PIA B2 - Module 2 (PHYSICS) SubModule 2.2 (Mechanics) Final

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 2 – PHYSICS
Category - B2 Sub Module 2.2 – Mechanics
MODULE 2
Sub Module 2.2
MECHANICS
ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M2/01 Rev. 01
2.2 NOV, 2017
Contents
2.2.1 STATICS 2.2.3 DYNAMICS
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER -------------------------------------------------- 37

FORCES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM --------------------------------------------------- 41
SCALARS AND VECTORS ----------------------------------------------------------- 3
GYROSCOPES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
TURNING FORCES ------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
FRICTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
COUPLES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTRE OF MASS -------------------------------- 7
STRESS, STRAIN AND ELASTICITY ----------------------------------------------10 2.2.4 FLUID DYNAMICS
PRESSURE AND BUOYANCY IN LIQUIDS --------------------------------------13
FLUID DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY ------------------------------------- 49
VISCOSITY --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
2.2.2 KINETICS FLUID COMPRESSIBILITY -------------------------------------------------------- 51
LINEAR MOTION -------------------------------------------------------------------22 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE --------------------------------------------------------- 53
EQUATIONS OF MOTION --------------------------------------------------------23

PROJECTILE MOTION -------------------------------------------------------------24
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION -------------------------------------------------25
VELOCITY RATIO, MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE AND EFFICIENCY--------29
ROTATIONAL MOTION -----------------------------------------------------------31
PERIODIC MOTION ----------------------------------------------------------------33
VIBRATION, HARMONICS AND RESONANCE --------------------------------35
2.2 - i NOV, 2017
SUB MODULE 2.2
MECHANICS
2.2.1 – STATICS

2.2 - 1 NOV, 2017
FORCES
Force is a factor, or an agent, which changes or tends to Vertical component: Fy = F sinθ

change state of rest or the state of uniform motion of a body. In
other words, a force is a push or a pull which one object exerts
2 2
on another. Fore is a vector quantity. Applying Pythagoras theorem, F= Fx  Fy
If we push a door to open it, we are exerting a force on it. Other

forces from daily life are weight, force of friction, gravitational
force, etc. y
The SI unit of force is Newton (N).
Components of Force F F
Any force may be resolved into two perpendicular components. θ

Essentially, this means that the force vector may be replaced by x
two components at right angles to each other. They are called F
the horizontal and vertical components of that force.
Fig. 2.5
Consider a force ‘F’ having its ‘x’ and ‘y’ components, as shown
in the figure 2.5. Applying basic trigonometry gives us:
Horizontal component: Fx =Fcosθ

2.2 - 2 NOV, 2017
SCALARS AND VECTORS
Forces always have a size in a particular direction, e.g. the

weight force on a mass ‘m’ has a size of mg, directed towards
the center of the earth. Some quantities do not have a direction
associated with them e.g. the mass of a body is simply the
number of kilograms – it has no direction.
Quantities that only have a size or magnitude are called

scalars; e.g. mass, time, temperature, distance, speed, work,
energy, power, pressure, etc.
Quantities that have a direction as well as a size or magnitude

are called vectors;e.g. force velocity, acceleration, torque, etc.
Representation of Force
Force may be represented by a straight line in which the length

of the line is the magnitude of the force; an arrow represents the Fig. 2.6
sense of its direction, as shown in the figure 2.6.

2.2 - 3 NOV, 2017
TURNING FORCE (MOMENT)
Principle of Moment
With a long spanner it is easier to open a tight nut than with a
short spanner. This isn’t because the long spanner gives a
bigger force – after all it’s the person holding the spanner that The principle or law of moment states, “When a body is in
provides the force and we’re no stronger holding a long spanner equilibrium under the action of a number of forces, the sum of
than a short one. Rather, the long spanner allows us to exert a
the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of
greater torque on the nut. the anti-clockwise moments about that point.”
Torque or Moment is the turning effect of a force. It depends on Lever

the magnitude of the force and a distance called the moment
arm. This is the perpendicular distance from the force to the
axis of rotation. In the figure 2.7, A lever is a simple machine, which applies the principle of
moments to give a mechanical advantage.
Torque (ζ) at point A = FA× |OA|
Levers may be cranked or straight, but the principle in each
case is that a comparatively small force, usually termed effort,
In any two dimensions, a moment may be either clockwise or applied at a relatively large distance from the fulcrum, will either
anticlockwise. overcome or balance a greater force or load at a small distance
from the fulcrum. A practical example of lever is shown in the
If the standard units of force (Newton, N) and distance (meter, figure 2.8.
m) are used, then the units of torque are Newton-meter, Nm. A
torque wrench is a commonly used workshop tool. Many are
calibrated in more than one unit, for example Newton meters,
pound feet (lbft) and kilogram force meters (kgf m).

2.2 - 4 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8

2.2 - 5 NOV, 2017
COUPLES
A special case of moment is a couple. A couple consists of two Note that the above formula is same as that of moment or
parallel forces that are equal in magnitude, opposite in sense torque.
and do not share a line of action. It does not produce any
translation, only rotation. The resultant force of a couple is zero.
BUT, the resultant of a couple is not zero; it is a pure Figure 2.09
moment.
For example, the forces that two hands apply to turn a steering
wheel are often (or should be) a couple. Each hand grips the
wheel at points on opposite sides of the shaft. When they apply
a force that is equal in magnitude yet opposite in direction the
wheel rotates. If both hands applied a force in the same
direction, the sum of the moments created by each force would
equal zero and the wheel would not rotate. Instead of rotating
around the shaft, the shaft would be loaded with a force tending
to cause a translation with a magnitude of twice F. If the forces
applied by the two hands were unequal, there would again be
an unbalanced force creating a translation of the "system." A
pure couple always consists of two forces equal in magnitude,
as shown in the figure 2.09.
In the figure, F1 = F2 = F and if d = r1+r2, then
Couple = F × d.

2.2 - 6 NOV, 2017
Centre of Gravity
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTRE OF MASS

When gravity pulls an object towards the earth, it always seems
to pull at the same point on the object. So an object behaves as
Centre of Mass if its whole weight was a single force, which acts through a point
G called its centre of gravity.
The mass of a body depends on all the particles that form it.
We will find out a bit later that the weight of a body is the force The centre of gravity, G, of a body is defined as the single point
of gravity acting on it, and this depends on its mass. Although at which the entire weight of the body acts. The centre of gravity
the mass of a body is spread throughout all the space it of an aircraft is shown in the figure 2.10.
occupies, there is a single point though which it may be
balanced, like the hammer shown below. This point is called
Centre of Gravity of Regular Shapes
the center of mass.
If an object is of uniform density, and it is in a uniform

Sometimes it’s helpful to know where the centre of mass of a
gravitational field, then the centre of mass coincides with the
body lies. For instance, the stability of an aircraft depends on
centre of gravity. The centre of gravity is illustrated for some
the relative positions of its centre of mass and centre of lift. In
regular shapes in the figure 2.11.
the context of a uniform gravitational field the centre of mass
may be called the centre of gravity.

2.2 - 7 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.11
Fig. 2.10

2.2 - 8 NOV, 2017
Equilibrium
Equilibrium is a state of balance, as shown in the figure 2.12.
There are two conditions of equilibrium :(i) the vector sum of the
external forces is zero; and (ii) the sum of the moments
produced by those forces about any point is zero.
Figure 2.12

2.2 - 9 NOV, 2017
Components can be loaded in different ways, producing
different types of stress:
STRESS, STRAIN AND ELASTICITY
Tensile Stress – The load is stretching the component so that it
Stress becomes longer and thinner. The area under tensile stress is
perpendicular to the line of action of the forces. This is called
direct stress, and is shown in the figure 2.13.Cables and ropes
All structures are designed to be capable of withstanding forces. are under tension.
For instance, the loads on an aircraft’s airframe include thrust
from engines, lift, drag, the weights of fuel, payload and the
structure itself, and so on. These loads are called external Compressive Stress – The load is squeezing the component
forces - they act on the structure and produce internal forces so that it becomes shorter and thicker, as shown in the figure
inside the components that make up the structure. During 2.14. Compressive stress is also direct. Bridge columns and
design all these forces are analysed and stresses within chair legs are under compression.
components evaluated to ensure nothing will fail.
Shear Stress – In shear, the load tends to cause layers in the
The stress in a component is a measure of the effect of the component to slide over one another. The forces and area
loads on it. Materials are all different in their abilities to under stress are in the same direction, as shown in the figure
withstand stress. Stress is calculated from: 2.15.Rivets are under shear stress.
stress() = force Torsion – Shafts are under torsion stress. Refer to the figure
area 2.16.
The units of stress are Pa (Pascal). 1 Pa = 1 Nm-2 (Newton per

square metre).

2.2 - 10 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.15
Fig. 2.13
Fig. 2.14 Fig. 2.16

2.2 - 11 NOV, 2017
Component loaded beyond its elastic limit deforms plastically –
Strain there is a permanent deformation when the load is removed.
A component’s response to stress is to change its size and shape, as Some materials are brittle and break with very little plastic
shown in the figure 2.17. It’s easy to imagine this if we think of behaviour. Others are ductile or malleable and can be
stretching an elastic band, but engineering components behave in a deformed a great deal before failure. Copper wires, mild steel
similar (if much less obvious) way. For tensile and compressive stress car bodies and aluminium alloy aircraft panels all make use of
the deformation is measured in terms of strain. Since stain is a ratio, plastic deformation during manufacture while retaining sufficient
it has no units strength for their purpose.
Hooke’s Law The property of a material that is used to quantify its elastic
behaviour is the modulus of elasticity (also called Young’s
modulus).
Robert Hooke discovered a relation between stress and strain
which is known as Hooke’s law. It states, “The strain produced
in an elastic body is directly proportional to the stress exerted The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the “stiffness” of a
within the elastic limit.” material and can be obtained from the gradient of the initial
straight part in the graph above. Something made from a stiff
material will carry a large load without deforming. This is not
Elasticity the same property as strength, which tells us about the stress
needed to break something.
Hooke’s law is obeyed up to a certain elastic limit – there is

certain maximum value of stress beyond which the body will not Since stress is measured in Pascals (or Nm-2) and strain has no
regain its original state after the removal of stress. If the stress units, E is also measured in Pascals. Usually E is stated in giga
exceeds this maximum limit, the body will be permanently pascals (GPa).
deformed. This behaviour can be shown in the figure 2.18.Most
engineering materials behave elastically over a wide range of
loads. This means that once a load has been removed they
return to their original size and shape.

2.2 - 12 NOV, 2017
PRESSURE AND BUOYANCY IN LIQUIDS
Density
Density is a property of a material. It is the material’s mass

per unit volume. The Greek letter  (pronounced “roe”) is often
used to represent density. The standard units of density are
Figure2.17 kgm-3 (kilograms per cubic metre). Another common unit used
for density is gcm -3 (grams per cubic centimetre). 1 gcm-3 =
1000 kgm-3.
The table T – 2.5 shows the densities of some common

materials.
Notice that the density of pure water is 1000 kgm -3. This can be
a useful fact to remember. It may also be worth remembering
that 1 m3 =1000 litres, and that the mass of 1 litre of water is 1
kg.
Relative Density
Sometimes it is useful to compare the density of a material with

that of water
Relative Density = Density of Substance

Density of Water
Figure 2.18

2.2 - 13 NOV, 2017
An old-fashioned name for relative density is “specific gravity”.
A tool called a hydrometer is used to check the condition of a

lead-acid battery. It measures the relative density of the acid in
the battery.
The different levels of different fluids due to their density or their

relative density can be seen in the figure 2.19.
Material Density (Kg.m-3)
Air 1.225
Kerosene 750
Petrol 800 Fig. 2.19
Water 1000
Concrete 2400
Aluminum 2700
Steel 7800
Lead 11400
Mercury 13600
T – 2.5

2.2 - 14 NOV, 2017
h = vertical depth (m)
Pressure
The following are the building blocks for hydrostatic pressure:
When a force is spread out over an area we often say that it
 The pressure acts in all directions
exerts a pressure on the area (figure 2.20).
 The pressure increases with depth
Pressure = force
 The pressure is affected by the density of the liquid
area
 The width or shape of container does not affect the
The standard unit of pressure is Pa (Pascal). 1 Pa = 1 Nm-2. pressure.
Notice the similarities between pressure and stress.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 100 KPa (=

105Pa = 100 000 Pa). It varies from place to place and from
day to day.
Hydrostatic pressure
A body immersed in a fluid experiences hydrostatic pressure.

Hydrostatic pressure acts in all directions on an object. It is due
to the weight of the fluid being supported by the object.
The pressure depends on the density of the fluid and the depth
to which the body is immersed. Mathematically,
Hydrostatic pressure (P) = ρgh
Figure 2.20
Where: P = pressure (Pa)
ρ = density (kgm-3)

2.2 - 15 NOV, 2017
Basic Hydraulics At the ram piston, P = Load ÷ Piston Area (A).
Hydraulic machines are able to use liquid pressure to transfer So, Effort ÷ B = Load ÷ A.
energy from one place to another on the basis of above basic
principles.
Therefore, Effort ÷ Load = B ÷ A.
The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple.

Force that is applied at one point is transmitted to another point If A1 is smaller than A2 then a small effort can raise a large
using an incompressible fluid. The fluid is almost always an un load. This ratio gives the Mechanical Advantage of the system.
compressible oil of some sort. The force is almost always
multiplied in the process. The figure 2.21 shows the simplest
possible hydraulic system. The great thing about hydraulic systems is that the pipe
connecting the two cylinders can be any length and shape,
allowing it to snake through all sorts of things separating the two
In this drawing, two pistons fit into two glass cylinders filled with pistons. The pipe can also fork, so that one master cylinder
oil (blue) and connected to one another with an oil-filled pipe. If can drive more than one slave cylinder if desired.
you apply a downward force to one piston (the right one in this
drawing), then the force is transmitted to the second piston
through the oil in the pipe. The piston to which the effort is
applied is called the pump piston. The one that is applied to the
load is called the ram piston.
The pressure throughout the liquid is the same therefore the

pressure at effort = the pressure at load = P.
At the pump piston, P = Effort ÷ Piston Area (B).

2.2 - 16 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.21
2.2 - 17 NOV, 2017
Measuring Pressure
atmosphere = 101.325 KPa),. Several units are commonly used

We have seen that pressure is defined as a force per unit area - to measure atmospheric pressure. In round numbers,
and the most accurate way to measure low air pressure is to
balance a column of liquid of known weight against it and
measure the height of the liquid column so balanced. The units 1 atmosphere = 100 KPa = 1 bar = 1000 millibar = 760 mmHg.
of measure commonly used are inches of mercury (in. Hg) using
mercury as the fluid and inches of water using water or oil as
the fluid. As the altitude of an aircraft increases the atmospheric pressure
on it decreases.
Devices that measure pressure are called manometers, shown

in the figure 2.22.This device indicates the difference between Absolute Pressure (Pabs)
two pressures (differential pressure), or between a single
pressure and atmosphere (gauge pressure), when one side is
open to atmosphere. If a U-tube is filled to the half way point Pressure may be measured from zero pressure i.e. from a
with water and air pressure is exerted on one of the columns, vacuum. This is called absolute pressure.
the fluid will be displaced.The instrument used to measure
atmospheric pressure is called a barometer. The figure 2.23
shows a mercury barometer. Gauge Pressure (Pg)
Atmospheric pressure (Patm) Pressure may be measured from atmospheric pressure, i.e.
measured as a value above atmospheric pressure. This is
called gauge pressure. Gauge pressure is used to measure
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a engine oil pressure, hydraulic pressure and other operational
surface by the weight of air above that surface in pressures built up by pumps. This is because atmospheric
the atmosphere of Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure acts on the fluid as it enters and as it leaves the pump
pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic – only the pressure above atmospheric is of interest.
pressurecaused by the weight of air above the measurement
point. At the earth’s surface it is approximately 100 KPa (1
Pabs = Patm + Pg
standard
2.2 - 18 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.22
Fig. 2.23

2.2 - 19 NOV, 2017
Buoyancy
Why does a heavy steel ship float but a small steel ball bearing
sink? Why does a piece of cork, which is pushed below the
surface of the water rise up to the surface when it is released?
The Greek scientist Archimedes noticed that, when an object is
placed in liquid, it displaces the liquid and appears to lose
weight. He stated that there was an upward force, which
appeared to come from the liquid itself, and that the size of this
force was equal to the weight of liquid displaced.
Archimedes’ principle tells us, “When a body is completely or

partially immersed in a fluid it experiences an up thrust, or
apparent loss in weight, which is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced.”
This upwards force is called buoyancy.
The figure 2.24 shows what happens when an object is

immersed in water. When the object is put in the tank it
becomes buoyant and some of the water is displaced.
Hydrostatic pressure acts on the bottom of the block, providing

an up thrust on it. If the block is floating the up thrust balances
the block’s weight. Figure 2.24

2.2 - 20 NOV, 2017
SUB MODULE 2.2
MECHANICS
2.2.2 – KINETICS

2.2 - 21 NOV, 2017
linear motion, velocities in opposite directions are distinguished
by giving them positive and negative values. It’s up to us to
LINEAR MOTION decide which direction is positive and which is negative.
When a body is moving in a straight line with constant speed it Acceleration

is not accelerating. We say, in this case, that it is moving with
constant velocity. If a body's velocity is not constant, it is Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. It is a
accelerating. A body accelerates if it is changing its speed vector quantity. Its SI unit is the meter per second per second
and/or its direction. When we discuss a body's straight-line (ms-2 or m/s2). An object is accelerating if it is speeding up,
motion, then we do not have any change in direction. In this slowing down or its direction of motion is changing. A decrease
special case, any acceleration is due to a change in speed. in velocity is often called a deceleration or retardation.
Displacement
The distance travelled by a body in particular direction is called

displacement OR the shortest distance between initial and final
positions of a moving body represented by straight line and its
direction from initial and final position is called displacement.
Displacement is a vector quantity. Its unit in S.I system is meter.
Velocity
The distance travelled by a body in a unit time in definite

direction is called velocity.
The rate of change of displacement is called velocity. It is a

vector quantity and its unit in S.I system is meter/second.
The velocity at the start of a time interval is called the initial Figure2.25
velocity, while that at the end is called the final velocity. In

2.2 - 22 NOV, 2017
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
PROJECTILE MOTION
If there is no acceleration during motion, i.e. if a body is
travelling with a constant speed of ‘v’ ms-1 then the distance
travelled ‘s’ m (meters) in time ‘t’ s (seconds) is given by Projectile motion is a form of motion in which an object or
particle (called a projectile) is thrown obliquely near the earth's
s = vt surface, and it moves along a curved path under the action
of gravity only.If there were any other force acting upon an
On the other hand, consider that an object, travelling at an initial object, then that object would not be a projectile. A projectile
velocity ‘u’ ms-1, is acted on by a constant acceleration ‘a’ ms-2. has a combination of horizontal and vertical velocity
It reaches a final velocity ‘v’ ms-1 in a time ‘t’ s, covering a components, both moving independent of each other. The
displacement of ‘s’ m. horizontal component motion is based on the constant velocity
while the vertical component on the constant gravitational
The above five quantities describe the linear motion of the acceleration. Projectile motion only occurs when there is one
object, and are related by three equations as follows: force applied at the beginning of the trajectory, after which there
is no force in operation apart from gravity.
v = u + at
s = ut + 1 at2 There are a variety of examples of projectiles: an object

dropped from rest is a projectile (provided that the influence of
2 air resistance is negligible); an object which is thrown vertically
upwards is also a projectile (provided that the influence of air
2as = v2 – u2 resistance is negligible); and an object is which thrown upwards
at an angle is also a projectile (provided that the influence of air
resistance is negligible) such as the motion of a football after it
has been kicked. A projectile is any object that once projected
continues in motion by its own inertia and is influenced only by
the downward force of gravity. The figure 2.28 shows the
trajectory (path) of a projectile.
The path followed by a projectile motion is called its trajectory.

2.2 - 23 NOV, 2017
Acceleration
Since there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction, the
velocity in the horizontal direction is constant, being equal
to v0 cos θ. The vertical motion of the projectile is the motion of
a particle during its free fall. Here the acceleration is constant,
being equal to g.
Velocity
The horizontal component of the velocity of the object remains
unchanged throughout the motion. The vertical component of
the velocity increases linearly, because the acceleration due to
gravity is constant.
Range
The horizontal distance covered by the projectile between point
of projection and the point of return to level of projection is
called range if the projectile.
Figure 2.26

2.2 - 24 NOV, 2017
Newton’s Second Law of Motion

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s First Law of Motion The acceleration in a body due to the unbalanced force,
described in the first law, is directly proportional to that force
and is inversely proportional to its mass.
A body never changes its state of motion, i.e. the body at rest
will remain at rest, and a body in uniform motion will remain in
motion, until it is acted upon by an unbalanced external force. This gives us an equation:
F = ma
Consider a book (at rest) lying on a table as shown in the figure
2.27. It will never move (i.e. change its position) until it is acted Where: F = unbalanced force (N)
upon by an external force, such as force being given by the m = mass (kg)
hand.
a = acceleration (ms-2)
Inertia
It is the property of matter by which it has ability to resist against
the external force.
It takes over an hour for an ocean-going tanker (figure 2.28) to

reach full speed – and over an hour to be stopped when the
engines are put in reverse. Like all masses, the tanker resists
any change in velocity. This effect is called Inertia. The more
the mass something has, the greater its inertia and more it
resist acceleration.
Figure 2.27

2.2 - 25 NOV, 2017
Weight
Weight is the force of attraction applied by the Earth to other

bodies towards its center.
Any mass close to the earth experiences this force of gravity.

We call this force the weight of an object:
W = mg
Where: W = weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)
The value of acceleration due to gravity closed to the Earth is
9.81 ms-2.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Figure 2.28
To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
It tells us that forces always come in pairs. It is not possible for

a single force to occur on its own.

2.2 - 26 NOV, 2017
Here are some examples of pairs of forces:
A book on a table (as shown in the figure 2.29). The weight of

the book is balanced by the reaction force by the table on the
book.
Basic forces on an aircraft during its steady (constant speed)

flight. The force of thrust balances drag, while the weight of the
aircraft is balanced by lift. Figure 2.30
Fig. 2.30
Fig. 2.29

2.2 - 27 NOV, 2017
VELOCITY RATIO, MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

AND EFFICIENCY Velocity Ratio
The velocity ratio tells us how far the effort has to move in
Machines relation to the load:
Anything which makes forces more convenient to use is called a Velocity ratio VR = distance moved by effort
machine. It may be complicated as a gearbox or as simple as a distance moved by load
pair of scissors.
Efficiency of a Machine
Some machines are force magnifiers. A pair of pliers for
example. These give us a greater force at the jaws we put in at
the handles. Some machines are movement magnifiers. A Efficiency = useful work done on load
bicycle for example. One downward push on the pedals takes total work done by effort
us forward over 3 metres – much further than one step would
take us if we were walking. Thus, in this sort of machine we
apply a force (called the effort) to make something move Lever
(called the load). A lever is a very simple machine.
A lever is a rigid bar which rotates about a fixed point called the
Mechanical Advantage pivot or fulcrum. There are three kinds of lever depending upon
the relative position of the effort, load and fulcrum. In a first
The ratio of the load to the effort is called the mechanical class lever, the fulcrum is between the load and the effort (figure
advantage of a machine: 2.31), e.g. see-saw. A second class lever has the load in
between the load and the effort (figure 2.32), e.g. door. A lever
in which the effort is in between the load and the fulcrum is
Mechanical Advantage (MA) = load known as third class lever (figure 2.33), e.g. human arm.
effort

2.2 - 28 NOV, 2017
fig. 2.31
fig. 2.33
fig. 2.32

2.2 - 29 NOV, 2017
ROTATIONAL MOTION
And the centripetal force exerted on the body is:
Uniform Circular Motion
If an object moves at a constant linear speed ‘v’in a circle of

fc = m. v2
radius ‘r’, and completes ‘ω’radians per second, then
r
v=rω
Force exerted by rotating body on the central point or object
An object moving with a constant speed around a circular track during circular motion is a centrifugal force. A centrifugal force is
is said to be accelerating all the time. This is because its the reaction to a centripetal force.
direction of motion, and thus the velocity is changing all the
time. This acceleration is known as centripetal acceleration. Figure 2.34 shows an athlete whirling a metal ball tied to a
chain, called a hammer. The mass swinging round at the end of
Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces the chain has force acting on it in the form of tension on the
chain. Since there is counter force (i.e. centrifugal force) acting
The force which is directed towards the centre of the circle is away from the circle of motion, the mass must be accelerating
called centripetal force. or changing velocity all the time. It is constantly being pulled out
of a straight line path as it continues in its circular motion.
Consider the object of mass ‘m’ as shown in figure moving in a

circle of radius ‘r’ with constant speed ‘v’ the centripetal
acceleration of the body is given by:
ac = v2
r

2.2 - 30 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.34

2.2 - 31 NOV, 2017
PERIODIC MOTION Pendulums
The repetitive motion of a body from its mean position in equal A pendulum is an example of a simple mechanical oscillation,
intervals of time is known as periodic motion or oscillation. as shown in the figure 2.35. The heavy mass ‘m’ at the end of
the string (called the “bob”) of length ‘l’ is displaced through a
small angle, θ.
The examples of the periodic motion include guitar string
movement, pendulum, the piston of reciprocating engine, the
motion of an object attached to a spring, etc. Figure 2.36 shows the motion of a simple pendulum at different
positions. Positions ‘B’ is its mean position, where the kinetic
energy of the bob is maximum. ‘A’ and ‘C’ are extreme
The number of vibrations per second is called the frequency positions, where its potential energy is maximum.
and is measured in hertz (Hz). The time for one complete
oscillation is called the period. The maximum displacement
from the undisturbed position is called the amplitude of the ‘A’ to ‘C’ and back to ‘A’ is one complete oscillation, and ‘A’ to
oscillation. ‘B’, or ‘B’ to ‘C’ is the amplitude of the oscillation.
The period, T, and the frequency, f, are linked by the equation: Since the bob has been raised it has gained potential energy.
When released the bob falls, and its potential energy changes
into kinetic energy. It has reached its maximum velocity at the
T = 1/f undisturbed position (all its potential energy has been converted
into kinetic energy) and its inertia keeps it moving up the other
side. The to-and-fro motion continues until air resistance on the
Often oscillations arise because after an initial disturbance the bob and resistance to movement within the string damps out the
elasticity (“springiness”) in the material of an object allows an energy of the oscillation.
exchange of kinetic and potential energy.

2.2 - 32 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.35
Fig. 2.36

2.2 - 33 NOV, 2017
VIBRATION, HARMONICS AND RESONANCE

Harmonics
Forced Vibrations
Objects don’t usually vibrate at one single frequency – if they
did all musical instruments playing the same note would sound
All bodies capable of vibrating possess a natural frequency of
identical.
vibration. This is the frequency with which a body will oscillate
when it is left undisturbed after being set into vibratory motion. If
such a body is placed in contact with a second body, the latter When a guitar string is plucked it vibrates at what is called its
will also be forced to vibrate at the same frequency as the fundamental frequency. We perceive this as the pitch of the
former. The vibrations in the second body are known as forced note, and it depends on the string length, material and tension.
vibrations. However, the string also vibrates at various other frequencies
called harmonics.
The examples of the forced vibrations include the vibrating body
of a violin caused by the vibrations of the strings of the Harmonics all have frequencies that are multiples of the
instrument, and the vibrating loudspeaker cone caused by fundamental frequency, and the greater the frequency the
fluctuating currents flowing through the adjoining voice coil. smaller its amplitude. Its this mix of frequencies that gives a
sound its “quality” and allows us to tell the difference between a
trumpet and a piano both playing the same note.
Resonance
If the forcing frequency is the same as the natural frequency

then maximum energy is transferred to the oscillating system.
This effect is called resonance. Resonance of an oscillator
occurs when the forcing frequency equals the natural frequency.
Resonance in mechanical systems is very common.

2.2 - 34 NOV, 2017
SUB MODULE 2.2
MECHANICS
2.2.3 – DYNAMICS

2.2 - 35 NOV, 2017
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

.If ‘θ’ denotes the angle between the force and the displacement
Work vectors, then work done is given as
Work is done when a force moves an object through a

displacement, as shown in the figure 2.37. Mathematically, it is W = F cosθ × d = F d cosθ
a scalar quantity which is the dot product (scalar product) of two
vectors i.eforce and displacement.
Work done (W) = F × d
The formula for calculating work is useful when the object is

displaced in the direction of force.
The SI unit of work is joule. One joule is the amount of work
done by a force of one Newton as it moves an object through a
distance of one meter. Similarly, the FPS unit of work is foot-
pound (ft-lb).
1 joule (J) = 1 Newton – meter (N-m)
1 foot-pound (ft-lb) = 1 lb× 1 ft
Work Done if Force is not Parallel to Displacement

.
If the direction of force and displacement is not same, then the
work done is due to that component of force which acts in the
direction of displacement, as shown in the figure 2.38 Figure 2.37

2.2 - 36 NOV, 2017
Kinetic and Potential Energies
Mechanical energy is of two types – kinetic energy and potential

energy.
Potential energy is simply ‘stored energy’ or energy possessed

by an object because of its position or condition. There are
many examples of potential energy – a stone on the top of a hill
has potential energy with respect to the ground, a charged
battery possesses electrical potential energy, kerosene fuel in
an aircraft tank has chemical potential energy, etc. Potential
energy in a body of mass ‘m’ at a height ‘h’ with reference to
apoint is given as:
Figure 2.38
P.E. = m g h
The kinetic energy of a body is its capability of doing work

Energy because of its motion. Wind, which is air in motion, does much
work as it drives windmills. In some power-stations, the kinetic
energy of water is used to drive huge turbines for generating
In general, the energy of a body can be considered as its electricity. Kinetic energy in a moving body having mass ‘m’ and
capability of doing work and is measured by the amount of work speed ‘v’ is given as
that the body can do. Therefore, it follows that energy is
measured in same units as that of work – the joule or foot- K.E. = ½ m v2
pound.
There are various forms of energy – heat energy, light energy,

chemical energy, electrical energy, mechanical energy, etc.
Figure 2.41 shows various forms of energy.
2.2 - 37 NOV, 2017
Notice that kinetic energy is proportional to mass and the
square of the velocity.
Law of Conservation of Energy
“Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but may be

changed from one form into another.” Figures 2.40, 2.41 and
2.42 are showing different forms of energy changes. Guess
which energy in each figure is converted to which energy.
Fig. 2.40
Fig. 2.39
Fig. 2.41

2.2 - 38 NOV, 2017
1 kW = 103 W = 1 000 W
1 MW = 106 W = 1 000 000 W
For objects moving at constant velocity, we can say that
Power = Force x Velocity
Fig. 2.42 Efficiency

The efficiency of an engine (or other device) tells us how well it
Power converts the energy it is supplied with (in fuel or electricity, for
example) into useful work.
Power is the rate of doing work.
Efficiency = Useful Work
Energy Supplied
Power = work
time
An engine is supplied with a great deal of chemical energy in its
fuel. We know from the principle of conservation of energy that
The SI unit for power is the watt (W).
when the fuel burns all its chemical energy changes into other
forms (mainly heat). The engine’s purpose is to change this
1 Watt =1 joule per second heat energy into kinetic energy, but inevitably a large amount of
heat escapes through the exhaust and is wasted. Friction and
sound also contribute to losses.
Often power is stated in kilowatts (kW) or megawatts (MW).

2.2 - 39 NOV, 2017
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
The Conservation of Linear Momentum
The momentum ‘p’ of a body is defined as the product of its

mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’. When Newton’s laws of motion are applied to colliding objects
we find that the total momentum before the collision is equal to
the total momentum after the collision. This is called the
p=m×v principle of conservation of linear momentum. Collisions occur
in many engineering contexts, not just in car crashes: gas
molecules bounce off each other and the walls of their
The momentum of a body could be changed the same amount container; air and turbine blades collide in a jet engine; pile
by a large force for a short time or by small force acting for long drivers are used to hammer building foundations into the
time. ground.
Newton related the force to the rate of change of momentum Theoretically, a collision may be elastic or inelastic depending
and worded his second law in terms of momentum as ‘the rate on whether or not kinetic energy is conserved during the
of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the force collision or not. In both cases, momentum is conserved. An
applied and takes place in the direction of the force.’ example of an elastic collision might be a ball striking to another
ball, as shown in the figure 2.43After the collision of the ball the
momentum of first ball has been shifted into second ball. But,
The product of the force and the time for which the force acts is according to law of conservation of linear momentum, the total
equal to the change in momentum. We call the product of the momentum of the system before and after collision is
force and time, Ft, the impulse. conserved.
Impulse = F × t Problem 2.4
Find the momentum of a moving aircraft of mass 100 tones,

travelling with a speed of 250 km/h.

2.2 - 40 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.43

2.2 - 41 NOV, 2017
GYROSCOPES A gyro built in the form of heavy rimmed wheel will have much
more rigidity than a gyro shaped like a sphere or cylinder. The
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or rings in which the gyro is mounted that permit it to move are
maintaining orientation, based on the principles of angular called gimbals rings. The figure 2.44 shows gimbals rings and
the progression of mountings that lead to a free gyro, along with
momentum.
the three axes of rotation.
Mechanically, a gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which
the axle is free to assume any orientation. Although this
orientation does not remain fixed, it changes in response to an
external torque much less and in a different direction than it
would with the large angular momentum associated with the
disc's high rate of spin and inertia. The device's orientation
remains nearly fixed, regardless of the mounting platform's
motion, because mounting the device in a gimbals minimizes
external torque.
Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation

systems where magnetic compasses would not work (as in
the Hubble telescope). One of the most essential devices for
navigation of aircraft is the gyroscope.
The gyroscope is a device consisting of a wheel having much of

its mass concentrated around the rim, mounted on a spinning
axis. The characteristic of a gyroscope that makes it valuable as
a navigation device is its ability to remain rigid in space, thus
providing a directional reference.
Figure 2.44
The rigidity of a gyro is its force that opposes any other force
that tends to change its plane of rotation in space. The rigidity is
increased and/or as the speed of rotation is increased.

2.2 - 42 NOV, 2017
FRICTION Coefficient of Friction
Friction refers to forces which oppose the motion of one surface If the weights are successively put on the sliding block and the
over another in contact with it. Figure 2.45 shows the basic limiting frictional force is recorded each time, it will be found that
parameters for friction. the limiting force is directly proportional to the total weight
pressing the block against the board.
In the study of machines, we have often noted how frictional
forces add to the load which has to be overcome by the effort. The ratio this limiting frictional force ‘F’ to the normal reaction
Friction is unavoidable because no surface is perfectly smooth. force ‘R’ between the two surfaces in contact is constant, and is
When one object rubs against another, the roughness of their known as coefficient of friction, denoted by ‘μ’.
surfaces prevents them from sliding freely over one another.
Thus,
Friction can be used or reduced – friction is needed to give our
shoes grip on the ground; on the other hand, aircraft body is
designed so that the airflow is as smooth as possible (less air μ=F
resistance means less wasted fuel). R
When work is done against friction heat energy is produced. or F=μR

Brake pads and discs can generate a great deal of heat and,
despite the cold ambient temperature at high altitude, the skin of
an aircraft travelling supersonically gets very hot. Concorde’s
nose cone reached temperatures of over 100C.

2.2 - 43 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.45

2.2 - 44 NOV, 2017
Types of Friction Disadvantages
Friction causes loss of energy in machines.

Static Friction – If two objects are in contact and at rest, a
force applied to one object which does not cause motion must
be balanced by an opposite and equal friction force, so that the The effects of friction between surfaces may include wear and
resultant force is zero. Static friction occurs between two tear, high operating temperatures due to heat energy produced,
surfaces that are not moving past each other. etc.
Limiting Friction –The maximum size of static friction force is Methods to Reduce Friction
called the limiting frictional force and occurs when one object is
just about to move relative to the other.
Three chief ways of reducing friction are (i) the use of balls
(spherical shaped bodies) or roller bearings, and (ii) the use of
Kinetic Friction – In the figure shown, when the angle of the lubricants like oil, air and graphite. (iii) to polish the surface
slope is large enough, the block does start to move – it slips
down the slope. When moving at steady speed down the slope,
the forces are again balanced (by Newton’s 1st Law). The Separating the surfaces can reduce the friction force and
coefficient of friction between the moving surfaces is called the therefore the effects of friction. For solid surfaces, a fluid may
coefficient of moving or kinetic friction. be used to separate surfaces. Typically, a suitable lubricant is
oil or water. If the surfaces are completely separated, then the
friction left is due to fluid friction in the fluid i.e. the fluid
Figure 2.46 compares the static and kinetic frictions. viscosity.
Rolling Friction – Consider the wheel in the figure 2.47; the As well as reducing wear and reducing the amount of heat
angle at which it started to move down the slope would be much energy generated, lubrication also protects materials against
smaller. The name for friction between surfaces which are corrosion.
rolling past each other without slipping is the coefficient of
rolling friction.

2.2 - 45 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.47
Fig. 2.46

2.2 - 46 NOV, 2017
SUB MODULE 2.2
MECHANICS
2.2.4 – FLUID DYNAMICS

2.2 - 47 NOV, 2017
only enough to indicate that the electrolyte has a relative density

(a) FLUID DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY of 1.275
Hydrometers
A fluid is a liquid or a gas; having the ability to flow. It has mass,
some weight, density, viscosity, and some temperature as well.
Hydrometers are floating instruments used to measure the
density of liquids. A hydrometer has a long neck or stem with a
Specific Weight density scale reading in grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3). A
large bulb filled with air displaces the liquid and provides an up
thrust to make the hydrometer float (Archimedes principle).
The weighted density ‘w’ of a fluid is its weight per unit volume.
The SI unit is N/m3, and FPS unit is pound/ft3.
When the hydrometer floats in a liquid, it displaces a volume of
liquid that has the same weight as the hydrometer, as shown in
Specific Density or Relative Density the figure 2.48.
is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance In a liquid of low density the hydrometer sinks further down the
to the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity liquid, displacing a greater volume of liquid until the weight of
usually means relative density with respect to water. The term liquid displaced equals its own. In a liquid of higher density the
"relative density" is often preferred in modern scientific usage. hydrometer floats higher up.
Any material having a relative density of less than one will float This means the density scale reads from top to bottom for
in water, while materials having relative densities of higher will increasing liquid density.
sink.
To increase the sensitivity of the hydrometer i.e. increase the

An example of a practical use of relative density with which gaps between the scale markings, a longer narrower stem may
aviation maintenance technicians are quiet familiar is the be used.
relative density of the electrolyte of a lead-acid battery. When
the battery is fully charged, the float in the hydrometer will sink
2.2 - 48 NOV, 2017
VISCOSITY
The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to flow
When a fluid is flowing different layers in it have different

velocities and shearing forces are set up between the layers.
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its ability to resist these
shear stresses.
Water has a low viscosity, whereas oil generally has a much

higher viscosity (several hundred times greater than that of
water). For most liquids, the viscosity decreases with an
increase in temperature.
Gases also have viscosity. It is much less than that of liquids

and increases with an increase in temperature.
An ideal fluid is one that has zero viscosity i.e. zero resistance
to flow; real fluids do have viscosity.
. The viscosity of fluids varies with temperature. For liquids,

viscosity decreases as temperature increases. For gases,
viscosity increases as temperature increases.
2.2 - 49 NOV, 2017
FLUID COMPRESSIBILITY
molecule will be moving in the same direction as the general
flow at that point. This is called laminar, or streamline, flow.
Compressibility is the ability of a fluid to be compressed.
The lines in the figure 2.49 (a) shows the streamline flow in a
Gases are compressible liquids are not. When an aircraft is pipe and 2.50 shows how air flows around the object. Drag on
flying it compresses the air in front of it. At low speeds this is an object is minimised by “streamlining” its shape.
relatively unimportant, but at high speeds compressibility
causes shock waves to be formed, which may affect the flight of
the aircraft. If the velocity of the air is increased or the object doesn’t have a
smooth shape with respect to the flow, the flow will be turbulent,
as shown in the figures.
Motion through Fluids
The flow is no longer in smooth in both cases. The air

The analysis of forces on objects moving through fluids is very molecules follow complicated, irregular paths and there are
complex. We will look only at some fundamental ideas in fluid many swirls and vortices. At any particular instant, an air
mechanics. molecule may be moving in any direction relative to the general
flow.
Laminar and Turbulent flow

Drag on an Aircraft
Imagine air flowing slowly over a flat or smoothly curved solid

surface. The flow is likely to be orderly with the air molecules The drag on an aircraft arises because of two sets of forces:
following well-defined paths, one layer sliding over another. friction forces along the aircraft’s skin, and pressure forces that
Friction between the moving air and the object will slow the air are perpendicular to the skin.
close to the surface but at any instant, any particular air

2.2 - 50 NOV, 2017
Drag is much greater in turbulent flow than it is in laminar flow.

Three features of a body determine its air resistance: shape,
frontal area, surface roughness:
Fig. 2.49
Fig. 2.50

2.2 - 51 NOV, 2017
BOUNDARY LAYER
A boundary layer is a layer of air close to the surface of a
moving object that is moving at less than the free-stream
velocity.
Because of skin friction, air particles at the surface are not

moving relative to it. Further away from the surface the effects
of skin friction are less, until at the edge of the boundary layer
the velocity is the same as that of the undisturbed air.
Flow in the boundary layer plays a large part in the overall flow
of air round an object.
Figure 2.51 shows the velocity vector with respect to the

displacement from the bottom wall, and hence the boundary
layer.
Figure 2.51

2.2 - 52 NOV, 2017
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
the points 1 and 3. So, the fluid moves at a higher velocity v2,
producing a lower pressure p2 than those at the points 1 and 3,
Bernoulli’s principle explains the action of a fluid flowing through
the varying cross-sectional areas of tube.
as indicated by the height of the column of fluid in the vertical
tube above the point 2.
In the figure 2.52, a tube is shown in which the cross-sectional
area gradually decreases to a minimum diameter at its Centre
section. A tube constructed in this manner is called a venturi The venturi principle, in any of a number of shapes and sizes, is
tube, or simply venturi, as shown in the figure 2.52. used in aircraft systems. They may be referred to as restrictions
or orifices.
Now consider the venturi tube in the figure 2.55, showing the
vertical tubes. As a fluid flows through the venturi tube, the For example, an orifice is generally installed in a hydraulic line
three vertical tubes acts as the pressure gauges. Filling with to limit the rate of fluid flow. A hydraulically operated aircraft
liquid until the pressure of the liquid in each tube is equal to the landing gear, when being extended, will tend to drop with great
pressure of the moving fluid in the venturi. speed because of the weight of the mechanism. If the restrictor
is installed in the hydraulic return line the extension of the gear
will be slowed, thus preventing possible structure damage.
The venturi can be used to illustrate the Bernoulli’s principle,
which states that the pressure of the fluid decreases at points
where the velocity of the fluid increases.
In the wide section of the venturi (points 1 and 3 in the figure

2.53), the liquid moves with low velocity v1 and v3, producing
high pressure p1 and p3, as indicated by the height of the fluid in
the vertical tubes at these points. As the tube narrows at the
Centre (point 2), it must contain the same volume of fluid as at

2.2 - 53 NOV, 2017
Fig. 2.52
Fig. 2.53

2.2 - 54 NOV, 2017
The Production of Lift
The production of lift in an aircraft is one of the best examples of

the Bernoulli’s principle.
An aerofoil, shown in figure 2.54, is any surface designed to

obtain a reaction from the air through which it moves. Wings,
ailerons, elevators, stabilizers, propeller blades and helicopter
rotors are all aerofoils.
The reaction for which wings are designed is called lift. A wing
produces lift because of the pressure difference according to
the Bernoulli’s principle, as shown in the figure 2.55. The
greater the difference, the more lift is developed. Figure 2.55
Figure 2.54

2.2 - 55 NOV, 2017

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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 2 – PHYSICS

Category - B2 Sub Module 2.2 – Mechanics

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

2.2.1 STATICS 2.2.3 DYNAMICS

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER -------------------------------------------------- 37

LINEAR MOTION -------------------------------------------------------------------22 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE --------------------------------------------------------- 53

EQUATIONS OF MOTION --------------------------------------------------------23

SUB MODULE 2.2

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Force is a factor, or an agent, which changes or tends to Vertical component: Fy = F sinθ

If we push a door to open it, we are exerting a force on it. Other

The SI unit of force is Newton (N).

Any force may be resolved into two perpendicular components. θ

Horizontal component: Fx =Fcosθ

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SCALARS AND VECTORS

Forces always have a size in a particular direction, e.g. the

Quantities that only have a size or magnitude are called

Quantities that have a direction as well as a size or magnitude

Force may be represented by a straight line in which the length

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Torque or Moment is the turning effect of a force. It depends on Lever

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Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8

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In the figure, F1 = F2 = F and if d = r1+r2, then

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CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTRE OF MASS

If an object is of uniform density, and it is in a uniform

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ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Equilibrium is a state of balance, as shown in the figure 2.12.

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The units of stress are Pa (Pascal). 1 Pa = 1 Nm-2 (Newton per

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Fig. 2.14 Fig. 2.16

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Hooke’s law is obeyed up to a certain elastic limit – there is

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Density is a property of a material. It is the material’s mass

The table T – 2.5 shows the densities of some common

Sometimes it is useful to compare the density of a material with

Relative Density = Density of Substance

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An old-fashioned name for relative density is “specific gravity”.

A tool called a hydrometer is used to check the condition of a

The different levels of different fluids due to their density or their

Material Density (Kg.m-3)

Petrol 800 Fig. 2.19

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Atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 100 KPa (=

A body immersed in a fluid experiences hydrostatic pressure.

Hydrostatic pressure (P) = ρgh

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Basic Hydraulics At the ram piston, P = Load ÷ Piston Area (A).

The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple.

The pressure throughout the liquid is the same therefore the