Gasdynamics

AE4140
Chapter 2: Linearized flow equations

Ferry Schrijer
F.F.J.Schrijer@tudelft.nl

Luis Laguarda Sanchez

L.LaguardaSanchez@tudelft.nl

Aerodynamics Section
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering
Delft University of Technology

August 27, 2020

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Linearized flow equations
1D acoustics
Piston problem
Riemann’s initial value problem

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Chapter 2: Linearized flow
equations

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1D acoustics

I Physics of acoustic wave propagation in a fluid at rest

I 1D case in a constant area tube
Reference state: ρ0 , p0 , a0 and u0 = 0 Introduce perturbations:
∆ρ, ∆p and ∆u

ρ = ρ0 + ∆ρ, p = p0 + ∆p, and u = u0 + ∆u = ∆u. (1)

The entropy is kept constant in space (x) and time (t)

∆p = a02 ∆ρ (2)

Valid for any pair of nearby states.

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1D acoustics

Introduction of relative density change (condensation)

∆ρ
S̃ = , (3)
ρ0

and the Mach number:

∆u u
M= = (4)
a0 a0

Notation is from Liepmann and Roshko, do not confuse S̃ with

S = entropy These are now substituted in the equations for 1D
unsteady flow:
Ut + Fx = 0. (5)

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1D acoustics
Continuity equation:

∂ρ ∂(ρu) ∂ ∂
+ =0→ (ρ0 + ∆ρ) + ((ρ0 + ∆ρ)u) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x
which becomes
∂∆ρ ∂u ∂
+ ρ0 + (u∆ρ) =0 (6)
∂t ∂x |∂x {z }
second order perturbation

Neglect 2nd order perturbations:

∂ S̃ ∂M
+ a0 =0 (7)
∂t ∂x

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1D acoustics
Momentum equation:
∂ ∂  
(ρu) + p + ρu 2 = 0
∂t ∂x
Inserting perturbations:
∂ ∂  
(ρ0 u + u∆ρ) + p0 + ∆p + ρ0 u 2 + u 2 ∆ρ = 0
∂t ∂x
∂u ∂∆p ∂ ∂  2  ∂  2 
ρ0 + + (u∆ρ) + u ρ0 + u ∆ρ = 0
∂t ∂x |∂t ∂x {z ∂x }
2nd and 3rd order perturbations
Neglecting 2nd and 3rd order terms
∂u ∂∆p
ρ0 + = 0,
∂t ∂x
or
∂M ∂ S̃
+ a0 =0 (8)
∂t ∂x
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1D acoustics
Relation with the wave equation

By respectively adding and subtracting (7) and (8), we get the

following equations:

(M + S̃)t + a0 (M + S̃)x = 0 (9)

(M − S̃)t − a0 (M − S̃)x = 0 (10)
dx
M + S̃ is constant along dt = +a0 : ‘characteristic’ Γ+
dx
M − S̃ is constant along dt = −a0 : ‘characteristic’ Γ−

Linear acoustics: characteristics appear to be straight lines

For non-linear gasdynamics they are generally curved.

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1D acoustics
Riemann invariants

Riemann invariants:

J + = M + S̃, J − = M − S̃
(11)
Characteristic equations:

∂J ± ∂J ±
± a0 =0 (12)
∂t ∂x

dx
J + is constant along Γ+ : dt = +a0 and
dx
J − is constant along Γ− : dt = −a0

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1D acoustics
Riemann invariants

Other texts call the equation the describes the characteristic

curves:
dx
= ±a0 along Γ± (13)
dt
the “characteristic equations” and

J ± = M ± S̃ = constant along Γ± (14)

the “compatibility relations”

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1D acoustics
Relation with the wave equation

Differentiate (7) and (8) w.r.t time or space:

∂ 2 S̃ 2
2 ∂ S̃
− a 0 = 0 (15a)
∂t 2 ∂x 2
2
∂ M 2
2∂ M
− a0 = 0 (15b)
∂t 2 ∂x 2

Both S̃ and M satisfy wave equation with a0 as the wave speed.

General solution of wave equation by d’Alembert:

S̃(x, t) = F (x − a0 t) + G(x + a0 t) (16a)

M(x, t) = f (x − a0 t) + g(x + a0 t) (16b)

Where F (X ), f (X ), G(Y ) and g(Y ) are arbitrary functions

(∈ C 2 ) of the single arguments X = x − a0 t and Y = x + a0 t.

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1D acoustics
Relation with the wave equation

F (X ) and f (X ): right-running waves

G(Y ) and g(Y ): left-running waves

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Method of characteristics
Forward M.O.C

Assume: initial values are given on

the x-axis for t = 0
−
Draw characteristics Γ+A and ΓB which
intersect in P where:

along Γ+
A : (M + S̃)A = (M + S̃)P
along Γ−
B : (M − S̃)B = (M − S̃)P

Solving for MP and S̃P :

MA + S̃A MB − S̃B
M(xp , tp ) = + (17)
2 2
MA + S̃A MB − S̃B
S̃(xp , tp ) = − (18)
2 2

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Method of characteristics
Backward M.O.C

The backward M.O.C and forward M.O.C are very similar

Backward M.O.C to get the solution in a point P (xp , tp )
I Initial values of M and S̃ are
known on the x-axis (t = 0)
I Draw Γ+ and Γ− backwards
through P
I Lines intersect x-axis in points A
and B: initial values for M and S̃
I Again use the equations from
forward M.O.C

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Method of characteristics
Initial value problem for the wave equation
Wave equation for S̃:

∂ 2 S̃ 2
2 ∂ S̃
− a0 =0 (19)
∂t 2 ∂x 2
and initial conditions on the x-axis (t = 0):
S̃(x, 0) = f (x), (20)
∂ S̃
(x, 0) = g(x) (21)
∂t
How does the solution S̃(x, t) depend on the initial data f (x)
and g(x)?
The solution of d’Alembert gives:

S̃(x, t) = F (x − a0 t) + G(x + a0 t) (22)

0 0
S̃t (x, t) = −a0 F (x − a0 t) + a0 G (x + a0 t) (23)
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Method of characteristics
Initial value problem for the wave equation
Evaluate both expressions on the x-axis (t = 0):

S̃(x, 0) = F (x) + G(x) = f (x) (24)

S̃t (x, 0) = −a0 (F 0 (x) − G0 (x)) = g(x) (25)

Integrate the last equation with respect to x:

Z x
1
F (x) − G(x) = − g(ξ) dξ. (26)
a0 0
Now we have two equations for two the unknown functions
F (x) and G(x):
Z x
1 1
F (x) = f (x) − g(ξ) dξ (27)
2 2a0 0
Z x
1 1
G(x) = f (x) + g(ξ) dξ (28)
2 2a0 0

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Method of characteristics
Initial value problem for the wave equation
The general solution for S̃(x, t) for an arbitrary point (x, t) is
now found as
x+a
Z 0t
1 1
S̃(x, t) = {f (x − a0 t) + f (x + a0 t)} + g(ξ) dξ (29)
2 2a0
x−a0 t

Domain of Dependence (D.O.D.) of

point P: area enclosed by the
characteristics Γ+ , Γ− and the initial
line t = 0
the Domain of Influence (D.O.I) of
point P: area above P between Γ−
and Γ+

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Method of characteristics
Discontinuities
Equations for linear acoustics:

∂ S̃ ∂M
+ a0 =0 (30)
∂t ∂x
∂M ∂ S̃
+ a0 =0 (31)
∂t ∂x
The solutions are characterized by:
I M + S̃ is constant along Γ+
I M − S̃ is constant along Γ−
Now we will show that the following solution is valid even when
the condition that M and S̃ cannot be individually differentiated:

(M + S̃)(x, t) = (M + S̃)(x − a0 t, 0) (32)

(M − S̃)(x, t) = (M − S̃)(x + a0 t, 0) (33)

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Method of characteristics
Discontinuities

Consider a charasteristic Γ+
1 with a
constant Riemann invariant
J1+ = M + S̃
M + S̃ is constant but M and S̃
may vary along Γ+1 and contain
discontinuities

Assume M is discontinuous with a jump ∆M between A and B:

MB = MA + ∆M
To satisfy the condition J1+ is constant, the variable S̃ also
jumps between A and B:

S̃B = S̃A + ∆S̃, with ∆S̃ = −∆M. (34)

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Method of characteristics
Discontinuities

Discontinuous solutions have to satisfy the jump relation:

∆S̃ + ∆M = 0 on Γ+ (35)

and similarly
∆S̃ − ∆M = 0 on Γ− (36)

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Method of characteristics
Discontinuities

The discontinuity is carried along the Γ− -characteristic going

through A and B:
Apply the condition: M − S̃ is constant along Γ−A and ΓB
−

Take neighbouring points P and Q on Γ− −

A and ΓB :

along Γ−
A MP − S̃P = MA − S̃A
along Γ−
B MQ − S̃Q = MB − S̃B = MA + ∆M − S̃A − ∆S̃
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Method of characteristics
Discontinuities

Subtract both equations:

MQ − MP − S̃Q + S̃P = ∆M − ∆S̃.

Take P and Q on the same Γ+ -characteristic:

∆S̃ + ∆M = 0 → MQ − MP − S̃Q + S̃P = 2∆M

MP + S̃P = MQ + S̃Q or MQ − MP + S̃Q − S̃P = 0.

From this follows:

MQ − MP = ∆M and S̃Q − S̃P = ∆S̃. (37)

Characteristics serve as discontinuity lines

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Method of characteristics
Discontinuities

Apply the jump equation to S̃t + a0 Mx = 0:

VD ∆S̃ = a0 ∆M (38)

Application to Mt + a0 S̃x = 0 gives:

VD ∆M = a0 ∆S̃. (39)

Combine:
VD2 = a02 or VD = ±a0 (40)
In linear acoustics, characteristics are candidates to be
discontinuity line D

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Piston problem

Constant area tube with gas at rest

I rest conditions: a0 , p0 , ρ0 and T0
I tube closed at the left (x = 0)
I piston at rest for t < 0 and starts moving on t = 0
I piston velocity Vp (t) and position Xp (t) may be a function
on time and assumed small
Rt
I Xp (t) =
0 Up (τ )dτ
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Piston problem

Question: how does the gas in the tube react to a piston

movement?
First message telling that the piston has moved (Γ+ ): sound
wave with path x − a0 t = 0:
I gas contained within x − a0 t < 0: undisturbed
I gas contained within x − a0 t > 0: disturbed
I on t = 0: M = 0, S̃ = 0
Use backward M.O.C to find the flow variables M and S̃ in a
point À:
I draw Γ− from À backward in time until t = 0 → Á
I draw Γ+ from À: cross piston path in Â, here only Mp is
known
I draw Γ− from  backward to t = 0 → Ã

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Piston problem

Equations along the characteristics:

along Γ−
(1) : M1 − S̃1 = M2 − S̃2 = 0 (41a)
along Γ+
(1) : M1 + S̃1 = M3 + S̃3 (41b)
along Γ−
(3) : M3 − S̃3 = M4 − S̃4 = 0 (41c)
on piston path: M3 = Mp (t3 ) (41d)
Rt
Point (x3 , t3 ) is intersection of piston path Xp (t) = 0 Up (τ ) dτ
with Γ+ through À: x − a0 t = x1 − a0 t1
Linear acoustics → piston excursion is small x3 = 0
x1
t3 = t1 −
a0

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Piston problem

The system can now be solved:

   
x x
M1 (x, t) = Mp t − , S̃1 (x, t) = Mp t −
a0 a0

Apparently the state variables are transported unaltered from

the piston into the gas
Not only J + = M + S̃ is constant along Γ+ but also M and S̃
separately
Flow with only one varying Riemann invariant is called a simple
wave
In the current situation J − = M − S̃ is constant → all Γ−
emanate from t = 0

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Piston problem
Sinusoidal single period excursion

(
a0 sin ωt, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
ω ,
Up = (42)
0, for any other time,
With  small. This can be rewritten as:
2π
Mp =  sin ωt, 0≤t ≤ . (43)
ω
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Piston problem
Sinusoidal single period excursion

Piston path:
2π
Between t = 0 and t = ω
Z t
a0
xp (t) = up (τ ) dτ = (1 − cos ωt) (44)
0 ω
2π
Undisturbed region when piston stops again: t = ω
The solution in the various domains becomes:

À: (x − a0 t) > 0 : S̃ = 0, M = 0;
x
Á : −a0 2π
ω < (x − a0 t) < 0 : M(x, t) =  sin ω(t − ), S̃ = M;
a0
Â: (x − a0 t) < −a0 2π
ω : M = 0, S̃ = 0.

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Piston problem
Sinusoidal single period excursion
Particle paths:
Initial particle postion xi (0) = xi,0 . The position of the particle
can be described by:
xi,0
for 0 < t < : xi (t) = xi (0) = xi,0
a0
Zt
xi,0 xi,0 2π
for <t < + : xi (t) = a0 Mi dτ
a0 a0 ω
xi,0
a0

Zt   
xi,0
= a0 ε sin ω τ − dτ
a0
xi,0
a0

or    
a0 ε xi,0
xi (t) = xi,0 + 1 − cos t − ω (45)
ω a0
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Piston problem
Sinusoidal single period excursion
Disturbed gas motion:
Piston causes a sinusoidal wave in the gas at rest that travels
to the right with speed a0
Observer at x = a0 2π
ω :
I t < 2π/ω: gas at rest
I 2π/ω < t < 3π/ω: gas moves
to the right
I t = 3π/ω: gas is stopped
I 3π/ω < t < 4π/ω: gas moves
to the left
I t > 4π/ω: gas at rest
Observations:
I discontinuities are carried along characteristics
I discontinuities are not diffused
I initial wave is not steady; it moves with speed a0
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Piston problem
tube with two pistons

Motion of the gas determined

by M.O.C:
I À: undisturbed
I Á & Â: simple waves, in Á
J − = constant and in Â
J + = constant
I Ã: non-simple region, both
J − and J + vary

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Riemann’s initial value problem
Riemann’s problem formulation: take two uniform states on a
initial line (t = 0) separated by a discontinuity (at x = 0):

x < 0 :M = M1 , S̃ = S̃1 ;
(46)
x > 0 :M = M4 , S̃ = S̃4 .

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Riemann’s initial value problem
Use backward M.O.C to get solution in a point P:

1 1
MP = (M + S̃)A + (M − S̃)B ;
2 2 (47)
1 1
S̃P = (M + S̃)A − (M − S̃)B ,
2 2
The solution in P can have three different solutions depending
on the location in the (x, t)-plane:
I P in domain À → A and B on x < 0 so:
MA = MB = M1 and S̃A = S̃B = S̃1
I P in domain à → A and B on x > 0 so:
MA = MB = M4 and S̃A = S̃B = S̃4
I P above Γ− and Γ+ , then xA < 0 and xB > 0 so:
MA = M1 , S̃A = S˜1 , MB = M4 and S̃B = S̃4

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Riemann’s initial value problem

The general solution to Riemann’s problem now becomes:

domain À : MP = M1 ,
S̃P = S̃1 ;
M1 + M4 S̃1 − S̃4
domain Á + Â : MP = + ,
2 2 (48)
S̃1 + S̃4 M1 − M4
S̃P = + ;
2 2
domain à : MP = M4 ,
S̃P = S̃4 .

Now lets look at some examples

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Riemann’s initial value problem
density discontinuity

Two uniform states separated by a diaphragm at x = 0

I Left from the diaphragm: p0 and ρ0
I Right from the diaphragm: p0 + ∆p and ρ0 + ∆ρ
Both sides of the diaphragm u = 0 → M = 0
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Riemann’s initial value problem
density discontinuity

What happens when the diaphragm is removed?

Solve the Riemann problem with initial conditions: M1 = M4 = 0
and S̃1 = S̃4 = ε:

domain À M = 0, S̃ = 0;
1 1
domain Á and  M = − ε, S̃ = + ε;
2 2
domain à M = 0, S̃ = ε.

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Riemann’s initial value problem
density discontinuity
I Gas in domains À and à remains unperturbed w.r.t initial
conditions
I In domain Á and Â: u = a0 M = −a0 ε/2

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Riemann’s initial value problem
density discontinuity

Particle paths:
I À and Ã: gas at rest, straight lines, x = constant
I Á and Â: gas move to the left: lines with slope u = −a0 ε/2
Particle path going through x = 0, t = 0 separates domains Á
and Â
I domain Á: gas that originally was at x < 0
I domain Â: gas that originally was at x > 0
I characteristic separating À and Á is a compression wave
I characteristic separating  and à is an expansion wave
I conditions in Á and  are similar, this is typical for linear
acoustics. For a non-linear case Á and  are different and
four uniform states are present.

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Riemann’s initial value problem
density discontinuity
Alternative way of solving by using the (M, S̃)-diagram.

Look at (x, t)-diagram:

I À, Á,  and à are uniform states
I À, Á and  are connected by Γ+ → the images lie on the
same straight line in a (M, S̃)-diagram with slope −1.
I Á,  and à are connected by Γ− → the images lie on the
same straight line in a (M, S̃)-diagram with slope +1.
I homentropic linear theory → Á and  are equal and have
the same spot in the (M, S̃)-diagram.
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Riemann’s initial value problem
density discontinuity

Initial conditions: M1 = 0, S̃1 = 0, M4 = 0, S̃4 = ε

Solution is the intersection of the locus of all possible states Á
obtainable from À, with the locus of all possible states Â
obtainable from Ã

1
M2 = M3 = − ε
2
1
S̃2 = S̃3 = ε
2

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Riemann’s initial value problem
two colliding flows

Now consider to flow running into each other with the same
velocity but opposite direction.

The initial conditions on t = 0 in

this case are:

State 1: x < 0, M1 = +ε, S̃1 = 0,

State 4: x > 0, M4 = −ε, S̃4 = 0,

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Riemann’s initial value problem
two colliding flows

Solution: M2 = M3 = 0 and S̃2 = S̃3 = ε

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Riemann’s initial value problem
two separating flows

Similar to previous example but now with opposite velocities.

The initial conditions on t = 0 in

this case are:

State 1: x < 0, M1 = −ε, S̃1 = 0,

State 4: x > 0, M4 = +ε, S̃4 = 0,

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Riemann’s initial value problem
two separating flows

Solution: M2 = M3 = 0 and S̃2 = S̃3 = −ε

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Riemann’s initial value problem
moving piston

Dynamic creation of a Riemann by two pistons at x = ±l/2

At t = − 2al 0 pistons
are moved:
Left piston: UP,L = 2εa0 ,
Right piston: UP,R = εa0

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Riemann’s initial value problem
moving piston

Solution:
State 1: M1 = 2ε, S̃1 = 2ε,
State 4: M4 = ε, S̃4 = −ε (49)
State 2,3: M2,3 = 3ε, S̃2,3 = ε.
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