PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Category – B Sub Module 3.17 – AC Generators

MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.17

AC GENERATORS

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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
WHAT IS A GENERATOR----------------------------------------------------------- 2
WHAT IS A.C GENERATOR -------------------------------------------------------- 2
PRINCIPLE OF AC GENERATOR -------------------------------------------------- 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION ----------------------------------------------- 2
CONSTRUCTION OF AC GENERATOR------------------------------------------- 5
ROTATING-ARMATURE ALTERNATORS---------------------------------------- 5
WORKING OF AC GENERATOR -------------------------------------------------- 6
GENERATOR TYPES ----------------------------------------------------------------- 9
ROTATING ARMATURE GENERATOR ------------------------------------------- 9
ROTATING FIELD GENERATOR --------------------------------------------------10
SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATORS --------------------------------------------------13
TWO-PHASE ALTERNATORS -----------------------------------------------------14
THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR ----------------------------------------------------15
THREE PHASE INTERCONNECTIONS -------------------------------------------19
STAR CONNECTION ---------------------------------------------------------------19
DELTA CONNECTION --------------------------------------------------------------20
ADVANTAGES OF DELTA-STAR CONNECTION -------------------------------20
THE BRUSHLESS (PERMANENT MAGNET) AC GENERATOR --------------23

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INTRODUCTION Mathematically:
Before we discuss theory and construction of an ac generator ∅
e= N
we should define some basic and vital concepts for better
understanding.
where
WHAT IS A GENERATOR
e = induced voltages / emf
A generator is device that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Ø = magnetic flux

WHAT IS A.C GENERATOR t = time

As the name implies, an AC generator is that, which produces now this leads us to 2 conditions. Flux can be changed in 2
alternating current. ways around the conductor, as shown in fig 3.17-1 & 3.17-2:

It is interesting to know that all generators (also called a) A changing magnetic field is produced around the
alternators) are basically ac generators i.e. they only produce ac conductor
current. The system of how we take output makes it an AC or b) The conductor or field moves to cut the magnetic lines of
DC generator. forces.

In both ways, the emf produced will be according to the

faradays’ law.
PRINCIPLE OF AC GENERATOR
The basic principle on which an AC generator works, is just
“electromagnetic induction “.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
According to the Michael Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
induction

A changing magnetic field around a conductor induces voltage

Fig 3.17-1 A changing magnetic field
into the conductor and the magnitude of induced voltages is
directly proportional to the rate of change of field.

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FIG 3.17.1B SIMPLE AC GENERATOR Fig 3.17-2 Conductor cutting the field

FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE

Well, to know the direction of induced emf, is a thing to know
and of great value.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule for generators is used to determine

the direction of the induced emf.

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FIG 3.17.4 DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC

FLUX< CURRENT AND MOTION
Fig 3.17-3
The thumb, first finger and second finger are used as shown in
Fig 3.17-3.

first finger points in the direction of the field (north to south

external of the magnets)

second finger points in the direction of the current flow

thumb points in the direction of motion i.e. rotation.

When two of these three factors are known, the third can be
determined by the use of this rule as can be seen from the fig
below.

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CONSTRUCTION OF AC GENERATOR the two slip rings that are welded to the both ends of coil and
rotate with the coil. The slip rings are then further connected
A simple ac generator is shown in the fig 3.17-4.
through carbon brushes, to the terminals of the load.

For production of heavy current, the field is not a permanent

magnet. It is instead an electromagnet and is energized by a
D.C current.

Depending upon the field and armature configuration,

generators are of 2 types.

ROTATING-ARMATURE ALTERNATORS
The rotating-armature alternator, fig 3.17-5, is similar in
construction to the dc generator in that the armature rotates in a
stationary magnetic field as shown in figure. In the alternator,
the generated ac is brought to the load unchanged by means of
slip rings (C1 and C2). The rotating armature is found only in
alternators of low power rating and generally is not used to
supply electric power in large quantities.

Fig 3.17-4 A simple one loop AC generator

That part of a generator that produces the magnetic field is

called the field. That part in which the voltage is induced is
called the armature. For relative motion to take place between
the conductor and the magnetic field, all generators must have
two mechanical parts — a rotor and a stator. The Rotor is the
part that Rotates; the Stator is the part that remains Stationary.
In a dc generator, the armature is always the rotor. In
alternators, the armature may be either the rotor or stator.
In above figure, the coil is the rotor and the two opposite poles FIG 3.17-5 ROTATING ARMATURE ALTERNATOR
of a permanent are stator. The induced voltages are taken from
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ROTATING-FIELD ALTERNATORS

The rotating-field alternator FIG 3.17-6 has a stationary

armature winding and a rotating-field winding as shown in figure
below. The advantage of having a stationary armature winding
is that :
.

 The generated voltage can be connected directly to the

load.

 A rotating armature requires slip rings and brushes to

conduct the current from the armature to the load. The
armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to insulate,
and arc-over and short circuits can result at high
voltages. For this reason, high-voltage alternators are
usually of the rotating-field type. Since the voltage
applied to the rotating field is low voltage dc, the
problem of high voltage arc-over at the slip rings does FIG 3.17-6 ROTATING FIELD ALTERNATOR
not exist.
WORKING OF AC GENERATOR
 More efficient cooling is achieved on the stationary
 Output windings allowing higher loads to be carried Figures illustrates the generation of alternating current (AC) with
a simple loop conductor rotating in a magnetic field. As it is
rotated in a counterclockwise direction, varying voltages are
The stationary armature, or stator, of this type of alternator induced in the conductive loop.
holds the windings that are cut by the rotating magnetic field.
The voltage generated in the armature as a result of this cutting
action is the ac power that will be applied to the load.

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Position 1
The conductor A moves parallel to the lines of force. Since it
cuts no lines of force, the induced voltage is zero. As the
conductor advances from position 1 to position 2, the induced
voltage gradually increases.
Position 2
The conductor is now moving in a direction perpendicular to the
flux and cuts a maximum number of lines of force;
therefore, a maximum voltage is induced. As the conductor
moves beyond position 2, it cuts a decreasing amount of flux,
and the induced voltage decreases.

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Position 3
At this point, the conductor has made half a revolution and
again moves parallel to the lines of force, and no voltage is
induced in the conductor. As the A conductor passes position3,
the direction of induced voltage now reverses since the A
conductor is moving downward, cutting flux in the opposite
direction. As the A conductor moves across the south pole, the
induced voltage gradually increases in a negative direction until
it reaches position 4.
Position 4
Like position 2, the conductor is again moving perpendicular to
the flux and generates a maximum negative voltage. From
position 4 to position 5, the induced voltage gradually decreases
until the voltage is zero, and the conductor and wave are ready
to start another cycle.

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Position 5 GENERATOR TYPES

There are two basic types of generator, the rotating armature

The curve shown at position 5 is called a sine wave. It
type and the rotating field type. The rotating armature type is
represents the polarity and the magnitude of the instantaneous
similar in construction to a DC generator, the armature rotates
values of the voltages generated. The horizontal baseline is
through a steady magnetic field. The rotating field type has
divided into degrees, or time, and the vertical distance above or
stationary armature windings and a rotating field.
below the baseline represents the value of voltage at each
particular point in the rotation of the loop.
ROTATING ARMATURE GENERATOR

Fig 3.17.7 shows a schematic diagram of a rotating armature

generator. The rotating armature cuts the magnetic field and

produces an alternating emf in the armature windings. The main

load current is carried by the slip rings.

FIG 3.17.7 ROTATING ARMATURE GENERATOR

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ROTATING FIELD GENERATOR
The rotating field or fields do not change their flux direction with
respect to the rotor. Fig 3.17.8 shows a schematic diagram of a
rotating field generator.
with a greater current the output windings must also be larger.
Consequently, these heavier windings are not subject to
centrifugal forces.

The rotating magnetic field can be:

A permanent magnet, this would only allow a very small voltage

output as in a tacho generator.

DC wound coils, as in some aircraft ac generators. The basic

ac generator therefore cannot be a true self-excited generator.
It requires a separate dc power source.

The field is rotated and cuts the stationary windings. An

alternating emf is produced in the stator windings.

The slip rings only carry the field supply which is the smaller dc
voltage and current.
FIG 3.17.8 ROTATING FIELD GENERATOR
Some advantages of the rotating field type generator are:

 the rotating field is an electromagnet fed with dc. This

excitation current is much smaller than the output so the
slip rings are smaller than would be necessary for the
output current.
 more efficient cooling is achieved on the stationary
output windings allowing higher loads to be carried
VOLTAGE
During the process of electromagnetic induction, the value of
the induced voltage/current depends on three basic factors:
1. Number of turns in the conductor coil (more loops
equals greater induced voltage)
2. Strength of the electromagnet (the stronger the
magnetic field, the greater the induced voltage)

3. Speed of rotation of the conductor or magnet (the

faster the rotation, the greater the induced voltage).
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FREQUENCY For example, a 2-pole, 3600-rpm alternator has a frequency of

60 Hz; determined as follows:
The output frequency of alternator voltage depends upon the:
f = 2 x 3600
60
1) Speed of rotation of the rotor. The faster the = 60 Hz
speed, the higher the frequency. The lower the
speed, the lower the frequency. A 4-pole, 1800-rpm generator also has a frequency of 120 Hz.
Frequency is proportional to Speed f ∝ N
f = 4 x 1800
2) The number of poles. The more poles there are on 60
the rotor, the higher the frequency is for a given = 120 Hz
speed.

Frequency is proportional to pair of poles. F ∝ P Similarly:

This principle is illustrated in figure; a two-pole generator must If revolutions completed in 1 sec = 10
rotate at four times the speed of an eight-pole generator to Then revolutions completed in 1min = 10 x 60
produce the same frequency of generated voltage. The Therefore RPM = 60 x RPS
frequency of any ac generator is in hertz(Hz), which is the RPS = .
number of cycles per second, is related to the number of poles
and the speed of rotation, as expressed by the equation and fig
3.17-7:

Thereby:

f = NP
60

where P is the number of pair of poles, N is the speed of

rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm), and 60 is a constant to
allow for the conversion of minutes to seconds.

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FIG 3.17.9 FREQUENCY OUTPUT WITH ONE PAIR OF POLES

FIG 3.17.10 FREQUENCY OUTPUT WITH TWO PAIRS OF POLES

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SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATORS

A generator that produces a single, continuously alternating

voltage is known as a SINGLE-PHASE alternator. All of the
alternators that have been discussed so far fit this definition.
The stator (armature)
windings are connected in series. The individual voltages,
therefore, add to produce a single-phase ac voltage. Figure
3.17-12shows a basic alternator with its single-phase output
voltage.

fig 3.17-11Frequency regulation

fig 3.1712 Single-phase alternator.

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TWO-PHASE ALTERNATORS induced in phase A decreases from its maximum value, and the
voltage induced in phase B increases from zero. In the right-
hand schematic, the rotor poles are opposite the windings of
Two phase implies two voltages if we apply our new definition of
phase B. Now the voltage induced in phase B is maximum,
phase. And, it's that simple. A whereas the voltage induced in phase A has dropped to zero.
two-phase alternator is designed to produce two completely Notice that a 90-degree rotation of the rotor corresponds to one-
separate voltages. Each voltage, by itself, may be considered
quarter of a cycle, or 90 electrical degrees. The waveform
as a single-phase voltage. Each is generated completely picture shows the voltages induced in phase A and B for one
independent of the other. cycle. The two voltages are 90º out of phase. Notice that the
Certain advantages are gained. These and the mechanics of
two outputs, A and B, are independent of each other. Each
generation will be covered in the following paragraphs. output is a single-phase voltage, just as if the other did not exist.
The obvious advantage, so far, is that we have two separate
output voltages. There is some saving in having one set of
GENERATION OF TWO-PHASE POWER
bearings, one rotor, one housing, and so on, to do the work of
two. There is the DISADVANTAGE OF HAVING TWICE AS
Figure 3.17-9 shows a simplified two-pole, two-phase alternator. MANY STATOR COILS, WHICH REQUIRE A LARGER AND
Note that the windings of the two MORE COMPLEX STATOR.
phases are physically at right angles (90º) to each other. You
would expect the outputs of each phase to be 90º apart, which
they are. The graph shows the two phases to be 90º apart, with
A leading B. Note that by using our original definition of phase
(from previous modules), we could say that A and B are 90º out
of phase i:e there will always be 90º between the phases of a
two-phase alternator. This is by design.
The stator in figure consists of two single-phase windings
completely separated from each other.
Each winding is made up of two windings that are connected in
series so that their voltages add. The rotor is identical to that
used in the single-phase alternator. In the left-hand schematic,
the rotor poles are opposite all the windings of phase A.
Therefore, the voltage induced in phase A is maximum, and the
voltage induced in phase B is zero. As the rotor continues
rotating counterclockwise, it moves away from the A windings
and approaches the B windings. As a result, the voltage

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this schematic fig 3.17-14, is made up of three single-phase

alternators whose generated voltages are out of phase by 120º .
The three phases are independent of each other.

fig 3.17-13 Two-phase alternator.

THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR

The three-phase alternator, as the name implies, has three

Fig 3.17-14THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR
single-phase windings spaced such that the voltage induced in
any one phase is displaced by 120º from the other two. A
schematic diagram of a three-phase stator showing all the coils
becomes complex, and it is difficult to see what is actually
happening. The simplified schematic of figure, shows all the
windings of each phase lumped together as one winding. The
rotor is omitted for simplicity. The voltage waveforms generated
a cross each phase are drawn on a graph, phase-displaced
120º from each other. The three-phase alternator as shown in
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AC GENERATORS – EFFECTS OF APPLIED LOADS

RESISTIVE LOADS

CROSS MAGNETIZING – UNITY POWER FACTOR

INCREASED REAL LOAD

By Increasing real load increases the IR drop in the stator

windings, causing a slight loss of voltage which is easily
regained in practice by a small increase in field excitation. The
armature reaction causes the cross magnetizing of the main
field, making the rotating field to twist against the direction of
rotation. FIG 3.17-15(A) EFFECT OF COMBINING ROTOR AND STATOR
FIELDS
The main effect is a tendency for speed and frequency to
reduce. Fig 3.17-15 shows the field distortion created by the
combination of rotor and stator fields concentrating the flux at
the trailing edge of the rotating pole piece. By resolving flux line
O-B into two components, O-A and A-B, it can be seen that the
latter, which is proportional to load current, represents a torque
acting in opposition to the shaft input torque.

To maintain constant speed and frequency it is necessary for

the prime-mover to supply more driving torque to the generator
shaft.

FIGURE 3.17. 15 (B) ARMATURE REACTION DUE TO RESITIVE LOAD

CAUSING CROSS MAGNETISING

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REACTIVE LOADS

INDUCTIVE REACTIVE LOAD –

DE MAGNETIZING – LAGGING POWER FACTOR

Maximum inductive current, lagging voltage by 90°, flows when

the generated emf is zero. It can be seen that the stator field is
directly opposing the rotor field. This results in considerable
loss of field strength which, in practice, is made up by increased PURE INDUCTANCE LAGS RESISTANCE BY 900
field excitation as the voltage regulator senses a falling voltage.
There is no effect on torque, but the increased rotor current
produces extra heat which must be dissipated.

CAPACITIVE REACTIVE LOAD

MAGNETIZING POWER FACTOR LEADING

Maximum capacitive current flows when the generated emf is

zero, but this time current leads voltage by 90°. It can be seen
that the stator and rotor fields are additive and the voltage
output tends to rise. On sensing this, the voltage regulator
reduces excitation in order to maintain constant voltage. There
is no effect on torque. PURE CAPACITANCE LEADS RESISTANCE BY 900

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POWER FACTOR

Power Factor (PF) is a way of describing the nature of an ac

generator’s load circuit, whether it be purely resistive, capacitive
or inductive.
As has been previously discussed:
ɸ R
Power factor = = = (Cosɸ)=
Z
Where ɸ is the phase angle.

Power factor also identifies that proportion of Apparent Power

available from an AC generator, which does the useful work of
driving machines etc. This is known as REAL POWER and is
found by the equation:

ACTIVE POWER = APPARENT POWER X POWER FACTOR

Fig 3.17-17shows a graph of voltage output comparisons with

Fig 3.17-16 Inductive and Capacitive Reactive Loads
respect to resistive, inductive and capacitive loads. The graph
itself takes into account no voltage regulation to enable the
relationships between the loads to be shown. The dotted line
represents the ideal terminal voltage from a generator. If the
load was purely resistive, the PF would be UNITY or 1. The
graph shows the terminal voltage tailing off because of the
internal resistance, of the generator. When the load is
capacitive or inductive, the PF will be leading or lagging
respectively (CIVIL). The capacitive load characteristic shows
the terminal voltage increasing because the magnetic fields of
the rotor and stator become additive, increasing terminal
voltage. The opposite is true for an inductive load, where the
magnetic fields oppose each other, decreasing the terminal
voltage. The characteristic showing a PF of 0.8 lagging is one
for an inductive/resistive load.

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The purpose of rating is to ensure that the generator is not
overheated when operated into a given load circuit, whether
continuously or intermittently, at its maximum real load.
THREE PHASE INTERCONNECTIONS
Although it is possible to run a three-phase system with the
phases completely separate, using two conductors for each
phase, it is unusual to do so since interconnection makes
possible considerable savings in line conductor materials. The
terms star and delta are the general terms applied to the
interconnection of three phase AC phases.

STAR CONNECTION
A star connection is an arrangement in which the corresponding
ends of phases, either start or finish, are connected to a
common terminal known as the star point. The other end of
each phase is connected to a separate terminal.
The circuits is shown in fig 3.17.15 .Since three of the phase
winding ends are joined at the star point, then only one terminal
(n) is required for these ends. Thus a star connected 3-phase
system requires a maximum number of four conductors to
transfer energy from source to load.

FIG 3.17-17 VOLTAGE OUTPUT COMPARISONS

Fig 3.17.18 Star-Connected Windings

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DELTA CONNECTION
A delta connection is an arrangement in which the finish of each
phase is connected to the start of the next in sequence. Phases
connected in this manner form a ring and each point of
connection is connected to a separate terminal.
This Fig 3.17.16 demonstrate the delta-connection. Since the
phase ends are paired from start to finish, then only three
terminals are required. Thus a delta-connected 3-phase system
requires only three conductors to transfer energy from source to
load.
Fig 3.17.19 THREE PHASE DELTA CONFIGURATION
ADVANTAGES OF DELTA-STAR CONNECTION
 Cross section area of winding is less at Primary side: On
primary side due to delta connection winding cross-section
required is less.
 Used at Three phase four wire System: On secondary
side, neutral is available, due to which it can be used for 3-
phase, 4 wire supply system.
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Sub Module 3.17 – AC Generators
 No distortion of Secondary Voltage: No distortion due to
third harmonic components.
 Handled large unbalanced Load: Large unbalanced loads
can be handled without any difficulty.
 Grounding Isolation between Primary and
Secondary: Assuming that the neutral of the Y-connected
secondary circuit is grounded, a load connected phase-to-
neutral or a phase-to-ground fault produces two equal and
opposite currents in two phases in the primary circuit without
any neutral ground current in the primary circuit. Therefore,
in contrast with the Y-Y connection, phase-to-ground faults
or current unbalance in the secondary circuit will not affect
ground protective relaying applied to the primary circuit. This
feature enables proper coordination of protective devices
and is a very important design consideration.
 The neutral of the Y grounded is sometimes referred to as a
grounding bank, because it provides a local source of ground
current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary
circuit.
 Harmonic Suppression: The magnetizing current must
contain odd harmonics for the induced voltages to be
sinusoidal and the third harmonic is the dominant harmonic
component. In a three-phase system the third harmonic
currents of all three phases are in phase with each other
because they are zero-sequence currents. In the Y-Y
connection, the only path for third harmonic current is
through the neutral. In the ∆ -Y connection, however, the
third harmonic currents, being equal in amplitude and in
phase with each other, are able to circulate around the path
formed by the ∆ connected winding. The same thing is true
for the other zero-sequence harmonics.
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 Grounding Bank: It provides a local source of ground
current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary
circuit. For suppose an ungrounded generator supplies a
simple radial system through ∆-Y transformer with grounded
Neutral at secondary as shown Figure. The generator can
supply a single-phase-to-neutral load through the -grounded
Y transformer.
 Let us refer to the low-voltage generator side of the
transformer as the secondary and the high-voltage load side
of the transformer as the primary. Note that each primary
winding is magnetically coupled to a secondary winding The
magnetically coupled windings are drawn in parallel to each
other.
.
FIG 3.18.20
 Through the second transformer law, the phase-to-ground load
current in the primary circuit is reflected as a current in the A-C
secondary winding. No other currents are required to flow in the
A-C or B-C windings on the generator side of the transformer in
order to balance ampere-turns.
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Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 3.17 – AC Generators
Easy Relaying of Ground Protection: Protective relaying is
MUCH easier on a delta-wye transformer because ground faults
on the secondary side are isolated from the primary, making
coordination much easier. If there is upstream relaying on a
delta-wye transformer, any zero-sequence current can be
assumed to be from a primary ground fault, allowing very
sensitive ground fault protection. On a wye-wye, a low-side
ground fault causes primary ground fault current, making
coordination more difficult. Actually, ground fault protection is
one of the primary advantages of delta-wye units.
.
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BRUSHLESS ALTERNATORS
CONSTRUCTION
A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end-
to-end on one shaft, as shown in figure 3.17-17. Smaller
brushless alternators may look like one unit but the two parts
are readily identifiable on the large versions. The larger of the
two sections is the main alternator and the smaller one is the
exciter. The exciter has stationary field coils and a rotating
armature (power coils). The main alternator uses the opposite
configuration with a rotating field and stationary armature.
FIG 3.17-21 AN SCHEMATIC OF BRUSHLESS
ALTERNATOR
EXCITER
The exciter field coils are on the stator and its armature is on
the rotor. The AC output from the exciter armature is fed
through a set of diodes that are also mounted on the rotor to
produce a DC voltage. This is fed directly to the field coils of the
ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified
PTC/CM/B Basic/M3/01
3.17- 22
Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 3.17 – AC Generators
main alternator, which are also located on the rotor as shown in
fig 3.17-18. With this arrangement, brushes and slip rings are
not required to feed current to the rotating field coils.
MAIN ALTERNATOR
The main alternator has a rotating field as described above and
a stationary armature (power generation windings). This is the
part that can be confusing so take note that in this case, the
armature is the stator, not the rotor.
With the armature in the stationary portion of the alternator, the
high current output does not have to go through brushes and
slip rings. Although the electrical design is more complex, it
results in a very reliable alternator because the only parts
subject to wear are the bearings.
FIG 3.17-22 AN SCHEMATIC OF EXCITER AND
ALTERNATOR
For Training Purpose Only
Rev. 01
Nov 2017
 PIA Training Centre Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Category – B Sub Module 3.17 – AC Generators

THE BRUSHLESS (PERMANENT MAGNET) AC AC GENERATOR

GENERATOR
CONSTANT FREQUENCY AC SYSTEMS

Most modern civil aircraft use generators operating at constant

frequency because:

The generators may be operated in parallel. It is suitable for

a wider range of load than a variable frequency supply
Generator loading does not vary with engine speed Loads
may be designed for optimum efficiency at the chosen
frequency

Induction motors (eg. fuel pumps, gyro motors etc.) operate at

almost constant speed.

3.17-23 AN SCHEMATIC OF BRUSHLESS

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B Basic/M3/01 Rev. 01
3.17- 23 Nov 2017