd erin g d ep a rtm e n ts, should especially
conduce to th e speedy a n d c e rta in lo cation of th e
p a tte rn req u ired . In th e lan g u a g e of chance
(which seems to o p erate h ere occasionally), th e
dice should be loaded in fa v o u r of th e p a tte rn
stores.
Location of Patterns
Now, location—speedy location, a t le a st—im ­
plies an easy recogn itio n of th e th in g sought.
As a gen eral rule, th e re fo re , th e m en whose d u ty
i t is to serve o u t an d collect th e p a tte rn s should
be able to tra c e m an y of th em m erely by th e
m en tal p ic tu re reflected by th e id en tificatio n
m ark —w ith o u t re fe rrin g to th e re g iste r. T h a t is
to say, alth o u g h one m ay o b ta in from th e re g iste r
th e locker num ber of any p a tte rn , a d v a n ta g e will
accrue, in th e way of speed and g en e ra l economy,
by th e adoption of a m ethod of id e n tificatio n in
which m em ory is given a chance to w ork
g ra tu ito u sly . In th is way, th e w ear a n d t e a r of
books, tim e, a n d wages m ay be saved. T he slogan
should b e : “ A p erso n ality fo r every p a tte r n !”
I t is a well-known prin cip le of m nem onics t h a t
m em ory very largely fu n ctio n s by th e “ associa­
tio n of id e a s.” O ur e a rlie s t “ c u l t u r e d ” a n ­
cestors in stin ctiv ely sensed a n d ap p lied th is
prin cip le in th e ir “ P ic tu re -w ritin g .” The m ain
difference, by th e way, betw een w h a t is called
 637

th e “ civilised ” a n d th e “ uncivilised ” m in d
lies very largely in th e fa c t th a t th e fo rm er has
b ro u g h t th e cru d e, p ic tu re -w ritin g of th e la tte r
to a very high a n d com plicated p itch of perfec­
tio n . I t m ay here be of in te re s t to recall th a t
th e peculiarly p ictu resq u e n a tu re of th e Chinese
lan g u ag e enabled C onfucius (born 551 B . C . ) to
express th e “ Golden R u le ” in one c h a ra c te r,
w hich we m ay tr a n s la te in E n g lish by “ R ecipro­
c ity .” The ideogram is composed of tw o o th er
ch a ra c te rs, one d en o tin g “ h e a rt ” an d th e o th er
—itself com posite— d en o tin g “ as ” ; t h a t is, my
h e a rt, as, o r in sy m p ath y w ith yours.
I t is also p e rtin e n t to m ention t h a t o u r b a r­
b aric ancestors d id n o t employ cyphers. They
p re fe rre d p ic tu re s to m ath em atics. T heir
m ethod of co u n tin g (still e x ta n t am ong o u r less-
advanced b re th re n ) b e in g : “ on e,” “ t w o ” and
“ a g re a t n u m b e r.” A nd th e “ g re a t nu m b er ”
ap p ears to h av e been correctly re g istered as a
p ic tu re on th e m e n ta l re tin a of th e savage.
Now, ap plied to th e question of p a tte rn iden­
tificatio n , th e foregoing p o in ts to th e advisability
of coupling, w ith th e specific allocation of
cyphers, a generic le tte r. This le tte r would have
th e effect (to co n tin u e th e p ic tu re phraseology)
of p ro jectin g on th e p a tte rn -sto re k e e p e r's m en tal
screen th e category to which th e p a rtic u la r
p a tte rn belongs. The first step (proverbially
difficult) to recognition would in th is way he
secured. The generic le tte r m ay e ith e r refe r to
d is tin c t classes of w o rk or to d ep artm e n ts. In
anv case, th e y w ould afford considerable assist­
ance to th e p atte rn -sto re k ee p er.
The a u th o r m akes no apology fo r d evoting so
much a tte n tio n here to th e question of p a tte rn
id en tificatio n . I t is th e la st o p eratio n on th e
p a tt e r n ; b u t it is c e rtain ly no t th e least in
im portance. As a p o stscrip t, it m ay be observed
th a t th e re g istra tio n of T reasu ry notes and
m otor vehicles is on th e lines above en u n cia ted .
The most. “ catch y ” ad v ertisem en ts, ag ain , use
tin's m ethod. The system w orks. A nd, lastly ,
th e presen t y e a r will, in th e icons of ages
to come, be refe rre d to a s : a . d . 1934.
 638

Conclusions
T his P a p e r began by p o stu la tin g th e p a tte r n
as an in te rm e d ia ry betw een design an d castin g .
The note will serve to end upo n . I t sounds th e
p a tte rn m a k e r’s “ c h a rte r of lib e rty ” : lib e rty to
create, to in v e n t a n d o rig in a te . T ra n sla tin g
tw o-dim ensional design in to a three-d im en sio n al
m oulding a g e n t can n ev er become a ro u tin e job.
Such tra n s la tio n essentially dem ands th e in te r ­
p re ta tiv e flair of th e lin g u ist, plus th e p io n e e r’s
u rge for an e v er-b ette r way. H ere is scope for
genius, as defined by D r. J o h n s o n : “ A m ind of
wide, g en eral powers accid en tally d ete rm in e d in
some p a rtic u la r d ire c tio n .” The facile rea d in g
of b lu e - p rin t; th e m en tal p ic tu re of th e castin g ;
questions g a lo re ; to core, o r n o t to c o re ; how
best to m ould th e job—w ith special referen ce to
jo in tin g ; th e im perceptible m etam orphosis from
th e naked castin g to th e fu lly -acco u tred p a t t e r n ;
th e n , g rap p lin g w ith pow ers of co n stru ctio n —to
secure service stre n g th and checkm ate w a rp in g ;
in to th e realm of a c tio n : th e am b id ex tro u s
m an ip u latio n of tools—w here kaleidoscopic a d a p ­
ta tio n of force and d irectio n u n can n ily suggests
deep, m u tu a l affection, an d proves th e p e rfe c t
co-ordination of h a n d and b r a i n ! T his—w ith
in terlu d es and v a ria tio n s— is p a tte rn m a k in g .
W h eth er its p u rs u it is, to th e p a tte rn m a k e r,
in sp irin g m usic or a m o u rn fu l d irg e, depends
en tire ly upon him self. H e m ay m ake i t (to
quote P ro f. T. H . H u x le y ’s referen ce to m a n ’s
life in g en eral)—e ith e r a fu n e re a l m arch or a
triu m p h a l procession !
In conclusion, th e a u th o r wishes to express his
th an k s to his em ployers— M essrs. W . & T. A very,
L im ited—fo r th e ir kindness in connection w ith
th is P a p e r.

DISCUSSION
M r . J . P . G r e e n w a y , proposing a h e a rty vote
of th a n k s to th e le c tu re r, said t h a t he h ad ob­
viously ta k e n accoun t of th e difficulties of th e
foun d ry m an an d th e m oulder, an d had shown
he was possessed of tr u e fo u n d ry sense. The
sm all points in th e finishing up of p a tte rn s
 639

counted a g re a t deal in th e fo u n d ry , an d M r.
E dw ards had given them food for th o u g h t in
th is directio n . M r. W . Jam es, in seconding,
u rg e d t h a t th e P a p e r o u g h t to be circulated
am ong em ployers to show w h a t p a tte rn m a k in g
was. M any p a tte rn s w ere co n stru cte d c o n trary
to th e p lan M r. E d w ard s advocated, w hich was
u n fo rtu n a te fo r th e foundrym an. In too m any
cases th e idea was som ething cheap, ig noring
th e p ra ctical aspect of how th e m oulder was to
produce th e castin g . Som etim es p a tte rn m a k e rs
p u t in a liftin g p late c o n tra ry to th e m ethod of
m oulding. H e considered t h a t p a tte rn m a k e rs
should spend six m onths in a fo u n d ry in o rd e r to
realise th e p rac tic al difficulties th e m oulder was
up a g ain st. The m otion was carried most
cordially.
T he Bit a n c h - P r e s t d e n t (M r. E . J . Lewis), re­
fe rrin g to th e b ed p late spoken of, said th a t in
p a tte rn m a k in g of th e d escription cited most de­
signers liked to p u t a fancy bead round it. To
c o n stru ct a p a tte rn w ith a half-lap jo in t and
th e n cover in as shown on th e slide would be
difficult. I n such cases of a fancy bead he
th o u g h t th e u su al m ethod was to m ake a m aster
p a tte rn , an d cast a lig h t m etal fram e an d cover
in ro u n d th a t. This plan im p a rted stre n g th ,
stopped expansion and c o n tractio n from th e
p a tte rn p o in t of view, an d held th e p a tte rn
s tra ig h t. A dm ittedly, i t was som ething expen­
sive, b u t ta k in g th e req u irem en ts of 1,000 to
3,000 castin g s m entioned by M r. E dw ards, th is
e x tr a expense would n o t m ake m uch difference
to th e u ltim a te cost of th e castings. H e
th o roughly agreed t h a t p rin ts should be cast a s
p a r t of th e p a tte rn . B u t he him self always ex­
ten d ed any p rin ts outside so as to lig h te n ou t
th e job. M r. Lew is in stan ced a m etal p a tte rn
f in. th ic k , an d said th a t in stead of using a
p rin t th e u ltim a te size of w h at it was to be on
the job, he oast th e p rin t on th e m etal p a tte rn
and th e n ex ten d e d a n o th e r one outside it,
m aking a rough corebox to en su re th e p rin t
being on th e m etal p a tte rn which he was
m aking.
 640

R e g a rd in g th e p a in tin g of p a tte rn s a n d ru sh ­
ing th em in to th e fo u n d ry to “ g e t one off,” he
was dead a g a in s t p a in tin g w hen p a tte rn s w en t
s tra ig h t to th e fo u n d ry fo r m oulding. I n such
cases th ey w ere bound to g e t a . stic k in g of th e
sand an d a d ir ty m ould. The best p la n in an
u rg e n t job was to send th e p a tte r n b ack fo r
p ain tin g an d finishing a fte r th e ru sh ca stin g
was done.
Varnishing and Camber
M r W . J a m e s considered i t possible to v a rn ish
.
a p a tte rn so t h a t m ould m o istu re becam e a
secondary consid eratio n. By ap p ly in g a n u m b er
of coats of good v arn ish , an y dam age fro m m ould
m oisture becam e alm ost negligible. I n m ak in g
to o th wheels from a p a tte rn 5 ft. in d ia ., he
had no tro u b le owing to th e use of a good stro n g
v arn ish of sufficient coats. C am ber was a sub­
je c t which he fou n d few knew m uch ab o u t. In
m aking h a n d ra ils to fit on th e to p of sq u are rods
—th ey were 9 ft. long— he suggested an allow­
ance of | in ., as th e ra ils had to be dead s tra ig h t.
The forem an stood o u t fo r I in ., so th e y sp lit th e
difference. D ifficulties a ro s e ; in th e first five or
six n o t one was s tra ig h t. H e subsequently
learn ed t h a t th e u su a l a ttitu d e h ad been n o t to
recognise cam ber. As M r. E d w ard s h a d a good
deal to do w ith fla t m a te ria l, p erh a p s he could
en lig h ten them f u r th e r as to cam ber. M r.
Jam es added t h a t he could confirm w h a t had
been said in p ra ise of plywood.

The Way to Make Bed Patterns

M r. J.B. J o h n s o n , as a n old p a tte rn m a k e r,
was glad t h a t so m any m em bers h ad tu r n e d u p
to h e a r so em inen tly p ra c tic a l a P a p e r. H e r e ­
m em bered a set of p a tte rn s being fo rw ard ed to
his firm ’s fo u n d ry fo r a gas e n g in e w ith a long
bed. This bed was m ade ex actly as th e le c tu re r
illu s tra te d in F ig . 2. I t lay in th e san d all
n ig h t, and th e a ir was “ blue ” n e x t d ay w hen
efforts were m ade to g e t th e p a tte r n o u t. The
real common-sense way, a s p o in te d o u t, w as to
c a rry th e sides down to th e bottom . T hus, th is
 fill

tro u b le was avoided. E lem en tary points were

im p o rta n t in p ra c tic e ; sm all th in g s which were
necessary, if ignored, only b ro u g h t tro u b le and
n aste. He th o u g h t it advisable th a t a p a tte rn ­
m aker should have some knowledge of foundry
w ork. The suggestion of six m o n th s’ tu itio n and
w ork in th e foun d ry m ight be im proved u p on;
they m ight req u ire p atte rn m a k e rs to work off
some of th e ir own p a tte rn s. R ecently he had
been castin g some larg e p lates 9 ft. by 8 ft. H e
checked th e p a tte rn over 0 1 1 one side, and it
stood up very well. H e did n o t a tte m p t any
striking -off of th e bed, n o r bedding them in, and
good castings (resulted. I t was essential th a t in
th e fo u n d ry th ey should see t h a t th e ir tack le was
rig h t, and th is ensured good castings and len g th ­
ened th e life of th e ir p a tte rn s.
Pattern Colour Specification
M r. G. M. C a l l a g h a n believed he was correct
in saying t h a t a larg e p ercen tag e of th e troubles
of anyone m an ag in g a jobbing fo u n d ry could be
p u t down to th e p a tte rn s ; e ith e r th ey were n o t
rig h t on e n te rin g th e fo u n d ry , or were n o t rig h t
when th e y w ere w orked off. A castin g was m ade
an d w ent to th e m achine shop, being placed
e ith e r on th e m achine tab le or in th e lath e. It
was carefully exam ined in a m ore microscopic
way th a n was th e p a tte rn when draw n o u t of
store. F o r m easu rin g purposes as betw een cast­
ing and p a tte rn he p re fe rre d to use th e callipers
and rule him self, because he had found engineers
and p a tte rn m a k e rs n o t p a rtic u la r to y j in. in
m easuring, and if a w aster was m ade, i t came
back as th e responsibility of th e foundry. P a t­
te rn s, if fa u lty , should be corrected before th e
m oulder had to w ork th em off ag ain . H e was
not sure t h a t tw o colours for p a in tin g were suffi­
cien t. A p a tte rn o u g h t to show which was m etal,
which was c o re p rin t and m achine fa c e ; and also
w here loose pieces fitted , as well as w here pieces
should be stopped off. The little pam p h let which
M r. E dw ards th o u g h t of no value was, he con­
sidered, ra th e r useful if everybody adhered to
i t ; b u t th ey did not.
Y
 042

How Inferior Varnish Hinders

D ifferent m ix tu re s w ere used fo r p a in tin g in
various p a tte rn w orks, and he was faced w ith
m any p a tte rn s which seem ed to h ave been
p ain ted w ith treacle. H e did n o t th in k p a tte r n ­
m akers realised th e trem en d o u s su ctio n and pull
req u ired to release some of th e p a tte rn s in big
jobs. In one m a rin e cy lin d er job of 7J to n s
w eight th e cran e used re g istered 15 to n s in p u ll­
ing o u t th e p a tte rn . Some p a tte rn s which had
been ram m ed up some weeks w ere q u ite sticky.
He had know n p a tte rn s which had been v a r­
nished which were definitely sticky a f te r being
in th e san d fo r some ti m e ; th ese w ere on big
jobs. One little refinem ent came u n d e r his
notice some years ago which w orked very well in
connection w ith c o re p rin ts on pipes, an d he be­
lieved few p a tte rn m a k e rs w ere aw are of it. H e
had used it very successfully, a n d illu s tra te d his
p o in t on th e blackboard. T his w as a sm all fillet
round a pipe p rin t a g a in st th e flange, which
prev en ted th e core from b re a k in g aw ay th e
corner of th e s a n d ; th e core d id n o t, as he
showed, touch th e to p p a r t a t all.
Pattern Sketch Usage
M r. J . W. G a r d o m re m ark ed t h a t th e specifi­
catio n in re g a rd to m a rk in g p a tte rn s w as a c tu ­
ally recom m ended by th e In s titu te , an d while
he agreed w ith th e le c tu re r’s criticism s, he
th o u g h t i t would be m ore sa tisfa c to ry if p a tte r n ­
m akers w ere to tr y an d keep to th e specification.
One th in g which th e C om m ittee which considered
th e m a tte r recom m ended was t h a t th e co n tra c ­
tio n of th e m etal should be stam p ed on all p a t­
te rn s so m ade, which would m eet M r. E d w a rd s’
p o in t in t h a t respect. M a rk in g of p a tte rn s was
very im p o rta n t. One firm w ith w hich he was
connected m ade a sketch of every p a tte rn and
gave i t th e o rig in al nu m b er. On th e b lu e -p rin ts
of th e p a rts issued th e re was noted an y ques­
tio n of cores an d any difficulty and th e price.
The percen tag e of scraps from th e la s t o rd e r was
recorded also, so t h a t a t a glance fu ll in fo rm a ­
tio n was available.
 6-13

M r . J . F . G r e e k w a y , re fe rrin g to th e illus­
tra tio n s of releasing th e core from core boxes,
suggested th a t b o ltin g would be a simple and
convenient m ethod, and said th e screw holes
•would n o t become enlarged.
Taper Difficulties
M r . G. W. B row n th o u g h t th e supposed tr a d i­
tio n a l feeling betw een p a tte rn m a k e rs and
m oulders was ex ag g erated . H ow ever, i t was
ex a sp e ra tin g to find th a t, while fo r a 6-in. deep
job a p a tte rn m a k e r would allow p len ty of ta p e r,
when it came to a m a tte r of -g in. deep, th e
p a tte rn m a k e r seemed to fo rg et all ab o u t it. Now
suppose a p a tte rn m a k e r was a rra n g in g a core­
box and p rin t, a discrepancy of J in. was
no th in g to him . H e se n t th e box in w ith th a t
discrepancy and caused endless tro u b le ; whereas,
if he took a little m ore care, he could elim in ate
m uch p e ttv tro u b le which th e m oulder had to
face. H e recognised th a t it was a responsible
job an d t h a t th e p a tte rn m a k e r m u st ta k e the
in itia tiv e . It was n ot always possible for him
to co-operate w ith th e m oulder, and some con­
su lta tio n s m ight lead now here and delay th e job
u n d u lv . On ru sh jobs, obviously, th e p a tte rn ­
m ak er h ad little tim e fo r co n su ltatio n w ith the
m oulder. H is sym pathy was w ith th e p a tte rn ­
m ak er-; b u t, all th e sam e, m oulders were good,
h e a rty fellows who p u t u p w ith various difficul­
tie s an d m ade th e best of them . M r. Brown
quoted a case as show ing th a t th e job could not
possibly stan d a th o u san d castings. H e referred
to flvwheels and rope pulleys some 12 ft. in
d ia m e te r an d 6 ft. wide. These were m ade in a
segm ent of coreboxes, w ith th e arm of th e
pulleys going th ro u g h th e m iddle of th e box to
th e outside, th e rope grooves being b u ilt up in
cores. The m ere fa c t of h an d lin g th e boxes
would end in th em being in pieces long before
a th o u san d castin g s were m ade.
Camber
As to cam ber, M r. Brow n recalled th e m aking
of o rn am en tal g ates, w ith cast-iro n segm ents.
 644

which were 14 f t. h ig h an d 2 ft. w ide. They

were m ade in fo u r fla t sides a n d bolted to g eth e r,
an d som etim es it took th re e o r fo u r m oulders
tw o days sp rig g in g th e m ould fo r th e o rn a ­
m en tatio n . To decide on th e cam ber was a ques­
tio n of tr ia l an d e rro r. The m en h a d a n id ea
of how m uch cam ber to p u t on, b u t m ost of
th e panels h ad to be h ea te d over th e b lac k sm ith ’s
lire an d placed u n d e r th e steam h am m er to
stra ig h te n . I t was very seldom one cam e o u t
stra ig h t, an d th e question g en erally w as a d if­
ficult one. P ro bab ly some of th e ir tro u b le s as
moulders would be o b v iated if p a tte rn m a k e rs
had th e o p p o rtu n ity to w ork from th e ir own
p a tte rn s in th e fo u n d ry .

AUTHOR’S REPLY
M r . E d w a r d s , rep ly in g to th e discussion, said
th a t if there was one th in g he h ad stu d ie d for
over 40 y ears it was how to assist th e fo u n d ry .
W hile he agreed to some e x te n t w ith a p a tte r n ­
m aker h av in g some fo u n d ry experience, any
p a tte rn m a k e r w orth his sa lt w ould consider th e
m oulders’ difficulties. In c id e n ta lly , he should
le a d th e “ F o u n d ry T rad e J o u r n a l.” In t h a t way
a p a tte rn m a k e r could le a rn a good deal ab o u t
fo undry problem s in re la tio n to p a tte rn s . The
P re s id e n t spoke ab o u t a m etal fra m e to keep
p a tte rn s tr u e . The only o bjection he h ad was
t h a t a m etal fram e added w eight to th e p a tte rn
an d rendered th e w ork of th e m oulder still
h a rd e r. H is id ea was to reduce m oulding w ork
to th e lig h test possible degree co n sisten t w ith
sound r e s u lts ; th e m oulder w ould still have
plen ty of ard u o u s w ork to do. H e w ould ra th e r
ad o p t some p lan fo r stre n g th e n in g up a p a tte rn
by a p p ro p ria te m eans, such as “ fr a m in g ,”
l a th e r th a n add a q u a n tity of m etal. H e ag reed
th a t if p a tte rn s w ere to be th ro w n off in to th e
foundry s tra ig h t aw ay th e y w ere ju s t as well
w ith o u t p a in t as w ith p a in t. They could th e n
g et th em rubbed down a n d p a in te d . R e g a rd in g
th e p o in t of m ould m o istu re raised by M r.
Jam es, he agreed t h a t p a tte rn s well v arn ish ed
would defy m o istu re. H e still h ad wooden
 645

p a tte rn s, from w hich 5,000 t o 8,000 h a d been

ru n off. P e rh a p s tw e n ty coats of v arn ish had
been applied. P a tte rn s should he well rubbed
down a fte r use and given a n o th e r good coating
inside and o u t. A v a rn ish which was re ­
liable, and which th e y m ig h t call a good enam el,
would defy m ost m o istu re conditions th a t th e
m oulder could su b ject it to . As to M r. Ja m e s’
rem arks on cam ber, he a p p reciated th e w ork of
Longden on t h a t subject. I t was th e most
advanced of th e k in d , and although it did no t
apply to every case, it was very valuable. B u t
if th e in d iv id u a l m oulder could m anage to deal
w ith cam ber correctly, good luck to him.

Camber
The m ethod of u sin g a board sufficient to resist
th e b ending of plywood was, as M r. Jam es in d i­
cated, q u ite u seful in re g a rd to cam ber. R e­
v e rtin g to fo u n d ry p ra c tic e fo r th e p a tte rn ­
m aker, M r. E d w ard s said he did n o t hold w ith
th e la t te r spending six m onths th e re. H e him ­
self had obtain ed m uch know ledge by ta lk in g to
good m oulders. No p a tte rn m a k e r could learn
m oulding in six m onths. H e advised p a tte rn ­
m akers to question m oulders on c e rta in points.
The w ay to o b tain know ledge, he found, was b it
by b it, and n o t to tr y to secure too m uch a t once.
They would find o p p o rtu n itie s fo r going in to th e
foundry and e n listin g th e goodwill of th e
m oulder, w atch in g th e p a tte rn s being draw n
from th e mould and n o tin g how th e cores w en t
in to th e m ould.

That Pattern Colour Specification

H e endorsed th e m ethod m entioned by M r.
C allaghan in p re v e n tin g pipe sn ag s; and w ith
reference to M r. G ardom ’s allusion to th e
B ritis h sta n d a rd specification, he had sp en t
fo rty years in p a tte rn shops, an d spoken to
hun d red s of m oulders and handled th o u san d s of
P a tte rn s, an d his experience led him n o t to
agree w ith it. H e said th is from his own know­
ledge of p a tte rn m a k in g , from his acq u ain tan ce
y 2
 646

w ith fo u n d ry w ork an d w ith g e n e ra l en g in ee rin g

p ractice, an d he considered it useless. He
believed th e idea was first suggested by A m erica,
an d was th e n approved by th e B ritis h Com­
m ittee. I n th e long lis t of sponsors, h ead ed by
th e A d m iralty and th e m echanical en g in eers, th e
poor p a tte rn m a k e rs w ere placed a t th e b ottom .
H e reg ard ed i t as a p resu m p tio n t h a t those who
knew n o th in g ab o u t p a tte m m a k in g should p u t
fo rw ard a pam p h let and w a n t 2s. 2d. fo r i t in
o rd er to tell them , how an d w h a t to v a rn ish an d
so on. I t was th e p a tte rn m a k e r who. should
decide w h at to do w ith th e p a in t. The whole
th in g was an effort to tie th e p a tte rn m a k e r
down to a sta n d ard ise d p rin cip le w hich was
w rong, an d if ad h ered to would cause tro u b le.
W h a t ab o u t p a tte rn s which have to be m ade
u n d er stress, o r p a tte rn s w hich h ave to be
produced a t th e cheapest p rice? S u rely th e y
could p o in t w here th e m e ta l was, o r th e core
p rin t, or w h at should be stopped off as occasion
dem anded, w ith o u t a rig id sta n d a rd is a tio n which
was uncalled for. H e m u st confess t h a t he h ad
m et w ith several curious m ethods or system s
devised by people who did n o t know m uch ab o u t
th e subject, b u t he was fo rtu n a te in re sp ect to
his p resen t firm. M r. G ardom suggested t h a t
th e stam p in g of th e c o n trac tio n of th e m etal
em ployed in th e p a tte rn as recom m ended by th e
p am p h let would be h elpful. I n some cases th is
w ould be u n w o rk a b le ; as, fo r in stan ce, in th e
ca st iron and alu m in iu m com bination w hich he
h a d spoken of. The p a tte rn m a k e r should use
his own ju d g m en t, and he considered th e w o rk s’
m an ag e m en t would be wise in leav in g th e
p a tte rn m a k e rs to work o u t th e ir own difficulties,
w ith o u t im posing system s a rra n g e d by people
who did n o t realise w h eth er th e y w ere
p racticab le. As to M r. G reenw ay’s id ea of core
boxes being screwed to g e th e r, if i t was a
sta n d a rd job th is p lan could be u sefu lly followed.
I n th e case of th e core box w ith ta p e re d shell,
th is form ed a collapsible core box w ith o u t th u m b
screws. F in ally M r. E d w ard s said he agreed
w ith consultation s betw een th e p a tte rn m a k e r and
 647

m oulder, b u t th e m oulder d id n o t generally

u n d e rs ta n d draw ings. The fo u n d ry m an p re­
fe rred a clear cu t question an d n o t a series of
th e o re tic a l inquiries. Some of th e p a tte rn s he
had shown h ad stood up to 1,000 castings, and
w ere m ade tw elve to fifteen years ago, b u t
a d m itted ly th ey were lig h t in ch aracter.
 648

Scottish Branch
PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING MACHINERY
CASTINGS

By Robert Ballantine (Member)

C astings nsed in th e c o n stru ctio n of wood­
w orking m ach in ery a re ex trem ely v a rie d in
design, consequently problem s c o n tin u a lly crop
up, an d these problem s a re m ostly solved in th e
h a rd school of a c tu a l p ractice. The finished
m achines are classed as m achine tools, b u t one
c an n o t associate th e castin g s used in co n stru c­
tio n w ith th e m assive an d w eighty u n its re q u ired
for m etal-w ork in g p la n t. To classify th is w ork
is difficult. I t n e ith e r comes w ith in th e lig h t-
castings h ead in g n o r th e heav y -castin g s section,
b u t th e fine finish of th e fo rm er is essen tial,
coupled w ith th e easv-m achining q u a litie s of th e
la tte r —tru ly a problem in itself, due to m an y
causes.
M odern m achine-shop p ra ctice lim its th e m a­
chining allowances to a degree u n h e a rd of
form erly, an d th is degree of accuracy can only
be a tta in e d by in ten siv e stu d y , r ig h t fro m design
to th e m achin ed castin g s. The ten d en c y in
w oodw orking m ach in ery design is fo r box sec­
tions in place of I f sections, larg e ro u n d s in place
of sh arp corners, an d a b len d in g of p erfectly flat
surfaces in to a rtis tic co ntours. I n c o m p arin g
designs of castin g s on old m achines w ith th e
castings of m odern design, one c a n n o t b u t a d m it
th e su p e rio rity of th e m odern p ro d u c t. I n com­
parison w ith w oodw orking m achines of th e
e ig h ties th e m odern design is a w ork of a rt.
M oreover, from 20 to 30 tim es th e n u m b er of
castings are now req u ired fo r th e m odern
m achines.
In th e m a jo rity of castin g s p roduced, m achined
faces are everyw h ere; m e ta l thicknesses a re very
irre g u la r and a larg e a re a of th e m e ta l is com­
p arativ ely th in . To be successful, logical reason-
 649

ing is ail im p o rta n t in design, p a tte rn construc­

tio n , m oulding, coring, g a tin g , v en tin g , densen-
ing an d cam ber. In th e first instance, many
foun dry problem s arise th ro u g h badly-designed
p a tte rn s , a p a rt from drawing-office design. The
a n c ie n t p ractice of g iving a b lu e -p rin t to an
in d iv id u al p a tte rn m a k e r and allow him to
sa u n te r th ro u g h th e job is dead.
As th e m anag e m en t of M essrs. W h ite ’s is con­
tin u a lly evolving new designs and new ty p es of
w oodw orking m achinery, a th o ro u g h ex am in atio n
of all b lu e-p rin ts is necessary, before proceeding
w ith th e w ork. B eing fo rtu n a te (or otherwise)
in controlling th e p a tte rn shop and foundries,
th e a u th o r is in a position to p lan operations
rig h t from re ceip t of blu e-p rin ts to th e castings.
C o-operation w ith th e d raw in g office is, happily,
m ost harm onious, an d any suggestions p u t
fo rw ard are generally accepted. The re su lt is,
jobs are plann ed w ith all th e foregoing points
ta k e n in to consideration.
One of th e g re a te st problems is, how to m ake
th e older ty p e of p a tte rn su itab le fo r th e
economical pro d u ctio n of satisfacto ry castings.
N o th in g sh o rt of scrap p in g is th e only rem edy
if q u a n titie s off a re req u ired . Box-section
p a tte rn s m u st be su b sta n tially con stru cted for
fo u n d ry usage, especially w here larg e rounds are
show n. M oreover, i t has become second n a tu re
to th e fo u n d ry c ra ftsm a n to m ake his p a rtin g
to th e flat. The re s u lt is t h a t fe ttlin g charges
soar and castin g s never have t h a t rounded ap­
pearan ce w hich is so desirable.
I n m any cases tem p o rary b ars a re cast in
panels an d c u t o u t a fterw ard s. The m a jo rity of
these box-section castings m u st be slackened and
th e core irons b roken. T rue, i t is m uch costlier
b u t th e designer w an ts large rounds and box
sections. G enerally th e finished pro d u ct justifies
his desires. Surely, foundrym en are no t looking
for th e line of le a st resistan ce? P erso n al ex p eri­
ence is t h a t th e cheapest and easiest design for
fo u n d ry p rod u ctio n does no t always m ean
design should be a lte re d to s u it th e ir needs.
 650
Over 80 p er cen t, of o u r w ork is done in green-
sand m oulds, w ith oil-sand cores, in clu d in g p lan -
ing-m achine m ain fram es 20 ft. in len g th . M any
of th e la rg e r c astin g s a re now m ade tw o in a
box, an d a tim e -stu d y of p ro d u ctio n costs proves
it a m uch m ore econom ical m ethod th a n w orking
separately. They are po u red from th e sam e h ead
box h u t se p a ra te dow ngates a re p referab le.
A nother very im p o rta n t question is t h a t of den-
sening. M r. E . L ongden, of M an ch ester, once
said “ W e have developed a d en sen in g tech n iq u e
which is giving splendid re s u lts ,” a n d th e a u th o r
agrees w ith his observations. The sav in g in rod-
feeding tim e, an d th e low p e rc e n ta g e of re jec ­
tions due to porosity, m ore th a n rep ay s th e
in itia l stu d y which is given to th is problem .
The in satiab le dem ands of th e m odern m achine
shop keeps an a tta c h e d fo u n d ry alw ays on edge.
The re s u lt is, d e p a rtu re from th e recognised an d
orthodox m ethods m u st be m ade. F o u r exam ples
of castings have been chosen fo r stu d y :-—The
first rep resen ts an exam ple of u n o rth o d o x
m ethods fo r pro d u ctio n ; th e second an exam ple of
m ass-production c a s tin g s ; th e th ird a case w here
th e a u th o r objected to design a lte ra tio n s to an
ex istin g p a tte rn an d looked for th e lin e of le a st
resistance, an d la stly an older ty p e of p a tte rn
m ade two in a box to cheapen p ro d u ctio n , and
which o u g h t to be redesigned in p a tte rn m a k in g
fo r f u r th e r economies.
Spiral Roller
This ro ller is 30 in . long, 6 in. d ia ., an d has
six s ta rts or six definite R .H . th re a d s a t an
inch p itch . This m eans t h a t one com plete tu r n
of th is roller p erip h ery m akes a m ovem ent of
6 in. As h u n d re d s of these c astin g s a re req u ire d ,
th e m ach in in g was im p o rta n t, every th re a d being
tu rn e d from th e solid m etal. A t one p erio d a
wooden p a tte rn was m ade, in halves, w ith th e
screws c u t in. The re su lts w ere hopeless, as it
was necessary to have a side-screw ing m ovem ent
in d raw in g th e p a tte rn . To m ake m a tte rs worse,
th e delicate edges w ere alw ays being bro k en in
th e mould. A very visible jo in t on th e ca stin g
could n o t be helped, an d finally th e o rig in a l
m ethod of castin g solid was re v e rte d to.
F ig s . 1 and 2 .— M o u l d in g D e t a il s op a S pir a l R oller and a H in g ed C ap H o u s in g .
 652

i
hr

\ iH i"
—«1_____ ____ ¡lE ELL
- i —

CHEEK & GEARBOX. i c o m b in f d .T

GATING a. FLOWERS SECTIONFn

ARRANGED FOR COPE-DRAG ONIY

F ig . 3 .— M o u l d in g D e t a il s o f a C he
G ear C o m b in e d in t o one C a s t in g .
 654

On going th ro u g h th e m achine shop one day

an d seeing th e tu r n in g o p eratio n s, th e a u th o r
suggested t h a t if sa tisfa c to ry p a tte rn e q u ip m en t
were supplied th e re w as no reason w hy these
should n o t be cast. F ra n k ly , th e a d m in is tra tio n
was a little sceptical.
H ow ever, excellen t castin g s w ere tu r n e d ou t.
These castin g s are produced in g reen san d w ith
th e m ain cen tre an d th e to p covering cores in
oil sand. A solid iro n p a tte r n w as tu r n e d in
th e m achine shop an d m ade su ita b le fo r m ould­
ing on-end. The ce n tre 2-in. spindle, as a c e n tre
guide, was also sup p lied , along w ith a service
board. In s e rte d in th e b oard w as a flange, w hich
has a left-h a n d e d screw to ta k e th e spindle.
This m akes th e sp in d le p erfectly rig id . The
to p -h alf of th e spindle is screwed a n d also th e
top-half of th e ro ller p a tte rn in w ay of th e
end-boss. These screws h av e th e sam e lead and
p itch as th e roller p a tte rn .
The procedure in m oulding is as follows : ■—■
The service board is laid on th e fo u n d ry floor
an d th e cen tre spindle in se rte d . W h en th e
p a tte rn is lifte d by th e overhead c ran e, th e p la in
bore in th e botto m of th e p a tte r n allows th e
p a tte rn to slip down over th e ce n tre spindle
u n til th e th re a d s on b o th sp in d le a n d p a tte rn
mesh. The p a tte rn th e n ro ta te s down to a fixed
position from th e service bo ard . The d ra g box
is level w ith th e botto m edge of th e ro ller and
is ram m ed up w ith th e in g a te s in p osition. A
top ru n n e r, as shown on th e p la n (F ig . 1), is
placed on th e d rag , an d th e m id -p a rts placed on,
one a t a tim e, to allow of u n ifo rm fin g erin g an d
ram m ing.
W hen fully ram m ed, th e p a tte rn is screwed
o u t by th e handles on to p , an d lifte d aw ay by
overhead crane. The com plete m id -p a rts are
th e n lifte d off, an d th e spindle rem oved th ro u g h
th e d rag . A fte r th e d ra g is se t on a san d bed,
th e m ain core is in serted . I t will be seen here
t h a t th e core is e n larg ed to 2 in. in w ay of
th e p rin t, to give a b e tte r se a tin g , a n d also
saves a lte rin g th e spindle hole, w hich a c ts as a
p rin t. The m id -p a rts are now low ered in to posi­
 655
tio n , an d th e to p covering core ensures tr u e
location of th e m a in core. W ire is used for
holding down th e m ain core, th is passing over
th e core tu b e to th e b o s handles. The to p cover­
ing core provides th e two flowers on th e to p
boss.
“ S terlin g ” boxes su itab le fo r m u ltip le m ould­
in g a re used on th is job an d are found to be
ideal fo r th is w ork. A specially-prepared facing
sand is used w ith plum bago ad d itio n s, and a
very noticeable fe a tu re is th e sleeking effect th e
tu rn e d p a tte rn has 0 1 1 th e m ould when being
screwed o u t. A slig h t a lte ra tio n is m ade in th e
placing of th e in g a te s since m ak in g th e draw ing
(F ig . 1). The th re e in g ates shown on th e plan
ru n d ire c t to th e cen tre, b u t in th e castings
now being m ade th ese in g a te s are placed a t an
angle. This is a m uch b e tte r m ethod. W ith
th e ra d ia l in g ate s shown on th e p lan (Fig. 1)
th e m etal has a ten d en cy to ch u rn a g ain st the
o u ts ta n d in g sand when risin g in th e mould. The
re s u lt was, slig h t w ashing and fu sin g took place
and coarsened th e bottom th read s.
The a n g u la r in g ates allow th e m etal on e n te r­
ing to ro ta te upw ards on th e screw th re a d . This
has elim in ated very considerably th e coarseness
a t th e bottom th re a d s. Conveyor screws are
som etim es m ade by th is m ethod, b u t these are
g enerally single th re a d s, and when one considers
th a t these six se p a ra te screws m u st synchronise
perfectly w ith th e guide spindle th re a d s, g re a t
c re d it is due to th e en g in eerin g d e p a rtm e n t for
th is fine w ork. To w atch th is p a tte rn being
screw ed o d t of th e san d gives one th e feeling
t h a t m echanical in n ovations and unorthodox
m ethods are certain ly necessary in progressive
foundries.
Hinged Cap Housings
F ig . 2 shows an, a rra n g em en t for th e m u ltip le
m oulding of hinged cap housings. A tre e of cast­
ings discloses how to p -p a rt boxes a re elim inated.
As these housings are req u ired in m ultiples of 48,
loose p a tte rn m ethods were useless. E ven four
in a box in green sand did n o t m ake for sa tis­
facto ry castings when an a lte ra tio n was con­
sidered. I t was found t h a t th e neck p o rtio n of
 656

sand n e x t to th e inside facin g h ad a ten d en c y

to wash.
A p a tte rn p late, w ith fo u r p a tte rn s was m ade
w ith provision fo r coring th e inside, a n over­
h an g in g p rin t being th e ideal ty p e . The down-
g a te was ta p e re d w ith fo u r in g a te sprays
a tta c h e d an d was p in n ed sep a rate ly . I t w ill be
seen th is m ethod is a p la in m achine squeeze and
p a tte r n draw . S ix teen castin g s a re produced
from fo u r o n e -p a rt boxes of th e “ S te rlin g ”
ty p e . One p o u rin g basin a n d one d o w ngate
serve these 16 castin g s. The to p cores are
w eighted an d boxes clam ped.
An e x am in atio n of th e tre e w ill show tw o
fe a tu re s w hich a re o u ts ta n d in g : — (1) The dow n­
g a te ta p e r m akes fo r a clean fall of m e ta l w hen
po u rin g an d (2) th e step m ade by th e covering
cores on th e in g ates acts as a to p ru n n e r, an d
these stop any floating im p u ritie s from e n te rin g
th e respective m oulds. As an ex p e rim e n t, two
boxes w ere skinned in oil san d a n d d rie d to com­
pare th e finished castin g s along w ith those m ade
in green sand. I t is still a d eb ata b le p o in t in
th is ty p e of w ork which is th e m ore sa tisfa c to ry
— green sand or dry san d . P erso n ally th e a u th o r
favours green sand , as i t gives a “ catchiness ”
to th e skin which is id eal in hold in g th e filling
prio r to p a in tin g an d v arn ish in g of th e finished
m achines.
C onsiderable saving in p ro d u ctio n tim es have
resu lted from th is m u ltip le m ethod of m oulding,
as much as 75 p er cen t, in some cases. M ore­
over, floor space is conserved, only one p o u rin g
basin is necessary a n d one d o w ngate fo r every
16 castings, th erefo re a b ig g er re tu rn of castin g s
produced fo r m etal m elted. S q u are “ S te rlin g ”
boxes are used, on th e sam e 12-in. p rin cip le as
shown in F ig . 2. [A n alu m in iu m tre e e x h ib ited
a t th e m eetin g showed 80 castin g s m ade in five
drags. The casting s were 2 in. cube in shape an d
cored. They w ere poured from th e sam e head-
box, b u t w ith tw o dow ngates. The to p ru n n e rs
were inside th e cores and th e in g a te s on th e
p a tte rn s.]
 657

I t is all these economies, m u ltip lied by th e

num ber of tim es th e y occur, th a t m ake th e d if­
ference betw een profit and loss.

Combined Cheek and Gearbox

T his exam ple has been chosen as an instance-
w here foundrym en som etim es look for th e line
of least resistance. I t shows a combined cheek
an d gearbox for a trip le d ru m sander, and is
ap p ro x im ately 8 f t. 8 in. by 3 ft. by | in.
m etal. As th is is an old ty p e of p a tte rn , and
has alw ays been m ade w ith o u t th e gearbox which
is seen on th e to p rig h t-h a n d side, th e a u th o r
n a tu ra lly objected to th is ad d itio n , because it
m e a n t t h a t an a d d itio n a l m id -p a rt 9 ft. by 4 ft.
by 8 in. had to be ram m ed up e x tra every tim e
th is w as m ade, an d all fo r th e gearbox. H is
objects w ere upheld, b u t in th is case one m ust
needs w ork to th e d raw ing. As twelve were
req u ired in th is in stan ce, a new to p -p a rt box
was m ade. The to p -p a rt bars, which were in th e
way of th e gearbox, were le ft o u t and a square
form ed. On th e e x istin g p a tte rn th e gearbox
was pinned, and an o v erhanging p rin t added.
The p a tte rn is laid on a tu rn -o v e r board, and'
th e d ra g ram m ed up, w ith in g ates in position-
a.s is shown by th e sectioned lines in F ig . 3.
W hen tu rn e d over, and th e p a rtin g s m ade to-
ensure nice rounds, th e cope box is added. As
th e to p of th e overh an g in g p rin t is level w ith
th e top of th e cope box, location is p erfect w hen
closing. By th is m ethod th e m id -p art has been
elim in ated . These cheeks are m ade in green-sand
m oulds. The g a tin g and position of flowers are
shown. These castin g s have a tendency to swell
in thickness if p ro p er care is n o t ta k e n , b u t it
is found t h a t if th e facin g sand is ram m ed fairly
h a rd an d th e b acking sand norm ally, no swelling
tak es place. In ad d itio n , all th is w ork is well
vented by p rick er rod. M achining allowances-
on th is job a re of th e o rd er of £ in. where-
m arked “ F . ”
 658

F ia . 4 . — M o u l d i n g D e ta ils or a M ain St.tde O ast Two tn a B ox.

 659

Main Slide for a Planing, Moulding and Matching

Machine
F ig . 4 shows a m ain slide for a planing,
m oulding and m atch in g m achine, and is of a
type which is m achined extensively. There is in
th is in stan ce a com bination of objectionable
fe a tu re s. The p a tte rn s w ere old and were not
designed for produ ctio n . M achined faces come
w ithin th e category of being all over and m etal
thicknesses are very irre g u la r, an d , above all,
it is q u ite a difficult job m oulding and closing,
alth o u g h it is m ade in dry sand. They are cast

F ig . 5 .— A M o d e r n P l a n in g , M o u l d in g and

M a t c h in g M a c h in e .

as th ey sit, an d m ade tw o in a box. F rom the

slide it will be seen th e cores m u st be tie d down
in th e d rag . A fa irly stro n g g ra tin g carries the
sand in th e m id -p a rts, an d clearances are allowed
for easy rem oval for th e re-using of th is g ra tin g .
I n closing th e m ould, th e p a rtin g a t th e top
and m id -p arts allows a ccu rate se ttin g of th e leg
core for m etal thickness. The Tee slots shown
a re n o t cored o u t b u t cast solid. F ro m a study
of th e section th ro u g h D, D, it is obvious th e
m etal varies very considerably and from 2^ in.
to 4 in.
F orm erly these were fed by rod, b u t th is has
since been slopped and denseners in serted in th e
 660

mould an d core. N ails a re placed from th e core

a t an angle to p e n e tra te th e slide p ro jectio n
on th e rig h t-h a n d side of Tee slots. A fa irly
large self-feeding h ead is placed on top.
M etal for all slides is tr e a te d w ith soda ash,
as it gives a m uch finer sliding face. The porous
patches liable to be p re se n t a t th e base of th ese
slots are also elim in ated . W hen th e tim e comes
for renew al of th ese p a tte rn s th e y will be
arra n g e d for m oulding th e opposite way down,

F ig . 6 .— A T r ip le D rum S a n d in g M a c h in e
C O N TA IN IN G TH E C H E E K C A S T IN G SH O W N IN
F ig . 3.

and m ade practically a core-assem bly job, w ith

overhanging p rin ts an d self-cen trin g lo catin g
p arts.
A num ber of photographic slides Were shown
of finished woodworking m achines an d th e o u t­
sta n d in g castings were described.
F ig. 5 shows a m odern p lan in g , m oulding and
m atch in g m achine. The m ain fram es a re 20 f t
long an d m ade in green sand. W hen th e o u t­
side face of th e cheek is cast u p w ard s no cam ber
is necessary. These cheeks are extensively ribbed
insule an a perfectly flat outside, w ith th e excep-
 661

tio u of th e feet, beads, facings and rounds. A t

one period, these w ere cast th e o th er way up,
i.e ., th e m ain p late in th e d ra g . Cam ber
allowances from yg in . to 1 in . were essential
according to le n g th . In e x p lan a tio n th e
follow ing reasoning is offered—when th e
p la te is c a st up th e ribs fill first and th e
p late l a s t ; w ith th e re su lt t h a t th e ribs are

jr IG . 7 .— a 6 0 -in . V e r tic a l
B and S a w .

sufficiently rig id to w ith sta n d th e rise of th e

p late in cooling, w hich, of course, fills last.
W hen th e m ethods a re reversed, th e p la te fills
first an d th e ribs la st, consequently th ere is no
resistance to th e rise of th e p la te. This m eans
cam ber is necessary. The fo u n d ry is re stric te d
to -ft-in. b are m ach in in g allowance on th is cheek,
an d these are g ated from th e bottom side.
A m ain slide, as shown on F ig . 4, is seen in
position. These m u st be perfectly rig id . The
 662

top head cutterb lo ck , c a rry in g 10 k nives and

ru n n in g a t 4,000 revs, p er m in u te on a 7^-in. dia.
periphery, m ust have sta b ility . On th is ty p e of
m achine, fe a th e r and grooving flooring can be
produced a t over 600 ft. p er m in. Any v ib ra ­
tion is disastrous, as i t fu rro w s th e wood an d a
series of rip p les ap p ear.
F ig . 6 shows a com pleted trip le -d ru m san d in g
m achine. The cheek castin g described in F ig . 3
is seen here, b u t w ith o u t th e g earbox. The
g en eral ou tlin e of th is m achine is v ery p leasing
to look a t, and, a p a rt from th e u tility of th is
product, very little d u st can lie on it, due to th e
flat surfaces and easy cleaning fa c ilitie s in
design. A bout 90 p er cen t, of th ese castin g s are
m oulded in green sand.
F ig . 7 shows a new ty p e of saw, nam ely, a
60-in. v ertical ban d re-saw, w ith synchronised
m otors d riv in g both top an d bottom pulleys.
The pulleys are 5 ft. in d ia ., an d in th is m achine
every castin g was m ade in g reen sand. The
lig h ten in g cores seen in th e web a re no longer
necessary. The pulleys a re tu rn e d all over and
dynam ical!y balanced. D espite th e p e rfe c t t u r n ­
ing, th e a u th o r noticed a series of c o u n tersu n k
holes ju s t u n d e r th e rim to a d e p th of | in. and
fo u r in num ber a t fo u r places. The only con­
clusion arriv ed a t was t h a t fo u r flowers were
ta k e n off th e rim and th ese caused a difference
in th e den sity of th e m etal.

Conclusion
As w ith all progressive steps ta k e n to e lim in ate
unnecessary labour in a highly-m echanised en g i­
neering shop, an a tta c h e d fo u n d ry such as we
are, m u st do likew ise to keep pace w ith t h a t
m achine shop. The u n fo rtu n a te position is t h a t
evolution is a process in so fa r as these fo u n d ries
are concerned.
U nless these fou n d ries are definitely on p ro ­
duction jobs, unlim ited tro u b le arises a n d th e
best-laid schemes “ gan g a f t a g ley ,” due solely
to good custom ers h av in g p e t them es of th e ir
own, and desirin g im provem ents to he in co r­
p o rated in sta n d a rd m achines. The re s u lt is
 OBJ

first-class p a tte rn s are b u tch ered and eventually

th e re arc more alteration-,pieces a tta c h e d to th e
p a tte rn th a n com prises th e p a tte rn itself.
Problem s in w oodw orking-m achinery castings
dem and sand control, w hilst m etallurgical know­
ledge is essential, b u t if sa tisfacto ry p a tte rn s are
supplied, half th e b a ttle is over in m aking th is
ty p e of castin g . D e p a rtu re from th e orthodox
m ethods of p a tte rn co n stru ctio n and m oulding,
especially w here q u a n titie s off are req u ired , will
rep ay m any tim es over th e in itia l cost.
A ccuracy, speedier prod u ctio n, less fe ttlin g
charges and u n ifo rm castin g s follow as a resu lt
of g iving th e m oulder th e m inim um of trouble.
Tn conclusion, th e a u th o r desires to record his
indebtedness to th e directo rs of M essrs. Thomas
W hite & Sons, L im ited , “ H e a d q u a rte rs of
W oodw orking M ac h in e ry ,” P aisley (and incor­
p o ra tin g M essrs. Jo h n McDowall & Sons,
L im ited , Sawmill E ngineers, Jo h n sto n e), for
g ra n tin g him perm ission to give th is P ap e r.
 THE TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
OF THE INSTITUTE
OF BRITISH FOUNDRYMEN
IN COLLABORATION WITH
TH E BRITISH CAST IRON RESEARCH
ASSOCIATION.

TYPICAL
MICROSTRUCTURES
OF
CAST IRON.

Series 1. 1933.
 G6G

This series of photomicrographs has been prepared in

order that metallurgists should have some common stan­
dard to which their own observations of m icrostructures
m ight be compared.
The specimens have been collected to show charac­
teristic structures, and are not necessarily the best or
only structures permissible in the class of casting from
which they have been obtained. In view of this declared
purpose, compositions have been purposely omitted.
The structures have been classified chiefly in decreasing
order of graphite size, as it has been desired to emphasise
this feature.
The explanations of the structures have been given
in the simplest possible manner so th a t they can be
appreciated by those foundrymen who are unfam iliar
with the subject.

CAST IKON SUB-COMMITTEE OF THE TECHNICAL

COMMITTEE OF THE INSTITUTE OF BRITISH
FOUNDRYMEN.
P. A. Russell, B.Se., Convener.
L. W. Bolton. A.M.I.Mech.E. E. Longden.
A. B. Everest, Ph.D. F. K. Neath, B.Sc.
B. Hird. W. West.
J. E. H urst. A. S. Worcester.
J. W. Gardom, Convener, Technical Committee.

The best thanks of the committee are due to Mr. L. W.

Bolton, who has been responsible for the collection and
photography of the specimens.
 667

RECOMMENDED METHODS OF POLISHING AND

ETCHING SPECIMENS FOR MICROSCOPIC
EXAMINATION.
E x t r a c t e d fro m th e B r it i s h C a s t Ir o n R e s e a rc h A sso ­
c ia t io n ’s R e s e a r c h R e p o r t N o . 105, fro m w h ic h fu lle r
d e t a ils m a y be o b ta in e d .

S a m p l i n g . — T h e s tr u c t u re of a c a s tin g v a r ie s from
th e c a s t edg e to th e ce n tre of th e th ic k n e s s . For
e x a m in a tio n of th e g e n e ra l s tr u c t u re of c a s tin g s, s p e c i­
m e n s sh o u ld be ex a m in e d on a s u rfa c e re c t a n g u la r to th e
c a s t s u rfa c e .
S p e c im e n s sh o u ld b e k e p t s m a ll fo r ease of p o lis h in g ,
a n id e a l s iz e b e in g ¿ -in . sq u a re s u rfa c e a re a an d ¿-in .
t h ic k . S e v e r a l s m a ll sp e c im e n s a re p re fe ra b le to one
la rg e one. I n p re p a rin g sp e c im e n s of g re y c a st iro n th e
siz e of th e sp e cim e n is of p a r t ic u la r im p o rta n c e , as w ith
se c tio n s 1 sq. in . s u r fa c e a re a an d o v e r it is p r a c t ic a lly
im p o s sib le to a v o id c o v e rin g o ve r th e g ra p h ite b y
b u r n is h in g in th e c e n tre of th e sp ecim en.
T h e p o sitio n fro m w h ic h sp ecim e n s fo r m icro sco p ic
e x a m in a tio n m a y be m o st u s e fu lly ta k e n ca n often be
d e cid e d b y e x a m in a tio n of a f ra c tu re d or m a c h in e d
s u rfa c e .
P o l i s h i n g . — T h e s u rfa c e to be e x a m in e d m u st firs t be
m ad e fla t b y g r in d in g o r filin g . C a r e m u st be u sed to
a v o id t e a r in g o r d is to r tio n of th e su rfa ce . O v e rh e a tin g
d u r in g p re p a ra tio n m u st be a v o id e d , e s p e c ia lly w h e re
t h e s tr u c t u re is su c h t h a t it m a y be m od ified b y su c h
tre a tm e n t. T h e fa ce of an o r d in a ry g r in d in g w h e e l m a y
be u se d if t h e fo llo w in g p o in ts a r e b o rne in m in d :—
(1) T h e speed sh o u ld n o t be h ig h , i.e., le ss th a n
1,500 re v s , p e r m in u te an d p re fe ra b ly ab o u t 800.
r e v s , p e r m in u te .
(2) T h e s u rfa c e of th e w h e e l m u st be flat.
(3) T h e g ra in sh o u ld n ot be c o a rse en oug h to cau se
t e a r in g of th e sp e cim en .
(4) A d e q u a te co o lin g of th e sp ecim en sh o u ld be m a in ­
ta in e d b y m ean s of w a t e r o r som e o th e r m e d iu m .

I f a file is u sed i t sh o u ld be fixed in a v ic e an d th e

sp ecim e n ru b b e d on it. S h o u ld p a r tic le s of m e ta l becom e
em bedd ed in th e file, th e se w ill cau se t e a r in g of th e
s u rfa c e of th e sp e cim e n u n le ss im m e d ia te ly re m o ve d .
R u b b in g th e file w it h c h a lk befo re u se w ill h e lp to
o b v ia te t h is clo g g in g .
W hen a fla t s u rfa c e h a s been o b ta in e d th e sp ecim e n
(C o n tin u e d o n p a g e 682 )
 668

S T R U C T U R E No. 1.
Taken from a No. 1 Phosphoric Pig-Iron.

U netched S tru c tu re .
G rap h ite in long s tra ig h t flakes shows up
ag ain st th e m etallic b ackground.

E tch ed S tru c tu re .
G ra p h ite F lak es (black) u su ally e n tire ly
su rro u n d ed by F e rr ite (w hite). G roundm ass
of P e a rlite (half to n e). “ P o o ls ” of P hosphide
E u te c tic (herrin g -b on e p a tte rn ) in c e n tre of
p e a rlite areas.
 6C9

S T R U C T U R E No. 1.
 670

S T R U C T U R E No. 2.
Taken from a No. 4 H em atite Pig-Iron.

U netched S tru c tu re .
L arg e q u a n tity of evenly d is trib u te d m edium
size g ra p h ite flakes.

E tched S tru c tu re .
S im ilar to S tru c tu re No. 1, b u t w ith sm aller
g ra p h ite size and ex trem ely sm all phosphide
e u tectic areas.
M anganese Sulphide is visible in both photo­
g raphs as grey cubes.
 671

S T R U C T U R E No. 2.

Etched. X 200.
 672

S T R U C T U R E No. 3.
Taken from a Common Iron Casting.

U netched S tru c tu re .
M edium sized G ra p h ite F lakes,

E tch ed S tru c tu re .
G ra p h ite , F e rr ite , P e a rlite a n d P hosphide
E u te c tic .
 673

S T R U C T U R E No. 3.

Etched. X 200.
 674

S T R U C T U R E No. 4.
Taken from an Engineering Casting.

U netched S tru c tu re .
Sm all G rap h ite F lak es a rra n g e d in
“ C luster ” fo rm atio n .

E tched S tru c tu re .
N ote d im in u tio n of q u a n tity of F e rr ite as
com pared w ith previous stru c tu re s.
M edium am ount of P hosphide E u te c tic .
 075

S T R U C T U R E No. 4.

Etched, x 200.
 676

S T R U C T U R E No. 5.
Taken from a L ig h t C ylinder Casting.

U netehed S tru c tu re .
N ote fineness an d reduced q u a n tity of
G rap h ite as com pared w ith previous s tru c ­
tu res.
Also note th e a p p earan ce of a D e n d ritic
S tru c tu re , in which th e G ra p h ite F lak es lie
in s tra ig h t lines p arallel w ith, or a t rig h t
angles to , one an o th er.

E tched S tru c tu re .
F e rr ite is com pletely absent a n d a m o u n t of
Phosphide E u te c tic is sm all. The P e a rlite
g ra in size is sm aller. M anganese S u lp h id e is
again visible, (cf. S tru c tu re No. 2.)
 677

S T R U C T U R E No. 5.
 678

S T R U C T U R E No. 6.
Taken from a L ig h t Casting.

U netched S tru c tu re .
N ote areas of F in e G ra p h ite , w ith sm all
am ounts of F la k e G ra p h ite.

E tched S tru c tu re .
The chief fe a tu re is th e “ F e rrite -F in e
G rap h ite ” which occurs in ro u n d ed areas of
fine g ra p h ite in fe rrite .
F lak e G raphite, P e a rlite an d P h o sp h id e
E u te c tic a re also p resen t.
T his ty p e of s tru c tu re is generally m e t w ith
only in very lig h t castin g s, alth o u g h i t m ay
som etimes be found n e a r th e su rface of h e av ie r
castings.
 679

S T R U C T U R E No. 6.

Etched. X 200.
 680

S T R U C T U R E No. 7.
Phosphoric Iron showing Free Cementite.

The C em entite (Iro n C arbide) shows in a w hite

banded form ation, which is due to its being
associated w ith th e P hosphide E u te c tic .
G rap h ite Flakes and P e a rlite a re also p resen t.
An Iro n showing sm all q u a n titie s of C em en tite
such as th is would n o t have a m o ttled fra c tu re
b u t would be fa irly h a rd .

STR U C TU R E No. 8.
Taken from a W h ite Iro n C astin g (N on-
phosphorie).

G rap h ite is com pletely absen t, th e whole of

th e carbon being in th e combined form . The
stru c tu re is composed e n tire ly of F ree C em entite
and P e arlite.
Iro n Sulphide is p resen t as grey patches in
th e C em entite.
 081
S T R U C T U R E No. 7.

E tch ed . X 200.
STRU C TU R E No. 8.

Etched. X 200.
 682

(Continued from page 667.)

should be rubbed on a fairly coarse emery paper at
right angles to the scratches from the file or grindstone.
Rubbing must be continued after the whole of the
scratches have been removed to ensure th a t the dis­
torted layer beneath the scratches is removed. The
depth to which this layer penetrates depends on the
method of preparation of the specimen and the physical
condition of the metal.
The grades of French emery paper recommended for
polishing are as follows:—
1G or some other paper coarse enough to remove file
or grindstone scratches;
IF, 0, 00, and 000.
These papers should be firmly held on a hard flat
surface, e.g., plate glass, marble or hard wood. As a
general rule rubbing should be continued after removal
of the scratches from each paper for as long again in
order to remove all traces of distortion in the surface
layer.
Iron dust and emery which collects round the edges
of the specimen after rubbing on each paper should be
removed by wiping.
The specimen should be well washed before final polish­
ing to ensure th a t all traces of emery and iron powder
are removed. The polishing pad should consist of a
hard flat surface covered with cloth or chamois leather.
Selvyt cloth has been found to give satisfactory results.
If the polisher is power-driven the speed of the pad
should not exceed 1,000 r.p.m. and should preferably
be in the neighbourhood of 800 r.p.m . W hether polishing
is carried out by means of a power polisher or by hand,
the pad should be kept moist and a plentiful supply of
polishing powder used. This may be applied to the
pad as a powder, being worked into the previously
damped cloth with the fingers, or it may be shaken up
with water and applied suspended in the liquid. By
the latter method coarse and heavier particles of powder
are prevented from reaching the pad. The following
polishing powders have been found to give good
results!—
Rouge ;
Green chromic oxide;
Alumina (Diamantine) and Magnesia.
I n o rd e r to a v o id d r a g g in g of th e s u r fa c e in one
d ire c tio n th e sp e cim e n sh o u ld be s lo w ly r o ta te d d u r in g
p o lish in g . Im m e d ia te ly a fte r p o lis h in g th e sp ecim en
sh o u ld be w a sh e d free from p o lis h in g p o w d e r a n d th e
 683

surface quickly flooded with rectified spirits or some

other volatile liquid, preferably from a dropping bottle.
The specimen should then be dried by one of the
following m ethods:—
(1) W iping with absorbent cotton wool.
(2) Use of an air blast (preferably w armed).
(3) W ashing in hot water before flooding with alcohol.
These methods of drying are also used after etching
and after thorough washing in running water.

E t c h i n g . — Before etching it is necessary to be sure

th a t the polished surface of the specimen is free from
grease and traces of polishing powder. Any grease
present can be removed by alcohol dropped on the
surface from a dropping bottle, or if necessary a small
amount of soap can be lightly rubbed over the surface
w ith the tip of the finger and the specimen washed in
running water. Polishing powder may also require re
moving by the latter method. Specimens which are to
be etched in an aqueous solution as a general rule give
a more uniform etch if dried before placing in the
etching reagent.
The specimen should be completely immersed in the
etching reagent with the polished surface uppermost
Tongs of metal such as nickel or brass may be used for
holding the specimen, but under certain conditions local
action is set up between the tongs and the specimen, and
in these cases it is necessary to use either the fingers or
tongs made of an electrical insulating material.
If an alcoholic solution is to be used, specimens will
be found to etch more evenly if flooded with alcohol
before immersion in the solution. This only applies
when the action of the etching reagent is fairly rapid.
In all cases it is necessary to agitate either the specimen
or the reagent during etching in order to get a uniform
attack over the whole surface of the specimen. Etching
reagents which consist of an alcoholic solution of an acid
may as a general rule be used repeatedly for a long
period and will be found to improve with use. Care
must be taken, however, to avoid concentration of the
acid by evaporation of the alcohol and the solution must
be kept free from contamination by water. Tongs which
have been used to swill specimens in running water
should either be thoroughly dried or swilled with alcohol
before placing in the solution, and this also applies to
specimens which are found to require further etching
after washing.
 684
The specimen should then be washed with alcohol and
dried as before.

R eagents foe O r d in a r y Ca st Irons.

Picric Acid.—The most generally used etching reagent

for ordinary cast iron and steel is a solution of picric
acid in alcohol (rectified sp irits). A i per cent, solution
is recommended for etching grey cast iron, but, owing
to ease of preparation, a saturated solution is often used.
The time required for etching in order to reveal the
ordinary details of the structure on microscopical exami­
nation varies with the character of the metal and the
strength and tem perature of the solution. W ith a satu­
rated solution at 60 degv Fah. five to 10 seconds’
immersion is sufficient for a normal grey cast iron.
Nitric A cid.—A 2 per cent, alcoholic solution of nitric
acid in alcohol (known in U.S.A. as N ital) is useful for
developing the grain boundaries in ferrite, and for this
reason is mainly used in etching wholly ferritic m aterial,
e.g., black-heart malleable cast iron. The development of
ferrite-grain boundaries by means of this reagent takes
from thirty seconds to two minutes, and as a general rule
this time is sufficient to over-etch any pearlite which is
present.
The ferrite grains can be made to take on a colour
contrast if the etching solution is heated to approximately
100 deg. Fah., and this will also shorten the tim e of
etching.
Ammonium Persulphate.—A 10 per cent, aqueous solu­
tion of ammonium persulphate will darken both ferrite
and pearlite, leaving phosphide eutectic unattacked, and
is useful for revealing the phosphide eutectic distribution.
Cementite is also unattacked by this solution.
Sodium Picrate (Alkaline Solution).—This reagent will
darken cementite while leaving ferrite unattacked, and
for this reason is used for distinguishing between
cementite and ferrite. Phosphide eutectic is somewhat
discoloured by this reagent, and it is, therefore, difficult
to differentiate between this and cementite by means of
this reagent. The solution can be made up in the
following w a y :—
2 grm. of picric acid are added to 100 c.c. of w ater
in which 25 grm. of caustic soda are dissolved. This is
gently warmed until the picric acid is dissolved.
The specimen is immersed in the boiling solution for
approximately five minutes. Loss by evaporation should
be made up from time to time.
 685

NAME INDEX

Al la s, f .
Obituary
A m e r ic a n F o c n d r y m k n 's A s s o c ia t i o n
Message to Annual Conference
\ r « I ' 0N ,t f.ch n iq t t: d e F o n d e r ^ '.
Message to Annual Conference
B a i l e y , g . L.
Awarded Diploma
26
B a l£ s tk e " Non-Ferrous Metal Castings' 522

in Woodworking Machinery Castings 648

nC Laundry Machinery Castings . . 442
B e a r d s h a w , H . E.
Substitution of Nickel by Copper 590
fa’^ d e rm a n J., Lord Mayor of Manchester.
Opens Annual Conference 34
Presents Oliver Stubbs Medal !! ! *. ! 37
Presents Long Service Award 37
Speech a t Annual Banquet 65
B r o w n , G. W .
On Camber 643
B ruce, a .
On Moulding Cylinder Casting 445
C a l l a g h a n , G. M.
On Pneumatic Chisels 479
On P a tte rn Colour Specification 641
C a m e r o n , J.
Proposes Election of Junior Vice-President 29
C am pion, A .
On Cast Iron Sub-Committee’s Report 109
On Graphite Formation 165
C a s t I r o n S u b -C o m m itte e .
R eport on Porosity and Testing of Cast Iron 76
C o o k , F . J.
On Cast Iron Sub-Committee’s Report .. 116
Co o k , w . n .
Speech a t Annual Banquet 69
C o o p e r , J . H.
On Oil-Sand Cores 190
On Permeability and Bond 248
On Textile Machinery Castings 267
D e lp o r t, V.
On C ast R e d Brass 316
D o n a l d s o n , J . W.
On S p ecification s for N on -F errous M etals 312
On D e n s ity Curves and Im p a ct V alues . . 334
D U N K E R J .E Y , W .
On S tan d ard isation o f N on -F errous Alloys 314
On In ter c r y sta ilin e Cracks in Bronze C a s tin g s.. 339
E d w a r d s , F . C.
Paper on P attern m ak in g 611
E ver est , a . b .
A w arded D iplom a 26
On G raphite F orm ation in Cast Iron 161
F attik>’ER, V . C.
A w arded O liver S tu b b s Medal 25
Seconds A d o p tio n of Technical Committee’s Report 16
On S ta n d ard isation
309
On Brinell Hardness of Cast Bronze
F ib g e h e h , E . G. 332
Paper on Oven Drying of Cores and Moulds 169
2A
 (5 8 6

PAGE
F la g g , 8 .
O bituary 3
F r a n c e , G. E.
On S iltin g -U p o f M o u ld in g Sand 385
F r e e m a n , S. B.
Sp eech a t A n n u a l B a n q u e t .. 71
Ga le , B .
A w arded D ip lom a 27
P ap er on S om e P ra c tic a l C o n sid era tio n s in a S m a ll
447
J o b b in g F o u n d ry
G ard om , J . W.
Proposes A d o p tio n o f T ec h n ic a l C o m m ittee ’s R e p o r t . . 16
On D e fin itio n o f S ilt 3 94
On E fficien cy o f G rinding W h eels .. , .. 477
On P a tte r n M arking 642
Gr e e n h o u s e , H . G.
On P n e u m a tic C hisels .. .. .. •• •* 4 79
G r e e n w a y , J . F.
On M ethod o f R e le a sin g Cores fro m B o x e s 643
G R IFFITH S, W . T .
Paper on P r o d u c tio n o f S p e c ia lly H ard Cast Ir o n s for
A llo y in g an d H ea t-T r e a tm e n t 563
O n M oulding Sand Control 393
H a r l e y , A.
Seconds A d o p tio n o f A cco u n ts 16
On Corrosion o f C ylinder Iron 157
O n N on -F errou s A llo y s 313
O n C ast B ronze 334
H a r r iso n , S. G.
O n S tan d ard isa tio n o f N o n -F erro u s A llo y s 316
H ir d , B .
On G rain Surface a n d Coal D u st 243
HOPWOOD, A .
On Stan d ard isin g C asting T em p era tu re 313
H u d s o n , F.
A w arded D ip lom a 26
Paper on C om m ercial M ou ld in g San d Control 342
On C ast Iron S u b -C o m m itte e ’s R e p o r t 123
On S y n th e tic M oulding Sand 240
H u r s t , J . E.
S econ d s V o te o f T h a n k s t o R e tir in g P r e sid e n t 28
E lected Senior V ice-President. 29
On C ast R e d Brass 304
On C ast B ronze 333
J a c k so n , J.
O n N on -F errous C asting 5 18
J a m es , W.
O n V arnishing P a ttern s 6 40
J o h n so n , J . B.
O n M aking B e d -p la te P a tte r n s 640
J o n e s, B . Mo u a t .
Speech a t A n nual C on ference 38
K a in , C. H.
On M oulding Sand Control 387
K ir b y , A. D .
On P ercen tage o f B in d er in O il-S a n d M ix tu res 444
L a c e y , J . A.
O n F e ttlin g Costs 478
L a k e , W . B.
P resen ts S ta te m e n t o f A cco u n ts 15
L e w is , E . J.
O n E lectric F iles 479
O n P a tte r n m a k in g . . 6 39
L it t l e , J. E . O.
On S ta n d a r d isa tio n o f N o n -F erro u s A llo y s 315
 e s?

page
Lo g an, a .
A w ard ed D ip lom a 26
Paper on S o m e A sp e c ts o f N o n -F erro u s F o u n d in g 483
O n S p ecifica tio n s fo r N o n -F erro u s .Metals 310
O n S ta n d a r d isa tio n o f N o n -F erro u s M etals 315
On D e n s ity o f B ronzes 337
L o n g d e n , E.
On T e x tile M achinery C a s t i n g s ............................................ 263
On H ard C ast Irons 587
L ong d e n , j .
A w arded D ip lom a 2G
Paper on G rey-Iron C astings for Laundry M achinery 414
M c C le lla n d , J. j .
A w ard ed L on g S ervice M edal 20
O n F a cin g San d R ecla m a tio n 244
McG o w a n , R .
O bituary
M a c k e n z ie , a . D .
O n M ethod o f M oulding C ylinder 443
Mc N a ir , H . li.
Paper on L igh t C astin gs for E n a m ellin g 543
M a k e m so n , T.
A w ard ed D ip lom a 20
Mo l ik e u x , W . J .
O n D ry in g o f C o r e s ......................................................................... 180
Mo r g a n , W . g .
A w ard ed D ip lo m a 20
Paper on T h e F e ttlin g Sh o p a n d E fficien cy 469
N e a th , F. K.
O n G rain Surface o f M oulding Sand 240
N ip p e r , H .
Paper on G rap hite F o rm a tio n and Stru ctu re in Cas
Iron ........................... ..................................... 127
On E x p er im e n ts w ith Bond in O il-San d Cores .. 188
N o r b u r y , A . L.
On P rop erties o f P ig -Iro n s 104
P e a r c e , J . G.
On C ast Iron S u b -C o m m ittee’s R eport 112
On E ffec t o f M eltin g C on ditions on Structure 158
P e c k , J . S.
Speech a t A n n u al B a n q u et 07
P P e il , L. B.
On H ard C ast Irons 591
P h il l ip s , A .
P resen ts P r e sid e n tia l B a d g es 32
On M oulding San d Control 275
On N on -F errou s C a s t i n g ........................................................... 511
O n B rinell H ard ness and M a ch in a b ility o f A llo y iron s . 580
P ie r c e , G. C.
O n M oulding Sand Control 380
P o l l a r d , C. D .
S econ d s E le c tio n o f Senior V ice-P resid en t 29
P r im r o s e , J , S . G.
O n E x a m in a tio n o f Stru ctu res b y P olarised L igh t 163
O n C ast R e d B r a s s .......................................................................... 304
O n S ta n d a r d isa tio n o f N o n -F erro u s A llo y s 314
O n E q u ilib riu m D iagram fo r C opper-Tin Series . . 337
R e y n o l d s , J . A.
O n S y s te m for R e co rd in g P a tte r n s ............................. 517
O n E ffect o f A llo y in g E le m e n ts on Crucible L ife 589
BOEDER, A .
Paper on T h e U se o f H ig h -D u ty C ast Iron in th e M anu
fa ctu r e o f T e x tile M achinery 257
ROWE, F , W .
Paper on S tu d ie s in C ast B r o n z e s ............................................ 318
On T e st-P ie c e for N o n -F erro u s M e t a l s .............................. 300
2a2
 088

rA G E
ROXBURGH, J.
A w arded D ip lom a 27
Paper on A llo y s in the, Ir o n F o u n d r y 396
RUSSEL!, P . A .
P r e sen ts C ast Iron S u b -C o m m itte e's R e p o r t 76
S a k g e r , C. M ., J u n r .
Paper on S tu d ie s o f C ast R ed B rass fo r C la ssifica tio n o f
N on -F errou s M etals 208
S h a rp e, D.
Secon d s E le c tio n o f J u n io r V ic e -P r e sid en t 30
Sh a w , J ,
O n C ast Iron S u b -C o m m ittee's R e p o r t . . . . 113
S h e e h a n , J . J.
Paper on R e c e n t D e v e lo p m e n ts in B r itish S y n th e tic
M oulding Sand P ra c tic e . . 199
S hf.r b u r n , H .
O n C u ttin g A c tio n o f M etal on Sand 3S2
Sh o re, A . J .
O n P iece-W o rk F e ttlin g 479
S ho t to n , G. R .
O n F e t tlin g Costs 47S
S r e r l , J . G. A .
O n H u m id ity Driers 184
On A m erican and B r itish S y n th e tic M o u ld in g Sand
P r a c t i c e ...............................' ....................................... 244
S m it h , W . H .
O n Core O vens 185
S t a n l e y , R t . H o n . L ord , o f A ld e r le y .
S p eech a t A n n u a l B a n q u e t 62
S t o b ib , V .
S econ d s E le c tio n o f P r e sid e n t 27
S t u b b s , R oy
P roposes V o te o f T h a n k s t o R e tir in g P re sid e n t 28
P rop oses E le c tio n o f S en ior V ic e -P r e sid en t 29
S econ d s V o te o f T h a n k s a t A n n u a l B a n q u e t 40
P r e sid e n tia l A d dress 42
F o u n d r y Course a t Sheffield .. \\ 60
G reetings t o O riginal M em bers 60
S u t c l if f e , A .
On M em bership o f th e I n s titu te 31
O n T e x tile M ach in ery C a stin g s ., ’ 2 66
O n L ife o f M o d e m S a n d P la n ts 379
On N o n -F e r r o u s C a stin g s M ade in C upola 519
On C hilled C astin gs »89
T a it , W .
O n M oisture C o n te n t a n d M o u ld R a m m in g 386
T e c h n ic a l Co m m ittee o f t h e I n st it u t e ” o f B r it is h
F oundrym en and B r it is h Ca st Ir o n R e search
A ss o c ia t io n .
T y p ic a l M icrostructures o f C ast Iro n «66
T ip p e r , A .
O n Core D r y in g
188
T u c k e r , R . C.
O n C ast Ir o n S u b -C o m m itte e's R e p o r t 123
T w ig g e r , T . R .
Papa- on M an u factu re a n d A p p lic a tio n o f C en trifu g a l
C astin gs 595
W est, W .
O n H ig h e r D r y in g T em p era tu res fo r Cores 190
W il l ia m s , C. E .
P r o p o se s E le c tio n o f P r e sid e n t 27
P rop oses V o te o f T h a n k s a t A n n u a l C on ference 40
V o te o f T h an k s fo r P r e sid e n tia l A d d ress 59
On S ta n d a r d isa tio n o f N o n -F e r r o u s A llo y s 316
WlNTERTOX, H .
E le c te d J u n ior V ic e -P r e sid en t 30
 689

SUBJECT INDEX

A i r F u r n a c e , m e lt in g a llo y ir o n i n .. 406
A l l o y A d d i t i o n s t o c a s t ir o n 5 64, 567
A l l o y Cast I r ons ................................ .. 396
costs .. 406
c h ille d .. 569
A l l o y i n g , h a r d c a s t ir o n f o r .. 563
A l u m i n i u m , p o r o s it y ................................ .. 541
A n n e a l in g n o n -fe rro u s c a s tin g s .. 507
A u s t e n it io C a s t I r o n ................................ .. 411
m a c h in in g .. 592
A u t o m o b il e C a s t in g s , c e n t r if u g a lly ca st .. 598
se rv ic e re s u lts .. 609
A u t o m o b il e F o u n d r y , s a n d p ra c tic e in . . 202
B a r r e l C o r e s ............................................... 432, 444
B e l g i a n S a n d , p ro p e rtie s . . 222
B e n t o n it e ............................................... 29, 361, 376
B r a s s , c a s t, te s ts o n ................................ . . 273
B r o n z e , le a d a d d itio n s t o . . 515
B r o n z e , c a s t, a lp h a - d e lta e u te c to id . . 321
t i n c o n te n t . . 321
te s ts o n . . 323, 332
p h o s p h o ru s c o n te n t . . 328
B u n t e r S a n d s ............................................... . . 212
“ B u r n i n g -O n ” n o n -fe rro u s c a s tin g s . . . . 502
C a r b o n P i o k - u p ............................................... 103, 112
C a s t I r o n , n ic k e l p la t in g . . 439
e x tr e m e h a rd n e s s . . 563
m ic ro s tru c tu re s . . 605
C a s t R e d B r a s s . See B r a s s .
C a s t in g s , c le a n in g ................................ . . 472
C e n t r if u g a l C a s t in g , m a c h in e s . . 597
C e n t r if u g a l C a s t in g s , a p p lic a tio n s . . . . 605
e a r ly p a te n ts . . 595
o il- h a rd e n in g . . 603
s e rv ic e re s u lts . . 609
te m p e rin g . . 603
te s ts o n . . 603
C e n t r if u g a l Cl e a n i n g P l a n t . . 473
C h i l l , te s ts o n a llo y c a s t ir o n . . . . 570
d e p t h o f ................................ . . 575
C h i l l e d I r o n , a llo y
. . 585
C h i l l e d I r o n R o l l s , a llo y c a s t iro n 410, 569
e x p e rim e n ta l c a s t . . 399
C h i l l s , use in c a s tin g m a c h in e ry p a rts . . 429
use i n n o n -fe rro u s c a s tin g 143, 499
C h r o m i u m A d d it io n s t o c a s t ir o n 4 0 0 ,5 6 7
C o a l D u s t , i n s y n th e tic s a n d ................................ . . 243
a d d itio n s t o m o u ld in g sa n d 371, 559
C o k e , e ife e t o f ash c o n te n t o n a n a ly s is o f p ig - ir o n . . 105
e ffe c t o n s u lp h u r p i c k - u p ................................ . . 546
229, 363, 376
C o l b o n d ............................................................................
C o n tr a c tio n . See S h r in k a g e .
.. 515
C o p p e r , a d d itio n s t o ...............................................
in a u s te n it-ic c a s t iro n s .. 593
.. 533
ca s t, te s ts o n
.. 169
C o r e s , d r y in g .............................................................
.. 432
v e n t ila t io n o f
i n jo b b in g f o u n d r y ................................
.. 451
o v e rh a n g d r o p t e s t ................................
.. 453
 690
page

C'or £ O v e n s .. 175
c o n tin u o u s . . 178
C'OREBINDEKS ................................................... . . 170
te s tin g in f o u n d r y . . 451
COREBLOWING MACHINES 1 7 6 ,4 8 4
COREPRINTS, use f o r la rg e p la te s . . 622
C o r r o s io n o f c a s t iro n , in flu e n c e o f g r a p h ite . . . 152
C o s t in g , w o r k o f S u b -C o m m itte e o n . . 24
C r u c i b l e s , g r a p h ite ................................ . . 132
life o f ................................ . . 592
C u p o l a , c a rb o n p i c k - u p ................................ 1 0 3 ,1 1 2
fo a m in g slag 449
b la s t 546
flu x , lim e s to n e . . 548
C y l i n d e r I r o n s , e ffe c t o f g r a p h ite 011 w e a r .. 151
D e f e c t s , in ir o n c a s tin g s 101. 37 0 , 543
i n n o n -fe rro u s c a s tin g s 5 0 0 , 521
D e n s e n e r s , use i n v a lv e ca stin g s . . 461
in w o o d w o rk in g m a c h in e ry c a s tin g s . . 650
D e n s i t y T e s t s , o n b ro nze s . .' 323
D e o x id a t io n o f n o n -fe rro u s m e ta ls . . 515
o f c a s t ir o n . . 545
D e s u l p h u r is a t i o n o f ir o n 548. 660
D u s t , e ffe c t o n w o rk e rs 4 76
E n a m e l l i n g , c a s tin g s f o r . . 561
E n g in e e r i n g C a s t I r o n , m ic ro g ra p h . . 6 75
E t c h in g c a s t ir o n , re -a g e n ts f o r . . 683
E u t e c t ic C a s t I r o n , g r a p h ite fo r m a tio n in . . 134
F e r r it e - F i n e -G r a p h i t e , s tr u c tu r e , m ic ro g ra p h . . 679
F e t t l in g e q u ip m e n t . . 470
p ra c tic e . . 470
costs . . 481
“ F l o w a b i l i t y ” o f m o u ld in g sa n d . . 364
F l u i d i t y T e s t f o r b ro n z e . . 332
F l u x e s f o r n o n -fe rro u s c a s tin g . . 514
c u p o la 554
F o u n d r y C o s t in g . See C o s t in g .
F r e e z in g T e m p e r a t u r e o f n o n -fe rro u s m e ta ls
G a s e s i n n o n -fe rro u s c a s tin g s 4 9 5 . 5 3 1 , 538
G a t in g c a s tin g s 561
G r a i n S u r f a c e in s y n th e tic sa nd 241
G r a p h i t e in ca st iro n , fo r m a tio n ;
12 . 166
e x a m in a tio n o f 141
in flu e n c e o f w a ll th ic k n e s s 011 1 48
in flu e n c e o n g r o w th 152
in flu e n c e o n c o rro s io n 152
“ s o o ty ” 167
“ c lu s te r,” p h o to - m ic ro g ra p h o f 675
G r a p h i t e C r u c i b le s , e ffe c t 011 g r a p h ite f o r m a tio n 132
G k a p h it i s a t i o n o f c a s t ir o n 98
G r e e n s a n d , c o m p re s s io n t e s t 352
p e r m e a b ility 353
G r o w t h o f c a s t iro n , in flu e n c e o f g r a p h ite 011 152
G u n m e t a l, c a s tin g te m p e ra tu r e 492
H e a t - T r e a t m e n t o f c a s t ir o n 564
H e r m a n j o l t m o u ld in g m a c h in e 365
H i g h - D u t * ’C a s t I r o n , a p p lic a tio n s 257
H u m i d i t y D r ie r s , f o r c o r e s .............................. 184
H y d r o g e n p ic k - u p ............................................... 535
I m p a c t S t r e n g t h , in flu e n c e o f w a ll th ic k n e s s o n 148
I n g o t M o u ld s , e x p e rim e n ta l 399
I n o c u l a t i o n p ro ce ss f o r c a s t ir o n 160
I r o n , e ffe c t o f a d d itio n s t o b ra ss 289
I r o n O x id e , i n m o u ld in g sa n d s 246
J o b b i n g F o u n d r y , p ra c tic e 447
K is h . See G r a p h i t e .
 691
PAGE
L a u n d r y M a c h i n e r y , g r e y -iro n c a s tin g s f o r . . .. 414
e ffe c t o f w a te r 011 .. 417
L e a d , a d d itio n s t o b ro n z e .. 515
L i g h t C a s t in g s , e ffe c t o f p h o s p h o ru s in . . 110
f o r e n a m e llin g .. 543
fa c in g sa n d s f o r .. 552
p h o to - m ic ro g ra p h o f . . .. 677
L im e s t o n e F l u x .............................................. .. 548
L i n e r s , c e n t r if u g a lly ca st 598. 608
L o w Ca r b o n I rons .............................................. .. 397
M a c h in e T o o l s . See W o o d w o r k i n g M a c h in e r y .
M a l l e a b l e C a s t I r o n , w o r k o f S u b -C o m m itte e on 21
M a n g a n e s e , e ffe c t o n c a s t iro n .. 412
in flu e n c e o n s h rin k a g e .., 420
b r iq u e tte s f o r d e o x id is in g .. 545
M a r t e n s i t ic C a s t I r o n ................................ .. 579
M e e h a n i t e c a s t ir o n .. 160
M e l t i n g C o n d i t i o n s , e ffe c t o n s t r u c tu r e o f cast iro n .. 159
M e l t i n g F u r n a c e s , w o r k o f S u b -C o m m itte e on 23
M e l t i n g L o s s e s ............................................................. . . 409
Mi< u o s t r u c t u r e s o f c a s t i r o n ................................ 665
M o is t u r e C o n t e n t o f m o u ld in g s a n d 3 4 9 ,3 8 6
M o l y b d e n u m A d d i t i o n s t o east ir o n 404, 411
M o u l d in g B o x e s , “ S te rlin g ” ................................ . . 655
M o u l d i n g M a c h in e s , H e rm a n “ j o l t ” ty p e . . . . 365
M o u l d in g S a n d , c o n tr o l, co sts 355, 361
c o n tr o l in n o n -fe rro u s p ra c tic e . . 511
e x tr a c t io n o f ir o n f r o m . . 346
H o w a b ility . . 364
m o is tu re c o n te n t . . 349
p ro p e rtie s 56, 369, 565
siltin g -u p . . 362
s y n th e tic . . 199
te s tin g 350, 555
w o r k o f S u b -C o m m itte e 011 22
M o u l d s , d r y i n g ............................................................. . . 169
s y n th e tic sand . . 242
f o r c e n tr ifu g a l c a s tin g s . . 599
m o is tu re e ffe c t o n p a tte r n s . . 614
N i c k e l A d d i t i o n s t o c a s t iro n 404, 567
N i c k e l -C h r o m i u m ca st i r o n s ................................ 410, 462, 608
N i c k e l P l a t i n g , c a s t ir o n f o r ................................ . . 439
N ic r o s e l a l , m e lt in g ............................................... . . 408
N i m o l , m e l t i n g ........................................................................... . . 408
N ir e s is t , m e l t in g . . . . 408
N i t a l , e tc h in g re -a g e n t f o r ca st iro n . . 684
N i t e n s y l i r o n ............................................................. . . 160
N o n - F e r r o u s A l l o y s , s ta n d a r d is a tio n 270, 313
s h rin k a g e . . 279
te s t-b a rs . . 281
N o n - F e r r o u s C a s t in g s , a n n e a lin g . . 507
b u r n in g -o n . . 502
d e fe c ts in 500, 522
d e s ig n o f . . 498
w o r k o f S u b -C o m m itte e o 20
N o n - F e r r o u s F o u n d in g , e co n o m ic s o f . . 484
N o n - F e r r o u s M e t a l s , s u p e rh e a tin g . . 492
O i l -S a n d C o r e s , d r y in g ................................ . . 185
a d d itio n o f c la y . . 188
P a t t e r n m a k i n g ............................................................. . . 611
P a t t e r n s , c o lo u rin g ............................................... . . 634
m e ta l . . 632
n u m b e r in g s y s te m . . 635
p ly w o o d f o r ..
. . 629
P h o s p h o r u s , in flu e n c e i n c a s t ir o n 79
c o n te n t o f l i g h t c a s tin g s .. 110
c o n te n t o f c a s t b ro n ze .. 328
 692

P ig -I r o n s , v a r ia tio n s in a n a ly sis
p h osp h oru s c o n te n t
sy n th e tic , a llo y a d d itio n s
h e m a tite , m icrograph
P ip e B a r r e l , p a ttern
P ip in g o f non-ferrous ca stin g s . .
(See also D e f e c t s .)
P ist o n R in g s , ce n tr ifu g a lly ca st .. 598
P lyw o od u se for p attern s .. 629
P n eu m atic P r e s s , c a stin g s for .. 434
P n e u m a t ic T ools , for f e ttlin g . . 47 1 , 482
Po l a r ise d L ig h t , ex a m in a tio n o f g r a p h ite str u c tu r e b y 142, 163
P o l ish in g S pe c im e n s o f c a st iron .. 682
P or osity o f grey-iron c a s t i n g s ................................ 7 7, 427
o f non-ferrous ca stin g s 52 2 , 528
o f alu m in iu m .. 541
P o u r in g T e m p e r a t u r e , effect o n c a s t red brass .. 301
effect o f sh rin k a g e o f c a s t iron .. 123
P yro m eters for non-ferrous fo u n d in g .. 489
Ke - a g e n t s for etc h in g c a st iron .. 683
R e fr a c t o r ie s , w ork o f th e S u b -C o m m ittee o 22
d r y i n g ................................ .. 541
R ollers for lau n d ry m ach inery .. 431
spiral, p a ttern for .. 650
R otary F u r n a c e s ................................ 1 1 0 , 166
R u s t , rem oval from castin g s for e n a m ellin g . . 561
S a n d M i l l s , w ear o f .. 392
S a n d P r e p a r a tio n P la n t 34 6 , 381
S a n d s. See M o u ld in g S a n d s.
S a n d b l a s t in g , e q u ip m en t .. 473
m u ltip le . . 480
“ S h a g r e e n ” form ation on castings .. 551
S h e a r T e st on h ig h -d u ty c a s t iron .. 261
S ho t -B l ast ap p aratu s . . 473
S h r in k a g e o f c a st i r o n ......................................................8 3 ,1 0 1 , 42 0 , 426
o f non-ferrous a llo y s .. 279
S ie v e s for sa n d -te stin g 24 8 , 255
S ilica S a n d , basis for s y n th e tic sand . . . . 221
S il ic o n , a d d itio n s to c a st iron . . 567
S ilt in s y n th e tic sa n d p ractice . . . . 250
" S il t in g - u p ” o f m ou ld in g sa n d . . 362
S lag , foam in g . . 449
S oda A s h ............................................................. 55 0 , 660
S o l id if ic a t io n R a t e o f bronze . . 340
o f no n-ferrous a llo y s . . 526
S p e c if ic a t io n s , stan d ard , fo r c a s t iron 1 0 3 ,1 1 3
for non-ferrous m eta ls 2 7 0 , 312
for p a ttern -co lo u rin g . . 634
S p ir al T e s t , on b r o n z e ................................
S t a n d a r d is a t io n ................................ 30S
o f non-ferrous m eta ls 5or
S t e e l C a s t in g s , w ork o f S u b -C o m m ittee on
S t r a i n s in c a st iron 101 , 166
( See also D e f e c ts .)
S u lp h ite L y e s. SeeW ood E x tr a c t.
S u l p h u r , effect on brass 289
pick-u p 546
su p e r c o o l in g o f c a st iron, e ffe c t on str u c tu r e 159
S y n t h e t ic M o u l d in g S a n d , A m erica n p ra c tic e 221
b on d for 213
B r itish p ra c tic e 199
co m p o sitio n 237
re su lts 288
silic a sa n d b a sis 221
tr e a tm e n t 237
 cm
PAGE
T est -B a rs , s i z e ....................................................... 105
for c a st iron, foreign . 115
ca st brass . 273
non-ferrous, burning on . 504
tran sv erse . 123
T ests for c a st iron
chill ............................................................. . 570
cone 82
physical 97
p orosity 80
sh ear . 261
w ear . 151
T e x t il e M a c h in e r y , h ig h -d u ty iro n for . 257
B ritish practice . 265
T h erm a l Co n d u c tiv ity of ca st iron . 154
T in Co n te n t o f c a st b r o n z e ............................. . 321
T ra n sv erse R u p tu r e S tr ess of cast iron . 107
U nd erco o lin g of ca st iron, factors influencing 127
V alve C a s t i n g s ....................................................... . 460
V a r n ish , for p a t t e r n s .......................................... 632
V olum e Cha n g es in non-ferrous alloys 526
W all T h ic k n e s s , effect on g rap h ite in ca st iron 14«
effect on im pact s tren g th .. 148
W ashing M a c h in e s , castings for . 439
W ear T est s on c a st iron ............................. . 151
W ood E x tra ct , liquid, addition to m oulding sand 3 6 0 ,3 7 4
W o o dw orkin g Ma c h in e r y , castings for 648