Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Design of Welded Structures Omer W. Blodgett
Design of Welded Structures Omer W. Blodgett
Design of Welded Structures Omer W. Blodgett
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DESIGN
OF
WELDED
STRUCTURES
BY
o m er W. Blodgett
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Published as a Service to Education
by
THE JAMES F. LINCOLN ARC WELDING FOUNDA liON
Officers:
Secretary-Richard'S. Sabo, Cleveland, Ohio
Permission to reproduce any material contained herein will be granted upon request,
provided proper credit is given to The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation,
P. O. Box 17035, Cleveland, Ohio, 44117.
Copyright 1966 by The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
The serviceability of a product or structure utilizing this type of information is and
must be the sole responsibility of the builder/user. Many variables beyond the control
of The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation affect the results obtained in applying
this type of information. These variables include, but are not limited to welding proce-
dure, plate chemistry and temperature, weldment design, fabrication methods and
service requirements.
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PREFACE
During that year, 1936, The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
was created by The Lincoln Electric Company to help advance the progress in
welded design and construction. Through its award programs and educational
activities, the Foundation provided an exchange of experience and gave impetus
to the growing application of welding.
Thus, within the last decade and particularly the past few years, unitized
welded design has become widely accepted for high-rise buildings and bridges
of nobler proportions in addition to the broad base of more modest structures.
Now, the Foundation publishes this manual for further guidance and
challenge to architects, structural engineers, fabricators and contractors who
will build the structures of tomorrow ... and to the educators who will prepare
young people for these professions. This material represents an interpretation
of the best in accumulated experience of all who have participated in prior
Foundation activities. The author has coordinated this with a continuing study
of current welding research conducted both in the United States and Europe,
and against a background of participation on various code-writing committees.
Much of the direct instructional information that resulted has been pretested
in over 70 structural seminars attended by over 4000 engineers.
The production of this manual has spanned several years during which
constant effort was made to eliminate errors. The author will appreciate having
called to his attention any errors that have escaped his attention and invites
correspondence on subjects about which the reader may have questions. Neither
the author nor the publisher, however, can assume responsibility for the results
of designers using values and formulas contained in the manual since so many
variables affect every design.
Secretary
June 1966
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CREDITS
The author and the publisher gratefully acknowledge the organi-
zations and individuals who have contributed photographs or
other illustrative material:
Allied Steel Corporation Nathan N. Hoffman
Allison Steel Mfg. Co. Hoyle, Doran & Berry
Allison Structural Steel Co. Inland Steel Company
American Bridge Division, Jackson & Moreland Division,
U.S. Steel Corporation United Engineers and Constructors, Inc.
American Institute of Steel Construction Kaiser Steel Corp.
American Iron & Steel Institute Kansas City Structural Steel Co.
American Welding Society Felix M. Kraus, Consulting Engineer
Barber-Magee & Hoffman Lehigh Construction Company
John F. Beasley Construction Co. Lehigh University, Fritz Engineering Laboratory
Bethlehem Fabricating Co. Robert Charles Lesser, Architect
Bethlehem Steel Corporation R. C. Mahon Company
J. G. Bouwkamp P. H. Mallog Co.
Burkhardt Steel Company McGraw-Hill Book Co.
The California Co. Midwest Steel & Iron Works
California State Division of Highways Nelson Stud Welding Division,
Canadian Welding Magazine Gregory Industries, Inc.
J. A. Cappuccilli, Architect New England Construction Magazine
Column Research Council Pacific Car & Foundry Co.
Connecticut State Highway Dept. Pacific Iron and Steel Corporation
Dinwiddie Construction Company Phillips-Carter-Osborn, Inc.
Dominion Bridge Company, Ltd. Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Co.
Dominion Structural Steel Co., Ltd. H. Platt Company
B. M. Dornblatt & Associates, Inc. Port of New York Authority
Dreier Structural Steel Co. Product Engineering Magazine
Edmundson, Kochendoerfer & Kennedy Republic Steel Corporation
Engineering News-Record Joseph T. Ryerson & Sons, Inc.
Englert Engineering Company Van Rensselaer P. Saxe, Engineer
Flint Steel Corporation Schact Steel Construction, Inc.
Frankel Steel Company Steel Joist Institute
General Electric Company, Tennessee Gas Pipeline Co.
Industrial Heating Dept. United States Steel Corporation
David R. Graham & Associates Vermont Structural Steel Co.
Granco Steel Products Co. Paul Weidlinger, Consulting Engineers
Harley, Ellington, Cowin & Stirton, Inc. Welding Engineer Magazine
Haven-Busch Co. Welding Research Council
Herzberg & Associates West Coast Steel Works
Hewitt-Robins, Inc. Minoru Yamasaki-Smith, Hinchman & Grylls
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TABLE OF
Part One
Introduction to Welded Construction 1.1
INTRODUCTION
S Iectio f ruc1ural St el or
Welded Constructi 7.1
W Idebility and Welding Procedure 72
Part Seven Joint Design 7.3
Oet rmi I geld rze 7.4
JOINT DESIGN Estimating Walding Cost 7.5
AND PRODUCTION WeI In 0 E)l"s ine Str duro 7.6
Contr I hrmkag and Oi torhan 7.7
Painting & orroslon of Ided SI cures 7.8
Weld u Iity nd Inspe h n 7.9
Part Eight
Bea . Diagr ms and F rmula 8.1
REFERENCE DESIGN
FORMULAS
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Trio Memb rOd rams nd rrnulcs 8.2
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
a - angular acceleration (radians/sec/sec); in- thickness of section (In.}, time (min.); time
cluded angle of beam curvature (degrees); interval (sec)
form factor u material's tensile modulus of resilience
tJ. = perpendicular deflection (in.), bending (tJ.b ) (In-Ib/In." )
or shear (tJ..) material's ultimate energy resistance
E unit strain, elongation or contraction (in./in.) (in.-lb/in. 3 )
unit shear strain (in./in.) w uniformly distributed load (Ibs/Iinear inch)
v Poisson's ratio (steel = 0.3 usually); unit x length of moment arm (curved beam)
shear force y distance of area's center of gravity to neutral
leg size of fillet weld (in.); rate of angular axis of entire section (in.)
motion about an axis (radians/sec)
unit angular twist (radians/linear inch); in-
A area (in. 2 ) ; total area of cross-section
cluded angle; angle of rotation
C stiffness factor used in moment distribution;
I = sum
any specified constant
CT= normal stress, tensile or compressive (psi);
E modulus of elasticity, tension (psi); arc volt-
strength (psi)
age (volts)
CTb = bending stress (psi)
E. modulus of elasticity in shear (psi)
CTy = yield strength (psi)
E, tangential modulus of elasticity (psi)
7' = shear stress (psi); shear strength (psi)
E, kinetic energy
o angle of twist (radians; 1 radian = 57.3 de-
Ep potential energy
grees); angle of rotation (radians); slope of
F total force (Ibs ): radial force (lbs)
tapered girder; any specified angle
I moment of inertia (in.'); welding current
(amps)
a area of section beyond plane where stress is
desired or applied (in. 2 ) ; length of plate
J polar moment of inertia (in.'); heat input
(joules/in. or watt-sec/in.)
(in.); acceleration or deceleration (ft/min,
K ratio of minimum to maximum load (fatigue I;
ft /sec}, clear distance between transverse
ratio of web depth to web thickness; distance
stiffeners of girder (in.)
from outer face of beam flange to web toe of
b width of section (in.); distance of area's cen-
fillet (in.}; thermal conductivity; any speci-
ter of gravity to reference axis (in.)
fied constant
c distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber
L length of member (in. or ft.); span between
(in.); distance of elastic center from refer-
supports (In.)
ence axis
L, effective length of column
d depth of section (in.); moment arm of force
M bending moment (in.-Ibs)
( in. ); distance (In.), distance between cen-
M, applied bending moment (in.-lbs)
ters of gravity of girder flanges (in.)
M, = plastic moment at connection (in.-lbs)
clear distance between girder flanges (in.)
N number of service cycles; minimum bearing
eccentricity of applied load (in.); total axial
length of beam on seat (m.)
strain (in.); moment arm of force (m.): ef-
P concentrated load (lbs)
fective width (m.), length of Tee section in
Q shear center; statical moment of cover plate
open-web girder (in.)
area about neutral axis of cover-plated beam
f force per linear inch of weld (Ibs/In.): hori-
section
zontal shear force (Ibsym.), (vectorial) re-
R reaction (lbs); torsional resistance of mem-
sultant force (Ibsytn.), allowable strength of
ber (in}); weld cooling rate (0 F/ sec)
weld (Ibsyin.)
S section modulus (in. 3 ) = I/c
fc' = compressive strength of concrete (psi) T torque or twisting moment (in.-lbs); tem-
g acceleration of gravity (386.4"/sec2)
perature (0 F)
h = height; height of fall; distance of expansion
U = stored energy
on open-web girder (in.)
V = vertical shear load (Ibs ), shear reaction;
k any specified constant or amplification factor
velocity; volume; arc speed (in./min)
m mass; statical moment of transformed con-
W = total load (Ibs ), weight (Ibs ), total width
crete (composite construction)
(in.)
n distance of section's neutral axis from refer-
Y effective bearing length on base plate (in.)
ence axis (in.); number of units in series
Z plastic section modulus (in. 3 )
p = internal pressure (psi)
q allowable force on shear connector
r radius (In.), radius of gyration e.G. center of gravity
s
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length of curved beam segment (in.); clear
distance between ends of increments of weld
(in.)
HP
N.A.
horsepower
neutral axis
RPM = revolutions per minute
SECTION 1 .1
Introduction to
Welded Construction
1. WELDING'S IMPORTANCE TO STRUCTURAL Today, there just ar en 't many men in industry who
FIELD speak disparagingly of welding. Most regulatory agen-
cies of local and fed er al government now accept welded
Welding has been an imp ort ant fac tor in our economy. joints which meet th e requirements imposed by cod e-
The progress made in we lding equipment an d elec- writing bodies such as the American Institute of Steel
trodes, the advancing art and science of designing for Construction and the American W elding Society.
welding, and the growth in trust and acc eptance of
wel ding have combined to make welding a powerful With this acceptance, there remains however a
implement for an expanding construction industry. considerable task of ed ucation and simple dissemination
More an d more buildings and bridges are being of information to achieve maximum effi ciency in the
b uilt according to th e precep ts of goo d weld ed d esign . application of welded des ign . And , th ere is even a
The economies inhere nt in we ld ing are helping to offset continuing need for more th orough understanding of
evolu tionary increases in the p rices of materials and weld ing by codewriting bodies who fail to use the full
cost of labor. In ad d ition, th e shortened production strength of welded joints.
cycles, mad e poss ib le by welding, have he lped effect
a quickening in th e pace of new construction.
3. WHY WELDED CONSTRUCTION?
W eld ed construction has p aid off ha ndsomely for
ma ny archit ect s, struct ural engineers, con tractors, and T here are many reasons for using weld ed design an d
th eir client-cu sto mers. It will become incr easingly im- construction, but probab ly the two basic ones are 1)
portant as more peop le ac q uire a greater d epth of we lded design offers th e opportunity to achieve more
knowl ed ge an d expe rien ce with it. efficient use of materials, and 2) th e speed of fabrica-
tion and erection can hel p compress production sched-
2. RECOGNITION OF WELDING ules, enabling the en tir e industry to b e more sensitive
and react fast er to rapidly shifting market needs.
The widespread recognitio n of welding as a safe means
of making structu ral connections h as come about only
after yea rs of dili gent effort, p ioneering action b y the Freedom 01 Design
more p rogressive eng ineers an d builders, and heavy Welding permits the architect and structural engineer
documentati on of research findings and su ccesses at- com p lete freedom of design-freedom to develop and
taine d. us e modern economical d esign pri nciples, freedom to
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~ l~~t
1.1-2 / Introduction
employ the most elementary or most daring concepts con nections, resultin g in reduced beam depth and
of form, proportion and balance to satisfy the need for we igh t.
greater aesthetic value. Just about anything the de- This reduced b eam depth can noticeably low er th e
signer may envision can now be given reality . ove rall height of a building. The weight of th e structure
because of welding. and th er efore static loadin g is gr eatly reduced . This
Welded construction imposes no restrictions on saves column steel, walls and partitions, fa cia , and
the thinking of the designer. Already, this has resulted re d uced found ation requirem ents.
in wide usage of such outstanding design advancements 'Welded conne ctions ar e w ell suited to the new
as open-web expanded beams and girders, tapered field of p lastic design, res ulting in furth er appreciable
beams and girders, Vierendeel trusses, cellular floor weight savings over con ventiona l rigid fram e d esign.
construction, orthotropic bridge decks, composite floor Sav ings in transportation , h andling time, and erec-
construction, and tubular columns and trusses. tion are proportional to the weight savings.
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FIG. 2 The a thlet ic unit of Lad ue Jr. High School (Missouri) features an all-welded steel
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lame lla roof fram e spa nning 252 ', expressing the strength of one-piece welded con-
struction.
~W'1" ,
Introduction to Welded Construction 1 1.1-3
joints exhibit less corrosion and require little or no Inspection and Quality
maintenance. The smooth welded joints also make it Mu ch mon ey is spent annua lly by industry an d govern -
easier to install masonry, facia and other close fitting ment in ob ta ining an d insp ecting for a specified weld
members, often reducing th e thickness of walls or qua lity . Usua lly th e we ld qua lity specified is obtai ne d ,
Boors in buildings. but too often th e qu alit y specified h as little or no rela-
Structures can be erected in relative silence, a tion to service requ irements.
definite asset in building in downtown areas , near office W eld s th at meet the actual service requirem ents ,
buildings or hospitals. at th e least possible cost, are the result of-
1 ) proper d esign of connec tions an d joints,
4. HOW GOOD IS A WELD? 2 ) good weld ing procedure,
3 ) good w eld or technique an d workma nsh ip, and
Many engineers are unaware of the great reserve of 4) intelligent, responsible inspecti on.
strength that wel ds have, and in many cases this is not In th e following examples (Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6)
recognized by code bodies. test sp ecim en s exhib it undercut, undersiz e, lack of
Notice in Table 1 that the minimum yield strengths fusion, and porosity. In spite of th ese adverse conditions,
of the ordinary E60xx electrodes are about 50% higher
than the corresponding values of th e A7, A373 an d A36
structural steels with which they would be used.
Minimum Minimum
-+ I _ II..
Material
Yield Strength Tensile Strength
AWS A5.1 & E6010 50,000 psi 62,000 psi 1/2 H PtATE II . 1J ..-
ASTM A233 E6012 55,000 67,000 ~OO~Z~Z~S
Weld E6024 50,000 62,000
Metal E6027 50,000 62,000 REDUCTION IN PLATE
7.6% 9:6% /5.%
SE<:TION (IN PERCENT)
(a s welded) E70xx 60,000 72,000
1/2 HPtAT£~
1 ~ ~ ~
most important are:
1. T he core wire used in the electrode is of pre-
mium steel, held to closer specifications than the plate.
~
T -
" -
~"
T - - ~"
T - - ~"
1
-
2. There is complete shielding of the molten metal UlT. TENSILE
AT FAILURE'
Zq 600 2q {)OO
,
2t1 600
,
Z/I. , 600
during welding. This, plus the scavenging and deoxidiz- AWf AllOWABLE PER IAI"h'
1/4 FILlET , 2400LII.
ing agents and other ingredients in the electrode coat- H
% THROAT
I/8"fKD~w~ w~ ~~~
REDUCTIO N /2.5% /8.8 % 25 % 3/%
considered individually, the we ld under steady tensile around a small radius, Figure 7. Apparently because
load was found to be stronger than the plate. T hese it is possible to do so, bend tests are often required.
examples are not meant to show that the standard of Unfortunately, U-bend test resu lts do no t correlate
weld quality should be lowered. However, they are we ll with actual service performance.
striking evidence of how easy it is to make full-strength Because it is possible to examine a we lde d join t by
welds, welds stronger than the plate. radiographic inspection, some engineers feel thi s must
Welding is the only process that produces a be done.
unitized, or one-piece, construction. The we lded plate Most radiographic inspection is based on respon-
is so sound, strong, and ductile as to permit some sible standards. These specifications assure th e qu ality
testing procedures that frequent ly are impossible or required, yet are realistic . Frequently, however , local
impractical to perform with other connection metho ds. decisions are made to require mo re perfect radiographic
T he weld is so du ctil e that it can be readily b ent soun dness th an th e specifications dem and.
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Introduction to Welded Construction / 1.1-5
FIG. 8 Many contemporary structures are using exposed steel framing as part of the
artistic scheme. Welding provides the unencumbered simplicity of form essential to
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the modern look in architecture, typified in this showcase building.
1.1-6 / Introduction
The most efficient use of steel is achieved with welded designing for welding he sav ed 650 tons of steel. Com-
design, the advantages of which grow with th e size of parison estima tes show an additional saving of app roxi-
the str ucture. In fact, th e full advantages of using mately $16.00 per ton in fabrication and erection.
steel in compe tition with other materials will only b e Futhermore, approximately six months in construction
rea lized wh en th e structure is ere cted as a welded tim e will be saved as a result of using a weld ed steel
d esign , and when fabricat ors and ere ctors use modem frame.
techniques of weld ing, production scheduling, and Comparative exp erience has proved that had this
mater ials handling. type structure involved weld ed connections that were
A weld ed office building in Dallas , Texas, is an simply converted from another type of conne ction, th ere
example of th e economies possibl e in structural w eld- still would have been savings but substantially less
ing. Th e building is 413 feet high , has 34 floors, and than wh en designing sp ecifically for welding.
contains 600,000 square feet of usable floor sp ace. The
savings are impressive. Th e contractor states that by 6. WELDED DESIGN OF BUIL DI NGS
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approach to reduction of bridge costs. This concept calls
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construction.
1.1-8 I Introduction
(2=36 )
:J~:
TRIPLE TANDEM AUTOMATICS (SUB-ARC) <D 25
(BOTH WELDS CD AND ® ) (2:50 )
SIMULTANEOUSLY =
50 IN. \/2 FILLET /MIN
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step up in selection of welding process and equipment. This chart shows
numerous ways to make the V2" fillet weld, which is common to many
large structural members.
SECTION 2.1
Properties of Materials
1. IMPORTANCE OF PROPERTIES prietary steels that are not provided for by the ASTM
specifications for basic steels used in the structural field.
All materials have certain properties which must be The specification steels are covered in Section 7.1 on
known' in order to promote their proper use. These the Selection of Structural Steel.
properties are essential to selection of the best material
for a given member. *
In the design of structural members, the properties
of materials which are of primary concern are those
that indicate material behavior under certain types of
load. Some property of material is called for in each of
the basic design formulas.
Properties commonly found in engineering hand-
books and suppliers catalogs are these:
1. ultimate tensile strength
2. yield strength in tension
:3. elongation
4. modulus of elasticity
5. compressive strength
6. shear strength
1It-,~) (--<II
1[1f--- -- gJI
7. fatigue strength
Other properties such as modulus of resilience and
ultimate energy resistance, may also be given. Z 11':"-- ...
Tables 1 and 2 present physical properties and fino I distance or -z:s.y"
elonqation In 2:"
chemical composition of various steels. These are pro-
." Also see "Metals and How to Weld Them" by T. B. Jefferson FIG. 1 Tensile test specimen before and after
and G. Woods; James F. Lincoln Are Welding Foundation. testing to failure, showing maximum elongation.
Great Lakes Steel N-A-Xtra 80 80000 95.000 18 0.15 0.80 0.70 0.20 0.65 0.09 Zr
90 90.000 105.000 18 0.15 080 0.70 0.20 0.65 0.09 Zr
100 100.000 , 15.000 18 0.15 0.80 0.70 020 0.65 0.09 Zr
110 110.000 125.000 18 0.15 0.80 0.70 0.20 0.65 0.09 Zr
Jones & Laughlin Jalloy-S-90 90,000 105.000 18 0.15 1.25 0.25 0.25
Jollov-Svl Oo 100.000 115,000 18 0.15 1.25 0.25 0.25 Cb
Jalloy-S·lI0 110.000 125,000 18 0.15 1.25 0.25 0.25 Cb
Lukens Steel T·I 100.000 115.000 18 0.15 0.80 0.25 0.35 0.55 0.60 0.85 V. B
Republic Steel Republic 65 65.000 85.000 20 0.15 1.00 0.15 1.15 0.25 1.25
70 70.000 90.000 18 0.20 1.00 0.15 1.25 0.25 1.50
US Steel T-l 100.000 115.000 18 0.15 0.80 0.25 0.35 0.55 0.60 0.85 V, B
Youngstown Sheet Yoloy S 65.000 95.000 20 0.12 0.60 0.30 1.00 1.80
& Tube
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2.1-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
Alan Wood Steel Dynalloy I 50,000 70,000 22 0.15 0.80 0.30 0.45 0.10 0.55
Dynalloy II 45,000 62,000 25 0.15 0.80 0.30 0.45 0.10 0.55
Armco Steel High Strength No.1 50,000 70,000 22 0.15 0.70 0.15 0.60 0.75
2 45,000 64,000 0.15 0.70 0.15 0.60 0.75
3 40,000 60,000 35 0.10 0.60 0.10 0.20 0.02 V
4 50,000 70,000 22 0.25 1.35 0.25 0.20
5 45,000 60,000 25 0.22 ) .25 0.30 0.20 0.02 V I
8ethlehem Steel Mayari R 50,000 70,000 22 0.12 0.75 0.55 0.50 0.70 1.0 0.10 Zr
Medium Manganese 50,000 75,000 20 0.25 1.35 0.30 0.30
Manganese Vanadium 50,000 70,000 22 0.22 1.25 0.30 0.20 0.02 V
Crucible Steel Maxeloy 50,000 70,000 22 0.15 1.20 0.50 0.20 0.50
of America
Colorado Fuel Clay-Loy 50,000 70,000 0.22 1.25 0.35 0.50 0.2 V
& Iron
Inland Steel Hi-Steel 50,000 70,000 22 0.12 0.75 0.15 0.95 0.18 0.55
Hi-Man 50,000 75,000 20 0.25 1.35 0.30 0.20
Hi-Man 440 (A440l 50,000 70,000 0.28 1.35 0.30 0.20
Tri-Steel 50,000 70.000 22 0.22 1.25 0.30 0.20 0.02 V
Jones & Laughlin Jalten No.1 50,000 70,000 22 0.15 1.30 0.10 0.30 0.05 V
2 50,000 70,000 22 0.15 1.40 0.10 0.30
3 50,000 70,000 22 0.25 1.50 0.25 0.20
JLX-45-W 45,000 65,000 22 0.15 0.75 0.10 0.03 Cb
-50-W 50,000 70,000 22 0.15 0.75 0.10 0.03 Cb
-55-W 55,000 75,000 22 0.15 0.75 0.10 0.03 Cb
-60-W 60,000 80,000 22 0.15 0.75 0.10 0.03 Cb
Kaiser Steel Kaisaloy No. I 50,000 70,000 23 0.20 1.25 0.60 0.35 0.15 0.25 0.60 V, Ti
2 45,000 60,000 25 0.12 0.60 0.50 0.30 0.10 0.25 0.60 V, Ti
3 58,000 83,000 15 0.30 1.50 0.35 0.35 0.10 0.25 0.40 V, Ti
Structural High Strength 50,000 75,000 18 0.27 1.60 0.30 0.20
Lukens Steel Cor-Ten 50,000 70,000 22 0.12 0.35 0.50 0.40 0.80 0.65
Pittsburgh Steel Pitt-Ten No.1 50,000 70,000 22 0.12 0.75 0.20 0.85 0.70
Republic Steel Republic 50 50,000 70.000 22 0.15 0.75 0.65 0.10 0.30 0.75
Republic M 50,000 75,000 20 0.25 1.35 0.30 0.20
US Steel Cor-Ten 50,000 70,000 22 0.12 0.35 0.50 0.40 0.80 0.65
Ex-Ten-45 45,000 0.20 0.75 0.10 0.01 Cb
Ex-Te-n-50 50,000 0.25 0.75 0.10 0.01 Cb
Man-Ten 50,000 75,000 20 0.25 1.35 0.30 0.20
Man-Ten IA440) 50,000 70,000 0.28 1.35 0.30 0.20
Par-Ten 45,000 62,000 28 0.12 0.75 0.10 0.04 V
Tri-Ten 50,000 70,000 22 0.22 1.25 0.30 0.20 0.02 V
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- Table courtesy PRODUCT ENGINEERING Magazine
Properties of Materials / 2.1-3
The vari ou s prop erties ar e b est defined b y a divided b y th e cross-secti ona l area of the specimen
descripti on of what happens when a specime n of the within th e gag e marks represents the un it stress or
material is su bjec ted to load d uri ng laboratory tests. resist an ce of th e mat er ial to the pull ing or tensile force.
T his stress ( if) is expr essed in pounds per square inch,
2. TENSILE PROP ERT I ES psi. T he elonga tion of the sp ecimen represents the
strain ( E) ind uced in th e ma te rial and is exp ressed in
In a tensile tes t, the machi ned and ground sp ec imen inch es p er inch of length, in.ym. Stress and stra in are
of the mat eri al is marked w ith a centerp unc h at tw o plo tted in a di agram , shown in simp lified fonn in
points 2" apa r t, as shown in Figure 1. T hc sp ecimen F igur e 3.
is placed in a ten sile test ing machine, and an axial load The propor tion al relationsh ip of load to elo ngation,
is appl ied to it b y pulling th e jaws hold ing th e ends of or of stress to strai n, continues un til a point is reached
the speci me n in opp osing di rections at a slow and wh ere th e elon ga tion begins to increase at a Fas ter rat e.
constant rat e of speed , F ig ur e 2. This p oint, b eyo nd which the e longation of the sp eci-
As th e pulling progresses, the sp eci men elongates men no longer is proportion al to the load ing, is the
at a uniform ra te which is proportionate to the rate at prop ortional elastic limit of the ma te rial. When the
which th e load or p ulling for ce increases. The load load is removed, the sp ecim en retu rn s to its origina l
di m en sions.
70 -I----+---+---+---+-- +-- -+--1
Beyond the elastic limit, further mov emen t of the
lest machine jaws in opposing directions ca uses a
perman ent el ongation or deformation of the sp ecimen
50 -+ --+--/ mat eri al. In the case of a low- or med ium-carb on stee l,
a p oint is rea ched beyond w hich the met al stret che s
'"
o,
0 40 briefly w itho ut an inc rease in load. T his is the yield
o point.
o
·>'30 For low- an d med ium-carbon steels, the un it stre ss
'"
~ at the yield point is consi der ed to be th e ma terial's
V) 20 t ensile yield st rength ( if,) .'" For other me tals, the yield
strengt h is the stress req u ired to strain the specimen by
10 a sp ecified small amount be yon d the clastic limit. Fo r
ordi nary com mercia l pu rposes, the cla sti c limit is as-
o su med to coincide with the yie ld stre ng th .
o 0,025 0.050 0.075 0.1 00 0.125 0.150 0.175 Q200 Q225
Beyon d the material's elastic limit, continued pull-
Stra in , in/ in.
ing ca uses the sp ecime n to neck down acro ss its
FIG. 3 A stress-strain diag ra m for mild ste e l,
d ia meter or wid th. T his action is accompanied b y a
showing ultima te te nsile stren gth and ot he r
further acceleration of the axial elongation, which is with that of another material. This property is the ratio
now largely confined within the relatively short necked- of the stress to the strain within the elastic range:
down section.
The pulling force eventually reaches a maximum Stress <T
=---- = Modulus of elasticity E
value and then falls off rapidly, with little additional Strain E
elongation of the specimen before failure occurs. In
failing, the specimen breaks in two within the necked- On a stress-strain diagram, the modulus of elas-
down portion. The maximum pulling load, expressed ticity is represented visually by the straight portion of
as a stress in psi of the original cross-sectional area of the curve where the stress is directly proportional
the specimen, is the material's ultimate tensile strength to the strain. The steeper the curve, the higher the
(<Ttl ), modulus of elasticity and the stiffer the material
(Fig. 4).
Ductility and Elasticity Any steel has a modulus of elasticity in tension of
approximately 30,000,000 psi. AISC in their specifica-
The two halves of the specimen are then put together,
tions still use a more conservative value of 29,000,000
and the distance between the two punch marks is
psi for the modulus of elasticity of steel. The modulus
measured (Fig. 1). The increase in length gives the
of elasticity will vary for other metals. Steel, however,
elongation of the specimen in 2", and is usually ex-
has the highest value of any commercially available
pressed as a percentage. The cross-section at point of
metal used in the structural field.
failure is also measured to give the reduction in area,
which is usually expressed as a percentage. Both elon-
3. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
gation percentage and reduction of area percentage
indicate the material's ductility. The general design practice is to assume that the
In the design of most members, it is essential to compressive strength of a steel is equal to its tensile
keep the stresses resulting from loading within the strength. This practice is also adhered to in some
elastic range. If the elastic limit (very close to the rigidity design calculations, where the modulus of
material's yield strength) is exceeded, permanent defor- elasticity of the material in tension is used even though
mation takes place due to plastic flow or slippage along the loading is compressive.
molecular slip planes. When this happens, the material The actual ultimate compressive strength of steels
is strain-hardened and thereafter has a higher effective may be somewhat greater than the ultimate tensile
elastic limit and higher yield strength. strength. The variation in compressive values is at
Under the same amount of stress, some materials least partially dependent on the condition of the steel:
stretch less than others. The modulus of elasticity (E) the compressive strength of an annealed steel is closer
of a material simplifies the comparison of its stiffness to its tensile strength than would be the case with a
cold-worked steel. (There is less of a relationship
between the compressive strength and the tensile
60 strength of cast iron and non-ferrous metals.)
A compressive test is conducted similar to that
50
lor tensile properties, but a short specimen is subjected
'" 40
a.
to a compressive load. That is, force is applied on the
0 specimen from two directions in axial opposition. The
0
0 30 ultimate compressive strength is reached when the
",' specimen fails by crushing.
'"
~ 20
V)
A stress-strain diagram is developed during the
test, and values are obtained for compressive yield
10 strength and other properties. However, instead of the
Rubber
I ~ Young's modulus of elasticity conventionally used, the
0 tangential modulus of elasticity (E t ) is usually ob-
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 tained. This will be discussed in Section 3.1 on Com-
Strain, in.! in. pression.
Compression of long columns is more complex,
FIG. 4 Stress-strain curves for several materials since failure develops under the influence of a bend-
ing moment that increases as the deflection increases.
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show their relative elasticity. Only that portion
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of curve displaying a proportional relationship
between stress and strain is diagrammed.
Geometry of the member has much to do with its
capacity to withstand compressive loads, and this will
Properties of Materials / 2.1-5
~
0
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2.1-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
o B D
Unit strain (f)
(T2
Since the absorption of energy is actually a volu-
U= metric property, the U ll in psi = u., in in.-Ibsjcu. in.
2E
Tests developed for determining the impact
where E = modulus of elasticity. strength of materials are often misleading in their
results. Nearly all testing is done with notched speci-
Since the absorption of energy is actually a volu- mens, in which case it is more accurately the testing
metric property, the u in psi = u in in.-Ibsjcu. in. for notch toughness.
When impact loading exceeds the elastic limit (or The two standard tests are the Izod and Charpy.
yield strength) of the material, it calls for toughness The two types of specimens used in these tests and
in the material rather than resilience. Toughness, the the method of applying the load are shown in Figure 8.
ability of the metal to resist fracture under impact Both tests can be made in a universal impact testing
loading, is indicated by its ultimate energy resistance machine. The minimum amount of energy in a falling
( u ll ) . This is a measure of how well the material pendulum required to fracture the specimen is con-
absorbs energy without fracture. sidered to be a measure of the material's impact
The ultimate energy resistance (u ll ) is the total strength. In actuality, test conditions are seldom dupli-
area OACD under the stress-strain curve. For practi- cated in the working member and application of these
cality the following formula can be used: test data is unrealistic.
Properties of Sections
•
1- n Neuh-al
Axis
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but the moment of inertia for a rectangle about its
base line is - FIGURE 3
Properties of Sections / 2.2-3
8- I
briefly as a plate is added to quickly find the new
moment of inertia. If this value is not high enough, he 1 bd J
12
-
bd 2
6
-d
VT2
simply continues to add more plate and again checks
this value without losing any of his previous calcula-
tions. Likewise if the value is too high, the designer r-b-j
may deduct some of the plates and again check his
result. This is done in the same manner as one using
an adding machine, whereby you can stop at any time
during adding and take a sub-total, and then proceed
along without disrupting the previous figures.
_01 -
bd J
3
-
bd 2
3 ',13
d
+An ~ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ( 4)
_~t
2
In
d bd 3 bd 2 d
-
Iy A n21 (5)
_l 12 12 V6
f.-b
Since n =
total moments about base
M2
and of course n 2 = A2
total area
M
er 7I"d'
-
64
-
7I"d J
32
-d
4
IIn Iy - ~ I· ( 6) ~b'1
where:
In moment of inertia of whole section about its
neutral axis, n-n
W i ~ ( 03b-c
Jd
)
7I"(03b--(;3d)
40
1
-
0
oJb~d
cb-e-cd
I, sum of the moments of inertia of all elements each element has in addition a moment of inertia (I..)
about a common reference axis, y-y about its own center of gravity. This must be added
M sum of the moments of all elements about in if it is large enough, although in most cases it may
the same reference axis, y-y be neglected:
A total area, or sum of the areas of all elements
of section
bd"
r, = 12
10 . 43
12
53.3 in."
width times depth (b X d); that is, its width first and 0 10"x4" 2" 40.0 80.0 160.0 53.3
depth last.
® 2 11x8"
8" 16.0 128.0 1024.0 85.3
The above table has been filled out with all of the = 2359 in."
given information from the plates. The rest of the
computations are very quickly done on slide rule or M 544
calculator and placed into the table. Notice how easy and n = A = 80
and fast each plate is taken care of. = 6.8" (up from bottom)
Starting with plate A, 10" is multiplied by 4" to
give an area of 40 sq. in. This value is entered into A recommended method of treating M2/ A on the
the table under A. Without resetting the slide rule, slide rule, is to divide M by A on the rule. Here we
this figure for A is multiplied by (distance y) 2" to have 544 divided by 80 which gives us 6.~. This
give 80 inches cubed. This value for the element's happens to be the distance of the neutral axis from
moment is placed under M in the table. Without the base reference line. Then without resetting the
resetting the slide rule, this figure for M is multiplied slide rule, multiply this by 544 again by just sliding
by (distance y) 2" again to give 160 inches to the the indicator of the rule down to 544 and read the
fourth power. This value for the element's moment of answer as 3700. It is often necessary to know the
inertia about the common reference axis y-y is recorded neutral axis, and it can be found without extra work.
under (I y ) in the table.
If the moment of inertia (I g ) of the plate about
its own center of gravity appears to be significant,
this value is figured by multiplying the width of the
I [ Problem 4
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plate by the cube of its depth and dividing by 12.
This value for I g is then placed in the extreme right-
To show a further advantage of this system, assume
that this resulting moment of inertia (2359 in.") is not
Properties of Sections / 2.2-5
large enough and the section must be made larger. it will simplify his computations.
Increasing the plate size at the top from 6" X 4" to The closer the reference axis (y-y) is to the final
8" X 4" is the same as adding a 2" X 4" area to the neutral axis (N .A. ), the smaller will be the values of
already existing section. See Figure 5. The previous (I y and I g ) and M2 I A. Hence, the more accurate these
column totals are carried forward, and properties of values will be if a slide rule is used.
only the added area need to be entered. In is then If the reference axis (y-y) is positioned to lie
solved, using the corrected totals. through the center of gravity (e.C.) of one of the
elements (the web, for example), this eliminates any
subsequent work on this particular element since y = 0
for this element.
If the reference axis (y-y) is positioned along the
base of the whole section, the distance of the neutral
axis (n = MIA) from the reference axis (y-y) then
automatically becomes the distance ( Cb) from the
neutral axis to the outer fiber at the bottom.
The following problem illustrates these points.
Problem 5
FIGURE 5
In = r, + III
M2
A NAr
= 7637 _ (~)2 17.0"
Cb = 17.075" I
Jt~#~~CGOf'
2747 in."
M 656
andn =
A 88 I... 16" ~1
7.45" (up from bottom)
FIGURE 6
Moment of Inertio of Rollecl Sections It is very easy to incorporate a rolled section into a
(Fourth Method) built-up member, for example this proposed column to
resist wind moments. See Figure 6. Find the moment
The fourth method is the use of steel tables found in of inertia of the whole section about its neutral axis
the A.I.S.e. handbook and other steel handbooks. These ( In) and then find its section modulus (S).
values are for any steel section which is rolled, and Choosing reference axis (y-y) through the center
should be used whenever standard steel sections are of gravity (e.C.) of the web plate ®
makes y = 0,
used. and thus eliminates some work for ®.
Properties of the standard 18" WF 96# section
Positioning the Reference Axis
are given by the steel handbook as-
The designer should give some thought to positioning
the reference axis (y-y) of a built-up section where A = 28.22 in. 2 I, = 206.8 in.'
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.512"
2.2-6 I Load & Stress Analysis
The handbook value of I, = 206.8 in." can be in- 4. SECTION MODULUS (S)
serted directly into the following table, for the 1& of
this WF section C. The section modulus (S) is found by dividing the
By adding areas and their properties: moment of inertia (I) by the distance (c) from the
neutral axis to the outermost fiber of the section:
Size y A M
'. I.
A
B
16" X
I" x 32"
2" -17.0" 32.00
0 32~OO
-544.00
0
+9248.0
0
+10.7
+2730.7
Is ~" (8)
fiGURE 7
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Properties of Sections / 2.2-7
r
~ f-4-1 6' ~
M Sum of moments
n
A - Total area of section
(6 . 1.5 . 0.75) + (15 . 1.5 . 7.5) lYe" •
Iel" r
6.75
9.0
= 6.56"
(6 . 1.5)
+
+
168.75
22.5
+ (15 . 1.5)
15 "
f-
_~_- -
•
t_ 1
1.94"
-i
.5.56"
9.44"
Next, the section's moment of inertia is deter-
mined, using the elements method (Figure 8):
J
In = 6 '1~53 + (6' 1.5 . 4.812) + 1.51~153 +
(1.5' 15· 1.942 ) FIGURE 8
1.69 +
208.22 + 421.87 + 84.68 of strength under torsional loading of round solid
716.5 in.! bars and closed tubular shafts.
This value is slightly higher than the required 7. TORSIONAL RESISTANCE (R)
I = 700 in." because depth of section was made
d = 15" instead of 14.9". Torsional resistance (R) has largely replaced the less
Finally, the section modulus (S) is determined: accurate polar moment of inertia in standard design
formula for angular twist of open sections. It should
I 716.5 be employed where formulas have been developed for
S
c 9.44 the type of section. These are given in the later Section
= 75.8 in." 2.10 on Torsion.
The radius of gyration (r) is the distance from the Because of welding, increasingly greater use is being
neutral axis of a section to an imaginary point at found for structural shapes having thin cross-sections.
which the whole area of the section could be concen- Thin sections may be custom roll-formed, rolled by
trated and still have the same moment of inertia. This small specialty steel producers, brake-formed, or fabri-
property is used primarily in solving column problems. cated by welding. Properties of these sections are
It is found by taking the square root of the moment needed by the designer, but they are not ordinarily
of inertia divided by the area of the section and is listed among the standard rolled sections of a steel
expressed in inches. handbook. Properties of thin sections customarily are
found by the standard formulas for sections.
With a thin section, the inside dimension is almost
Ir ffl·······························(9) as large as the outside dimension; and, in most cases,
the property of the section varies as the cubes of these
two dimensions. This means dealing with the differ-
6. POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA (J) ence between two very large numbers. In order to get
any accuracy, it would be necessary to calculate this
The polar moment of inertia (J) equals the sum of out by longhand or by using logarithms rather than use
any two moments of inertia about axes at right angles the usual slide rule.
to each other. The polar moment of inertia is taken To simplify the problem, the section may be
about an axis which is perpendicular to the plane of "treated as a line", having no thickness. The prop-
the other two axes. erty of the "line", is then multiplied by the thickness
of the section to give the approximate value of the
IJ = 1:" + IF I· (10) section property within a very narrow tolerance. Table
2 gives simplified formulas for nine properties of six
Polar moment of inertia is used in determining different cross-sections. In this table: d = mean depth,
the polar section modulus O/c) which is a measure b = mean width of the section, and t =
thickness.
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2.2-8 / Load & Stress Analysis
y y
,
,I,
y y y
,(1 xAx
Section I I I I
I,
'T' I
y
t d! (4 b + d) 2
y
t d (6 b d)
I
~
I
y
(3b + d)
I
I
Y
t d 3 (2 b + d)
'IT' Y
td 3(4 b + d)
0t 'Ir r3
12 (b + d) 12 + 6 3 (b + 2 d) 12 (b + d)
t d 2 (4 b + d) ~(2b + d) td
-(4b + d)
6 (2 b + d) 3 6
top
S,
bottom
~(6b + d) ~ (3b + d) top
td 2 ( 4 b + d ) t 'Ir r2
~(4 b + d) 6 3 t d 2 (2 b + d)
6
top • 0 . 3 (b + d)
bottom °
6 (2 b + d)
bottom •
3 t b 3 (b + 4 d)
~(b+6d)
t b 3 tb 2
r, • t b (b + 3 d)
12 6 6 12 12 (b + d)
t b 2 (b + 4 d)
6 (b + 2 d)
Sv
t b2 t b2
~(b + 3d) ~(b + 6d) right side
6 3 3 6
~(b + 4d)
6
• • left side •
2 2
tb d
Lv 0 0 0 0 0
4 (b + d)
t3 t3
R - (b + d) - (2b+d)
2 t b2 d 2
~ (b + 2d)
t3
- (b + d) 2t 'Ir r3
3 3 b+d 3 3
r,
max.
j d3(4b + d)
12
I d 2(6b + d) j d2(3b + d) 1~3 (2b + d) 0.7071 r
12 (2 b + d) 12 (b + d)
or b+d (b + 2d)
min.
d2
d2 d 2 2 (b + d)
NA 2 (b + d) b + 2d down from top
down from top down from top b2
2 (b + d)
r-
3
~ 16(2: b l (b + 3 d) b l (b + d)
min. 12(b + d) + d) 12 (b + d) 12 (b + 2 d)
Of
max.
The error in calculating the moment of inertia by An excellent example of the savings in design time
this Line Method versus the conventional formula is offered by use of the Line Method exists as (column)
represented by the curve in Figure 9, using a square Problem 4 in Section 3.l.
tubular section as an example. As indicated, the error Table 3 gives the most important properties of
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increases with the ratio of section thickness (t) to
depth (d).
additional thin sections of irregular but common con-
figurations.
Properties of Sections / 2.2-9
6% j--/
d
~~-j
5%
-
Q
~ 4%
<IJ
.E
'+-
0
1: 3%
<IJ
E
0
E
FIG. 9 Possible error in using c:
2%
Line Method is minimal with low g
ratio of section thickness to w
depth. 1%
+~
For additional formulas and reference tables, see
"Light Gage Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual" 1962,
American Iron & Steel Institute.
I
f. = fo' I···· .... ····· .. ·· ..·(11)
9. SHEAR AXIS AND SHEAR CENTER This force also has an equal component in the
transverse direction. A transverse force applied to a
Since the bending moment decreases as the distance beam sets up transverse (and horizontal) shear forces
of the load from the support increases, bending force within the section. See Figure 11.
f] is slightly less than force f 2 , and this difference In the case of a symmetrical section, A, a force
(f2 - h) is transferred inward toward the web by (P) applied in line with the principal axis (y-y) does
the longitudinal shear force (f.). See Figure 10. not result in any twisting action on the member. This
FIGURE 10
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2.2-10 I Load & Stress Analysis
t d
2
[ k b2 + (k + 1)2 + ¥ f] o
k="b
Ix = b (k + 1) + 2 d
d (b d) + d (k b + d)
cs = d (k 1) 2d + + c, = b (k + 1) + 2 d
t d [k b
2
+ (k + 1)3..¥ + fJ
Sb = b + d
td
S, = ---=---.........,-....,---.,....-,....--=-----=--=
r-b-j --'-
1 d ----x
;2
k=~
d
1 ~
012
...-......t
Sx = 6t d2
(k] - 3 k2 + 3 k + 1) + t b d
r-C-j
0
2
+ 2 cd + d2
= + b + C + d)
T
Cb 2 (0
1.. . . . . . . ~
d
t (0 3 + 3 C d2 + d]) t (0 2 + 2 C d + d2)2
I·_-b----jt Ix = 3 - 4 (0 + b + C + d)
t
p
e ,' "t~
t,,/
Shear
aXIS
:i
..... ,.J.
~
"
: :' ,~' t~
'~"
"
1
I
,
"t
t/ The res ..
I sting
FIGURE 11
I
.......1'1, /
/ ~
shear force flow
Shear --I I I / /'/ in the section
axis
,,/
II
1(
/
,
/'
/
/ '
l ®
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....<»
,-y /
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Properties of Sections / 2.2-11
F.lGURE 12 ~
Only bending
here
is because the torsional moment of the internal trans- 1. The applied force P should be resolved into
verse shear forces (-.) is equal to zero. a force P' of the same value passing through the shear
On the other hand, in the case of an unsymmetri- center (Q) and parallel to the original applied force P.
cal section, B, the internal transverse shear forces P' is then resolved into the two components at right
(-.) form a twisting moment. Therefore, the force angles to each other and parallel to the principal axes
(P) must be applied eccentrically at a proper dis- of the section.
tance (e) along the shear axis, so that it forms an 2. A twisting moment (T) is produced by the
external torsional moment which is equal and opposite applied force (P) about the shear center (Q).
to the internal torsional moment of the transverse The stress from the twisting moment (T) is com-
shear forces. If this precaution is not taken, there will puted separately and then superimposed upon the
be a twisting action applied to the member which will stresses of the two rectangular components of force P'.
twist under load, in addition to bending. See Figure 12. This means that the shear center must be located.
Any axis of symmetry will also be a shear axis. Any axis of symmetry will be one of the shear axes.
There will be two shear axes and their inter- For open sections lying on one common neutral
section forms the shear center (Q). axis (y-y), the location of the other shear axis is-
A force, if applied at the shear center, may be
at any angle in the plane of the cross-section and there
will be no twisting moment on the member, just e
transverse shear and bending.
As stated previously, unless forces which are ap- Notice the similarity between this and the fol-
plied transverse to a member also pass through the lowing:
shear axis, the member will be subjected to a twisting
moment as well as bending. As a result, this beam IM I A d
should be considered as follows: d=IA ~ A
" e '1I
lx, Ilx,: : [TIl lx,
I
IX]
I
FIGURE 13
X--
---
Q
+ 1---
I
-+-
I
I-X
Common neutral
~ I I aXIS x-x
r:;ssS!SSS"l : Sh ear I I
t--- x, ------+f__c_e_nte_r_I .1
Reference~""":I----- x] -
aXIS y-y lfoo-e-------x,
y
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2.2-12 / Load & Stress Analysis
e
Ix! Xl + I X + I xs Xs + I
x2 2 x4 X4
f. = -VIa-x-y = V (b t r )( d/2)
Ix! + I + r., + I
x2 x4
Ix
2
or: F -- tL
T"
f b _ V b d tr
8 - 4 Ix
T b
or, since areas have a common (x-x) neutral axis:
;f X 0 + 2 X (b t,)(d/2)1 ~
T
1-je e
----
Ix
FIGURE 14
y
Here:
-Ie
tr b
S
X 0 +d twS X t r +
d)
e
I Ix X 1.2 12 2
I I, - Ix
_ d twa (tr + d)
24 Ix
FIGURE 16
Normally Q might be assumed to be at the inter-
section of the centerlines of the web and the flange.
y
t
t
t
t
~ t -- -- l t - I I - ---t t
1
t
1
t --0+1 - - - - - - t t I
I t
- - t - - - - - +0 - - - - - - - - - - t-
0
-+
I t I t I
~ t
I
t t I
t
I
~ t ~~ ~ - - - - --
I
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2.2-14 / Load and Stress Analysis
Eig hty-foot hollow steel ma sts a nd suspe nsion cables he lp support the
continuous roof fra ming syste m of the 404' x 120CY Tulsa Expositio n
Cente r. W e ld s ho ld ing b rac ke ts (a rro w) to wh ich ca b les a re anchored are
designed to withst a nd the high te nsile forces invo lved in suc h a structure.
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SECTION 2.3
[CTt ~I (1)
where:
E unit elongation (tensile strain)
where:
CTt unit tensile stress
P the tensile force applied to the member
E modulus of elasticity (tension)
A area of cross-section at right angles to line
of force The total elongation or displacement is equal to
CTt = unit tensile stress this unit strain (E) multiplied by the length (L) of
the member.
A tensile load that is not applied in line with the
center of gravity of the section, but with some eccen- Elongation E . L
Prot»lem 1
FIGURE 1
eo ch ot he
r j
pe s in Contoct with
2O r m or e sh o j
j
j
j
p j
j
j
j
ro te d by
s otes, se po j
oren
r mitt o pe Or pl
e tshfillers
Orm
2 te
in
j
j
j
P
used On op
en sides of
(i) of ei th er el
em en t ~ 240 ""r " j
j
j
Tie plotes nsion members j
bUilt-up te
j
j
j
j
j
FIGURE 2
-W e ld in g
of (~r') of el em en
t ~ 240
[I
:
j
j
j
-=::::::~--,
embers
ension M j
Built-Up T used in
les mcy be j
me:m~b:e:rs~
occess ha
Plotes with
bUilt-up te
nSion j
j
j
P----,
- - il
j
~-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation j
j
j
j
SECTION 2.4
Analysis of Bending
~
t M = PL d=-
Tensile Stress 3EI v=p
Fixed end
Moment Free end
- - - - - -l-Neutral Axis r t
PL
M=-
P L3
d=--
. P
v=-
f I
4 48EI 2
center center
Compressive Stress I
!P P L3 11
~
M = 3PL V=-P
FIGURE 1 16 d = 48Ei\75 16
1 Fixed end
The cantilever beam shown in Figure 1 is in Pj P L3
~
M= PL d=- V=P
tension along the top and in compression along the Guided
~ree
2 12EI
bottom. In contrast, the relationship of the applied both ends guided end
~~ ~-==?~
; I
8 384EI 2
center center
F9 M = PL
8
Fixed end
d=
P L3
185EI
I
5
V=-P
8
FIGURE 2
~
~OJIIC~ Hwm9
Guided
Free
M = PL
3
d=--
P L3
24EI
V=P
Within the elastic range (i.e. below the propor- Fixed end guided end
tional elastic limit or the yield point), the bending
~
P L3
M =PL d=--
P
V=-
stress ( O'"b) at any point in the cross-section of a 12 384EI 2
beam is - both ends center
L~
P e L2
M = Pe d=-- V=O
1000b M c
1
I (1)
whole beam
2EI
right angles
to force
I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 2.4-1
2.~2 / Load & Stress Analysis
Here: 6"T
~ r-----12.515"----+i'1 ~ =
1.47"
r:
n
1.47" N A In =62.6 in'
I I486" - T- . . P= 10,000 Ibs
6.94" -1',.",1- .905 " 5.47"
+
! l tFt---100"---+-I
5,0001bs
J
5,0001bs
FIGURE 3
The bending moment (M) may be determined The top portion of the beam being in compression,
from standard beam diagrams. Table 1 lists several
of these, along with the formulas for bending moment, Mc
tr; = -1-
shear, and deflection. A more complete presentation is
included in the Reference Section on Beam Diagrams. (250,000) (1.47)
Normally there is no interest in knowing what the 62.6
bending stresses are somewhere inside a beam. Usually
5,870 psi (compression)
the bending stress at the outer fiber is needed because
it is of maximum value. In an unsymmetrical section,
the distance c must be taken in the correct direction
across that portion of the section which is in tension
I Problem 2 I
or that portion which is in compression, as desired.
Ordinarily only the maximum stress is needed and p
this is the stress at the outer fiber under tension, which
rests at the greater distance c from the neutral axis.
I Problem 1
1. * L
FIGURE 4
.t
A standard rolled "T" section (ST-6" wide flange, Find the maximum deflection of the previous beam
80.5 lbs) is used as a beam, 100" long, supported on under the same loading. From the beam diagrams,
each end and bearing a concentrated load of 10,000 Table 1, the appropriate formula is found to be-
lbs at the middle. Find the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive bending stresses. P L3
.:lmax = 48 E I and therefore
Figure 3 shows the cross-section of this beam,
together with its load diagram. (10,000) (100)3
Referring to Table 1, the formula for the bending - 48(30 X 106 ) (62.6)
moment of this type of beam is found to be-
.111"
Mc
Ut = -1-
FIGURE 5
_ (250,000)(5.47)
(6.26)
= 21,845 psi (tension) @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation In addition to pure bending stresses, horizontal shear
stress is often present in beams, Figure 5. It depends
Analysis of Bending / 2.4-3
IT~wl . ·..........····.. ···.... ·(2) The following values also are known or deter-
mined to be-
where:
I = 62.6 in."
V external vertical shear on beam, lbs a 1.486 X 12.515 18.6 in."
I moment of inertia of whole section, in." Y 0.727"
t thickness of section at plane where stress is t 0.905"
desired, in.
a area of section beyond plane where stress is (a) Substituting the above values into the formula,
desired, in." the horizontal shear stress (T) is found:
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 8---Required Section Modulus of Beam Under Bending Load to.)
(Strength Nomograph)
t
........
QM4XIMUM
\ J BENDING o 100.000
r-
o
80.<>:>0
ST/lENGTH FACTOR o
MOMENT ,",000 a
("EerloN MOOULU:J)S
a.
4<:\OGIO
I{)TAL LOAD FOOT-POUNDS I /IVCII-POUNOS flO
o
ON BEAM (;bs)
1000
/0.000
20.0\::\0 ....'"
lD
III
III
LENGTH OF /aooa
TYPE OF
o BEAM
~
8.000
•• 000
4,000
~
:::II
a
-<
III
BEAM
UNIFORM
LQAD
CONCENTRATBJ
LOAD
100
ALLOWABLE
o z,ooo
iii'
-- <,
/ODD,DOO,
eoo,ooo
<,
<,
<,
~ooo
1.000
400
<,
"1.000.000 -,
<, i?OO
10 <,
<, 10,000
''\ <,
~ 2,000.000 ~
20,000
200,000 100
<,
<, BO
<,
4,000.000
<,
-, eo
<,
400,000 <,
<, 4C
',000,000
<,
'00.000 <,
6,000.000 <,
eoo.ooo IO,DOO,OOO <,
pmBLEM:FlND THE REQUIRED .sECTION MODULU5 5 1,004000
<, 20
<,
OF THE FOLLOWINo BEAM. NOTE: CAN AL60 U6E THIS NOMOGRAPH
(I) TYPE OF BEAM • ~t 7V.50LVE FORALLOWA8LE LOAD OR
RE5ULTANT STRESS OR5TART WITH 2,000.000
2.0.000.000
10
(Z)LEIYGTH OF BEAM-120 /NCHE5 MAXIMUM 8ENDING MOMENT
s= KztJL (T
8
.
(3)LOAD ON BEAM "/0,000 A?UN05 40,coo,ooo
",,000,000
(.5)ALLOWABLE STRESS' eo, 000 ASI bClOOO,ooo
4
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Analysis of Bending / 2.4-5
% = calculated leg size of continuous fillet weld _ X 100 loads. The len gth of th e beam is shown both in inches
actual leg size of int ermit tent fillet weld used and in feet, th e load in pounds. In the first nom ograph
= .056 = 18% ( Fig. 8) an allowable bend ing stress (<Tb) is shown
5/1 6 and the strength property of th e beam is read as sec-
A ~ fillet weld would satisfy this
tion modulus ( S) . In th e second nomograph ( F ig. 9 )
an allowable unit deflecti on ( il/L ) is shown . This is
requirement because it results in 25% of the len gth of
the resulting deflection of the beam divided by the
the joint being welded.
length of the be am. The stillness property of the beam
3. QUICK METHOD FOR FINDING REQUIRED is read as mom ent of inertia ( I) .
SECTION MODULUS (STRENGTH) OR By using these no mographs the design er can
MOMENT OF INERTIA (STIFFNESS) quickly find th e required sec tion modulus (strength )
or moment of inertia (s tiffness) of the bea m. H e can
To aid in designin g members for bending load s, the then refer to a steel handbook to choose a steel section
following two nomographs have been constru cte d . The th at will meet these requirements.
first nomograph determines the required strengt h of a If he wishes to fabricate the section from welded
straight beam. The second no mograph determ ines th e steel, he may use any of the methods for building up
required stiffness of th e beam . a steel section having th e re q uir ed values of section
In both nomographs several types of beams are modulus or moment of inertia discussed in Pr opert ies
included for concentrated loads as well as uniform of Sections.
More than a carload of weld ing e lectrode was e mp loyed in the fa b rica tion of this huge
bucket-whe el iron ore reclaiming mach ine at the Ea g le Mountain Mine. Steel pip e was
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
used extensively in the 170' long all-welded truss, of tria ng ula r cros s-sect ion, that is the
ma in loa d-ca rrying membe r.
FIGURE 9-Required Moment of Inertia of Beam Under Bending Load ~
(Stiffness Nomograph)
t
o LENGTH OF o {1,
,(, ~
K'>.('l,~C
-; ,-l, ,(l
<,
r0-
TYPE OF
o BEAM
~::' i- INCHES o
STlFFNE55 FACTOR
(MOME:VT OF INERT/4) I
W1O,OOO
~,ooo
o
o
0.
QO
UN/~ORM
.fQA....f'
BEAM
~'ON::"'..:::¥;rR~TEO
rOAD
20
°1
TOTAL LOAD
QIV BEAM({b.s)
o COO.l' ...?C'
...
'"
(1)
III
ALLOWA8LE UNIT
rei
,l'- /00,000 III
-/000 80.000
"
60, eoe
I,'J/:J
IJEFLECT/O!V ';'<...;000
~
,"0 :::II
<o<XJ
(lNCh'ES PEJ1 /N'C#) o
+""'4 't---t--i "0
4<)0
-
...;.~ 1,--1
,"oc
BOO
I.{)OO 00, ~.(}O'
=,000
-<
III
;;.
flL.1L.-li+
t--L-t eo
L'ce '::000
4,000
PRECf5/0N
MACHINE
"('. ,--'("'Z'
2qOOO
O(':J,(7CJ4
~,---
TOOL
;0 --- ------- t\C'OO ,)(YJ.<::X:J6 10,000
apoo
B 100 /0,000_ - ~l(I(!.OJ 8;,000
80 e.oco
r::;-r:[ " "'0
~7.'}00 MACHINE
TOOL
000,02
r
~ · 4
4<J
J.c.CClC
~'(',llOC) <,
LVt?,<-?4-
o o c ' o <O
4;000
f"t~~::
'<,
~
eo.cic c
'"=f"
GUb 2
,0
-/00>000
zoo,OOC
<,
-,
-,
L OOC, 1
000,<"
2',000
4CC,OOO
r
"no"lL1C -/,000
ClOn,COG
~J 10 1,000,000 001 800
L~ {j
..5TRUCTlJ;Q4L .~6z -, <iDo
rt
I
vne '"
4
2
:, 'I ,M rWD lrtf.:{jQi//B!I2MOMENT OF INERTIA (I)
~~f'.£O':L,.,J!j/ING BEAM
-
.004
.O()6
.01
-,
'" <,
-,
"" -, -,
400
-"00
~~~.f": LA \ =c
....1 .... J'~ E ~J-d~:' .\, J,1.--/C J
( )13~?-'Cf.---.B;_' IN! Ht5 ~-R..!NCH
J~ L \. E r,: ..,-? ,--1.-LCJ'~ '.:~<--£__,=-~Q, ,~R
(5) d-,",D /dQ, 111'<11) MOME,_- OF INERTIA I' I ~ J< f)L '" £'0
Rt 5UL TAIYT OE,c~ECTiON E(1')
ICC //1/4
/0
o
<0
4'
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 2.5
Deflection by Bending
,amn = k ~I (1)
sections of the beam. See Figure la, where at any
given section:
e fLlx
Compression .. (J ~ Contraction '+t ~ Jf' -1/
N~~t~a~ 3_ ~~,
oxis ~~
Tension If. (J
M.
~
~--1-- r~=-
Extension ~f~ '""fLlx'"
(a) Bending Stress (b) Strain (,c) Elongation
FIGURE 1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 2.5-1
2.5-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
very small increment in length (Ax), Figure Ic, the but would converge at some point (0) in space, form-
elongation within this small increment would be e (Ax). ing a radius of curvature (R x ).
Also, here it can be seen that the small angular rota- In the sketch to the right of Figure 2b, dotted
tion (At)) would be the elongation at the outer fiber lines (a and b) represent the initial incremental seg-
divided by the distance (c) to the outer fiber from ment (Ax) with zero moment, while the solid lines
the neutral axis. reflect the effect of applied load: Ax (I - e) at the
This can be expressed as- surface under compression.
The total angular change (()) between any two
e(Ax) = c (At)) points (a and b) of the beam equals the sum of the
e (Ax) M c (Ax) incremental changes, or:
,'.M
c E I c
or:
.. , .... , ..... (2)
x = a x = a
In other words, the infinitesimal angle change in
any section of the beam is equal to the area under It is also observed from Figure 2b that-
the moment diagram (M, Ax) divided by the (E Ix) of
the section.
The angular rotation relative to stress and strain
is further illustrated by Figure 2.
Figure 2a represents a straight beam under zero and since-
bending moment. Here any two given sections (a and
b) would parallel each other and, in a stress-free
condition, would then have a radius of curvature (Rx )
equal to infinity (00)' These two sections (a and b) the reciprocal of the radius of curvature (I/R) at
can be set close together to define the segment of very any given point (x) of the beam is-
Ik itl ......····....·....·........
small increment in length (Ax),
At Figure 2b, the beam is subjected to a bending
moment and this small segment (.6.x) will compress = (3)
on one side and will elongate on the other side where
the outer fiber is in tension. This can be related to The next logical step would seem to be applica-
a small angular movement within this increment. It tion of the Successive Integration Method to deter-
can be seen that sections a and b are no longer parallel mine the beam deflection.
R.
A8~
~ _ _ _ _a
-- .. -b- - - - -
Beam
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 2
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-3
iOOO~ 2000.;tt:
Load
r- R,
30" -~- 30" -+- 30"
R, = 500#
(V = + 1500#
Shear (V)
--
v= - 5Q,O#
I~ x = 50"
Moment (M) I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
M = + 30,000"# I
I
I
1 I
I
~ :
I
I
.J
Slope (0)
I~i""'-
I
1
I
r-- x = 65.5" )1
I- x = 35.86" ------tI
In
2000# :
I
FIGURE 3
X2
......... (8)
VI: = fw" (dx) (5)
Xl
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.5-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
t 30"
+
t
30"
± 30"
-1
+
t
_ _t
2500#
t
500# 1.5#
em =..-+ 30"#
(a) Real Bending Moment (M) (b) Virtual Bending Moment (m)
FIGURE 4
Unfortunately, it is usually difficult to get a mathe- it looks like. Then several methods will be used in
matical expression for the load in terms of x for the finding the deflection (y or A) under the conditions
entire length of the beam for any but the simplest of illustrated, to show that in each case the answer comes
beam loadings. The method is cumbersome, especially out the same:
if various loads are applied, if there are various types
of support, or if there are various changes in section. y 13,500,000 inches
For every integration, there is a constant of inte- E I
gration (C) which must be solved. This is done by
setting up known conditions of the beam; for example,
the deflection of a beam over a support is zero, the 4. VIRTUAL WORK METHOD
slope of a beam at a fixed end is zero, etc.
This method means several equations must be used This is used frequently for finding the deflection of a
and integrated within certain limits of x, with con- point on a beam in any direction, caused by the beam
siderable time expended and with the possibility of load. A virtual load of one pound (or one kip) is
compounded error. placed on the beam at the point where the amount of
If possible, integrate graphically rather than mathe- deflection is desired and in the same direction.
matically, this process takes on greater importance. Virtual bending moments (m) caused by the l-lb
Most of the methods in actual use for computing load are determined along the entire length of the
deflection are based on a graphical solution of the beam. The internal energy of the beam after deflecting
problem. is determined by integration. This is then set equal to
the external energy of the l-lb virtual load moving a
I Problem 1 distance (y) equal to the deflection.
M
(a) ET curve (b) m curve
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 5
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-5
(m)
Vertical distance to
upper flat surface
of this section
( x)axis
FIGURE 6
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.5-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
-15,000"#
@M
/' o o~o Real load
~
I I I moment (M) diagram
- - -'1"mn-JITTT'T"I"'TT'1M'TT'ft'_ - _ Real load I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
~ moment [M) diagram
__ ~~.LU-.u..L.LU-L.LL~ _ _
+
I 30,000"# I I '
I
t-- 30"
I
----ot-'
110"
20" ~ +-- 30" ~I
I I Virtual load
o 0
I moment (m) diagram
~ Virtual load ~ + 15',#
l-U..u.llJ.J..LJ.J..l..LLu..~- - - moment (m) d iagra m + 20"#
m2 + 30"#
FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9
only the height of the virtual moment diagram at the has a variable section, several values of I would have
same distance (x) as On the real moment diagram. to be inserted earlier in the computation-for the sec-
The M/EI diagram is then divided into simple geo- tion taken through the center of gravity of each geo-
metric shapes (in this case, right triangles), and the metrical area of the M/EI diagram.
area of each is found and multiplied by the height of To simplify this further, a method of cross-
the m diagram along a line through the particular multiplying has been found to give the same results.
M/EI area's center of gravity. The general approach is illustrated by Figure 8, where
From this the volume is obtained: some segment of the real moment (M) diagram be-
tween points Xt and X~ is at the top and a correspond-
Volume = l~,ooO)( 30) (20)
2EI
+ (30,000) ( 20)
2EI
(80)_
3
ing segment of the virtual moment (m) diagram is
below.
The required volume can be found directly by
(15,000) (10 )(50) (15,000) (30) ( 10)
2EI 3 2EI multiplying M, by m- and M 2 by m2 and then by cross-
multiplying M, by m~ and M 2 by m, using only lh of
+ 13,500,000 the products of cross-multiplication. This is more fully
E I related to the basic integration equation by the fol-
lowing:
and since:
Volume = 1" . y x=2
Mtm2 M2 m t)
the deflection in inches is-
13,500,000
J
x=1
M m dx
EI
L (
= 3 E I Mjm, + M m + -2-
2 + -2-
2
The value of I can now be inserted in this to give Figure 9 shows application of this method to the
the deflection (y) in inches. However, if the beam original Problem 1.
Moment curve ~
rc Center of gravity of this area
under moment curve (a to b)
,----- FIGURE 10
®
I
I
I
Deflection curve I
I
0)
*y 8
-
@Seismicisolation
I - - ........-;...--
*@Seismicisolation
: .,.,,'" -- -- -- i.-
- - -- J..-
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-7
From Figure 9:
co ~ ~5/00) _ (~O) C 5
x ~:,OOO) Moment diagram
~ L/3 -.I I
13,500,000 j . - l/2~
EI
Deflection curve -r
®
y :
S. AREA MOMENT METHOD 1.. J __......- -
~_,,::
®
This a very useful tool for engineers and is illustrated
FIGURE 11
in Figure 10 by a general moment diagram and the
corresponding deflection curve. Here points a and b
represent any two points defining a simple geometric @ load
area of an actual moment diagram. --:r-
y
The two fundamental rules for use of this method
are:
.....t.... _ _ -=_~_~ .....
-~
~ x=? ~
The change in slope (radians) between two
points (a and b) of a loaded beam equals the FIGURE 12
area under the moment curve, divided by E I,
between these two points (a and b).
For symmetrically loaded, simply supported beams
this is a convenient method with which to find the
The distance of point a of the beam to the
maximum deflection of the beam, because in this case
tangent at point b of the beam equals the moment
the slope of the beam is zero at the mid-span (b) and
of the area under the moment diagram taken
the distance from a to the tangent at b equals the
about point a, divided by E 1.
maximum deflection we are seeking. See Figure 11.
2000#
f
2500-*
*
FIGURE 13
@
~
160"
-3-
t;;= + 30,000"l;: _ - - T
_- - - -
- - ti~
-- Y - 9,000,000
EI
-L
YI
-,:---
~
_---
-
- - - -.:;- - - ""'"'--::..:.- - - -
-
I -)-1-
/
--.L. 90 -
150000" #
l °lO = 'E I
r- --1~<- - - w" ~
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 30"
2.5-8 / Load & Stress Analysis
FU T~:':
48 E I
(x = 0)
However, for an unsymmetrically loaded beam, r--30"~
the point of the beam having zero slope, or maximum
deflection, is unknown (Fig. 12). There are ways of FIGURE 14
getting around this.
The conditions of Problem 1 are here illustrated The angle of this tangent line to the horizon ((Jao)
by Figure 13. The moments of the area under the is then found by dividing this vertical distance (Y90)
moment curve (from point zero to point 30) is taken by the horizontal distance between point 30 and
about point zero to give the vertical distance between point 90.
point zero and the tangent to the deflection curve at
point 30. This becames y~. This is not the actual deflec- (J Y90
tion, because the slope of the deflection curve at point ao = 60"
30 is not level. This slope is yet to be found. 9,000,000
First find the vertical distance between point 90 60 E I
and the tangent to the deflection curve at point 30. To
find this distance (Y90), take the moments, about point 150,000
!-.l0, of the area of the moment diagram from point 30 E I
to point 90.
This angle ((Jao) is the same to the left of point 30,
Figure 14, and defines the vertical deflection (v.) at
= (30,000)(20) (160) _ (15,000)(10) (100)
Y90 2EI 3 2EI 3 point zero. This angle then, multiplied by the hori-
zontal distance from point zero to point 30, gives the
(15,000) (30) (20) vertical displacement (Yl)'
2EI
150,000 4,500,000
9,000,000 Yl = (Jao 30 = E I 30 E I
E I
Adding this to the initial displacement-
0, P O2
~, = 0 .1...-_1
f'
-h ~2 =
.I
0 M,
R,
=0
= 0,
p
~, =0 ~2 =0 M, 0 = ~M2=O
0, = 0 ::r--...._.L---~ O2 =0 R, = 0 ~R2=O
No supports
~,I ~~-----{~::
f
~
0,
p
~. I [inge M, =0 mm~ro:;~tmflTmn
M - 0
~'=ot--~~~\_-~~2=O
2-
R, =0 R2 =0
0, =0 "r 1 O2 =0
Oe
M, =0
~, =0 R, = 0,
~2 =0
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.5-10 / Load & Stress Analysis
~= -15,000°#
Moment diagram
of real beam
M= + 30,000°# 15,000°#
(" - EI
FIGURE lS
c: 30,000";t
EI
~(- ~\OOO)(~) x, + 150,000
E I
150,000
o
FIGURE 17
600
directed dOWIlward) and:
V30~ Xl = 24.5"
!
2
(j-_E30,(00)
I
( 30) ( 20) + (150,000) ( 30)
E I The moment of the conjugate beam at this point
is
_+ 13,500,000 in. 3-lbs
- EI
~(- ~\OOO) (~) Xl (;1) + 150,000
E I
Xl
The deflection of the real beam at point zero (Yo or 2,450,000
/llllax) equals the moment of the conjugate beam at this E I
point (M o ) ; hence:
and therefore the maximum deflection (Ymnx or .Ilmnx ) of
the real beam, Figure 19 -
13,500,000 inches
Yo = E I
2,450,000 in. 3-lbs inches
Ymnx = E I
This would be the solution of this problem; how-
ever, to get the deflection at other points it would be
necessary to continue this work and find the moment 7. DEFLECTION OF BEAM WITH VARIABLE
of the conjuga beam throughout its length.
7e
The maximum deflection of the real beam on the
SECTION
right side occurs at the same point as zero shear of The area moment method may be used very nicely to
the conjugate beam. By observation this would occur find the deflection of beams in which no portion of the
somewhere between points 60 and 90, and the distance beam has a constant moment of inertia.
2000#
1000# _L _
T
t)
C, '-500-000
EI
2500#
l _+
Y-
500#
2,450,000
EI
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 19
2.5-12 / Load & Stress Analysis
d ~ deileetion
of beam
L __ &L_.__----
--
_ - - - - - -
~&,
- r -L _=.., A
F A h,{ _- _---~-
, 5 S
B hc{-- ·e-t I
FIGURE 20 j... Xt.~
B
The angle between the tangents at A and B = FIGURE 22
() = the area of the moment diagram between A and
B, divided by EI. Restating the preceding, the vertical deflection of
Subdividing this beam into 10 or more segments B is-
of equal length (s):
-5----j.~
4_.l...---L-_-'------'-_'-------'--_.l...-----':-'.. bea WI
E_I__-- -' ..................... (12)
M
or:
moment
d i o qr-nrn I a = ~I¥ I (13)
X
Note: Mn n is found for each segment. These
A
B
In
values are added together, and this sum is multiplied
by sjE to give the total deflection.
deflection
of beam
to~'
de ection
of eam
FIGURE 21
h,
Each segment of bending moment causes the totol h
beam in this segment to bend or rotate. The angle de11ecti 0.., J
h.
of bend () =
area of moment diagram of this segment
divided by EI, or - (lI.)mea5u.ed from leH end
of beam(El) whQre load (P)
is applied
50k
M4 5250"k =
M3 =
3750"k
M2 == 2250"k
M. = 750"k :
Moment diogLQIIl
FIGURE 25
t
T------~
1--~------
L _ t Deflection curve
1
taken one at a time, will require the member to have
a certain section (11, 12 , etc.).
The moment of inertia (I) of the beam section
required to support all of the vertical loads within this
allowable vertical deflection (.i) will equal the sum
of the individual moments of inertia (In) required for
P,
~' P
r--~
Any torque or couple applied horizontal to the
beam will cause it to deflect vertically. This can be
handled in the same manner. The required moment
FIGURE 27 of inertia of the member (III) for each torque acting
separately is found and added into the total require-
ment for the property of the section (I).
P, P, The following two formulas may be used to find
the individual properties of the section (In):
FIGURE 28
i'l
~----1C-- __
il = il, + il,
~I :2=1 ,+1,
FIGURE 29
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 30
FIGURE 31-Required Moment of Inertia to Resist Bending
o o o
lDdivKlua/
Iqqdgn'nM
o o
U7jt qlrf6!rcttQn
o
q( "nt_ I
.,
.
0 cr0 v.!l!ltlG or inch)
@Q .01
,,"
,,"/ /
IoodP "
101 ~
","
1tJ
o
DOt ,,'"
IS 20 "," "
"," "
'"
~~ ~
ti -----=t
/ 't-<=jf, \
c- co"I>I. (;",Ib5.)
L • ItZngth ba_ (in.)
_a: (//~tance or load from end
...iiio
CD
i ..
K' ratio p' (J)
~:
Find:
8o.w 60" long with ~rol Ioo~:
R0QUI'red moment of IMrtio. T: r07"/71£ of t~
L f..-- L ~ I; ~9ui7"ed mo1'T1fU7( or inz7"tio
riot' cch load P, or co "/'k C)
n
!o<Id5 P '450 lba locat0:J 9" '1"Om rznd p'f eLI 2 ,\
O·
1·48E<t]f.3K,-4Kf} J- 1~£ft)l4Kt-1; (J$l tn;a nomogrTJ.p/l to find I for .ach :::I
~/IIC of pore. Qi/d th.M IIDlu.s to
line 450in.1M
~
p
L "-60 get toW required mom."t of mrtia.
s Pivot liTItZ WHERE: Hz r:
a"
of bG.5c I. .
4 K -K, -15'1 C'o".l-I, C 13 + IF It ("gus.S beam all
to c1ef/~ct rtolVnW'ara,. CD
Pivot line :::I
• ~·.oool I~n (machine tool) TI1I~ a".,u~ 170 IfICi$ht pf.beqm and i~ Q"
7 reaetr-:1 in· gfXXi lOr ~ttZel on(y. :i'
IA
.......
w
'r
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation --
'"
2.5-16 / Load & Stress Ana lysis
TABLE 3-Values of Constants (A and B) for Simplified Formulas (16 and 17)
K A B K A B K A B
0 0 2.083 x 10- 9 .17 3.045 x 10- 10 1.842 x 10- 9 .34 5.002 x 10- 10 1.120 xl 0- 9
.01 .2083 x 10- 10 2.083 .18 3.588 1.813 .35 6.101 1.063
.02 .4166 2.080 .19 3.768 1.783 .36 6.204 1.003
.03 .6243 2.076 .20 3.944 1.750 .37 6.301 .9425
.04 .8312 2.070 .21 4.118 1.715 .38 6.392 .8900
.05 1.038 2.063 .22 4.268 1.680 .39 6.477 .8158
.06 1.244 2.053 .23 4.453 1.642 .40 6.556 .7500
.07 1.449 2.043 .24 4.616 1.603 .41 6.627 .6825
.08 1.653 2.030 .25 4.774 1.563 .42 6.692 .6133
.09 1.855 2.016 .26 4.928 1.520 .43 6.750 .5425
.10 2.056 2.000 .27 5.079 1.476 .44 6.801 .4700
.11 2.355 1.983 .28 5.224 1.430 .45 6.844 .3958
.12 2.452 1.963 .29 5.364 1.381 .46 6.880 .3221
.13 2.647 1.942 .30 5.500 1.333 .47 6.898 .2425
.14 2.847 1.920 .31 5.631 1.282 .48 6.928 .1633
.15 3.031 1.896 .32 5.756 1.209 .49 6.940 .0825
.16 3.219 1.870 .33 5.876 1.176 .50 7.000 0
.~-
constant A and substitute into the first formula, When
a couple is applied to the member, use the constant B (b) = '-R !
R
and substitute into the second formula.
A shorter method would be to make use of the
nomograph in Figure 31.
T
~d R
9. INFLUENCE LINE FOR REACTIONS
(c) .J.
Maxwell's Theorem of Reciprocal Deflections may be R
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
used to find the reactions of a continuous beam or
frame, and is especially adaptable to model analysis. FIGURE 32
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-17
of points at which the pressure is applied. This concept as the reaction in question, the resulting deflection
supplies a very useful tool for finding influence lines curve becomes the plot of the reaction as the load is
for reactions, deflections, moments, or shear. In this moved across the length of the beam.
case, the interest is in reactions. This is called an "influence curve". Considering
To find the value of the reaction (R 1 ) at the left- the conditions of the real beam represented by Figure
hand support in Figure 32a, the support is removed; 32a, the reaction (R 1 ) at point 1 due to a load (P,,)
this causes the left end to deflect (~b), as at Figure 32b. at point x will be proportional to the ratio of the two
In order to restore the left end to its initial position, ordinates at points x and 1 of the deflection curve.
an upward reaction ( Pc) must be applied, as in In other words:
Figure 32c.
In extending Maxwell's theorem of reciprocal de-
flections to Figure 32b and Figure 32c, it is noticed: I R 1 = P" ~l (19)
then ~b = ~c
For continuous beams of constant cross-section,
However, in order to return the beam to the initial a wire model may be set up on a drawing board, with
condition of Figure 32a, ~d must be reduced ~til it the wire beam supported by thumb tacks spaced so
equals db. To do this the upward reaction (Pc) must as to represent the supports on the real beam. See
be reduced by the factor: ~b/~d' And since ~b = dc, Figure 33. A load diagram of the real beam is shown
this reduction factor becomes ~c/~d' at the bottom. Notice that the thumb tacks used for
supports of the wire must be located vertically so as
.'. R1 = P, ~: or, using Figure 32a - to function in the opposite direction to reactions on
the real beam.
I ' ,
The point of the model beam at the reaction in
R1 = P" ~I (18)
question (R 1 ) is raised upward some convenient dis-
tance, for example !h" or 1", and the deflection curve
of the wire beam is traced in pencil. This is shown
This means that if the model beam (as in Fig. 32c) immediately below the model.
is displaced in the same direction and at the same point The final value for the reaction (R 1 ) is equal to
Thumb tacks
~ ~ Small wire
CD
Drawing board
P, P2
Y2" = ~,
_-L ~ _
I Problem 3 I
A continuous beam has 5 concentrated loads and 4
supports. The problem is to find the reactions at the
supports.
The reactions are found by comparing the ordinates
of the deflection curve of a wire representing the beam.
See Figure 35, where the critical dimensions appear on
the (upper) load diagram.
For the ends, reactions R l and R4 , displace the
FIGURE 34 end of the wire a given amount as shown. The portion
of each applied load ( P) to be transferred to the
the sum of the actual applied forces multiplied by the reaction R l is proportional to the ordinate of the
ratio of their ordinates of this curve to the original deflection curve under the load (P) and the given dis-
displacement at R l • placement at Rl •
The influence curve for the central reaction (R z ) For the interior reactions Rz and Ra, displace the
may also be found in the same manner. See Figure 34. wire a given amount at Rz. From the ordinates of this
.
2000# 2000# 1000# 1500# 1500#
P, P, P3 p. Ps
I- 6W .J.. - -
8Y2' J
•
9'
-
J 9' ...I
-- 8Y2' I
-.- 6W -+I
~~
.. - r
Small wire .i->: Thumb tacks ~
1 ~ ~~, ~
R,
~
,
Displace
wire at ~,
d
(
+ 56.9%
P,
r: f
11.1 %
P,
R, T
-2%
PJ
VR
J + 4%
p.
t
+ 3%
Ps
r
-.../1
~
Drawing board
Thumb tack
L Thumb look, ~
f---- t
- 35.2% - 29.6%
p. Ps
Small wire Drawing board
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 35
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-19
FIGURE 36
deflected wire, determine the ratios of each applied Reactions, either horizontal (H) or vertical (V)
load (P) for the reaction at R2 . at the supports, may be found by displacing the frame
The computation of forces for the reactions R l and at the support a given amount in the direction of the
R4 is as follows: desired reaction. See Figure 36. The outline of the
displaced. model frame is traced in pencil, and this
Rl = + .569 P, + .111 P 2 - .02 P, + .04 P 4 + becomes the curve showing the influence of any load
.03 P 5
(at any point) upon this reaction.
.569(2000#) + .111(2000#) - .02(1000#) The displacement of each point of the model frame
+ .04( 1500#) + .03( 1500#) (a) where a load is applied is measured in the same
direction as the application of the load, and the re-
+ 14451bs
sulting reaction may be computed from the following:
+ .695 P, + 1.11 P 2 + .56 Pa - .352 P 4 -
horizontal reaction
.296 P 5
.695(2000#) + 1.11(2000#) + .56(1000#)
- .352( 1500#) - .296( 1500#)
+ 3198 lbs
vertical reaction
Reactions R a and R4 can be found in like manner.
Application to Frames
This same method may be extended to the analysis Moments at the ends of the frame (or at any point
of frames. If the frame has a constant moment of in the frame) may be found by rotating the point in
inertia, a stiff wire may be bent into the shape of the question a given angle (q;a) and again drawing the
frame. If the frame has a variable moment of inertia, resulting displaced model frame. See Figure 37.
the model may be made of a sheet of plastic or card- The displacement of each point of the model frame
board proportioned to the actual moments of inertia. (a) where a load is applied is measured in the same
direction as the application of the load, and the re-
sulting moment may be computed from' the following:
FIGURE 37
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation the real load conditions. This error can be reduced
greatly by measuring the displacements between one
2.5-20 / Load & Stress Analysis
FIGURE 38
TABLE 4--lncremental Deflections of Real Beam A wire model of this beam is held at the two sup-
Point load Ordinate Deflection
ports (trailer hitch and the wheel assembly) with
(lbo) " 10- 3 At Free End (In.) thumb tacks on a drawing board. The outer end is dis-
0 100 0 0
placed an amount equal to 3.25 on a suitable scale.
The deflection curve is traced in pencil from this dis-
3' 150 - .60 - .030
placed wire beam. The ordinates of this resulting de-
8' 300 -1.06 - .318 flection curve become the actual deflections at the free
15' 400 -1.60 - .640 end as the 1-lb load is moved across the length of the
21' 750 -1.56 -1.170 beam.
23' 750 -1.36 -1.020 Multiplying each of the loads on the real beam by
28' 375 - .70 - .262
the ordinate at that point gives the deflection at the
free end caused by each load on the real beam. See
33' 150 + .70 + .105
Table 4. Summing these incremental deflections gives
37' 325 +2.00 + .650 the total deflection:
40' 100 +3.25 + .325
Totol 3300lbo @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
-2.360" A = 2.36" upward
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-21
Thumb tacks
Thumb ta cks Displace end of
Small w ire
/ l r t
1 ;J
T
1
r
1 1
r f'V
; wir e bO
: 3 25~
.60 - 1.06 - 1.60 - 1.56 - 1.36 .70
Dr aw ing board
FIGURE 39
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.5-22 I Load and Stress Analysis
-r
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 2.6
1.4"
---t/
1O
1.2" -- "--j
1.1" -- 10"
r 1 ~==========~~
;.- I.I - - - f --
t'" Ll
1 ~bending
1.0" --
.9" --
~b-J
.8" - - a.bending --
<I
t:
I
0 .7" I
I
13OJ ~'hear
...A...
c;:: 8It
OJ .6"
0
.5" /
.4"
.3" -~---I----~---I--------+-----+-.//'----___+________t_____+___+-
,/
.2"
.1" -----/----+---___+_~~I
-: tI l
~sheor -
I
20" 40" 60" 80" 100" 120" 140" 160" 180"
Length of cantilever beam (L)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 2 Deflection caused by shear increases linearly as length of beam, but that caused by bending increases as the third
power of beam length.
2.6-1
2.6-2 I Load & Stress Analysis
the member and also the value of the shear stress (T).
50 Figure 3 shows the shear stress-strain diagram which
is similar to the usual stress-strain diagram, although
~~ 40 +------+-~=------I------I the shear yield strength is much lower than the tensile
<,
VI
a. I
yield strength of the same material. After the shear
= 33.0 kips/in' --I
~
_ _ _ Oy
30 I I yield strength is reached, the shear strain (E.) increases
!-
VI
VI
Ty = 0.5 Oy = 16.5 kips/in' rapidly and the shear strength increases because of
I I
~
VI
20 ,,= 0.3 (Poisson's ratio) strain hardening.
I I
E = 30 X 10' kips/in'
~
a
til
.s: 10 2. DETERMINING SHEAR DEFLECTION
(/)
E, = 11.5 X 10 J kips/in'
I I The theory of deflection caused by shear stress is
0
0 0.10 0,20 0.30 rather simple. However, the actual determination of
Shear strain (f,), in/In the shear stresses and their distribution across the
FIG. 3 Shear stress-strain diagram. beam section (which two factors cause the deflection)
is more difficult. In all cases, some kind of a form
factor (a) must be determined, and this is simply a
due to bending increases very rapidly as a third power matter of expressing the distribution of shear stress
of the length of the beam. For this reason the deflec- throughout the web of the section. Since there is
tion due to shear is not an important factor except practically no shear stress in the flange area, this par-
for extremely short spans where deflection due to ticular area has negligible effect on the deflection due
bending drops off to a very small value. to shear (~.).
The deflection due to shear is dependent entirely The following formulas are valid for several types
on the shear distribution across the cross-section of of beams and loading:
-j S f-
__ \
-----L_
~ = eL
(05S-+0)
() = e,
T T
E, = f,
or s, = E,
PlY
T max = T 0'1 (Y
A
... A =
axis of entire cross-section
total area of section
I = moment of inertia of section
t = total thickness of web
'Tm o x ayA
E, = shear modulus of elasticity
Form factor IY -I-t~
f, = shear strain
= shear stress
@Seismicisolation
T
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 4 Form factor for shear deflection in built-up beams.
Shear Defle ction in Beams / 2. 6-3
~8 = ~v ~2E(X . ~s
(1)
f
d
1
sim ply supported beam ; conce ntrated load (P)
~8 - T4 11\, (X
E
,
.•. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (2)
FIG . 5 Be a m se ctions fo r which Eq. 5 applies.
s
•..••..•• • • • •..•••.••••••• (4)
cen troid of the cross-sections.
On th is basis, the form factor ((X) for an I beam
or box beam would be:
wh ere :
P total load, lbs
A area of entire section
modulus of elasticity in shear where F igure 5 applies. D on't compute area ( A) in
(steel = 12,000,000 psi) th is formu la because it will cancel out when used
w distributed load, Ibsjlinear in. in the formulas for shear deflection.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.6-4 / Load and Stress Analysis
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 2.7
I- Yn
-~ l--- L - - - --=-~",/
r- ---
FIG. 1 To find deflection of
curved cantilever beam of
variable section, first divide
aJI \n 5%
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.7-1
2.7-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
1:1 P s Xn2l
=ELr;;- (4) Segment Xn In
Xn2
In
Problem 1
1:1 _~LXn2
The total vertical deflection (1:1) is needed on a - E III
curved beam that will carry a maximum load (P)
of 100,000 lbs. See Figure 2. Given the segment length _ 100,000 X 10 11 08
- 30,000,000 .
(s ) = 10" and the various values of Xn and In,
complete the computation. 0.369"
by using formula ~
Ps~ -X~
=T I n
first calculate value of X~ /r,
Segment Xn In
-:::":;~-X6- - - - - - - - - ; 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
~=
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 2 For deflection of simple curved beam, use Eq. 4 or nomograph, Fig. 3.
FIGURE 3-Deflection of Curved Beam
(Stiffness Nomograph)
~n
S
1.0
Total load (P) on
Curved Beam
Ibs Moment
1,000,000 arm (X n )
.1
Feet Inches
1
Moment of i nerlia
of section (In)
10,000
in 4 .01
10
------- --------.. 10
1,000 ----..---------..
.001
10 ------
100 ___
---1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100
1,000----- C
III
100 ~
1,000
10,000
.0001
..
g
o'
100 :::I
10
100,000 ...
o
.00001
n
c
Deflection of
I
1,000,000 ~
curved beam III
Q.
Example: given
~ = s L~n
m
P = 3,000 Ibs Multiply the sum of these / g
Xn = 50 in. values by "s" to get total 3lit
~ .000001
where deflection of the curved
In = 1000 in 4 beam
.6.n = PX~ find ~n = .00025
<,
J
s El n
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
s N
:....
i:
2.7-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
PX,,2 l EI" for each segment and ent ered in the last
column of th e table. These arc then added and the ir
sum multiplied by s to give th e tot al vertical deflection.
I Problem 2
S ~·
}) X
' "
2
L- E I"
Usc th e same beam example as in Probl em 1,
the same values for P, s, XI an d 1'1> and t he same form 10 X .0366
of table. Complete th e comput ation. 0.366"
Eng inee rs of the W hiskey Creek Bridge in No. Cal ifornia specified that th e 300' welded
steel g irders across ea ch spa n utilize three types of stee l in orde r to mee t stress requ ire-
me nts eco no mica lly while maintaining uniform we b d epth and thickness a nd unifo rm flang e
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
secti o n. High strength q ue nched and temper ed ste e l was prescrib ed for po ints of hig h
be nd ing mo ment, A-373 wher e mome nts we re lo w, and A-242 el se whe re.
SECTION 2.8
1. NATURE OF IMPACT LOADING 3. The inertia of the member resisting high acceler-
ation or deceleration.
Impact loading results not only from actual impact ( a) Rapidly reciprocating levers.
(or blow) of a moving body against the member, but (b) A machine subject to earthquake shocks or
by any sudden application of the load (Fig. 1). It may explosives in warfare.
occur in any of the following methods: (c) The braking of a heavy trailer.
1. A direct impact, usually by another member or an
external body moving with considerable velocity, 2. APPROACH TO DESIGN PROBLEM
for example:
(a) A pile driver hammer striking the top of a pile. In many cases it is difficult to evaluate impact forces
(b) The die striking the workpiece in a drop forge quantitatively. The analysis is generally more quali-
press or punch press. tative and requires recognition of all of the factors
(c) A large rock dropped from a height onto a involved and their inter-relationship.
truck. The designer can follow one of two methods:
2. A sudden application of force, without a blow being 1. Estimate the maximum force exerted on the re-
involved. sisting member by applying an impact factor. Consider
(a) The sudden creation of a force on a member this force to be a static load and use in standard design
as during the explosive stroke in an engine, formulas.
the ignition or misfire of a missile motor when 2. Estimate the energy to be absorbed by the
mounted on a test stand. resisting member, and design it as an energy-absorbing
(b) The sudden moving of a force onto a member, member.
as when a heavy loaded train or truck moves The properties of the material and the dimensions
rapidly over a bridge deck, or a heavy rock of the resisting member that give it maximum resistance
rolls from the bucket of a shovel onto a truck to an energy load, are quite different from those that
without any appreciable drop in height. give the member maximum resistance to a static load.
Heavy rock rolled from shovel Fast moving, loaded wagon Sudden ignition of missile;
onto frame without any passing over supporting or missile misfires and
initial drop in height: beam: then re-ignites
h = 0 F = between Wand 2 W F = 2 T (thrust)
F=2W
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 1 Types of impact loading.
2.8-1
2.8-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
-----4 Y
KINETIC ENERGY (Ek ) is the amount of work a body can do
by virtue of its motion.
Ek = Wy2
2g
~
E = fA
It is also the amount of work a body can do by virtue of its
~d--j
Spring
p 2
~iT
Beam
Ep =~
2
F = Wba
F =Wm a g
g
where:
where: W b = weight of body, lbs
W m = weight of member, lbs a deceleration of body, in.z'sec'' or ft /sec''
a = acceleration or deceleration of member, g acceleration of gravity (386.4 in./sec2 or
in.j/sec'' or It/sec" 32.2 Ft/sec")
i--~
,L. _ _
.
.I
T
h
T h
t
!
t ~~
1
Initial condition At instant of impact Maximum deflection T
of member and body
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 3 Effect of member's inertia.
Designing for Impact Loads / 2.8-3
Fortunately the member will deflect slightly and TABLE l-Basic Laws Used in Analysis of Impact
allow a certain time for the moving body (W b) to Linear Angular
come to rest, thereby reducing this impact force (F).
Since the time interval is usually unknown, the CD @
above formula cannot be used directly to find the Mass
W
M=-
1= '!'g!..- r2
9
force (F). However, it is usually possible to solve r = radius of gyration
for this force by finding the amount of kinetic energy
(Es ) or potential energy (E p ) that must be absorbed CD @
T = Fd
by the member (Fig. 2). Farce F d = perpendicular distance
from center of rotation
This applied energy (E k ) or (E p ) may then be to line of force
set equal to the energy (U) absorbed by the member @
0)
within a given stress (<T), see Table 2. 0 V
d w = - = 27TRPM = -
Velocity V=- t r
t
5. POTENTIAL ENERGY OF r radius of point for which
w is to be found
FALLI NG BODY ON MEMBER
CD @
(See Figure 3)
Acceleration
V - Vo
0=--
a == w- Wo
t t
Potential energy of falling body (W b) :
Force of Impact
CD
F =-0
W
e T=Ia
9
F6 CD ~V2 @
I w2
2 Kinetic Energy
2 9 2
or 1 6 = 6 st + .j 6 st2 + 6 s~ V2
If the body (W b) is suddenly applied to the Again, if h = 0, then 6 = 2 6 st
member without any appreciable drop in height (h =
0), the maximum force due to impact is twice that of 6. EFFECT OF MEMBER'S INERTIA
the applied load (W b) :
If the weight (Wm ) of the supporting member is
relatively high, some of the applied energy will be
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Thus, it is common practice to apply an impact factor
absorbed because of the inertia of the member to
movement. A good example is the effect of the mass of
2.8-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
Bending Bending
CD o 2IL
@ w
U =; E c2 1l ~l ~~~~~~ 1
simply supported
U -
_ 0/ A L
6E
o ~
c;
concentrated load uniform load
uniform section uniform section
(Coefficient = .1667) (Coefficient = .2667)
Bending Bending W
(3) :-\
U -
_ Oy 2
6 E c2
IL
~ U _,"l
10 E c2
fixed ends U
= 0/ A
6E
L (~)2
c ':fl~ U=\A/(Z)'
concentrated load uniform load
uniform section uniform section
(Coefficient = .1667) (Coefficient = .1000)
@.e"d~l
Bending W
o ® o2 IL
~
IL 2
U - y U = zi.:':2
~
- 6 E c2 10 E c
= 0/ A L (!:.)2 _ Oy 2 A L f!-)2
U 6E c U- 10 E \.C
concentrated load uniform load
uniform section uniform section = .1000)
(Coefficient = .1667) (Coefficient
CVBe~ding
Tension
W
CD b
o IL
~U
a 2 A L 2
U = -y-- - -y--
2E 3 E c2
simply supported
concentrated load
axial
tension
variable section so 0 = constant value
[Coefficient = .500) (Coefficient = .3333)
uniform section
o 2 RL
U =-y--
2 E. tma.
where R = torsiona I
where E. = shear resistance
modulus of elasticity
round shaft open section
(Coefficient = .250) (Coefficient = .500)
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Designing for Impact Loads / ~5
a concrete bridge deck in reducing the impact forces If the applied energy is expressed in terms of the
transferred into the member supporting it. height of fall of the body (h), the reduced velocity
If the applied energy is expressed in terms of the (Ve ) may be expressed in terms of a reduced effective
velocity of the body (V), the reduced velocity (Ve ) height (he):
at instant of impact is-
If the member were compact and concentrated The allowable energy load, or load that can be ab-
at a point, the entire weight of the member would sorbed elastically (without plastic deformation) by the
be effective in reducing the velocity of the body. How- member in bending, is basically-
ever, the supporting member is spread out in the form
<Ty~ I
of a beam or frame and therefore only a portion of its
weight is effective in moving along with the body and 1 U = k c2L I (1)
slowing it down. Timoshenko shows the portion of the
weight of the member to be used is:
where (k) is a constant for a specific type of beam
• Simply supported beam with concentrated load at with a specific type of loading. Table 2 shows the
midpoint application of this formula to various member and
load conditions, with numerical values substituted for
We = .486 w, the (k) factor.
Observation shows that the critical property of
• Cantilever beam with concentrated load at end
We = .238 w,
the section is :2' while that of the material is ; ~.
The reduced kinetic energy (E k ) applied to the 8. IMPACT PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
member causing stress and deflection would be
The two most important properties of a material that
indicate its ability to absorb energy are obtained from
the stress-strain diagram (Fig. 4).
c
Unit
stress
(oj
D
Unit strain [e]
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FIG. 4 Stress-strain diagram: basis for mcterlcl's impact properties.
2.8--6 / Load & Stress Analysis
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Designing for Impact Loads / 2.8-7
U. «; E Eu II llu
Tensile Tensile Tensile Ultimate Tensile Toughness •
Material Proportional Ultimate Modulus of Unit Modulus of Ultimate Energy
limit Strength Elasticity Elongation Resilience Resistance
Ibs/in. 2 Ibs/in. 2 Ibs/in. 2 in./in. in.-lbs/in. 3 in.-lbs/in. 3
~
A beam can be designed for constant bending
stress along its entire length, by making it of variable
depth. Although the cross-section at any point is not
uniformly stressed to the maximum value, the outer
fiber is stressed to the maximum value for the entire
length of the member,
t· L ==t
~ I
f. 2L
·f
FIGURE 5
In Table 3 the member in tension (No.4) has which determines this is I/c2, and this is constant for
three times the energy-absorption capacity of the a given rectangular area regardless of its position.
simple beam with a concentrated load (No.1). This
is because the tensile member (No.4) has its entire
cross-section uniformly stressed to maximum for its
full length. In contrast, the maximum bending stress
in beam No. 1 is at the outer fibers only; and this
bending stress decreases away from the central portion
of the beam, being zero at the two ends.
Notice that decreasing the depth of the beam at
its supports, so the maximum bending stress is uniform
along the entire length of the beam, doubles the energy-
absorbing capacity of the beam. See (1) and (9).
For a steady load, doubling the length of a beam
will double the resulting bending stress. However, for
an impact load, doubling the length of the beam will
reduce the resulting impact stress to 70.7% of the
original.
Two identical rectangular beams can theoretically
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absorb the same amount of energy and are just as
strong under impact loading. The section property
FIGURE 6
2.8-8 / Load & Stress Analysis
~Ic~ or ~~
temperature.
increased = ( c) The test does not simulate a load condition
likely to be found in service.
3. In a simple beam, a decrease in length (L) ( d) The test does not give quantitative values of
will decrease the static stress, but will increase the the resistance of the material to energy loads.
/ Notch causing
l_ stress concentration
C-JC--~
(aJ Tensile member, unifbrm section Tensile member with notch
J
/Stress at notch
(b)
,Stress in member
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@Seismicisolation FIGURE 8
Designing for Impact Loads / 2.8-9
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@Seismicisolation
the rapid movement of the member due to ex-
plosive energy, earthquakes, etc., is the use of
feet per minute in 5 seconds (t). The dead weight of
the hoisting unit is 1000 lbs (WI)'
2.8-10 / Load & Stress Analysis
v= 60 MPH
W = 40,000 Ibs
FIGURE 11
F = 7275 Ibs 0
FIGURE 12
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SECTION 2.9
1. ENDURANCE LIMIT in the specimen. Once this has occurred, the subse-
quent time to ultimate failure is fairly well confined
When the load on a member is constantly varying and proceeds in a rather uniform manner.
in value, or is repeated at relatively high frequency, The designer when first encountering a fatigue
or constitutes a complete reversal of stresses with each loading problem will often use the material's endurance
operating cycle, the material's endurance limit must limit or fatigue strength value given in his engineer-
be substituted for the ultimate strength where called ing handbook, without fully considering what this
for by design formulas. value represents and how it was obtained. This pro-
Under high load values, the variable or fatigue cedure could lead to serious trouble.
mode of loading reduces the material's effective ulti- There are many types of fatigue tests, types of
mate strength as the number of cycles increases. At loading, and types of specimens. Theoretically the
a given high stress value, the material has a definite fatigue value used by the designer should be deter-
service or fatigue life, expressed as N cycles of op- mined in a test that exactly duplicates the actual ser-
erations. Conversely, at a given number of service vice conditions. The sample used should preferably
cycles the material has a definite allowable fatigue be identical to the member, the testing machine should
strength. reproduce the actual service load, and the fatigue cy-
The endurance limit is the maximum stress to cle and frequency should be the same as would be
which the material can be subjected for a given ser- encountered in actual service. For example, if the prob-
vice life. lem is a butt weld in tension, the allowable fatigue
strength used in the design must come from data ob-
2. NATURE OF FATIGUE LOADING tained from loading a butt weld in axial tension on
a pulsating type of fatigue testing machine, with the
Fatigue failure is a progressive failure over a period same range of stress.
of time which is started by a plastic movement with-
in a localized region. Although the average unit stresses 3. ANALYZING THE FATIGUE LOAD
across the entire cross-section may be below the yield Figure 1 illustrates a typical fatigue load pattern, the
point, a non-uniform distribution of these stresses may curve representing the applied stress at any given mo-
cause them to exceed the yield point within a small ment of time.
area and cause plastic movement. This eventually pro- There are two ways to represent this fatigue load;
duces a minute crack. The localized plastic movement 1. As a mean or average stress ((Tm) with a super-
further aggravates the non-uniform stress ditribution, imposed variable stress ( (Tv).
and further plastic movement causes the crack to pro- 2. As a stress varying from maximum value ((Tmax)
gress. The stress is important only in that it causes to a minimum ((Tmlll)' Here, the cycle can be repre-
the plastic movement. sented by the ratio-
Any fatigue test usually shows considerable scatter
in the results obtained. This results from the wide erWin
FIGURE 1 K = °min
+ °max
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@Seismicisolation Time_
2.9-1
2.9-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
b
o,-
Mean stress
FIGURE 2
where: FIGURE 3
FIGURE .4
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- min stress o + min stress
Designing for Fatigue Loads / 2.9-3
70 .-------r----.-------,----.-------,.----.,--.........,--,----.-----,-----"
60 ";;;
.0.<
",'
'"
~
-'"
0
II
50 E c
:>
E "E
"x0
::E
40
30 I - - - . . . J - - - - l
Butt Welds - A-7 (373) Steel
Dependable values:
e 100,000 cycles
20 l!l 2,000,000 cycles
Allowable values - - - - - ....l
0moK = 18,000
1 - k/2 but not to exceed
13,500 0moK = 18,000
°moK = 1 _ k/2
- 30 - 20 - 10 o + 10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50 + 60 + 70
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Minimum stress, ksi
FIGURE 5
2.9-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
leveled off and further stress cycles would not produce The constant (k) will vary slightly with the speci-
failure. For any particular specimen and stress cycle men; however, 0.13 has been widely used for butt
there is a relationship between the fatigue strength welds and 0.18 for plate in axial loading (tension
(U') and fatigue life (N) in number of cycles before and/or compression).
failure. The following empirical formula may be used The curve in Figure 7 illustrates the general in-
to convert fatigue strengths from one fatigue life to crease in fatigue life when the applied fatigue stress
another: is reduced. As an example, in this case, reducing the
fatigue stress to 75% of its normal value will in general
increase the fatigue life about nine times.
where: Problem 1
CD @ 0
Base Metal 7500 10,500 tr=
15,000
tr= tr =
In Tension 1 _ 2/3 K psi 1 - 2/3 K psi 1 - 2/3 K psi
Connected 2 P,
By Fillet 3K psi
Welds
But nat to exceed ~ P, P, P,
CD 0 0)
Base Metal P, psi
Compression P,
Connected 7500 tr=
10,500 15,000 ~-K psi
tr= tr=
By Fillet 1 - 2/3 K psi 1 - 2/3 K psi I - 2/3 K psi
I--
Welds 2
0 @ @
Butt Weld tr=
16,000 .
--8- PSI
a = 17,000
psi
a = lB,OOO
In Tension P, psi
I- 1-~K I_~psi
10K 10 2
® @ @
Butt Weld tr _ 18,000 .
---pSi
tr _ 18,000
----pSi
. a = 18,000
Compression l-K 1-.8K K psi P, psi
1--
2
Butt Weld
® T=-_
9,000
@
T = 10,000
@
T = 13,000
In Shear K psi K psi K psi 13,000 psi
1-- 1-- 1--
2 2 2
@ @ @
Fillet f = 5100w f = ~IOOw f = 8800 w
Welds I _ ~ Ib/in. K Ib/in. 8800 w Ib/ln.
I - ! ' Ib/in.
W = Leg Size
2 2
1--
2
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@Seismicisolation
Adapted from AWS Bridge Specifications. K = mini max
P, = Allowable unit compressive stress for member.
P, =
Allowable unit tensile stress for member.
Designing for Fatigue Loads / 2.9-5
----------
min = + max K= + 1
(steady)
min + V2 max
min =0 K =0
Time-
Time-
100%
95% fiGURE 7
..J::
m
c II
~ 85%
VI
~
<1>
-s0) -t-------,f-~.____I---_+-
<1> .::: c
:> Vl <1>
.Q' <1> .:::
:> VI
0)<1>
<1> 80% ]~-j----t-----I-----+~-....::-+---+---+---
>
] <1> 0
::0 .....
I·
<1> o c
0<
~ ~
_o 0c _
75% 0.-'"
70% /-----+----+-----+----+---+----+----1----1-+..---1-----1
Nb _ required fatigue life . ..1.
No - fatigue life for which a is known = Increase In fatigue life
a I
2 3 4 5 8
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6 7 9 10 11
@Seismicisolation
Increase in fatigue life
2.9-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
Base Metal
In Tension CD CD 0 2 P.
7500 10,500 15,000 ~psi
Connected (1= (1 = (1= 1-2/3R psi
By Fillet 1-2/3 R psi 1 -2/3 R psi P, psi
Welds
Base Metol
Compression
0 CD ® P.
Connected 7500 10,500 15,000 1-'/2 R psi
(1= (1= (1 =
By Fillet 1 - 2/3 R psi J - 2/3 R psi 1-2/3 R psi
Welds P. psi
0 @ @
Butt Weld 16,000 19,000 24,000 . Pt psi
In Tension (1=---psi
I-.B R
(1 = - - - p s i
1-.7R (1 = I _ '/2 R ps,
Butt Weld
CD 24,000 .
@
24,000
@
24,000 Pc psi
Compression (1 = 1 - 1.7 R pSI ( 1 = - - - psi
1- R (1 = 1 _ 1/2 R psi
G) @ @
Butt Weld 9000 10,000 13,000 13,000 psi
In Shear (1 = 1 _ 1/2 R psi (1= l_I/2R psi (1 = 1 _ 1/2 R psi
Base Metal
In Tension-Nat
CD 29,000
CD 33,000
CD 39,500 (1 = 54,000 psi
Adjacent to (1= 1- ,65 K psi (1= (1= 1 - ,50 K psi
1 - .60 K psi
Welds
Butt Weld
CD 16,500
CD 21,000
0 31,000 . (1 = 54,000 psi
In Tension (1= (1= 1-.75 K psi (1 = 1 _ .60 K pSI
1 - .80 K psi
Fillet Weld
CD CD ® 14,500 w
6,360 w Ib /' f= 26,160 wlbs/in.
w = leg size f= 1 - .80 K s In. f= 19,900 w Ibs/i
- .75 K n. f = 1- .60 K Ib./in.
@Seismicisolation
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Above values adapted from "The Fabrication and Design of Structures
of T-I Steel" by Gilligan and England, UnIted States Steel Corporation.
Designing for Fatigue Loads / 2.9-7
10
8
6
4 k
-+--99
.01
.02
2
1.8 98
.04
1.6
.06
.08 97
--- - - -- -.20-
1.4 .10 _----
96
95
1.2 94
.40
93
.60 92
.80 91
1.0 -+--90
FIGURE 8 1.10
88
FATIGUE NOMOGRAPH 1.08 86
84
1.06 _ ....:::+=-- 82
80
1.04
Given: Test data indicates a butt-weld fatigue life 70 %
of No = 1,550,000 cycles when the member is stressed
1.02 to ao = 30,000 psi
Find: The weld's fatigue strength (ab) at 2,000,000 cycles (Nbl
N b = 2,000,000 = 1 29
No 1,550,000 .
1.01 and since the butt weld's k factor is .13, the nomograph indicates
~o = 96.8%
or a b = 30,000 X 96.8% = 29,000 psi
(~:) k
(For butt welds, k = 0.13) or: O"b
30,000 = 0.96740
30,000 X 0.96740
(~:r
O"b
O"b = and:
0". = 29,020 psi at N, = 2,000,000 cycles)
O"b (1,550,000 .13
The nomograph, Figure 8, further facilitates such
30,000 = 2,000,000) conversion and permits quickly finding the relative
allowable stress for any required fatigue life provided
Using logarithms" for the right hand side:
the fatigue strength at some one fatigue life is known
= 0.13(log 0.775) = 0.13(9.88930 - 10) and that the constant k value has been established.
Conversely, the relative fatigue life can be readily
= 1.285609 - 1.3 (add 8.7 to left side and found for any given stress and any constant (k).
+ 8.7 -
9.985609 -10.0
8.7
@Seismicisolation
subtract 8.7 from right
@Seismicisolation
side) * A log-log slide rule could be used to find the value of 0.775
raised to the 0.13 power.
2.9-8 / Load & Stress Analysis
5. RELA1'IVE SEVERITY OF FA"r1GUE PROBLEM In other words, a fatigue problem occurs only if-
1. Stress is very high,
In Figure 9, the allowable fatigue stress is the vertical 2. Anticipated service extends for a great number
axis (ordinate) and the type of fatigue stress cycle of cycles,
(K = min/max) is the horizontal axis (abscissa). 3. Stress fluctuates over a wide range.
'The extreme right-hand vertical line (K 1) =+ And it generally requires all three of these situa-
represents a steady stress. As we proceed to the left, tions occurring simultaneously to produce a critical
the severity of the fatigue cycle increases; finally at fatigue condition worthy of consideration.
the extreme left-hand axis (K = - 1) there is a com- The allowable fatigue strength values obtained
plete reversal of stress. This is just one method of from the formulas in Table 1 take all three of these
illustrating fatigue stress conditions. The important into consideration, and it is believed they will result
thing to be noticed here is that actual fatigue strength in a conservative design.
or allowable fatigue values are not reduced below the
steady stress condition until the type of cycle (K = 6. COMBINED FATIGUE STRESSES
min/max) has progressed well into the fatigue type
of loading. Several formulas are available for this consideration but
In the case of 2 million cycles, the minimum stress very little actual testing has been done on this. In many
must drop down to Y2 of the maximum stress before cases there is not very good agreement between the
there is any reduction of allowable strength. In the actual test and the formulas.
case of 100,000 cycles, the minimum stress can drop 1. Principal-stress theory-
to zero before any reduction of allowable strength takes
place. Even at these levels, the member and welds _
U"e -
U"x +2 U"Y
+ IV: .. I (
2 " U"X - a; )2 +4T xy
2
e-:
I /'
V
;4 47 17
16
,cc,cc,.
/4~ 15
~/ cc,cc,cc,-bb/ 14
~
--"
0/
.D
./
./"I 'l
bcc,cc"
LJ R)cc, •
C
~
~
~~?
13
~
~ 12
'"
:>
<J)
/ "" :2
I
_:..-
-rfJ.- I~/ 'a"
11 :D
10 4:
~
.2
7
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 o +20 +40 +60 +80 + 100
Stress cycle, K = ~ %
max
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 9 Severity of fatigue depends on stress value and range of fluctuation, as well as service life.
Designing for Fatigue Loads / 2.9-9
TENSION TO
Description
of
TENSION TO AN
EQUAL COMPRESSION ° TO TENSION TENSION
112 AS GREAT
Specimen
N= N= N= N= N= N=
100,000 2,000,000 100,000 2,000,000 100,000 2,000,000
K= min =-1
max. . 5~1~
*- . 1l6t to. . 01f~ ,.
100,000 cycles 25,800 psi 25,400 psi 22,900 psi
By means of Table 4, we can see that removing quency of individual member or whole structure to
the reinforcement of a butt weld increases its fatigue avoid excessive amplitude.
strength to that of unwelded plate, also that stress 6. Perhaps consider prestressing a beam in axial
relieving the weld has no appreciable effect on its compression. This will reduce the tensile bending stress
fatigue strength. and lessen chance for fatigue failure even though the
Table 5 illustrates the effect of transverse fillet compressive bending stress is increased to some extent.
welds upon the fatigue strength of plate; this is 0/8" 7. Avoid eccentric application of loads which may
plate. cause additional flexing with each application of load.
The attachment causes an abrupt change in sec- 8. Stiffeners decrease flexibility of panel and result
tion, and this reduces the fatigue strength of the plate. in better fatigue strength, unless they cause a more
It is believed these results could be duplicated by abrupt change of section.
machining these joints out of solid plate, without any 9. A rigid frame type of structure or statically
welding. indeterminate type of structure may be better than
a simple structure since the load is shared by other
members; hence, the structure is less likely to collapse
8. GUIDES TO DESIGNING FOR FATIGUE immediately if a fatigue failure starts in one member.
LOADING 10. Avoid biaxial and triaxial stresses, avoid
restrained internal sections.
1. Usually a member is stressed to the full maxi-
mum value for only a portion of its fatigue life or cycles.
For most of its fatigue life, the member is stressed to
a much lower value, and not to its full rated capacity;
hence, most fatigue loading is not as severe as it may
first appear.
DirectioVl of hot
Consider actual stress rather than average stress. rolliVlq 0+ sl1eets
Reduce if possible the range of stress without in steel mills
increasing the maximum or average stress.
2. Fatigue loading requires careful fabrication,
smooth transition of sections.
Avoid attachments and openings at locations of
high stress.
Avoid sharp corners.
Use simple butt weld instead of lap or T fillet
weld. RecomeVlded method If fatique or Impact Loadit19
Grinding the reinforcement off of butt welds will
increase the fatigue strength. This weld will have about
the same fatigue strength as unwelded plate. Grinding,
however, should not be specified unless essential, since
it does add to the final unit cost.
Avoid excessive reinforcement, undercut, overlap,
lack of penetration, roughness of weld.
Avoid placing weld in an area which flexes.
Stress relieving the weld has no appreciable effect
upon fatigue strength.
Difficulties are sometimes caused by the welds
being too small, or the members too thin.
3. Under critical loading, place material so that
the direction of rolling (of plate in steel mill) is in
line with force, because the fatigue strength may be
higher in this direction than if placed at right angles Direction of hot rollin'!
with the direction of rolling. See Figure 10. of .sheet ssteel Wlills
In
lCecomeV1d at Least OVl bottom half or tl-lIrd or
4. Where possible, form member into shape that whole tank, sheets be ruVl lengthwise wl'th tonk
it tends to assume under load, and hence prevent the
resulting flexial movement.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5. Avoid operating in the critical or resonant fre-
FIG. 10 Grain direction of sheet or plate should
be in line with force, for greater fatigue strength.
SECTION 2.10
of the externally applied force and the moment arm L length of shaft, in inches
or force arm. The moment arm is the distance of the
E, modulus of elasticity in shear
centerline of rotation from the line of force and per-
(steel Eo = 12,000,000 psi)
pendicular to it. This distance often equals the distance
from the member's center of gravity to its outer fiber In most cases, the designer is interested in holding
(radius of a round shaft, for example), but not always. the torsional moment within the material's elastic limit.
The principal deflection caused by torsion is mea- Where the torsional strength of a round shaft is re-
sured by the angle of twist, or by the vertical move- quired (i.e. the stress it can take without failure), the
ment of one comer of the frame. polar section modulus is J/c, and the allowable torque
Steel, in rolled structural shapes or built-up sec- is thus-
tions, is very efficient in resisting torsion. With steel,
torsionally rigid sections are easily developed by the J
use of stiffeners. T= Tn -
C
Here are the three basic rules for designing struc-
tural members to make the best use of steel where where, lacking test data, the ultimate shear strength
torsional loads are a problem: of steel (Ttl) is assumed to be in the order of 75% of
1. Use closed sections where possible. the material's ultimate tensile strength.
2. Use diagonal bracing. The above three formulas are true for solid round
3. Make rigid end connections. or tubular round shafts. For non-circular sections the
shear stresses are not uniform, and therefore the stand-
2. POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA ard torsional formulas no longer hold.
I eQual
to eaza» plus ElZDDJ p'''' I all
Angle of twist
t=.055 t= .055
1-2.-1
R = R, + R2 + R'3
loadings
identical 0 0:
Conventional
method
FIGURE 1 J .065 0 .007 0
polar moment
af Inertia
equal to the sum of the torsional resistances of the
two Ranges and web (Fig. 1). Methad using
Figure 2 shows the results of twisting an I beam
R 21.80 7.3 0
made of three equal plates. Calculated values of twist Torsional
by using the conventional polar moment of inertia (J) Resistance
and the torsional resistance (R) are compared with
the actual results. This shows greater accuracy by using Adual
torsional resistance (R). Twltt 22 0 9.5 0
This means that the torsional resistance of a Rat
FIGURE 2
~l
16T
T=- R = .0982 d 4
.".d'
0]. T=
16Td2
.". (d2' - d r')
I
'I
R = .0982 (d2' - d r')
I
OJ
I
3T
T=-- R = 1.0472 t'd
.".d t2
~J
I
4.8T
T=-- R = .1406d 4
d'
I
t---b--j
~]
T
T=-- R=,Bbd'
a b d-
I
b
~
I
- = 1.00 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 6 8 10
for solid d
rectangular - - - -
isections a .208 2.31 .239 .246 .258 .267 .282 .299 .307 .313
-- - - -- --- - - - - - - - - - - -I -
L ,B .141 .196 .214 .229 .249 .263 .281 .299 .307 .313 .333
Use tIlis
for diagQnal [ZSJ I
R·3p4:I
bracing single brace I of'
dIagonal
brace
dou o/e
~
brace
R'IO.~I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
I
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-3
L
measure
[
measure
FIGURE 3
where:
The solid or tubular round closed section is best
for torsional loading since the shear stresses are uniform HP horsepower
around the circumference of the member. RPM speed of revolution
Next to a tubular section, the best section for re- P applied force, lbs
0\ ~
line of force)
t f ~ Problem 1
~ 1) ~ ........ 'tI As an example, consider the torsional resistance of
~::::;:.--'
-- -. + ~
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
~ a closed round tube and one that is slotted. The tube
has an O.D. of 4", and J.D. of 3", a length of 100",
FIGURE 4 and is subjected to a torque of 1000 in-lbs.
2.10-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
Case 1 Case 1
R 0.0982 (d 2 4 - d1 4 )
0.0982 (4 4 _3 4 )
17.19 in. 4
T L (1000)(100) Case 2
(J
Eo R - (12 X 106)17.19
From Table 1, the torsional resistance of the slotted
0.000485 radians, or 0.0278° round tube is found to be-
-,,\6~~/"-
,) ,-
R _ 4[A]'
_
t. =
T. =
overage thickness 01 segment at point (s)
shear stress at point (s)
E:~:I-r f
4[A]'
R= - - =
td :1
4(bd)'
~
ts
= ---
-
2 b2 dO
2.
tb
+ 3!!td
0 R = 2 rr r 3 t
f~ 2b + 2d ~ +i
t, tb td tb td ibll
stress at
Tb = -- =
,2[A]tb
<t. 01
T
b:
T
2 bd t. L1I R =
2 t b2 d 2
b + d
~tl
f
JL7'l;:~ R = 4 b 2 dO
~::n R = 4 b2 d 2
L!-b---J ~ + 2d + ~ L!-b------J b + 2d + E.
tb t. It t It
~b~
.. ~b---j
r~ \~J'
~
2
0
2
b 04
R = R =
L: c a
-
t.
+E.+5...
tb t, °yV
O
20
t
+ !!..
10
r- 2r+i
r
V@Seismicisolation
~~ot~':jb
@Seismicisolation
R =
a
(a + dO
+ 2b + ..:.
t
C)2
It
l
L
0
t,f
I_
f-
R =
4('
20
(7r-2-r + 20
+ 7r r +~
t t,
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-5
0.459 in. 4
Based on tangential load:
and the angular twist is-
T = P e
TL
() = E. R Based on horsepower transmitted:
(1000) (100) _ 63,030 X HP
(12 X 106 ).459 T - RPM
= 0.018 radians, or 1.04°
Based on strength of shaft:
Thus, the tube without the slot is many times more
rigid than the slotted tube.
Case 1
Based on fillet weld leg size around
These two channels when separated but fastened shaft or hub:
together by end plates do not have much torsional
resistance.
T =
d
3781 [(d
+ w
+ W)4 - d4J~
~w~
T = 20,420 d 2 t
Case 2
When these two channels are securely fastened
back to back, there is suitable resistance to any slip
or movement due to horizontal shear. Here the two
FIGURE 7 webs are considered as one solid web, and the top and
bottom flanges are considered solid.
From Table 1, the value of R for each of the
rI-v-T~:::4·m
flanges is found to be--
R 1 = 0.0306 in."
and that of each web is-
R2 = 0.0586 in."
~ Vazm ~
and thus the total angular twist is-
I(o/s" K (Ii-)
1000 X 100
+
() - (12 X 106 ) (4 X .0306
= 0.0348 radians, or 2.0°
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2 X .0586)
FIGURE 8
2.10-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
From Table 1, the value of R for each of the two The nomograph, Figure 10, permits the designer
composite flanges is found to be- to quickly find the torsional resistance of a proposed
design. The total torsional resistance of a built-up
R 1 = 0.066 in.' design equals the sum of the resistances offered separ-
and that of the composite web is- ately by the members.
R~ = 0.459 in.:' On this nomograph:
and thus the total angular twist is-
Line 1 = Type of section, or element of a built-up
1000 X 100
section. Observe caution as to meaning of
()
(12 X 106 ) (2 X .066 + .459) letter symbols. For a solid rectangular
0.0141 radians, or 0.81 0
section use the ratio of width (a) divided
by thickness (b); for a hollow rectangular
which is much less than in Case 1. section use width (b) divided by depth (c).
Line 2 = Dimension (a), in.
Case 3 Line 3 =Pivot line
If these two channels were welded toe to toe to Line 4 Dimension (b), in.
form a box section, the torsional resistance would be Line 5 = Torsional resistance of the section (R), in.'
greatly increased. These values for each element are added
together to give the total torsional resistance
of the section, and the resistances of the
sections are added to give the total torsional
resistance of the frame or base. This is used
in the design formula for angular twist, or
in the next nomograph, Figure 14.
which is far less than in Case 2, which in turn was 4. MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS IN BUILT-UP
much better than Case 1. SECTIONS
Tors;ona/ Res;stance Nomograph
The maximum shear stress of a rectangular section in
A panel or other member may be sufficiently resistant torsion lies on the surface at the center of the long side.
resistance.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
to deflection by bending, and yet have very low torsional For the maximum shear stress on a narrow rec-
tangular section or section element-
FIGURE lO-TORSIONAl RESISTANCE OF MEMBER
® @ ®
o rMnen8lOn
o di7l1rn.Jion
1000
'lo.II , 100
dimensicn
""1
oI'dlO907/0./
r- a
~III
,ra <lOeb -----
~ .
i
---------- -----
z
10
bNlCc .1.
Z
.5 i
IZSJ 4
f
~*
6
SintJ~
brace I • P= a
R"~4.1 10 .1
ratloj
r- 4 --t 20
~.
ratto .,.
~] 30 ~.~
if1JilJ
5'· •
Prablrzm: Ba~e with doubJz dia90nal
tJracrz-Bra~ I~
and 6-afeep
£ (hie!<
.LJJ5/l'
~
~
~
{Ma. ".
CD
Ii'
Find: tors/ana! rIgidity (a) of .001 :I
oose aoe to diagonal oraoe. ;.
lA
line ~ do<Jbk diagonal orece
a ,J"
pivot Ime
Eramp/e;
Find R" torsiooa! "It-;5~1 .
;'
is'
"
:I
p,.obI~m: 1--;--/0 - - - ; i"xS·fla7lfC t'xIO·web CI
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation t
2.10-8 / Load & Stress Analysis
1 Problem 3 I
Problem 4 I
and then the maximum shear stress in the specific
rectangular element. Two 6" X 2" X lO%-lb channels are welded toe to
toe, to form a short box section. This is subjected to a
torque of T = 100,000 in.-lbs. Find the horizontal
shear stress at the toes and the amount of groove
welding required to hold these channels together for
this torsional load. See Figure 14.
FIGURE 12
From Table 2, the shear stress at mid-length of
the short side is found to be-
T where:
T
2 [A] t
Shear stresses tend to concentrate at re-entrant b 6 - % = 5.625"
corners. In this case, the maximum stress value should d 4- 'Yin = 3.6875"
be used and is-
[A] = bd
100,000
2( 5.625 X 3.687)%
where a = inside corner radius. 6420 psi
-/
IVZZZZZzzzzz/Z2ZZZZZ7ZZ;1
FIGURE 13
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-9
- - - 6" - - - - - - ·1 I- 6" ~
FIGURE 14
The horizontal shear force is then- 4" limestone + 9" brick = 140 lbs/sq ft
Since the wall is 12' high, this is a load of 1680
f = T t lbsy'linear ft or 140 lbs /linear in. Or, use w = 150
-= 6420 X .375 lbs/Iin in. to include beam weight.
= 2410 lbs /linear inch bending resistance (moment of inertia)
Since weld metal is good for 13,000 psi in shear, (10)(10)3 (9)(8)3
the throat or depth of the continuous butt weld must 12 12
be- = 449.3 in."
f = t
Tweld torsional resistance
2410 = 13,000 t R= 2b/d1
2
or t =
2410
13000
l>t d1 +
, tb td
I Problem 5 I
Check the following built-up spandrel beam supporting
a wall 12' high, made of 4" of limestone and 9" of
brick. The beam's span is 20', and the dead load of the
wall is applied 6" off the beam's centerline.
r-- b = 10"-;-1
uniform torque
FIGURE 15
d
T
= 10"
+
1"
d, to"
t = 150 lbs/in. X 6"
= 900 in-Ibsyin,
.: ~W'
~bl
t
~l 1"
"t
=
8E.
]12"_
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
8.5" -+-I
angular twist at center of beam
8'1: -
t U
R -
(900) (240)2
8(12 X 106)(442)
= .00122 radians (or .07 0 )
2.10-10 / Load & Stress Analysis
torsional shear stress Then to determine the required size of fillet weld
between flange and web:
T where:
T = 2 [A] t,
t, = thickness of single web
a
(108,000)
- 2(8.5 X 9)lh
= 1410 psi
unit shear force from torque N.A.- - - - - - - -
ft = T t
= (1410)(lh)
= 700 lbsyln,
~a2~
900Ibs/in.
5. BUILT-UP FRAMES
,~
The principles of torsion which determine the best
sections for resisting twist apply to built-up frames.
Just as the torsional resistance of the section is equal
to the total of the resistances of its individual areas,
eQuot
to [[
so is the torsional resistance of a frame approximately
equal to the total resistance of its individual parts.
----~
~ --
The torsional resistance of the frame whose longi-
tudinal members are two channels would be approxi-
mately equal to twice the torsional resistance of each
channel section, Figure 18. The distance between these
--
-_.----
eQ.ucti
-to 00
members for purpose of this example is considered to
have no effect. Since the closed section is best for re- FIGURE 18
sisting twist, the torsional resistance of this frame could
be greatly increased by making the channels into rec-
tangular box sections through the addition of plate. 63,030 X HP
T
RPM
I Problem 6 I 63,030 X 10
1800
A frame is made of two 6" standard pipes, spaced 24" 350 in.-Ibs
between centers, and having a length of 60". This frame
supports a 10-hp motor running at 1800 rpm and driving Then, adding together the R of each tube, the
a pump. Find the approximate twist of the frame under angular twist is:
the load.
350 X 60
(12 X 106 ) (2 X 56.30)
0.0000156 radians, or 0.00089°
A () W
0.0000156 X 24 u
0.00037"
Support
Support
( -------------~
....._ - - - - - - - - -\
FIGURE 20
Action of
transverse
members
Action of
iongitudinal
members
By observation we find- Since the external force (P) applied at the comer
is the sum of these two forces:
P = PL + n... _
rl-
~ E. nL RL
W2L
+ ~ E. llT RT
Then: WL2
~
OL = Wand OT
~ _ ~ E. (nL RL + nT RT)
L - W L W L
TL = PL Wand TT = PT L @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
nT
P
number of transverse members
load applied at comer, lbs
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-13
FIGURE 21
E. = modulus of elasticity in shear some deflection due to bending of all the members, and
(steel: 12 X 106), psi this would slightly increase the over-all deflection of the
t::. = vertical deflection, in. frame. For simplicity this has been neglected in this
analysis.
It can be seen that the torque on a given member
is actually produced by the transverse forces supplied I Problem 7 I
by the cross members attached to them. These same
forces subject the cross members to bending. In other To illustrate the use of the preceding deflection formula,
words, the torque applied to a member equals the end consider a small elevator frame 15" wide and 30" long,
moment of the cross member attached to it. There is made of standard 3" channel, Figure 21. Find the
btJ
R = -3-
(b + d)t3
R = 3
Support
t::. = -PE
LW
.
[
n~L 2 t b2 d 2
+ R= b + d
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.10-14 / Load & Stress Ana lysis
Wall load
FIGURE 22
vertical deflection of the unsupported comer when centerlines of the longitudinal members is 34.75", and
under a load of 5 lbs. the latter are 82" long. Determine:
Using the appropriate formula from Table 4, a) The approximate vertical deflection of the un-
torsional resistance of the U channel cross-section supported comer,
is- b) the shear stress in longitudinal and transverse
members, and
R
2 bt1 3 + dt2 3 _ 2 bti + dt w 3 c) the size of the connecting weld between the
3 3 longitudinal and transverse members.
2 (1.375)( .3125) 3 + 3( 1875)3
3 3 torsional resistance of longitudinal members
.0346 in,"
a_PLW[
- E. n~RL + nTLRT
1 ]
a= .030" 2 b2 d2
!+~
tb td
Problem 8 I
2(3)2 (11%.)2
The structural frame of Figure 22, simply supported ~ + (ll%.)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
at three comers, is designed to support a 17-kip load
at its unsupported comer. Here the width between
(1%)
137.5 in."
(%)
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-15
b
to
+ ~
td
(.35)(12 X 106)(1)(298.3)
(34%) (82)
2(7.5)2(9.5)2 438,500 in-Ibs
(7.51 +(9.5)
Since the cross-section of the transverse member
(1f2) (1f2)
is a hollow rectangle of uniform thickness, the shear
= 298.3 in." stress at mid-length along either side of the section
vertical deflection of frame is -
A = P ~ lLWRL ~ nTLRT] T
TL
2 [A] t
( 438,500)
(17,000) (34%) (82)[ 1 ] 2(7.5 X 9.5) (lh)
(12 X 106 ) (2)(137.5) + (1)(298.3)
6160 psi
(34%) (82)
= .35" size of connecting fillet weld
n,
rs"-I
----w-:r..:--'
TL = A E s nL See f ormula deve 1opment, p.2.10-12
(35)(12 X 106)(1)(137.5) I
(34%) (82)
202,500 In-Ibs, each member
FIGURE 25
Tb = 2 [A] to
(202,500) b d2 d3
-2- +6
2(3 X l1%)(l¥4)
= 2300 psi _ (8)(10)2 + (10)3
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
=
and the shear stress at midpoint of the member, on the
- 2
566.7 in."
6
2.10-16 / Load & Stress Ana lysis
T = T c Ibs/in.2(stress)
J
the corresponding formula for total weld force is (5825)
(20'1)
obtained-
290 Ibs/in.
ft = T c lbsyin. (force per linear inch of weld)
J Notice that, if the load (P) is applied to the end of
the transverse member instead of the longitudinal mem-
ber, the portion going back into the longitudinal mem-
ber (PL = 17,000 - 5825 = 11,175 lbs) must be
transferred through the connecting weld and the re-
sulting unit force from vertical shear is:
V
FIGURE 26 f vI = Aw
(11,175 )
(20)
560 lbsyin. instead of 290 lbs/in.
The horizontal component of this torque is -
v
moment on weld
fh = T :
J Since the bending moment on the joint is-
(438,500) (5 )
(972) M = TL
2250 lbs/In, = 202,500 in.dbs
and the vertical component of this torque is- the resultant force on the weld is-
T Ch Mc
fm = Ix
T
(438,500) (4) (202,500 ) (5 )
972
1805 lbs/In, @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
(566.7)
1785 Ibs/In.
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-17
Transverse member
»>
,/'"
Q0t1~ ' -,":"
" t o twisting action of the
stresses
I a. '" -,
I b
I
I
I
I
I
\,a. 17'v)
/1
/1
\ \\ . /,.x /~
,.),
.> ....... \ T / / "- diagonal
.... \ I // // -, brace
\V r\
T • ••
\\ \\ -,
There no tWIsting
/5 \ ""-
FIGURE 28
action on ~5· d/aqonal \ \ )I
member smce shear \ \ ~)
componeriis cancel out \ \ / /r /J
fr V f h 2 + f m2 + (fv + f vd 2
Only dia gona/ tans/on arrd \b /
V (2250)2 + (1785)2 + (1805 + 290)2 compress/on are formed I \ /
@Seismicisolation
but in line with this member they combine to produce
@Seismicisolation
diagonal tensile and compressive stresses which tend
length of the diagonal brace becomes longer, it may
become necessary to add a flange (Fig. 31). This is
2.10-18 / Load & Stress Ana lysis
FIGURE 30 LI
Ie
don e by flanging one ed ge of th e brace or using an
FIGURE 31
angle bar or T section. Th e flang e of th e brace may
also be stiffened to keep it from buckling.
For open fram es with no flat panel, it is better to
use a channel or I beam section having two flanges
( Fig. 32).
[[I
Relative Effectiveness of Bracing
Tests were made on scale models of typical machine FIGURE 32
fram es to illustrat e increase in resistance to twist as a
result of th e diagonal bracing.
FIGURE 33
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Designing for Torisonal Loading / 2.10-19
FIGURE 34
FIGURE 35
and R = fi I = 5.3 I
2 E. E = 30 X 1()6
E. = 12 X 106
For Bxed ends, R = 21.2 I
For the usual frame, the following is suggested:
I R = 10.6 I I
which appeared in Table 1.
Therefore: For a double diagonal brace use R =
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 10.6 I and substitute this value into the standard
2.10-20 / Load & Stress Analysis
() = T L Case 1 Case 2
formula:
E. R
~T
to get the frame's angular twist (radians).
I Problem 9 I
Two %" X 10" plates, 40" long, spaced 20" apart to
make a frame 40" long, are subjected to a torque of
T =1000 in.-lbs. Find the relative angular twist on the
frame, when using conventional and diagonal bracing.
b t3 ()
TL
R = -3- E.R
R = 2 (10) ~.25)3 (1000)( 40)
(12 X 106 ) ( .104 )
.104 in." (both sides) .0321 radians or 1.840
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 37
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-21
FIGURE 38
Since this is "double" bracing, the Table 1 formula When a member having an open section is twisted,
for this type of frame is used - the cross-section warps (see b, in Fig. 37) if ends of
the member are free. The flanges of these members
R = 10.6 I not only twist, but they also swing outward (see c),
allowing the member to twist more. If the ends of the
First find the moment of inertia for the cross-section flanges can be locked in place in relation to each other,
of a brace, which is a simple rectangle, assuming the this swinging will be prevented.
brace also is ¥4" X 10":
Design Rule No.3: MAKE RIGID END
b d3 CONNECTIONS
I = 12
There are several methods of locking the flanges
where b = the section width (plate thickness), and together. The simplest is to weld the end of the member
d = the section depth
to the supporting member as in (d). If the supporting
.25(10)3 member is then neither thick enough nor rigid enough,
I a thin, square plate may be welded to the two flanges
12
at the end of the member (e). Another method is to
20.83 in." use diagonal braces between the two flanges at the
two ends of the member (f).
then substituting into the formula for R-
Either of these methods reduces the angular twist
R 10.6 (20.83) by about 1/2.
Members having a box section, when butt welded
221 in." directly to a primary member, have the fully rigid
end connections required for high torsional resistance.
The angular twist on the frame is then-
TL I Problem 10 I
() = E. R
A 12" WF 27-lb beam, 25' long, with a uniformly dis-
(1000) (40)
tributed load of 8 kips, is supported at each end by a
(12 X 106 ) (221 )
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
.0000152 radians or .00087°
box girder. See Figure 38. If the beam is continuously
welded to these girders, estimate a) the resulting end
2.10-22 / Load & Stress Analysis
- - - - - 1 4 " - - -__
.673"
1
d = 10%"
tzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzd
~b = 13.33"~
1
FIGURE 39
W L 22
or T = 4 EL~ Oct.
24 E 12 4(12 X 106)(910)(.0049)
k
(8 ) (25' X 12")2 (44314,")
24(30 X 106)(204.1) 4780 in.-kips
.0049 radians
A moment-rotation chart shows the relationship;
@Seismicisolation
Now, if the ends of the beam are so restrained that
@Seismicisolation
it cannot rotate, the end moment becomes -
see Figure 40. A straight line represents the end moment
( M.) and end rotation (0.) of the supported beam
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-23
5000
4000 +----+----+----t--------:!r---
t::..
~ 3000
0- b(l,<"
£ ~'
o '0
0+
---;; .~~
~ ~"
::- 2000 - - - - f - - - fP/-----+---------1---- 1
<:
CIl
S,,<:<
E
o
E
"1J
<:
w Result:
FIGURE 40 1000+-----/----Me = T = 190 in-kips--+----
Oe= .0002 radians
I I
Supported 12" W 21 # beam
I
under all conditions of end restraint. A similar straight torsional shear force on fillet weld
line, but in the opposite direction, represents the
applied torque (T) and angular rotation «()) at the
central section of the supporting box girder. ( 1830) ( %)
These two lines are plotted, and where they inter-
690 lbs/lin in.
sect is the resulting end moment (Me) or torque (T)
and the angular rotation «()): which must be transferred by the fillet weld joining the
top and bottom plates to the side channels, to make
Me T = 190 in.-kips
up the box girder.
()e .0002 radians
horizontal shear force on fillet weld due to bending
torsional shear stresses in box girder
~a = 4.875 in 2
......
___ _ _ 1.
-.=
y 5'/,6"
FIGURE 42
10%"
FIGURE 41
T
I = 2(103.0) + 2(4.875)(5%6)2
2 [A] t b = 468 in."
(190"k) Half of the 8-kip load goes to each end of the
2( 13.33 X 10%) (%)
= 1830 psi @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
beam, or a 4-kip load is applied to the central section
of each box girder. And V = 2 kips.
2.10-24 / Load & Stress Analysis
Yay
1 7 99
. " -;1
Tn
( 2k ) ( 4.875 ) (5% 6 )
(468) (2 welds)
= 54 lbsjlin in.
T
9.94"
t. 5, . "
--'I"'I1"'~.318"
1,//0/
FIGURE 43
total shear force on weld
f = f1 + f2
= (690) + (54)
= 744 lbsjlin in.
torsional resistance of supporting beam
required leg size of fillet weld (E70 welds) R = 2 b tf
3
+ d tw
3
actual force 3 3
W = allowable force 2(7.99) (.528)3 + (9.94)(.318)3
744 3 3
11,200 = 0.89 in."
.066" (continuous)
torque on supporting beam
However, AWS and AISC would require a min- Determine what torque must be applied to the
imum fillet weld leg size of %6" (See Section 7.4). central section of this supporting beam for it to rotate
If intermittent fillet welds are to be used, the length the same amount as the end rotation of the supported
and spacing of the welds would be- beam, if simply supported (eo = .0049 radians):
!::. 200~----+----f-----+------+----+---
Q)
:::J
0- Result:
2 Me = T = 4.67 in-kips
o o=
e
.0049 radians FIGURE 44
"""""i
~
100
"E
Q)
E
o
E
T = 4.67"k
Supporting 10" \/IF 39# beam
"c:
UJ
.002 .004 .005
.001 .003
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Rotation (0), radians
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.10-25
simply supported beam with just vertical welds on the 1. The volumes under the membranes will be pro-
web sufficient to carry the 4-kip shear reaction. The portional to the torsional resistances of the correspond-
end restraint is about 2.3%. ing sections.
2. The slope of the membrane's surface at any
10. MEMBRANE ANALOGY point is proportional to the shear stress of the section
at this point.
Membrane analogy is a very useful method to under-
3. A narrow section (thin plate) has practically
stand the behavior of open sections when subjected to
the same torsional resistance regardless of the shape
torsion. To make use of this method, holes are cut into
of the section it is formed into. Notice a, b, and c in
a thin plate making the outline of various shaped sec-
Figure 45. For a given area of section, the volume un-
tions. A membrane material such as soap film is spread
der the membrane remains the same regardless of the
over the open surface and air pressure is applied to
shape of the section.
the film. The mathematical expressions for the slope
It is possible to determine the torsional resistance
and volume of this membrane or film covering the open-
of these open sections by comparing them with a stand-
ings representing different cross-sections are the same
ard circle on this same test plate whose torsional re-
as the expressions for the shear stresses and torsional
sistance can readily be calculated.
resistance of the actual member being studied. It is
By comparing the membrane of the slotted open
from this type of analysis that formulas for various
tube, (c) in Figure 45, to that of the membrane of the
types of open sections subjected to torsion have been
closed tube (e), it is readily seen why the closed tube
developed and confirmed.
is several hundred times more resistant to twist, when
If several outlines are cut into the thin plate and
it is remembered that the volume under the membrane
the same pressure applied to each membrane, the fol-
is proportional to the torsional resistance.
lowing will be true:
FIGURE 45
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.10-26 / Load and Stress Analysis
0,
'-, = 0 j+'- ,- mox
-0 +0
FIGURE 2
OJ +--- --+
'-, = 0
~-'-
0, j+'- + 180 0
FIGURE 3
+90 0
I
-0 +0
L1- b
OJ
+--- --+
la
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation~ -,-
2.11-1
2.11-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
O2 +T ma •
-0
+-
~-T - 'Tmax
FIGURE 4
,/'b t---t-..
.0 0]
_45°
O2
a 'Tmax
-0 +0
+- ---+
FIGURE 5
..-
-0 +0
---+
OJ = 12,000
0, = 0 0, =0
FIGURE 6
+ 12,000 psi
+ 8,000 psi °
°
° ° It is seen that, in this example, the maximum
shear stress is 6,000 psi, and not the 2,000 psi value
On graph, right: Locate stress points (CT]) (CT2), that would usually be found from the conventional
( CTa) and draw three circles through these points. Now formulas for biaxial stress.
determine the three maximum shear stresses.
There are three values for the maximum shear 3. TRIAXIAL STRESS COMBINED WITH SHEAR
stress, each equal to half of the difference between STRESS (See Figure 7)
two principal (normal) stresses. The plane of maximum
shear stress (shaded in the following sketches) is always The three principal stresses (CTlp, CT2p, CTap) are given
at 45° to the planes of principal stress. by the three roots (CTp) of this cubic equation:
12,000-0 OJ
C = CT]7"]2 + CT27"22 + CTa7"a2 - CT]CT2CTa - 2 7]7"27"a
2
6,000 psi @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation *Solution of Cubic Equation from "Practical Solution of Cubic
Equations", G. L. Sullivan, MACHINE DESIGN, Feb. 21, 1957.
2.11-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
0,
~ r-::;;(
T + 0.386)
U1p = +,,-3N 1 T + 0.2 -
a
3"
or up
2
I Problem 1
FIGURE 7
Determine the maximum normal and shear stress
in this web section, Figure 8:
b
LetN=3"- (3"a)2
/
cab
andQ=2"-T+ (3"a)3
Then calculate- °3
N3
K = Q2 as a test ratio.
Case 1
FIGURE 9
L I
03P=-3,075/
-+-J "0,=0
Olp=O
I I I
.......- - - 020 =- 25,075 psi (max) - - - - - + I
and taking one-half of the greatest difference of two
principal stresses: Problem 2 I
25,075 - 0 For the beam-to-girder network represented by Figure
'Tmax = = 12,535 psi 10, assume the combination of stresses represented by
2
Figure 11.
These various values are shown diagramed on
Mohr's Circle of Stress, Figure 9.
Checking Effect of Applied St,esses
The Huber-Mises formula is convenient for checking
the effect of applied stresses on the yielding of the
plate. If a certain combination of normal stresses
( U' x and a 1) and shear stress (TX1) results in a critical
stress (crcr) equal to the yield strength ( cry) of the
steel when tested in uniaxial tension, this combination
of stresses is assumed to just produce yielding in the
steel.
FIGURE 11
Here:
= ,,( + +°
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 10 =
-14,350)2 -
21,600 psi
(-14,350( 15,900) (15,900)2
2.11-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
The apparent factor of yielding is actual testing of members under various combined-
load conditions, and from this a simple formula is
CTy derived to express this relationship.
k If points a and b are the ratios produced by the
CTcr
actual loads, point c represents the combination of
(36,000)
these conditions, and the margin of safety is indicated
(21,600)
by how close point c lies to the interaction curve. A
1.67 suitable factor of safety is then applied to these values.
~
the ultimate load (Pu,Mu,Tu) which would cause failure .4
if acting alone.
IR b ' + R " = l r
.2
axial load bending load torsional load
M
Rb = Mu 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 Pure torsion
R,
In the general example shown in Figure 12, the
effect of two types of loads (x) and (y) upon each FIGURE 13
other is illustrated.
Combined Axial Loading and Torsion
1.0 Interaction curve
AAargin of Safety 1.0
.8 /" Rx =
constant Ry = variable
AAargin of Safety .8
.6 r:::
/ proportional loading 0
Ry a /"1 -,,.......:1\.
R/R y = consrant V>
V>
a.E .6
OJ
.4 / I
/ I AAargin of Safety 0
/ I Ry =
constant
u .4
.2 / I
/ I
Rx = variable
/ I .2
o .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
b
a
Do:' 0 t-+-+--+--+-+---'1f-+-+-+.......:-+--l- R,
.2 .4 .6 .8
.2
FIGURE 12
.4
The value of R, = 1 at the upper end of the r:::
.Q
vertical axis is the ultimate value for this type of V>
r:::
load on the member. The value R, = 1 at the extreme OJ
I-
.6
right end of the horizontal axis is the ultimate value
for this type of load on the member. These values .8
are determined by experiment; or when this data is
not available, suitable calculations may be made to 1.0
estimate them.
The interaction curve is usually determined by
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 14
Analysis of Combined Stresses / 2.11-7
Combined Axial Compression and Bending The bending moment applied to the member
(chosen at the cross-section where it is maximum) is
In this case, the axial compression will cause additional then multiplied by this amplification factor (k), and
deflection, which in tum increases the moment of the this value is then used as the applied moment (M) in
bending load. This increase can easily be taken care the ratio:
of by an amplification factor (k). See Figures 15 and
16.
P -+e:::::':::::::====:=:::J:J+- P FIGURE 15
1.0
, . Pure compression
k=--- .8 FIGURE 17
.6
k =------ FIGURE 16
-si»: o .2 .8 1.0 Pure bending
Here:
The chart in Figure 18 is used to determine the
amplification factor (k ) for the bending moment
4.0
3.8
I
/
.i===f.
3.6
.~.JL
FIG. 18 Amplification
factor (k) for bending
moment on beam also
3.4
3.2
.-
2.4 \ V/
\ V\ V
2.2
2.0 \ /V
1.8
1\ /17
97/
1.6 \ 4/
1.4
~v ==~' EL I
...... I Pcr I
~
2
1.2
I ~I;;:::;;--
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
---- 1.0
o .1 .2 .3
PIP"
.4 .5 .6 .7
2.11-8 / Load & Stress Analysis
w = 185 Ibs/in
Top panel
width b = 56"
thickness t = %"
Transverse load
w = 185 Ibs/in
.....- - - - L = 16%" - - - - - + I
FIGURE 19
@Seismicisolation
(Tt
21 .247
The bending moment- @Seismicisolation = 2,800 psi
AnalYlil of Combined Stresl.1 / 2.11-9
fLjlZl
The ultimate load values for this member in com-
pression alone and in bending alone are unknown, so
the following are used.
For compression alone -
Elastic Plastic
*Since L
r
= 150 (where r = radius of gyration) FIGURE 20
assume Pu = P cr = 272,000 lbs
These ultimate values are represented on the fol-
For bending alone- lowing interaction curve, Figure 21. Plotting the pres-
The plastic or ultimate bending moment is- ent load values at a against the curve, indicates there
is about a 2:1 [actor of safety before the top com-
_ (b y
Mil - u 2 2 -
!)! __b_t:-4 2
_ u---"
y pression panel will buckle.
"'This L/r ratio of 150 is high enough so we can assume the
(56) (%)2 (33,000) ultimate load carrying capacity of the column (Ps) is about
4 equal to the critical value (P.. ). H this had been an extremely
short column (very low L/r ratio), the critical value (P or)
64,900 in.-lbs could be quite a bit higher than the actual ultimate value (Pa) .
300
-u
~
Gl 150
.~ This example (0) can be assumed to Unsafe Loading Range
on
Gl have on approx. 2:1 foetor of safety
o
~ 106 I® before buckling
u -----,
I 100 -----+-!I----+-----I-------t-~
~ I
I
I Safe Loading Range
50 ----+-:----l------I------I-------l~~-__+---
I
I
I
10 11.6 20 30 40 50 60 Mu = 64,900
"M"-Applied bending moment, x 1000 in-Ibs
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2.11-10 / Load & Stress Ana lysis
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 2.12
Buckling of Plates
Compression
TABLE 1-Compression Load on Plate
_ - - - - 0------...
Critical Stress on
Values for Plate Factor (k) Plate to Cause
Support (long plates) to be Used in Formula Buckling (0"' e r-)
-0-
~
~
~
~
supported
free
+-
+-.
+-
+-
+-
k = 0.425 trier = 0" c e
fixed
=:~D+-:0
~ +-
where:
t
= modulus
=
of elasticity in compression (Steel
30,000,000 psi)
= thickness of plate, inches
-0-
~
~
~
~
~
supported
supported
+-
+-.
+-
+-
+-
k = 4.00 ([' cr = 0" c e
~
supported
fixed
+-
+-.
+-
+-
+-
k = 5.42 «'-, = 0" er
=:
~
~
filled
+-
:=0
+-+- k = 6.97 U'er = 0" c e
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
plate away from the supported side; this does not mean
complete collapse of the plate at this stress. This is
fixed
2.12-1
2.12-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
the type of steel (represented by its stress-strain dia- the following would give better results:
gram) and the actual stress under consideration (posi-
tion on the stress-strain diagram). See Figure 3.
Above the proportional limit (<T p), the modulus
cr
7T2EvT(t)2 k
= 12(1 _ v~) b ............. (3)
of elasticity (E) must be multiplied by a factor (A)
to give the tangent modulus (E t ) . The tangent modulus
(E t ) is still the slope of the stress-strain diagram and For steel, this becomes-
E, = <TIE, but it varies.
If it is assumed that the plate is "isotropic" (i.e.,
having the same properties in both directions x and y),
the critical buckling formula becomes-
I<Tcr = 2.710 X 10'- vT «)2
b k I........ (4)
(~r
0y Curve for A7 Steel
Ocr =-------- (6)
°y = 33.. 000 ps:
.18360/ + (~r 0p = 25,000 psi
§.. 40
:1 = 2.710 X 10
7
( ~ f k (5) FIG. 2 Buckling stress curve for
plates in compression.
Q)
>
on
on
(here A = 1)
Q)
0.. elastic
E buckling
o
u
20
0>
c
~
u
:>
.D
o 10
u
.+:
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
R · ~
""-k-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
ono
Buckling of Plates / 2.12-3
50,000 + - - - - - + - -
40,000
30,000
'a
c
on
on
~
if,
20,000
FIG. 3 Stress-strain diagram
showing where tangent modulus
need be applied to determine
criticaI stress. 10,000
2 3 4 5
Strain (f), in/in x 10. 3
supported
e se c/b ~
A=
101}~7---....j
k= 5.34 + ao
4
Tier =
Ir"
y"3
a=o/b ~
<Ty <Tcr -
.1836 <Ti
<Tcr 2
1011 I<. = 8.98 +0:0
5.6
T l cr =
Ir ••
y3'
.1836
or .1836
<Ti
<Ty 2
A =
A +
<Ty <Tcr -
<Tcr 2 =
<Tor
<Ty <Tcr
2
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation -:-1
f...-
-Bleich, "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures," p. 395
2.12-4 I Load & Stress Analysis
--- - -'I
----~ Tables 2 and 3.
I'f 4 - - - - - 0
FIGURE 4 It is usual practice to assume the edges simply
supported.
Shear yield strength of steel (T) is usually consid-
ered as ~ of the tensile yield strength ((J"y), or .58 u y.
Since
(J"cr
T cr
V3
Tn
k'TT' E (.!. b)'
= 12(1 - /I') •••••• (7) Y3k7T2 E
12(1 - v 2 )
Compression
when
a = alb 01 = a2
a,
a~1 k= 4
~OI§ ~o------i
Compression
0,
when
a~l
when
k=(a+~r
q'cr = Uer
a = alb
02 = 0
a a~l k= 7.7
1OrF when =
q'cr IT..
a~l k= 7.7 + 33 (1 - a)a
f.--- 0 -----1 a, = 0
Compression
when
a = o/b
01 =- 02
0,
a ~% k= 24
a = alb -.2...
when
"~1
k = V3( 5.34 + :.)
10~j
ITe r
@Seismicisolation
~~@Seismicisolation a~l '13
Buckling of Plates I 2.12-5
Since the plate constant (k) can be adjusted to sion, in the inelastic range the critical stress «(Ter)
contain the Y3 factor, this becomes- exceeds the proportional limit «(T p), and the tangent
modulus (Ed is introduced by the factor (A = Et/E).
Therefore, formulas #5 and #6 would be used also
k 7T E
2
(Trr = 12(1 _ v 2 )
(tb )2 in the buckling of plates by shear.
Proper values for the plate factor (k) are obtained
from Table 2, for pure shear load, and Table 3, for
As before in the buckling of plates by compres- shear load combined with compression.
when
(1~1
Compression
and shear
k = 2 1/',8~ [ - 1+ /1 + ,8.\. ] Tier =
where 1/ =
34 + 1
a'
+ ~)~v',8" + 3 [- 1
4 a' + 5.34
where 1/ =
(a' + 1)'
when
a ~1
Ccmcress-cn
and ,hear k = 3.85 1/',8~ [ - 1 + ~ + ,8.\. J Tier =
(1.,
V,82 + 3
02 =0
.-!- 0,
5.34 + 4/ a"
~D1~
1r
where 1/=
~1
7.7
when
1/2 ~a~ 1
~~
a = alb fJ = (JIlT
k = 3.85 1/',8";,8" + 3[- 1 +~ + ,8.\.J
trier =
~
,8 (1"
4 + 5.34/ a•
where 1/ =
7.7 + 33 (1 _ a)a
when
a ~1
Compression
and shear
k=241/~
)1 + 1
,8" 1/'
Tier =
2 I
-...!- 0, where 1/ = -
9 + 6 a'
~~1D~I when
1/2 ~a~ 1
-.~~~
= alb =
k = 24 1/v'P + 3
)1 +1 ,8" 11"
tr'er =
a fJ (J/I'r
1+
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
where 1/ = (;
2
9 a'
2.12-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
1. The value of the plate factor (k) to be used in Portion bit Critical Buckling Compressive
< bit
a. If (T cr /"VI = (T p, this is the value of (T crs so 3820 5720
a c r- = i.a e, - n Vk"
go to step 4. B to C - - to--
y;;
r
~ where: V
b. If tr; r /v-x.
> (Tp, go to step 3. cT,3
n =--
4770
3. Insert this value ((Terl VX) into formula #6,
and solve for the critical buckling stress ((T er ) • 5720 [ 4434
4. After the critical stress ((Ter) has been deter- C to D y;;;-
cT,
and over
cT
n
=c (~~)
mined, the critical buckling stress of the given plate
( (T're or r' er) is determined from the relationship shown
in the right-hand column of Tables 1, 2, or 3. The horizontal line (A to B) is the limit of the
yield strength ((Tl')' Here (Tel' is assumed equal to cry.
5. BUCKLING STRESS CURVES (Compression) The curve from B to C is expressed by-
I
In regard to plates subjected only to compression or
(bit) where:
only to shear, H. M. Priest and J. Gilligan in their (Tel' = 1.8 tr, - n V k-
"Design Manual for High Strength Steels" show the n=
curve patterns, Figure 5 (compression) and Figure 10
(shear). They have divided the buckling curve into
three distinct portions (A -B, B-C, and C- D), and have The curve from C to D is 75% of the critical buck-
lowered the critical stress values in the elastic buckling ling stress formula, Figure 1, or:
region by 25% to more nearly conform to actual test
results.
Values indicated on this typical curve are for
ASTM A-7 (mild) steel, having a yield strength of
33,000 psi.
The buckling curve (dashed line) of Figure 2
has been superimposed on the Priest-Gilligan curve for
comparison.
All of this is expressed in terms of the factor
Ocr == o;
bit
@/~-~/\.~-~,® See Table 4.
VI
~ 33,000 ~
30,000 - bit
OV ~ On = 1.8 o; - n {k
~~)
Q)
0.- cr
FIG. 5 Buckling stress curves
E for plates in edge compression.
au
<,
g' 10,000
.:.<
u
::>
..D
-i~~~-:
o
u
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
· bit
@Seismicisolation
Rono {k
@Seismicisolation
Critical buckling compressive stress (ocr) for A-7 steel having o; = 33,000 psi
Buckling of Plates / 2.12-7
Oy = 100,000
100,000
Oy = 90,000
Supported
side
Oy = 80,000
Supported
sides --+----'"'1
Oy = 70,000
Oy
I
= 55,000
I
'"
'"
~
'"
C1l
I I
~ Oy = 50,000
'"
'" 50,000
C1l
a.E I I
Oy = 45,000
0
u
C>
c I I
~ o; = 40,000
u 40,000
:>
.a
"0
I I r:J(§)O
o'
u Oy = 35,000
's: SOOO
S,
8 o; =:= 33,000
000
® SO,
\)\)O
30,000 b,?'
\)\)\)
b,\)•
\)\)\)
,,:>?' \)C)\)
,,:>,,:>.
20,000
10,000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I
(k = 4)
Both Supported @
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I i I
I I i
I i I I I {k=.425)
1 supported and 1 free
Ratio bit
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 6 Buckling stress curves (plates in edge compression) for verlous- steels.
2.12-8 I Load & Stress Analysis
TABLE 5-Factors for Buckling Formulas of bit are recognized. Table 7, extended to higher yield
strengths, lists these limiting values of bit.
Yield Strength
of Steel (bit )
yk" for Point B (bit
Yk ) for Point C
y--;;-3
n=--'-
4770
fr, psi 7. EFFECTIVE WIDTH OF PLATES IN
3820 5720
=-..;u:, =yU; COMPRESSION
33,000 21.0 31.5 1260
The 20" X W' plate shown in Figure 7, simply sup-
35,000 20.4 30.6 1370 ported along both sides, is subjected to a compressive
40,000 19.1 28.6 1680 load.
45,000 18.0 27.0 2000
50,000 17.1 25.6 2340
55,000 16.3 24.4 2700
Simply supported sides
60,000 15.6 23.4 3080
70,000 14.4 21.6 3470
80,000 13.5 20.2 4740
A-7 steel
90,000 12.7 19.1 5660
100,000 12.1 18.1 6630
o; = 33,000 psi
b = 20"
t = v."
TABLE 6-Limiting Values of bit (Code) k = 4.0
Yield
Side Strength
Conditions fr, psi AISC AASHO AREA
bit _ 80 - 40
One simply
supported; the
33,000 13 & 16 12 12 --W--{4-
other free 50,000 11 & 13 - -
33,000 44 40 40
Both simply
supported
50,000 36 34 32
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
fied by several codes, are given in Table 6.
In general practice, somewhat more liberal values
90,000
100,000
8.3
7.9
25.4
24.2
Buckling of Plates / 2.12-9
~
This value may also be found from the formulas
in Table 4. = 21.0
Since the ratio ~~ is 40.0 and thus exceeds Since k = 4.0 (both sides simply supported), the
the value of 31.5 for point C, the following formula ratio--
must be used-
b
t = 21.0v'k
_ [4434]2_
U cr - bit - [4434]2
40
= 42.0
Yk
= 12,280 psi Since the plate thickness t = V4" width, b = 42.0 t
or b = 10.5".
At this stress, the middle portion of the plate would This is the effective width of the plate which may
be expected to buckle, Figure 8. The compressive load be stressed to the yield point ((7'y) before ultimate col-
at this stage of loading would be- lapse of the entire plate.
The total compressive load at this state of loading
P = A U = (20" X 114") 12,280 would be as shown in Figure 9.
= 61,400 lbs The total compressive load here would be-
P = Ai (7'1 + A2 (7'2
P = Ai (7'1
FIGURE 8
-bt = 42.0
or from Table 4 we find-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 9
2.12-10 / Load & Stress Ana lysis
'"
'"
~
'"
(; 10,000
Cll
.s:
'"
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
. bit
R0110 IT
Critical buckling shear stress (T«), for A-7 steel having 0y = 33,000 psi
r
buckling stress for compression (CTer ) and for shear n = --'
4770
( 'Ter ) .
Figure 11 is just an enlargement of Figure 10, with 5720 [4434
additional steels having yield strengths from 33,000 psi C to D -v;:
T,
and over
T" = ~.
to 100,000 psi. Factors needed for the formulas of
curves in Figure 11 are given in Table 9.
For any value of ( ~~) the critical buckling shear
stress ('T er) can be read directly from the curves of
this figure.
A suitable factor of safety must be used with these TABLE 9-Factors for Buckling Formulas (Shear)
values since they represent ultimate stress values for bit bit 'V;;
Yield Corresponding --= for point B Yk for point C
buckling. n=-'
Strength Shearing Yield Yk 4770
Strength 3820 5720
(~)
of Steel
By holding the ratio of to the value at 0", .. psi T, = .58 0", psi - Y-;:; - YT,
point B, 'Ter = 'Ty and it will not be necessary to com- 33,000 19,100 27.6 41.4 550
pute the critical shear stress ('Ter ) . Assuming the edges 35,000 20,300 27.6 40.2 610
are simply supported, the value of k = 5.34 +
4(b/a)2
40,000 23,200 25.1 37.6 740
Then using just the three values of h/a as 1 (a square
45,000 26.100 23.6 35.4 880
panel), 1fl (the length twice the width of panel) and
zero (or infinite length), the required bit value is 50,000 29,000 22.4 33.6 1030
obtained from Table 10 for steels of various yield 55,000 31.900 21.4 32.1 1200
strengths. The plate thickness is then adjusted as nec- 60.000 34,800 20.5 30.7 1360
essary to meet the requirement. 70,000 40,600 19.0 28.4 1680
Notice in Figure 10 and Table s.. that the critical
80,000 46,400 17.7 26.6 2100
buckling stress in shear is given directly as ('T er ). In
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Tables 2 and 3 it is given first as (CTer ) and then
changed to ('Ter) •
90,000
100,000
52,200
58,000
16.7
15.9 23.8
25.1 2500
2920
Buckling of Plates I 2.12-11
Tensile
Yield Strength
b/a =1 b/a =
'12
(square panel) (panel with length
b/a 0
(ponel with
=
(1', psi twice the width) infinite length)
33,000 84.5 69.6 63.9
35,000 82.0 67.6 62.0
40,000 76.7 63.2 58.0
45,000 72.3 59.6 54.7
50,000 68.6 56.5 51.9
55,000 65.4 53.9 49.5
60,000 62.6 51.6 47.4
70,000 58.0 47.8 43.9
80,000 54.2 44.7 41.0
90,000 51.1 42.1 38.7
100,000 48.5 40.0 36.7
60,000
oy = 100,000
50,000
Oy
I
= 90,000
t
- -
"
- - - !i a •I
Oy
I
= 80,000
t tt b
I t !J
a.
..."
40,000
Oy
Oy
= 70,000
I
= 60,000
--- -
Four edges - simply supported
-
'"
'"
Oy = 55,000 q\J\J'§)
, k = 5.34 + 4(b/a)'
~ 30,000 _Oy
I
= 50,000 \J\J\J
~ CO'\), Four edges - fixed
0
~
Q)
o; = 45,000 ClClCl
1Cl, k = 8.98 + 5.60(b/a)'
OJ
c o, = 40,000 ClClCl
-'" r bCl, R)Cl
v
::>
.LJ
0y = 35,000 ~~~ ClClCl
0
20,000 I ~Cl' ClClCl
v
= 33,000 pSI ~ry, ClClCl
's: 0y
~Cl' s:lCl
V ~ s:l
":lry, Cl~
f":J":l'
10,000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Ratio bit
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation IT
FIG. 11 Buckling stress curves (plates in shear) for various steels.
2.12-12 / Load and Stress Analysis
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 3.1
Analysis of Compression
1. COMPRESSIVE STRESS
member's cross-section, results in compressive stresses If the member is made longer, using the same
distributed uniformly across the section. This compres- cross-section and the same compressive load, the re-
sive unit stress is- sulting compressive stress will remain the same, al-
though the tendency for buckling will increase. The
~
slenderness ratio increases as the radius of gyration
'" (1) of the section is reduced or as the length of the mem-
~ ber is increased. The allowable compressive load which
may be applied to the member decreases as the
A short column (slenderness ratio L/r equal to slenderness ratio increases.
about unity or less) that is overloaded in compression The various column formulas (Tables 3 and 4)
may fail by crushing. From a design standpoint, short give the allowable average compressive stress (a-) for
compression members present little problem. It is im- the column. Thcy do not give the actual unit-Stress
portant to hold the compressive unit stress within the developed in the column by the load. The unit stress
material's compressive strength. resulting from these formulas may be multiplied by
For steel, the yield and ultimate strengths are con- the cross-sectional area of the column to give the
sidered to be the same in compression as in tension. allowable load which may be supported.
Any holes or openings in the section in the path
of force translation will weaken the member, unless 3. RADIUS OF GYRATION
such openings are completely filled by another member
that will carry its share of the load. The radius of gyration (r) is the distance from the
Excessive compression of long columns may cause neutral axis of a section to an imaginary point at which
failure by buckling. As compressive loading of a long the whole area of the section could be concentrated
column is increased, it eventually causes some eccen- and still have the same amount of inertia. It is found
tricity. This in turn sets up a bending moment, causing by the expression: r = VTlA.
the column to deflect or buckle slightly. This deflection In the design of unsymmetrical sections to be used
increases the eccentricity and thus the bending moment. as columns, the least radius of gyration (rmin) of the
This may progress to where the bending moment is section must be known in order to make use of the
increasing at a rate greater than the increase in load, slenderness ratio (L/r) in the column formulas.
and the column soon fails by buckling. If the section in question is not a standard rolled
section the properties of which are listed in steel hand-
2. SLENDERNESS RATIO books, it will be necessary to compute this least radius
of gyration. Since the least radius of gyration is-
As the member becomes longer or more slender, there
is more of a tendency for ultimate failure to be caused
by buckling. The most common way to indicate this r min -- ~Imin
A (3)
tendency is the slenderness ratio which is equal to-
L
r the rrummum moment of inertia of the section must
be determined,
where L unsupported length of member Minimum Moment of Inertla
r the least radius of gyration of the section The maximum moment of inertia (1 1ll " , ) and the mini-
and- @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation mum moment of inertia (I min) of a cross-section are
3.1-1
3.1-2 / Column-Related Design
IM - - 21.0
x ----+~-+---- x NAx-x = IA - 12.0 = - 1.75"
FIGURE 1 to locate neutral axis y-y:
y A d M
I" X 6" 6.0 + 1.5 + 9.0
found on principal axes, 90° to each other. 6" X I" 6.0 0 0
Total -..+
L 12.0--
I , + 9.0 -
-
_
.
_
-
_
.
_
~
I mox _ Ix +I y -+- ~ I (Ix - I y) 2 + I 2 .... ( 4) IM 9.0 +
min - 2 -" 2 xy NAy-y = IA = ----r2.() + .75"
y f--a---t..L
c~+
x
d
x
Ixy a b:YJ
y
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 4
to locate neutral axis x-x:
where:
A d M
6" X I" 6.0 0 0
a and b = dimensions of rectangle ( = A)
I" X 6" 6.0 - 3.5 - 21.0 d and c distance of area's center of gravity to
Total -..+ 12.0 - 21.0 the x-x and y-y axes (= d x and dy )
where d distance from center of gravity of element The product of inertia of a T or angle section is-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
area to parallel axis (here: xl-xd (See Figure 5).
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-3
y y y
y y Y
Ix = A d~ Iy = A d'y Ix y = A d x dy
Moment of inertia Moment of inertia Product af inertia
about x-x axis about y-y axis about x-x and y-y axes
y y y y
y'
+d ~-dy
+d x
+d x
x x x x x x x x
-d x -d x
ctt--d y + dy-t!J
y y y Y
1st Quadrant 2nd Quadrant 3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant
Ixy +A d x dv Ixy = -A d x d y Ixy +A d x d y Ixy = -A dx d y
FIGURE 3
y
Now use formula given previously for product of
~---II-- d ------J .L inertia of such a section:
t
T
adt(d-2c)(a+t)
4 (a d) +
(4) (5) (liz) (5 - 2.5) (4 + 1/2 )
Ixy
_ a d t (d - 2c) (a + t) 4 (4 + 5)
4 (a + d)
+ 3.125 in."
y
_-----5"------+-1
FIGURE 5 y
+ .555"
Here, determine sign by inspection. T W'
1rr-+7f-4--+---'----x
I Problem 2 I f-
1" r/!-of!--+- - 1.25"
4"
Determine the product of inertia of this offset T section
-.695"
about the x-x and y-y axes:
r., = !A (d,,)( d, )
= 2.5 (+ 1)( + .555) + 2 (- 1.25) (- .695) FIGURE 6
-jvd-
+ 1.388 + 1.737
= + 3.125 in. 4 @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation !--1.945"
y
3.1-4 / Column-Related Design
55.25 + 25.25
Problem 3 I 2
n
_lImAill
rml = ""
~ 18.50
6" 12.0
I FIGURE 7
1.24"
IT
----~
NAy •y
+ 9.0
'l2.() + .75" and " - 46.4"
",/
M2 y.'
I, = I - A = 32.00 - 6.75 25.25 in."
y
product of inertia
IA (d x )( d).)
(1 X 6)(+ 1.75)(+ .75) Problem 4 I
+ (1 X 6) (- 1.75) (- .75)
+ 15.75 in." The channel section, Figure 8, is to be used as a
column. Determine its radius of gyration about its
minimum moment of inertia x-x axis.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Using the conventional formulas for the properties
of the section-
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-5
d
r
= 3.875"
~
d, = 3.75"
FIGURE 8
l FIGURE 9
I = 2 d
3
t;-
b It3 _ A(d _ n)2
for every operation of the slide rule, it would be
possible to get an answer as high as 1.283" and as
low as 1.275". This represents an error of about If4 of
2(4)3(.25) + (5.5)(.25)3 the error using the conventional formulas with slide
3 rule. The time for this last calculation was 2 minutes.
- 3.375 (4 - 2.764)2 Moment of Inertia About Any Axis
= 5.539"
y' y
\ x'
radius of gyration ./
\
r = ~l
_ ~5.539
X -----+;~....;.I£----L.--_ X
FIGURE 10
- 3.375
,/
= 1.281" x y y' .
If a slide rule had been used, assuming a possible Sometimes (as in Problem 3) the moment of inertia
error of ± one part in 1000 for every operation, this of a section is needed about an axis lying at an angle
answer could be as high as 1.336" and as low as 1.197". ((J) with the conventional x-x axis. This may be found
This represents an error of -t
4.3% and - 6.6%. For by using the product of inertia (I xy) of the section
this reason it is necessary, when using these conven- about the conventional axes (x-x and y-y) with the
tional formulas, to make use of logarithms or else moments of inertia (Ix) and (Iy) about these same
do the work longhand. To do this requires about 30 axes in the following formula:
minutes.
I Ix' = Ixcos + Iysin
The radius of gyration will now be found directly, 2
(J 2
(J - Ixysin2 (J I (7)
T
Tt, =L 1
L
T= t, L/2
~
fixed
1
I I
I I
I I
I I
//
II
T
FIGURE 11
__---'-_I (9)
Because this formula gives excessively high values
for short columns, Engesser modified it by substituting
where L.. = effective length of column. the tangent modulus (E t ) in place of the usual Young's
This can be changed into terms of average critical modulus of elasticity (E).
The modified formula then becomes-
........................ (11)
where:
E, = tangent modulus of elasticity, corresponding
to the modulus of elasticity when stressed to
(Fer.
S. TANGENT MODULUS
FIGURE 12
@Seismicisolation
Strom (~l, In/lnX10 3
of stress to strain below the proportional limit, the The values of tangent modulus (E t ) for quenched
tangent modulus of elasticity takes into consideration and tempered steel, as read from Figure 12, are now
the changing effect of plastic strain beyond this point plotted against the corresponding compressive stress
corresponding to the actual stress involved. ( (T(. ). This is shown in Figure 13.
Notice, in Figure 12, the broken lines representing The Engesser or tangent modulus formula for
the slope for various values of tangent modulus of critical stress ( (T(.I' ) is then put into the following
elasticity (Ed, in this case from 1 X 10° psi up to form-
30 X l.O'', The compressive stress level ((To) at which
a given E, value applies is determined by moving out
parallel from that reference modulus line (dotted), by 7TJ Et. ] 0"(.),
(12)
means of parallel rule or other suitable device, until ----------'
the stress-strain curve is intersected at one point only.
The line is tangent at this point.
The compressive stress-strain curve for any ma-
Resulting Critical Compressive Stress for Quenched and
terial <tan be superimposed on this graph and the Tempered Steel (A suitable
tactor of safety must be applied to these values)
values of E, at a given stress level ((To) read by the
same technique. \
\
Tangel'lt Modulus tor Quenched and Tempered Steel
\ rr2 E
Euler d- --
140
V cr" (L e/r)2
30XI0 6
I I I I I I I I I I I
130
=-.1 I
~I ~\
\
120
1\ .....................1'-
I
110
\ • 1
I
IE",me, -+---"I--.~
25 X106
I
100 -
I TT2 E,
"co ~ (Le/,12 00 \f=-
. - f-- - 80
o
> 70
\ \t7 Te" ,esulls.
~
L ~
E
i
15XI06 ~
i
60
50
- - -1\ 1--
'\0-
1\ V C"I"ol stte ss
>-
U 40
'< .L,
r-,V Allowable stress
"
(foetor of safely l.B)
30
1\ V ;;;:T
.... N
1
....... ,
\1 I I
20
10
<r,
-- -t-
r--I__
20 "IJ 60 80 100 120 140 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Stress (oe 1, Slenderness rolla (L e/
@Seismicisolation
KSI
r)
and the critical slenderness ratio (LeiI') is determined stress (<T) after applying a factor of safety of 1.8.
for various values of stress (<T c), resulting in Tables 1
and 2 for quenched and tempered steel only. 7. BASIC FORMULAS FOR COMPRESSION
Table 1 gives corresponding values of slenderness MEMBERS
ratio (LeiI') for given values of stress (<T c ) above the
proportional limit of a quenched and tempered steel. In "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures," page 53,
Below the material's proportional limit, the use of Bleich introduces a parabolic formula to express this
Young's modulus (E) or tangent modulus (Ed pro- tangent modulus curve for compression. By applying
vide the same value. Table 2 for quenched and temp- a factor of safety (F.S.), this becomes the allowable
ered steel gives the slenderness ratio (LeiI') for stress compressive stress. The basic parabolic formula thus
levels ( <Tc ) within the proportional portion of the modified is-
stress-strain curve. Since the original Euler formula
for <Tcr applies here, this portion of the curve is often <Tp(<Ty - <Tp)
called the Euler curve. ..... (13)
77"2 E F.S.
~
Unit Stre •• (0')
(_;_e)_' I (14)
o to C.
This formula provides a parabolic curve, starting
C. to 200
at a slenderness ratio of (L,.jr = 0) with values at
yield stress (<T y ) , and extending down to one-half of
this stress where it becomes tangent with the Euler
curve at the upper limit of elastic bending.
where: The slenderness ratio at this point is:
53-1'-
( KL) (KL)3 1-1'-
I' <Ty V <Ty
F.S. = "3 +"8 -c:- -"8 --c:- Above this slenderness ratio, the Euler formula
is used:
[1691812
For very short column a, this factor of safety (F.S.) is equal to thot of
@Seismicisolation
factor increcses gradually to a maximum of F.5.
K = effective length foetor
=1.92. is.-
@Seismicisolation --~-~
member. in tension (F.S. = 1.67). For longer columns. the safety of
~ = F.S. (
77"2 E
~) 2 = for steel (16)
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-9
1 r-b-j
-±-r-b~ t-.L
t T ~J~lngle
t
t
I angle
T
T t
'---- Double angle
with separator
t
b
=~~=T t
rb~~1~~": r;'~:'d
Plate projecnnq
column
or beam
r
"
b --1j
Double
t
, angle
in contact
b
T
3,000
ro;
__' ,-__ f rom column
r
Cover plate ' \
r--b~j
b
j -+ltt-
" Rolled tee
~
t
t r-- b - , --.t
1 t
~b
1 b b
t1
b
b
t
8,000
va;
FIGURE 15
1 1 1
r--bTi
V //A ry 'A
tt
Use net
section far
compression
//A tv
The above ratios of bit may be exceeded if, by using in the calculations a width equal to the
maximum of these limits, the compressive stress value obtained is within the allowable stress.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Tables 6 through 14 give the AISC compression
allowables for several strengths of structural steel.
Notice that the advantage of the higher strengths drops
off as the column becomes more slender.
3.1-10 I Column-Related Design
~
::<
* ','
Fig. 15 33,000 I 36,000 42,000 45,000 46,000 50,000 55,000 60,000 65,000 90,000 95,000 100,000
Ratio
2,400
13.2 12.6 11.7 11.3 11.2 10.7 10.2 9.8 9.4 8.0 7.8 7.6
Vu,
--_.
3,000
16.5 15.8 14.6 14.1 14.0 13.4 12.8 12.2 11.8 10.0 9.7 9.5
Vu,
4,000
22.0 21.0 19.5 18.9 18.7 17.9 17.1 16.3 15.7 13.3 13.0 12.6
Vu,
8,000
44.0 42.1 39.0 37.7 37.3 35.8 34.1 32.6 31.4 26.6 25.9 25.3
Vu,
10,000
55.0 52.6 48.7 47.1 46.6 44.7 ~2.6 40.8 39.2 33.4 32.4 31.6
Vu, I ,
I
35
1:'
Vi
(]) 25
>
0/>
0/>
10
@Seismicisolation
Slenderness ratio (L/r)
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 16
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-11
U = 15.000 - 41 (L
-;:- r o = 22,000 _ .56 ( -7-) 2 a = 20,000 _ .46 ( -7-) 2 o = 18,000 _ .39 ( +) 2
L L L L
- to 140 - to 125 - to 125 - to 125
r r r r
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
w
.-
I
.-
I'oJ
........
n
2-
c
~
TABLES 6 through 14--Allowable Compressive ((T) Values (1963 AISC), Main Members
..,
::I
I
..
!2.
Cl
lD
a.
olD
lit
Iii"
::I
TABLE 6--33,000 psi yield steel TABLE 7-36,000 psi yield steel
KL ratio KL .
- raho
r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
19,770 19,730 19,690 19,660 19,620 19,580 19,540 19,500 19,460 21,560 21,520 21,480 21,440 21,390 21,350 21,300 21,250 21,210
10 19,410 19,370 19,320 19,280 19,230 19,180 19,130 19,080 19,030 18,980 10 21,160 21,100 21,050 21,000 20,950 20,890 20,830 20,780 20,720 20,660
20 18,930 18,880 18,820 18,770 18,710 18,660 18,600 18,540 18,840 18,420 20 20,600 20,540 20,480 20,410 20,350 20,280 20,220 20,150 20,080 20,010
30 18,360 18,300 18,240 18,180 18,110 18,050 17,980 17,920 17,850 17,780 30 19,940 19,870 19,800 19,730 19,650 19,580 19,500 19,420 19,350 19,270
40 17,710 17,640 17,570 17,500 17,430 17,360 17,290 17,220 17,140 17,070 40 19,190 19,110 19,030 18,950 18,860 18,780 18,700 18,610 18,530 18,440
50 16,990 16,920 16,840 16,760 16,680 16,600 16,520 16,440 16,360 16,280 50 18,350 18,260 18,170 18,080 17,990 17,900 17,810 17,710 17,620 17,530
60 16,200 16,120 16,030 15,950 15,860 15,780 15,690 15,610 15,520 15,430 60 17,430 17,330 17,240 17,140 17,040 16,940 16,840 16,740 16,640 16,530
70 15,340 15,250 15,160 15,070 14,980 14,890 14,800 14,700 14,610 14,510 70 16,430 16,330 16,220 16,120 16,010 15,900 15,790 15,690 15,580 15,470
80 14,420 14,320 14,230 14,130 14,030 13,930 13,840 13,740 13,640 13,530 80 15,360 15,240 15,130 15,020 14,900 14,790 14,670 14,560 14,440 14,320
90 13,430 13,330 13,230 13,130 13,020 12,920 12,810 12,710 12,600 12,490 90 14,200 14,090 13,970 13,840 13,720 13,600 13,480 13,350 13,230 13,100
100 12,380 12,280 12,170 12,060 11,950 11,830 11,720 11,610 11,900 11,380 100 12,980 12,850 12,720 12,590 12,470 12,330 12,200 12,070 11,940 11,810
110 11,270 11,150 11,040 10,920 10,800 10,690 10,570 10,450 10,330 10,210 110 11,670 11,540 11,400 11,260 11,130 10,990 10,850 10,710 10,570 10,430
120 10,090 9,996 9,840 9,720 9,590 9,470 9,340 9,220 9,090 8,960 120 10,280 10,140 9,990 9,850 9,700 9,550 9,410 9,260 9,110 8,970
130 8,830 8,700 8,570 8,440 8,320 8,190 8,070 7,960 7,840 7,730 130 8,840 8,700 8,570 8,440 8,320 8,190 8,070 7,960 7,840 7,730
140 7,620 7,510 7,410 7,300 7,200 7,100 7,010 6,910 6,820 6,730 140 7,620 7,510 7,410 7,300 7,200 7,100 7,010 6,910 6,820 6,730
150 6,640 6,550 6,460 6,380 6,300 6,220 6,140 6,060 5,980 5,910 150 6,640 6,550 6,460 6,380 6,300 6,220 6,140 6,060 5,980 5,910
160 5,830 5,760 5,690 5,620 5,550 5,490 5,420 5,350 5,290 5,230 160 5,830 5,760 5,690 5,620 5,550 5,490 5,420 5,350 5,290 5,230
170 5,170 5,110 5,050 4,990 4,930 4,880 4,820 4,770 4,710 4,660 170 5,170 5,110 5,050 4,990 4,930 4,880 4,820 4,770 4,710 4,660
180
190
200
4,610
4,140
3.730
4,560
4,090
4,510
4,050
4,460
4,010
4,410
3,970
4,360
3,930
4,320
3,890 @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4,270
3,850
4,230
3,810
4,180
3,770
180
190
200
4,610
4,140
3,730
4,560
4,090
4,510
4,050
4,460
4,010
4,410
3,970
4,360
3,930
4,320
3,890
4,270
3,850
4,230
3,810
4,180
3,770
TABLE 8--42,000 psi yield steel TABLE 9--45,000 psi yield steel
KL .
- ratio
3 5 8 9
~ ratio
r 1
25.150
2
25.100 25.050
"
24,990 24.940
6
24.880
7
KL
- ratio
2 3 5 7 8 9
r 1
110 12,330 12.120 11,900 11.690 11,490 11.290 11,100 10,910 10,720 10,550
......
w
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
120 10,370 10,200 10.030 9.870 9,710 9,560 9,410 9,260 9,110 8,970
W
I
......
~
TABLE 11-50,000 psi yield steel TABLE 12-55,000 psi yield steel ,.
I
KL KL
- - ratio - ratio <,
r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
i
29,940 29,870 29,800 29,730 29,660 29,580 29,500 29,420 29,340 32,930 32,850 32,770 32,690 32,600 32,510 32,420 32,330 32,230 n
------+-
10 29,260 29,170 29,080 28,990 28,900 28,800 28,710 28,610 28,510 28,400 10 32,130 32,030 31,930 31,820 31,720 31.600 31,490 31,380 31,260 31,140
2-
c
20 28,300 28,190 28,080 27,970 27,860 27,750 27,630 27,520 27,400 27,280 20 31,010 30,890 30,760 30,630 30,500 30,370 30,230 30,090 29,950 29,810 3
30 27,150 27,030 26,900 26,770 26,640 26,510 26,380 26,250 26,110 25,970 30 29,670 29,520 29,370 29,220 29,070 28,910 28,760 28,600 28,440 28,270 ..,
:::I
I
50
40 25,830
24,350
25,690
24,190
25,550
24,040
25,400
23,880
25,260
23,720
25,110
23,550
24,960
23,390
24,810
23,220
24,660
23,060
24,510
22,890
40
50
28,110
26,360
27,940
26,180
27,770
25,990
27,600
25,800
27,430
25,610
27,260
25,420
27,080
25,220
26,900
25,030
26,730
24,830
26,540
24,630
..a
III
III
Cl.
60 22,720 22,550 22,370 22,200 22,020 21,850 21,670 21,490 21,310 21,120 60 24,430 24,230 24,020 23,820 23,610 23,400 23,190 22,970 22,760 22,540
C
70 20,940 20,750 20,560 20,380 20,190 19,990 19,800 19,610 19,410 19,210 70 22,320 22,100 21,880 21,660 21,430 21,200 20,970 20,740 20,510 20,280 III
III
80 19,010 18,810 18,610 18,410 18,200 17,990 17,790 17,580 17,370 17,150 80 20,040 19,800 19,560 19,320 19,070 18,830 18,580 18,330 18,080 17,830
\DO
:::I
90 16,940 16,720 16,500 16,290 16,060 15,840 15,620 15,390 15,170 14,940 90 17,570 17,310 17,050 16,790 16,530 16,260 16,000 15,730 15,460 15,180
100 14,710 14,470 14,240 14,000 13,770 13,530 13,290 13,040 12,800 12,570 100 14,910 14,630 14,350 14,040 13,780 13,510 13,260 13,010 12,770 12,540
110 12,340 12,120 11,900 11,690 11,490 11,290 11,100 10,910 10,720 10,550 110 12,310 12,090 11,880 11,670 11,470 11,270 11,070 10,880 10,700 10,520
120 10,370 10,200 10,030 9,870 9,710 9,560 9,410 9,260 9,110 8,970 120 10,350 10,180 10,010 9,850 9,690 9,540 9,390 9,240 9,090 8,950
TABLE 13-60,000 psi yield steel TABLE 14--65,000 psi yield steel
KL • KL
- ratio - ratio
r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
35,920 35,830 35,740 35,640 35,540 35,440 35,340 35,230 35,120 38,900 38,810 38,700 38,590 38,480 38,370 38,250 38,130 38,000
10 35,010 34,890 34,770 34,650 34,520 34,400 34,270 34,130 34,000 33,860 10 37,870 37,740 37,600 37.460 37,320 37,180 37,030 36,870 36,720 36,560
20 33,710 33,570 33,420 33,270 33,120 32,960 32,810 32,650 32,480 32,320 20 36,390 36,230 36,060 35,890 35,710 35,530 35,350 35,170 34,980 34,790
30 32,150 31,980 31,810 31,630 31,460 31,280 31,090 30,910 30,720 30,530 30 34,600 34,400 34,210 34,010 33,800 33,600 33,390 33,170 32,960 32,740
40 30,340 30,150 29,950 29,760 29,560 29,350 29,150 28,940 28,730 28,520 40 32,520 32,300 32,070 31,850 31,620 31,380 31.150 30,910 30,670 30,430
50 28,310 28,100 27,880 27,660 27,440 27,210 26,990 26,760 26,530 26,300 50 30,180 29,930 29,680 29,430 29,180 28,920 28,660 28,390 28,130 27,860
60 26,060 25,830 25,590 25,350 25,110 24,860 24,610 24,360 24,110 23,860 60 27,590 27,320 27,040 26,770 26,490 26,200 25,920 25,630 25,340 25,050
70 23,610 23,350 23,090 22,830 22,560 22,300 22,030 21,760 21,490 21,210 70 24,760 24,460 24,160 23,860 23,550 23,240 22,930 22,620 22,300 21,990
80 20,940 20,660 20,380 20,090 19,810 19,520 19,230 18,940 18,640 18,340 80 21,670 21,340 21,020 20,690 20,360 20,020 19,690 19,350 19,000 18,660
90 18,040 17,740 17,440 17,130 16,820 16,510 16,190 15,880 15,510 15,200 90 18,310 17,960 17,600 17,240 16,860 16,510 16,170 15,840 15,510 15,200
100 14,900 14,610 14,320 14,040 13,780 13,510 13,260 13,010 12,770 12,540 100 14,900 14,610 14,320 14,040 13,780 13,510 13,260· 13,010 12,770 12,540
110 12,310 12,090 11,880 11,670 11,470 11,270 11,070 10,880 10,700 10,520 110 12,310 12,090 11,880 11,670 11,470 11,270 11,070 10,880 10,700 10,520
120 10,350
* See
10,180 10,010
1
e (1) shown by dashed line " I ,
,, ,
/
,
I
where: ·, , ,
I
,
I
I
,
= actual length of the column
I
L I
Table 1 lists theoretical values of K and the Column Recommended design value
when ideal conditions
Research Council's corresponding recommended values are approximated 0.65 0.80 1.2 1.0 **
2.10 2.0
of K for the effective length (Le ) of columns under
ideal conditions. ""f' rotation lixed translation lixed
In actual practice it will be more difficult to classify ~ rotation lixed translation Iree
the end conditions. If classification is doubtful, the ? rotation Iree translation Iree
Column Research Council recommends the following
method based on the relative stiffness of connecting *K may be greater than 2.0
**Top end assumed truly rotation free
beams and columns.
@Seismicisolation
The stiffness factor of any member is given as IlL, From "Guide to Design Criteria lor Metal
@Seismicisolation
its moment of inertia divided by its length.
Compression Members" 1960, p. 28,
Column Research Council
3.2-1
FIGURE l-Effective Length Factor In Column Design w
~
I
~
<,
n
s,
c
GA K GB GA K GB s:::I
I
co co co ""ii'
co
..
l1)
~~.o
50.0 1.0 50.0 20.0
10.0 100.0 10.0 l1)
10.0 50.0 50.0
CI.
2.0 2.0
I I
10.0 3.0 10.0
0.8 9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0
1.0 /.0 7.0 7.0
0.9 0.9 6.0 6.0
0.8 0.8
0.7 5.0 5.0
0.7
0.6 0.7 0.6 4.0 2.0 4.0
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4 I I 3.0--1 .l- I- 3.0
I- 2.0
0.3
0.2-1 1
06
.
0.3/
0.2
I
2.01
1 1.5
I I
1.0
I I 1 t L 1.0
0.1 --I + I- 0.1
o 0.5 o o 1.0 o
(0) ( b)
Sideswcy Prevented
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Sideswoy Permitted
Design of Compression Members I 3.2-3
I Problem I
Sideswoy
Sideswoy
prevented
permitted
I
T ==.652
Fixed -t =. 652
® ®
TI == 1.608 += 1.478
TI == 1.608 TI = 1.478
L = .761
1- += .761
® V Pinned ,-Fixed
FIGURE 2
Here: Here:
.652 + .761 .652 + .761
2( 1.608) + 1.5( 1.478) .5 ( 1.608) + 1.478
.260 .620
GB = 00; use 10. Ga = zero; use 1.0
From the nomograph, read K
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
.76 From the nomograph, read K = 1.26
3.2-4 / Column-Related Design
*
Margin of Safety .9 I Ra + Rb = 11· .. (31
.8 /" Rx =
constant Ry = variable .8 Unsafe
.6 /
Margin of Safety
proportional loading P
.7
.6
I + ~ = 11· .. (41
RJR y = constant Ra = P
u
.5
/1 .4
/ 1 region
Margin of Safety .3
// I Ry = constant
.2 .2
/ I Rx = variable
/ 1 .1 Bending only
/ I
o .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
b Rb = lA
Mu
FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5
load is expressed as a ratio of the actual load to the vertical axis is the ultimate value for this type of load
ultimate load which would cause failure if acting alone. on the member when acting alone. The value of R~ 1 =
at the extreme right end of the horizontal axis is the
axial load ultimate value for this type of load on the member
P when acting alone. These ultimate values are deter-
B, = - mined by experiment; or when this data is not available,
Pu
suitable calculations may be made to estimate these
bending load values.
M The interaction curve is usually determined by
Rb = - actual testing of members under various combined-
Mu
load conditions. From this, a simple formula is derived
torsional load to fit the curve and express this relationship.
If points a and b are the ratios produced by the
actual loads, point c represents the combination of
these conditions. The margin of safety is indicated by
In the general example shown in Figure 4, the how close point c lies to the interaction curve. A suit-
effect of two types of loads (X and Y) upon each other able factor of safety is then applied to these values.
is illustrated.
Figure 5 illustrates this for axial compression and
The value of Ry = 1 at the upper end of the bending.
However, the applied bending moment (Mil
causes the column to bend, and the resulting displace-
ment or eccentricity induces a secondary moment from
the applied axial force. See Figure 6.
Assume that the moment ( M1 ) applied to the
column is sinusoidal in nature; Figure 7.
A sinusoidal moment applied to a pinned end
member results in a sinusoidal deflection curve, whose
+ maximum deflection is equal to-
I = r r3 I·
Applied Induced Resultant
moment secondary maximum Pe I (5)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 6
moment moment
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-5
this becomes
I
I
I
I
I
I
When the axial load (P) is also applied to this
deflected column, a secondary moment is induced and
Column AI -1
I
this is also sinusoidal in nature, its maximum value I
being- I
I
Sine curve
I
M 2 = Pal I
p
Applied Resulting
I sinusoidal deflection
I moment curve
J
I FIGURE 7
Ar~
I
I
I
I
I
"'5 -
1- -
1
P
Pe
(6)
I
FIGURE 8
The interaction Formula #4 then becomes-
p
~+
Pu
MI(
Mu
1
1 _ ~
) 1 .............. (7)
n
n PA
r, + n
n MA
Mw( 1 _ 1n ~w ) <
-
1 and
since
Mmu: = M1 + P amu: then <
Mmu: = M1 + P (Mi ax) or :: + ~:(l 1~)
P
1
Mmu: =1MP 1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation so:
3.2-6 / Column-Related Design
Or, on a stress basis- the Euler stress ( ere) divided by the factor of safety
( n ). The term t o:'e) is used here in place of AISC's
(F' e).
era + erb( 1 ) < 1 ............. (8)
era erb 1 _ n ~a •
v
rP'e_- er
n
(allowable load condition)
lb
rb =
= @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
actual unbraced length of column in the plane of bending
radius of gyration about the axis af bending
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-7
According to AISC Sec. 1.5.6, this value i c" e) may TABLE 3-Value of IfJ for Several
be increased 1f3 for wind loads. Load Conditions
Table 2 lists the values of tr' e (Euler stress divided Case 'It Cm
b
by factor of safety) for KL ratios from 20 to 200.
rb
These values apply for all grades of steel, but are based _fllllllllllllllllillt- 0 1.0
on the conservative factor of safety = 1.92.
The derivation of the amplification factor has been
based on a member with pinned ends and a sinusoidal
moment applied to it. In actual practice these con- _fIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIW- -0.3 1 - 11'•
.3 -
11" e
ditions will vary; however this factor will be reasonably
good for most conditions. AISC Sec. 1.6.1 applies a
second factor (Cm ) to adjust for more favorable con-
ditions of applied end moments or transverse loads.
_~ 11111111111111111 ! I ~_
11'.
-0.4 1 - .4-
applied end moments
11"
·
I = 0.6 + 0.4 ~ I'· .... ·.. ·····(
,-
Cm ;, 0.4 9)
11'•
-0.2 1 - .2 -
applied transverse loads
-f *
11"
·
IC m = 1 + 1/J ~ I (10)
r- -l-
L 2
/ 11'•
- .4 -
-f -0.4 1
11"
·
where:
M 1 and M 2 are end moments applied to the column.
~
~-
11'.
2
7T AE I _
t/J= MU
1
(see Table 3 for values IfJ and C m for several
load conditions)
(AISC Formula 6)
Here:
6. = maximum deflection due to transverse load When
AISC formulo 7b
- In this example:
A36 steel
L/r = 80
~ = 15,360
,, ~ = 22,000
,,
, a~ = 23,300
ay = 36,000
""
", }).+M
" ",
,
-,
" ~-M
"" rj,+M
D
~
on
on
~
'"
Q)
>
.;;;
~
a.
E
o
u FIGURE 9
o
·x
-c
@Seismicisolation
This formula provides a check for the limiting
stress at the ends of the column, and as such applies
(AISC Formula 7b)
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-9
check using
(AISC Formula 6)
If I~ > . 15
1
i)M'J m ~+ M, M
Transverse loads
P~_P
~)~_M' ~ ~) -II
P Sideswoy permitted P Sidesway prevented
M'~~
No translation of joints
MJ
Cm = I+"'~
Cm 0.85 Cm 0.6 + 0.4 ~ ~ 0.4
CT'•
r.:l E I
M. L"
.:l mox deflection due to
transverse loading
M. = max moment between supports
due to trons. loading
Use KL in computing ~
(11)
CT. + (1 _ ;:JCT. ~ 1.0 .
uSing CT. =
M.
5
(AISC Formula 70)
~
.6
+ CT. ::5 1.0 incr;;sed ¥.! for wind (AISC
@Seismicisolation
(12) tr7 CT.- Sec 1.5.6)
@Seismicisolation
(AISC Formula 7b)
3.2-10 / Column-Related Design
Compression elements which ore not "compoct" but meet If in oddition, lateral support of compression flange
the following AISC Sec 1.9 requirements does not exceed,
bit < 3000" A7, A373, A36 steels
=~ 13 bt
B/t < ~OOO" Other stronger steels
=~
2300 br 20,000,000 At
~ or d ~. (in.)
Having an axis of symmetry in
the plane of its web:
AISC 1.5.1.4.5 and compression elements meet the following
AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1 "compact section" requirements:
o~ = [1.0 _ ~)~.J.6~' b/
t
< 1600
= ~
*
B/t < 6000
when ..!:.r ~ 40 don't need AISC Formula 4 < vr;
12,000,000
d", :::; 13,300(1 - 1.43 ~.)
Q"b = tw - ~ «,
L d 8000
but need not be less than ~
At
o
Use the larger volue of
or ® but ~ .60 ~.
~b = .66 ~. t (1.5.1.4.1)
*
by the gravity loads of the connecting beams.
For rolled sections, an upward variation of 3% may be toler-
ated.
In Tables 5 and 6: ment at the ends of the unbraced length, taken about
L unbraced length of the compression flange the strong axis of the member, and where MdM 2 is the
ratio of end moments. This ratio is positive when M1
bt width of compression flange and M 2 have the same sign, and negative when they
d depth of member treated as a beam have different signs. When the bending moment within
r radius of gyration of a Tee section comprising an un braced length is larger than that at both ends of
the compression flange plus ?i of the web this length, the ratio shall be taken as unity.
area; about an axis in the plane of the web.
For shapes symmetrical about their x axis of c, = 1.75 - 1.05 (~J + .3 (~:r
bending, substitution of ry of the entire sec-
tion is conservative Cc='~
~-----a:;-
At = area of the compression flange
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
M 1 is the smaller and M 2 the larger bending mo-
(but not more than 2.3 can
conservatively be taken as 1.0)
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-11
l--B
DB
No AISC limit On lateral support
of compression flange because box
section is torsionally rigid
And if lateral support does not exceed:
A7, A373, A36 steels
13 b,
Othe-r stronger steels
2400 br 20,000,000 A,
----yq;- or d tTy (in.)
Compression elements which are not "compact" but meet And comparison elements meet the following
the following AISC Sec 1.9 requirements (1.5.1.4.3) AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1 "compact section" requirements:
bit = 3000 • bit ~ 1600 t
VU; VU;
Bit = 8000 • BI < 6000
-rs; t = yq;
dw <
tw=~
13,300 ( 1 _ 1.43 tT.)
«,
8000
but need not be less than - -
Note: All notes from Table 5 VU;
apply equally to this
Table 6. .60 tTy tTb = .66 fry t
TABLE 6A
1600
8.8 8.4 7.8 7.5 7.5 7.2 6.8 6.5 6.3 5.3 5.2 5.1
VU;
Width·to-
3000
16.5 15.8 14.6 14.1 14.0 13.4 12.8 12.2 11.8 10.0 9.7 9.5
thickness yq;
ratio not 6000
33.0 31.6 29.2 28.3 28.0 26.8 25.6 24.5 23.5 20.0 19.5 19.0
to exceed: VU;
8000
VU; 44.0 42.1 39.0 37.7 37.3
~ 34.1 32.6 31.4
~ --
25.3
13,300
y-u; 73.2 70.0 64.8 62.6 62.0 59.5 56.7 54.3 52.2 44.4 ~3.1 42.1
-- >------
~
Lateral support 2400
of compression yq; 13.2b, 12.6b, 11.7b, 11.3b, 11.2b, 10.7b, 10.2b, 8.0b, I 7.8b, 7.6b,
flange of "compact"
~8 ~:o~~
sections not 20,000,000 A,
to exceed: tTy d
606 A, 555 Ar 476 Ar 444 Ar 435 Ar 400 A, 364 A, 200 ~
d d d d d d d d
333 A, d d d
210 A, d
--
Cc = ~2 "... E 131.7 126.1 116.7 112.8 111.6 107.0 102.0 97.7 93.8 ~ 79.8 77.6 75.7
tTy
--r--
1.18.2.3: max. longitudinal spacing
between intermittent fillet welds
attaching compression flange
to girders
S < 4000 t~ 12"
=y-u; -
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
22.01 21.0t 19.5t 18.9t 18.7t 17.9t 17.11 16.3t 15.7t
I
=~~~====~
j
S:C~==:====
j
r~(~A~I
FIGURE 11
1.18.2.3):
e s in COnta
ct With eac:~:otb~e j
j
j
e d s h a p j
Two roll
j
j
j
p j
j
j
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 12
j
j
j
j
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-13
p
FIGURE 13
) FIGURE 14
Total length of weld = L/3 (1.18.2.5)
Joined
together
t -8-
I
FIGURE 15
Single
Bracing
Double
Bracing FIGURE 16
Design lacing bar for axial compressive force (F): Typical Built-Up Compression Members
v
F = --c---
n sin IX
.... "
" ,
.... 1
J
Figure 18 shows a number of examples of com-
pression members built up from common shapes by
/" /1/ /1
means of welded construction. As indicated in lower
/ I Brace views, perforated plates are often substituted for lacing
",," Q-~
/ I
bars for aesthetic effect.
v = .02P
(AISC 1.18.2.6) I Problem 2 I
where:
n = number of bars carrying shear (V) To check the design of the following built-up section
for the hoist of a boom. The 15' column is fabricated
Determine allowable compressive stress ( eTa) from from A36 steel by welding four 4" x 3%" x W' angles
one of the following two formulas: together with lacing bars.
eTa
[ (K;IYJ
1
(AISC Formula 1)
2 C2
F.S.
C eTy
*
............ (16)
- ---
I
I
I
I
I
+-- - --
n
I-
14"
( r ~ 1W'
L == 2D
p---
FIGURE 17
A B c o E
G H
K L M
x = 1.0"
x--- - - \
:
:
r
i-x I
'~
least radius of gyration
y = 1.25" y
slenderness ratio v = 2% P
L (15') (12) = (.02) (278.6k )
r - (5.89) = 5.57k (2 bars)
= 30.6
The axial force on each bar is-
Then from Table 7 in Sect. 3.1, the allowable com-
pressive stress is ere =
19,900 psi and the allowable F _ .! (5.57)
- 2 .866
compressive load is-
= 3.22k
P = ere A
The unsupported length of the lacing bar between
= (19,900) (14)
connecting welds is-
= 278.6 kips
14" - (2 X 3%")
Check slenderness ratio of single 4" x 3%" x %" L = ----'::-::-c::---:-------'-
.866
angle between bracing:
= 8.1"
L (16.2)
r:-= (.72) The least radius of gyration of the %" x %" bar is
= 22.4 < 30.6 OK obtained thusly-
(AISC Sec. 1.18.2.6) A = ¥4in. 2
_ (%)(%)3
I - 12
1
192
r= Ii
= ~C~2)(~)
16.2" = .144
And the slenderness ratio of the lacing bars is-
L (8.1)
r = (.144)
= 56.3 < 140 OK single lacing
(AISC Sec. 1.18.2.6)
f:"3W' -+-'"
~------14"
------+3W' ~ ere = 17,780 psi
~lJ~<o
Is = 6610.3 in."
I J = 2359.5 in."
r
x
= '1\
- fl:Alx
(74,507 )
when symmetrical about an axis in the plane of bend-
ing, with lateral support of the column's compression
Bange not exceeding a distance equal to _13 times its
width (A36 steel) (AISC Sec. 1.5.1.4.1). For "compact"
(256)
columns, the engineer can use just 90% of moments
= 17.05" applied to ends of the column if caused by gravity loads
on connecting beams (no wind loads) and CT. < .15 CT.
moment of inertia about y-y (AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1). -
I _ 4 X 20S + 34 (Ph) 8 + 6610 If the section is not "compact", AISC Formulas 4
J - 12 12 and 5 must be used to determine the allowable com-
= 9287 in," pressive bending stress (~and CTb.l')'
= 244" or 20.3' > 13' OK O"bI = O"by = .66 0"y or 24,000 psi
L cy = 13 b t y Euler stress (0"' ex) and (0"' ey )
= 13(16 3A.")
~: 197~:~0)
K = 3.65 and
< 70 (1 - 1.43 X < 17.3
r, = K L
but need not be less than 42.1
42.1 > 22.6 OK
@Seismicisolation
=
@Seismicisolation (3.65)(13'
= 569"
X 12")
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-19
1 - 4 - - - - - - 29'-----~-----29'--------l
-.L = 9287 in
4
= 715
L 13'
1 = 9738 4
in = 336 1 _ 9738 in
L - 29'
4
= 336
L 29'
:E~
GA ~
-:E~:
2(715)
- 2(336)
= 2.13
GB = co or 10
Negative
Sidesway being permitted, from the nomograph (Fig. 1): moment at
support
K = 2.1 and
i, = K L
= 2.1 (13' x 12")
= 328"
i, (328")
ry = (6.03") FIGURE 23
= 54.4
applied loads
This value of r y = 54.4 governs, and from Table 7 in
Sect. 3.1 (A36 steel) p = 2500 kips
0'. = 17,970 psi M", = 250 ft-kips
My = 0
Column Analysis
applied stresses
The following three analyses of the column (Cases A, p
B, and C) are for columns with computed moments CT. = A
maximum at the ends with no transverse loading and
with sidesway being permitted. (2500 X 1000)
(em = @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
This would be category A on Table 4. In this case
.85) for both axes (x-x) and (y-y).
(256.25)
9760 psi
3.2-20 / Column-Related Design
Mxc
(Tbx =~
_ (250 X 1000 X 12)( 23.50 ) _ (2200 X 1000 X 12) (23.50)
(74,507 ) 74,507
= 947 psi (max at 4" x 20" flange ff. ) = 8330 psi (max at 4" X 20" flange ff )
If (T.
(T.
= .15, .9M x can We cannot use .9 M x , because wind loading is
involved; hence full value of M, must be used.
be used (Sec 1.5.1.4.1); but
. thi (Ta 9760 54
in IS case, (Ta = 17,970 = .
(10,520)
checking against Formula #14 (AISC 7a) (17,970 X 1.33)
(T. + Cm x (Tbx + Gmy (Tby < 1 + (.85 ) (8330 )
a; (1 - ;:J(Tb~ (1 - ::) (Tby ( 1 - 133,7~~5~ 1.33)(24,000 X 1.33)
Here C m =
.85 be- = .676 < 1.0 OK
cause sidesway is
permitted
(9760) + (947)
(22,000) (24,000) = .482 < 1.0 OK
applied loads
P = 2700 kips M, = 2200 ft-kips My = 0
applied stresses
(Ta -
P
A
2700 X 1000
256.25
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
= 10,520 psi
FIGURE 24
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-21
allowable stresses
(Ta = 17,970 X 1.33 Wind in addition
(Sec 1.5.6)
(Tbx = 24,000 No wind in this direction
(Tby = 24,000 X 1.33 Wind in this direction
(Sec 1.5.6)
u'ex = 133,750 No wind in this direction
(T' ey = 50,400 X 1.33 Wind in this direction
applied loads
+ (.85) ( 15,500)
P = 2800 kips (1 - 50,4~,9~0 1.33)( 24,000 X 1.33)
Torque box
FIGURE 26
Torsion on Built-Up Column torque box, made by adding lh"-thick plates to the
One item left to investigate in the built-up column is built-up column in line with the beam connections.
the twisting action applied to it. In Case C, the wind This torque box is checked for shear stress; Fig-
in the x-x direction causes a moment of My = 1200 ure 27.
ft-kips because of the restraint of the spandrel beams.
( 1) One way to analyze this problem is to assume
that this moment (My) is resisted by the elements (the ( 4,152,000 )
14" WF section and the 4" X 20" flange plate) of the 2 ( % ) ( 18.2) ( 34.5)
built-up column in proportion to their moments of
inertia about axis y-y. See Figure 26. 6600 psi OK
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
This moment is to be transferred as torque from
the 14" WF section to the 4" X 20" plate through a
of the column in between these regions.
Since an "open" section such as this built-up
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-23
r-b = 18.2"~
1
d = 34.5"
1
t = Y2" -io-f)~-
FIGURE 27
Shear axis
I
I
Torque box
41 ]k
FIGURE 28
No
twisting
action
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
3.2-24 / Column-Related Design
P = 1000lbs
r-16.70"t------- ...-----26.64"-----
rf~---,-~
18.69" ~?'tiL~?2tii'22!~3:Z~~?'tiL~~~~
4~~
1112"
P = 1000 Ibs
t
r- 8.35" +--8.35" j rC -J - - - - - 2 8 . 6 4 " - - - - --I ~
® .905"
FIGURE 29
I f
- - - CDf 1
Tr ® 0@.----T'-----------r
'265"
t
9095" I
=-i
area and the neutral axis of the built-up In order to counterbalance this moment, a negative
section (in.) moment of the same value is set up by a constant shear
ql unit shear force at the start of this area force Bow of-
(Ibs/in.)
q = ---54.1 lbs per linear inch
q2 unit shear force at the end of this area
(Ibs/in. ) When this is superimposed upon the original shear
Bow, Figure 30, we obtain the final Bow shown in
This work is shown as Computation A. Below, in Figure 31. The resulting shear stress (T) is obtained
Figure 30, the total shear force (Q) in the various by dividing the unit shear force (q) by the thickness
areas of this section are found; these are indicated by of the section. Also the values must be increased be-
arrows. This work is shown as Computation B. By cause the actual force is 411 kips instead of 1 kip, the
Computation C, these shear forces are seen to produce work and resulting shear stresses are shown as Compu-
an unbalanced moment of 70..519 in-lbs, which if un- tation D. See Figure 32 also. These shear stresses seem
resisted will cause this section of the column to twist. reasonable.
t + 3~9.:49~~TI11TrmnmmTl1111mmmTm
FIGURE 30
- 54.10
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 31
3.2-26 / Column-Related Design
Computation A
I. q. = 0 o
2. q.
= 0 + V a y
I
= 0 + (1000)(7.83 X 1.875)(3.92)
11,491.
= 0 + 5.01 5.01
3. q. = 0 o
4 '_ + V a y _ 0 + (1000)(8.35 X 3.03)(7.83)
o+ 17.24 = 17.24
.q. - q . I - 11,491.
6
. q.
="
q,
+ V aI
y = 2225
'
+ (1000)(8.35 X 3.03)(7.83)
11,491. = 22.25 + 17.24 = 39.49
8. q. = 0 o
,_ + '.!......!:.... _ 0 (1000)(.905 X 4)(9.548)
o+ =
9. qt - q. I - + 11,491. 2.99 2.99
1 I. qh
__ qe" + V aI y
=
5381
.
+ (1000)(9.095 X 4)(4.548)
11,49 I. 53.81 + 14.40 = 68.21
Computation B
12. Qm. = (% X 0 +~ X 5.01) 15.66 = 26.1 #
13. Q •• = (1/2 X 17.24 X 8.35) + 22.25 t 39.49 X 8.35) 329.7 #
14. Q •• r = 39.49 X 1.265 = 50.0 #
15. Q.t = 39.49 t 50.82 X 28.64 = 1293.2 #
16. Qt. (% X 68.21 +~ X 53.81) 18.19 = 1153.4 #
Check ~V=O
Computation C
Now, take moments about e
Mm = (+ 329.7)(15.66) - (100)(8.35) + (1293.2)(18.19) + (1153.4)(36.99) = 70,519
The unbalanced moment is 70,519 in-Ibs
Make ~ Mm = 0 a constant shear force flow, which must be added to form a negative
moment of - 70,519.
The resulting shear force is -
- M - 70,519
q = 2[A] = 2(651.7) = - 54.1 Ibs/ln.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-27
Compulation D
If this force is P = 441,000 lbs, the sheer stresses in the section are -
411 X 54.10
(a) T. = ....9...
t
= 1.875
11,850 psi
411 X 31.85
(c") T e" = ...:Lt = 3.03
4320 psi
411 X 14.61
(d) T. = ...9...
t
= 112
12,000 psi
q 411 X 3.28
(f) T, =-= 2690 psi
t 112
411 X 14.11
(h) Tb = ...:Lt = 4
1450 psi
FIGURE 34
FIGURE 32
CD
FIGURE 35
FIGURE 33
Reentrant Corners (Figures 33 and 34) In structural steel, any stress concentration in this
area probably would be relieved through plastic flow
The only other concern on this built-up construction and could be neglected unless fatigue loading were a
is the sharp reentrant corner at points (d) and (f). factor or there were some amount of triaxial stress
Timoshenko in "Theory of Elasticity", p. 259, in- along with impact loading.
dicates the following shear stress increase for a re- Of course if a fillet weld could be made on this
entrant corner: inside corner, it would eliminate this problem. See
Figure 35. This is possible in this case, because these
plates for the torque box are not very long and the
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation welding operator could reach in from each end to make
this weld.
3.2-28 / Column-Related Design
6. SIZE OF WELDS FOR FABRICATED COLUMN moment enters upper column and half enters lower
column.
The welds that join the web of a built-up column to
its inside WF section and its outside flange plate, are M
subject to longitudinal shear forces resulting from the Y2h
changing moment along the length of the column.
As an example, continue with the conditions stated 1100 ft-kip
for the preceding Problem 3. 6.5'
The bending force in the flanges of the girder 170 kips
applied to the column is found by dividing this moment
( M,) by the depth of the girder: The moment and shear diagrams for the column
when loaded with dead and live loads and wind in
_ Mx
F - d the y-y direction (Case B) are given in Figure 36.
This shear diagram indicates the transverse shear
2200 ft-kip X 12" within the region of the beam connection is V2 584=
35" kips, and that in the remaining length of the column
754 kips is VI = 170 kips.
The size of the connecting weld shall be deter-
The point of contraHexure, or zero moment, is mined for the larger shear within the region of the
assumed at about midheight of the column. The hori- beam connection, and for the lower shear value for
zontal force at this point, or transverse shear in the the remaining length of the column. The minimum
column, may be found by dividing half of the moment fillet weld size is also dependent on the maximum
applied to the column at the connection by about one- thickness of plate joined (AWS Building Article 212
half of the column height. This assumes half of applied a 1, and AISC Sec. 1.17.4).
Wind ~
--l
d
Midheight
h = 13'
~
Shear diagram
Moment diagram This is also a picture of the amount
and location of the connecting welds
to hold column together
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 36
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-29
Ao = 125.25 in 2
maximum thickness of plate here is 1'VB", and the
minimum size of fillet weld for this thickness is %"
(AWS Bldg Art 212 and AISC Sec. 1.17.4). Hence use
w = %".
. 6860
Ieg SIze w = 11,200
f _ V2 aa Ya
a - I n 7. SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR HOT-ROLLED
SEC-riONS FOR COLUMNS
_ (584 k )( 125.25)( 1515)
(74,507) (2 welds) Square and rectangular tubular shapes are now being
= 7450 lbs/In hot rolled from A7 (33,000 psi yield) and A36 (36,000
psi yield) steel at about the same price as other hot-
rolled sections.
. 7450
Ieg size w = 11200
,
These sections have exceptionally good compres-
sive and torsional resistance. See Tables 7 and 8 for
= .665" or use 3ft" dimensions and properties of stock sizes.
Many engineers feel that the round tubular section
weld 0 for the remaining length of the column is the best for a column since it has a rather high radius
VI = 170 k
or 29% of V2 of gyration in all directions. This is much better than
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
hence use 29% of the leg size or .192". However, the
the standard WF or I sections, which have a much
lower radius of gyration about the weaker y-y axis.
3.2-30 / Column-Related Design
Unfortunately the usually higher cost of round tubular For another example, consider the following A36
sections prohibits their universal use for columns. section:
However, a square tube is slightly better than the
round section; for the same outside dimensions and
cross-sectional area the square tube has a larger radius
of gyration. This of course would allow higher com-
pressive stresses. Consider the following two sections,
12' long, made of A36 steel:
- ---)(
I'
.3IB"
r - -.250"
A = 9.71 in. 2
10" D 32#
FIGURE 41
A = 9.48 in. 2
r; = 4.20" rml n = 3.949"
FIGURE 38 FIGURE 39
r y = 1.94"
L _ (144") L (144")
3W' extra-heavy pipe 4" X 4" square tubing 74.2 36.5
r - (1.94") r - (3.95")
A = 3.678 in. 2 A = 3.535 in. 2
(Te = 15,990 psi (Te = 19,460 psi
w, = 12.51lbsjft w, = 12.02lbsjft P = (15,990) (9.71) P = (19,460) (9.48 )
= 155.0 k
= 184.3k
rml n = 1.31" rmill = 1.503"
The 32-lbjft 10" square tubular section has a radius
L (144") L (144" ) of gyration which is more than twice that about the
110.0 95.8
r = (1.31") r (1.503" ) weak y-y axis of the 33-lbjft 10" WF section. This
results in an allowable compressive load 19% greater.
(Te = 11,670 psi (Te = 13,500 psi
The second advantage to the square and rectangu-
p = (11,670) ( 3.678 ) p = (13,500) ( 3.535 ) lar sections is the flat surface they offer for connections.
=
42.9k = 47.6k This results in the simplest and most direct type of joint
with minimum preparation and welding. Also by closing
In this example, the square tube has 3.9% less the ends, there would be no maintenance problem. It
weight and yet has an allowable load 11% greater. Its is common practice in many tubular structures not to
radius of gyration is 14.7% greater. paint the inside.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-31
.1875 4.31 1.1688 .6667 .6667 .7149 .375 11.94 6.4543 11.946 8.7784 1.8440
ZlZ 5.5
.150 5.40 1.5890 .7611 .7611 .6911 .500 17.68 8.1416 15.511 10.108 1.7705
In·
7.7 .3115 16.99 7.9389 57.306 16.373 2.6867
.1875 8.14 2.3938 4.1904 1.4517 1.3388 .375 31.73 9.3339 65.544 18.727 1.6499
3Yzx3Yz .150 10.50 l0890 5.1844 lOl96 1.3079 500 4055 11.917 78.913 n547 1.5711
.3115 11.69 3.7319 6.0816 3.4758 1.1765
.150 15.44 7.4817 73.382 18.346 l1318
.3115 31.14 9.1889 88.095 22.024 l0963
, .1875 9.31 1.7383 6.4677 l1338 1.5369
lsI .375 36.83 10.834 101.46 25.366 3.0603
.150 11.01 l5354 79880 19940 1.5031
.500 47.35 Il917 114.08 31.021 1.9849
4.4 .3115 14.51 41710 91031 4.6016 1.4677
.615 56.98 16.761 141.41 35353 1.9046
.375 16.84 4.9543 10151 5.0760 1.4315
.500 10.88 61416 11134 5.6169 1.3524 .150 31.13 9.4817 147.89 19.578 19494
.3115 39.74 11.689 179.11 35.814 3.9146
.1875 11.86 l4883 13108 5.2831 1.9458 10.10 .375 47.03 Il834 108.11 41.641 l8795
5.5 .150 15.41 45354 16595 6.6380 1.9128 500 60.95 17.917 159.81 51.961 l8069
.3115 18.77 5.5220 19489 7.7955 1.8786 .615 73.98 11.761 301.94 60.587 3.7311
A.I. A.I. pll'toot, metal, Momlnt of Soc.lon Radlu. of Momlnt 0' Soc.lon Radlu,"f
Inches pounds square Inches
y.y X·X Inertia modulu. gyration Inertia modulu. gyr.Uon
.1875 5.59 1.6438 1.8551 1.1367 1.0613 .9758 .9758 .7704
3 Z .150 7.10 1.0890 11030 1.4687 1.0169 1.1466 1.1466 .7409
.3115 8.44 1.4819 1.4317 1.6118 .9898 1.1518 1.1528 .7103
.1875 6.86 1.0188 l8654 1.9327 1.3837 1.2849 1.2849 .7978
4 Z .150 8.80 1.5890 4.6893 2.3447 1.3458 1.5321 1.5321 .7692
.3125 10.57 llO79 5.3041 1.6510 1.3064 1.7019 1.7029 .7402
.1875 8.14 2.3938 5.1291 26146 1.4780 3.3404 2.1269 1.1813
4 3 .150 10.50 l0890 6.4498 3.2249 1.4450 4.0988 2.7316 1.1519
.3125 12.69 l7329 7.4338 l7l69 1.4111 4.7000 3.1333 1.1121
TABLE 8 .1875 9.31 1.7383 8.8619 l5451 1.7991 4.0118 1.6746 11104
.150 11.01 l5354 10.949 4.3797 1.7598 4.9195 l1797 1.1796
Rectangular Hollow 5 3 .3115 14.51 41710 11.611 5.0448 1.7181 5.6155 l7504 1.1475
.375 16.84 4.9543 Il907 5.5618 1.6754 6.1551 4.1034 1.1146
Structural Tubing* .500 10.88 6.1416 15.355 6.1418 1.5811 6.6839 4.4559 1.0431
.1875 10.58 lll33 Il991 4.6637 1.1199 4.7545 l1697 11358
.150 13.71 4.0354 17.438 5.8118 1.0788 5.8675 19116 1.1058
6 3 .3115 16.65 4.8970 10.187 6.7612 1.0353 6.7591 4.5061 1.1748
.375 19.39 5.7043 n611 7.5373 1.9910 7.4560 4.9706 1.1433
.500 14.18 7.1416 15.619 8.5431 1.8944 8.1671 5.5115 1.0759
.1875 11.86 3.4883 17.160 5.7198 2.1179 9.1951 4.5976 1.6236
.150 15.42 4.5354 21.574 7.1913 1.1810 11.509 5.7544 1.5930
6 4 .3115 18.77 5.5120 25.346 8.4487 2.1424 13.463 6.7313 1.5614
.375 21.94 6.4543 18.553 9.5178 1.1033 15.097 7.5486 1.5194
.500 27.68 8.1416 31113 11.071 1.0198 17.400 8.7001 1.4619
.1875 14.41 4.1383 29.380 8.3943 1.6319 17.552 7.0110 1.0350
.250 18.82 5.5354 37.341 10.669 1.5973 11.141 8.8963 1.0045
7 5 .3115 13.02 6.7710 44.396 11.685 1.5604 16.365 10.546 1.9731
.375 17.04 7.9543 50.646 14.470 2.5133 29.985 11.994 1.9416
.500 34.48 10.141 50.641 17.316 1.4453 35688 14.175 1.8759
.1875 14.41 4.1383 34.818 8.7070 1.8666 11.913 5.9614 1.6771
.150 18.82 5.5354 44.130 11.058 1.8167 15.030 7.5148 1.6478
I 4 .3125 13.01 6.7710 51.533 Il133 1.7851 17.711 8.8160 1.6177
.375 17.04 7.9543 59.864 15966 1.7433 10.041 10.021 1.5874
.500 34.48 10.141 71.475 17.869 16548 13.567 11.784 1.5144
.1875 16.85 4.9577 45.771 11.443 l0385 19.548 9.8493 1.4413
.(1) Tables 7 and 8 are used here by .150 11.04 6.4817 58.361 14.590 lOO07 37.608 12.536 1.4088
permission of United States Steel Cor- I 6 .3125 26.99 7.9389 69.617 17.404 1.9613 44.784 14.918 1.3751
poration. .375 31.73 9.3339 79.643 19.911 1.9111 51.143 17.048 1.3408
.500 40.55 11.917 95.916 13.979 1.8358 61.374 20.458 2.1684
(2) Standard sizes listed represent aut-
.150 15.44 7.4817 100.35 10.070 l6613 45.879 15.193 1.4763
lide dimensions. .3115 31.24 9.1889 110.45 14.089 l6205 54.903 18.301 2.4444
10 6 .375 36.83 10.834 138.69 17.739 l5780 61016 11.009 1.4119
(3) These sizes of tubing are normally
.500 47.35 Il917 169.48 33896 l4884 76.541 15.514 1.3443
in stock and available for immediate
.150 18.83 8.4818 114.11 14.814 l8154 88403 11.101 l1184
delivery; other sizes will be stocked or .3125 35.49 149.78 19.957 l7880 106.57 16643 l1916
10439
rolled as required. 10 I .375 41.93 12.334 173.45 34.690 3.7501 123.18 30811 3.1616
(4) The weight, area, and other proper. .500 54.15 15.917 114.64 42.919 l6711 151.15 38.061 l0918
@Seismicisolation
ties given were calculated on the basis .150 18.83 8.4818 157.30 26.217 4.3065 54.150 18.050 1.5167
of a section with rounded corners and
consequently show the actual section
praperties rather than the idealized ver·
@Seismicisolation
12 6
.3125
.375
.500
35.49
41.93
54.15
10.439
11.334
15.927
18965
119.41
170.89
31.609
36.589
45.149
4.1614
4.1178
4.1141
65.011
74.909
91.708
11.674
24.969
30.569
1.4958
1.4644
1.3996
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 3.3
Column Bases
1. BASIC REQU IREMENTS area (A). Table 2 lists standard sizes of rolled plate
used for bearing plates.
Base plates are required on the ends of columns to 3. Determine overhanging dimensions m and n,
distribute the concentrated compressive load (P) of the projection of the plate beyond the assumed
the column over a much larger area of the material ( shaded) rectangle against which the load ( P ) is
which supports the column. applied.
The base plate is dimensioned on the assumption
that the overhanging portion of the base plate acts as m lh (D - .95 d)
a cantilever beam with its fixed end just inside of the n lh (B - .80 b)
column edges. The upward bending load on this canti-
lever beam is considered to be uniform and equal to 4. Use the larger value of m or n to solve for
the bearing pressure of the supporting material. required plate thickness (t) by one of the following
formulas:
It=mJ¥lt
L...--_~----I. I··.. ····
I I
I I
P
: I
__ n _J_3cr
_ (1)
I I
II
I I
It
~~~f I
I
Deriyation 01 Formula # 1
b ~I ~ The primary function of the plate thickness is to pro-
II n
Critical Section vide sufficient resistance to the bending moment (M)
in Bending
on the overhang of the plate just beyond the rectangu-
lar area contacted by the column. Treating this over-
950 0 TABLE I-Masonry Bearing Allowables
!-------+--!---ll
~n O.BOb ••
On sandstone and limestone
(AISC Sec 1.5.5)
p = 400 psi
On brick in cement mortar p = 250 psi
FIGURE On full area of concrete support p = 0.25 r-,
On % area of concrete support p = 0.375 f'e
AISC suggests the following method to determine
the required thickness of bearing plate, using a maxi- where f' e is the specified compression strength of the concrete at 28 days
(In this text, u'e is used as equivalent to AISC's f'e.)
mum bending stress of .75 cry psi (AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.8):
1. Determine the required minimum base plate TABLE 2-Standard Sizes of Rolled Plate
area, A = Pip. The column load (P) is applied uni- For Bearing Plates
formly to the base plate within a rectangular area
(shaded). The dimensions of this area relative to the 14 x 1'/4 28 X 3 44 X 6 60 X 7 72 x9 112
column section's dimensions are .95 d and .80 b. 14 x 1112 28 x 3112 48 x 5 112 60 x 7 112 72 x
10
@Seismicisolation 24 44 56 X 7 72
@Seismicisolation
dimensions m and n are approximately equal. As a
guide, start with the square root of required plate
24 x 3 44 X 5 112 56 x 8 72 X 9
3.3-1
3.3-2 / Column-Related Design
~ R
0
~ r- 1\
0 0 0 0
r- 0 r- t\
~ r- t> t-.:
FIGURE 2
[o]
hang (m or n) as a cantilever beam with M being plates over 2" but not ever 4" in thickness may be
maximum at the fixed or column end: straightened by pressing; or, if presses are not available,
by planing for all bearing surfaces (except as noted
bending moment under requirement 3) to obtain a satisfactory contact
p m2 bearing; rolled steel bearing plates over 4" in thickness
M = -2- parallel to the column's x-x axis and shall be planed for all bearing surfaces (except as
noted under requirement 3).
n2
M = P 2 parallel to the column's y-y axis "2. Column bases other than rolled steel bearing
plates shall be planed for all bearing surfaces (except
bending stress in plate as noted under requirement 3).
"3. The bottom surfaces of bearing plates and
M where, assuming a I" strip: column bases which are grouted to insure full bearing
<T=S
(1") t 2 contact on foundations need not be planed."
S -6- The above requirements assume that the thinner
base plates are sufficiently smooth and Hat as rolled,
t2 6 S
to provide full contact with milled or planed ends of
column bases. Thicker plates (exceeding 2") are likely
and by substitution:
to be slightly bowed or cambered and thus need to be
t2 = 6M straightened and/or made smooth and Hat.
<T
6 p m" 3 p m2 2. STANDARD DETAILING PRACTICE
2<T
= <T
and
Figure 2 shows typical column bases. Note the sim-
t = m~3<TP or Formula #1. plicity of these designs for arc-welded fabrication.
Designs a and b are intended for where column
(similarly for dimension n) and base plate are erected separately. The angles are
shop welded to the column, and the column field
Finishing of Bearing Surfaces welded to the base plate after erection. Design c is a
AISC Sec 1.21.3 prescribes that column base plates be standard of fabrication for light columns. Here the
finished as follows: base plate is first punched for anchor bolts, then shop
@Seismicisolation
"1. Rolled steel bearing plates, 2" or less in thick-
@Seismicisolation
ness, may be used without planing, provided a satis-
factory contact bearing is obtained; rolled steel bearing
welded to the column.
If the end of the column is milled, there must be
just sufficient welding to the base plate to hold all parts
Column Bases / 3.3-3
Attochinq angle
FIGURE 5
~
00
00 10
00
0
1
>:--f~
-
~ :tf • · n ! J~o:k.~.::OJ .;}o~~·.··tj.i.:~.?::?t].I
column. @Seismicisolation
(a) Base plate shop welded to
@Seismicisolation
(b) Base plate shipped separate-attaching
angles shop welded to column.
3.3-4 / Column-Related Design
Tl
d
FIGURE 8
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 6
horizontally (ail) when an uplift force (P v) is applied
to the column.
Column Balel / 3.3-5
1 d
at the heel of the angle, and
P v b (3b + 2d)
~,l M
2(3b + d)
................. (5)
= ;"Ed I (3b
E I
+ lf2(P
+ d)
h d) (d)% d
E I
or required thickness of
.I whe,~
S=-
U'
... ;h
i ~ (3b + d)
Pv b2 d
2 E I or
3 r, b 2
Ph = 2 d(3b d) + @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation or where, the vertical leg of the angle is welded only
3.3-6 I Column-Related Design
CASE A CASE B
Id
FIGURE 9
3 P, b 2
M
2(3b + d) P, b (3b + 2d)
M
2(3b + d)
at its toe to the column (Case B); here formula #5 construction. Also included are dimensions of standard
applies- bols, (Table 3A).
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Effective bearing area of a pin or bolt sholl be its diameter multiplied
by the thickness of the metal on which it bears.
(or the thickness of the web) over which the stresses
are applied, gives the following force distribution
Column Balel / 3.3-7
--
%6" 12 .248 .162 3" 3* 7.069 5.428
%" 11 .307 .202 3*" 3* 8.296 6.510
%" 10 .442 .302 3*" 3* 9.621 7.548
%" 9 .601 .419 3%," 3 11.045 8.641
y-H-y °Ho
o
o
0
0
Compressive stress
~
Bending stress
f (J b
f = (J b
Pc e
(J = -5-
~
Total stress FIGURE 12 FIGURE 13
• . Pc Pc e
(J =A + -5-
If anchor hold-down bolts transfer the tensile
forces, then-
The column is usually set with the eccentricity
FIGURE 11
( e) lying within the plane of the column web (axis
across the depth of the column. This force is trans- y-y), as in Figure 11. Thus the column flanges will
ferred to the base plate. See Figure 12. This assumes carry most of the resulting forces because of their
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
that the column flanges are welded directly to the base
plate.
having relatively greater cross-sectional area, and being
located in areas of higher stress. See Figure 14.
3.3-8 / Column-Related Design
l--e-1
I
p
c ~f e< "6
I
D
-t
I
I
I
I
t- e- _ 0
"6
I I
I I
I I
I I
FIGURE 14
FIGURE 15
If the eccentricity (e) is less than 711 D, there is
no uplift of the base plate at the surlace of the
masonry support (Figure 15):
lTT = lTl compression ± lT2 bending There are three equations, and three unknowns (Pt ) ,
(Y), and (lTe ) :
r, r, e
=1\ ± -S- l.IV=O
lh Y lT e B - Pt - Pe = 0
When the eccentricity (e) exceeds 711 D, there is
uplift on the base plate which is resisted by the anchor
hold-down bolts. The bearing stress on the masonry
or
1 Pe +P t = lT
e
i B I . . . . · . . . . · · · · .. · (8a)
support is maximum at the extreme edge of the bearing
plate. It is assumed this stress decreases linearly back and
along the plate for a distance (Y); however, there is
some question as to how far this extends. One problem
_ 2(PeYB
lTc -
+ Pd 1 (8b)
analysis approach treats this section as a reinforced
concrete beam. where: lTe = pressure supplied by masonry supporting
material
2. I M = 0 (About N.A. of column)
I
~IOIE e Pt f+(Pe+Pt)(~-f)-Pee=o
I
or
[~~: (~)
I Pc
I
I
P, =- P, :]
.,
" D
I'
r
and
......... (9b)
P,
Pc + PI
FIGURE 16
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 3. Representing the elastic behavior of the concrete
support and the steel hold-down bolt (see Figure 17):
Column Bases / 3.3-9
CT.
a E. E. since: E. = CT.
b- Ee CTc E.
Ec - -
CTc
Ec -
Ec
Also where:
A. = total area of steel
hold-down bolts
under tension
and letting CT. = stress in steel f+-r-+-k---Y - - - ~
bolt
E. = strain in steel (~-Y+f)
bolt
E. = modulus of elas- FIGURE 17
ticity of steel bolt
then and: Solve for Y:
Pt CTe =
stress in concrete
a A. Pt
support
e, = strain in concrete -2nA.(~ -Y+f)(~ -*+f)
b = CTc n = A. CTc n support
+(~ - )(~ -
E, = modulus of elas-
and from similar triangles ticity of concrete * - e)( 2nA. Y + f)
support
D n = modular ratio of
a 2- Y +f elasticity, steel to =Y2B(~-~-e)
b'= Y concrete
or
so _ n A. D2 + 4 n A. D Y _ 2 A D f _ 2 n A. y2
D 2 3 n • 3
- -
2
Y +f
+ 8 n ~. f Y _ 2 n A. f2 + n A D2 _ 4 n A:i D Y
A. C1'c n Y 2
2n A. Y2
or - n A. D e+ 3 + 2 n A. e Y + n A. D f
C1'e = A.n(D- - Y + f )
2
(10)
_ 2 n ~. f Y _ 2 n A. e f = B2D y2 _ B r_ B e Y2
Pc + Pt = D
Pt
Y (Y
YS+3( e-~)Y2+ 6~A.( f+e) Y
2B) .. (12)
A. n(2 - Y + f) _ 6 ~A. ( ~ +f ) (£ + e) .; 0
or
or to express it in a manner to facilitate repetitive use,
let-
x, = 3 ( e - ~)
Substituting formula #9a into formula # 11:
K 2 = 6n f + e )
[
~2 - r3 +
(
f] _------:-Pt::.. .=.-Y2=---B------:- BA.
+ Pt = ( + )
-
p
t D
2-3"-e
Y @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2A n D _ Y f
• 2 Ks=-K2(~+f)
3.3-10 / Column-Related Design
20,000#
FIGURE 20
.. L--~
~
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
diagram
Column Bases / 3.3-11
where: bending
O"b = stress in outer fibers M
f b =-S
M = bending moment w
.386 in."
(10,000# )
Mc (23")
=-1-
= 435 lbs/In,
(10,000 # X 2") ( =Mi" )
(.386) resultant force on weld
19,400 psi
'1(513)2 +
2
a
2
(435)2
load. 673 lbs/In.
Check Welds to Column Web leg size of (E70) fillet weld
The angles are welded to the column web with actual force
114" fillet welds; this will now be checked. Cd = allowable force
The heel of the angle is in compression against
(673)
the web of the column and is equivalent to an addi-
( 11,200)
tional weld across the bottom for resisting moment.
On this basis, the section modulus of the weld is .06"
calculated. For simplicity, the weld is treated as a line but 3f4"-thick angle requires a minimum of 1/4" ~
without any cross-sectional area. From Table 5, Sect.
(Table 3, Section 7.4).
7.4, the section modulus of a rectangular connection is:
If it is desired to increase the anchor bolt capacity
of the clip angle detail, thicker angles should be used
with large plate washers on top of the angle. The
attachments should be made to the column flanges,
since the welds are more accessible there and the
bolts have better leverage.
I Problem 2 I
and here:
To illustrate how the column flange cap. be checked
Sw:::: (11)(6) + (~)2 to determine whether or not it is too thin, consider a
clip angle anchored with two 1W' bolts centered 21h"
= 78 in. 2 out from the face of the column flange; see Figure 21.
The angle is attached to the column flange by fillet
Normally, section modulus is expressed as inches welds across the top and down each side.
to the third power; however, here where the weld has The capacity of the two bolts at 14,000 psi allow-
no area, the resulting section modulus is expressed as able stress on unthreaded area (AISC Sec 1.5.2) is-
inches squared.
When a standard bending formula is used, the 2 (1.227) (14,000) = 34,400 lbs > 28,500 lbs OK
answer (rr ) is stress in Ibs/in. 2 ; however, when this
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation=
new section modulus is used in the bending formula,
the answer (f) is force on the weld in lbs/Iinear in.
The bending moment on the weld is-
(28,500 lbs ) (21h") 71,250 in.-lbs
3.3-12 I Column-Related Design
57,000# Uplift zontal top weld. At the ends of the angle, the force
On Columns . (915)(3)
couple IS 2 = 1370 lbs centered 1" below the
top toe of the angle. See Figure 22.
This is the force on each of the vertical welds at
ends of the angle. Since these forces are not resisted
by anything but the flange, they have to be carried
transversely by bending stresses in the flange until
they reach the resistance in the column web.
The bending moment in the column flange is com-
puted as follows:
12,800#
11" FIGURE 22
'-------i~
II
I-L- 6x4q-
II 311
T1370#
28,500#
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
I
1 -1I I" "
22 .....- - - 6 ---1--2 2
I"
Column Bases / 3.3-13
FIGURE 23
/1"W"87'"
-r-jf::>'
:::?
16
iV2"~! II
II
II' I
le,IOO·
"\ 'P.J. ': @
I 1
1
I I
t I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
1
I I ,I I
I
I ' 1
I I I
: I: :I: ,
I
i
, I
-6.66"
+ZO~
,9° .1. 9Ml
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
r
Izo8,sbo·
5 M
5
H
:
3.3-14 / Column-Related Design
@
k----- 14.00"---l
I
I
I
I
~ ~.688"
0
1
B = 24"
Anchor
other words, the overhang of the bearing plate) equals
lh. the effective distance of the bearing support. See
Figure 24.
area of triangle
I
I hold-down bolts A If.! a; Y
I
t
are inactive on
compression side
= P, + P,
effective bearing length of base plate (from formula #8)
= 2(P +B P
~9" --I-- 16.15"-i
Y e t ) Let:
eTc
B = 24"
I . 130k _ 2( 130 + 78.8k k
)
I I
I I (750)(24) eTc = .25 u'e
I I = 23.2" = .25 (3000 psi)
I I
I t Y = 750 psi
and:3 = 7.73" overhang
FIGURE 25
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Column Bases / 3.3-15
the moment by the depth of the stiffeners: For simplicity, this analysis has assumed that the
effective bearing length (Y) was such that the center
(78,800 ) ( 2) of gravity of the triangular bearing stress distribution,
c (13 ) e.G. at ~ Y, lies along the centerline of the column
12,100 lbs Bange where the compressive force of the column is
applied.
This is a horizontal load acting at right angles to
the column Bange. It is delivered as four concentrated
loads at the tops of stiffeners and then carried hori-
Problem 4
zontally by the channel Bange to a point opposite the
column web where it is attached to the column with a With the same column base detail as in Problem 3,
2lh" X "h// fillet weld. we will now use the original derivation for this effective
bearing length (Y), treating the analysis as a reinforced
2"h// X 5600 lbsjin. = 14,000 lbs. concrete beam and solving the resulting cubic equation.
The work may take longer, but results are more ac-
The concentrated load values are 2015 lbs at each curate. See Figure 26, temporarily ignoring the anchor-
end stiffener for one-half a bolt load, and 4030 lbs at bolt channel attachments.
each interior stiffener.
1
(2,015) (7.5) d
(4,030) (2.5) = lO,l00 in-Ibs I
M = 25,300 in.-lbs
e I
I
0
I
@ 0 B = 24"
It causes a bending stress in the channels 4// X %//
J
top flange section of approximately-
~ 0
M
O"b =S
e-i,
(25,300 )
( 1.6)
15,BOO psi ~f--lc
I
To keep the channel section from sliding parallel I
to the column Bange, the direct vertical pull of the I
bolts is supported by two 13// X :x
6// continuous fillet
I
I
welds between the edge of the column flanges and the I
web of the 13// channel section. The shear on these I
Pc + PI
welds is-
(78,800 )
f. = (2)(13)
= 3030 lbsjin.
(3030)
w= ( 11,200) E70-weld allowable ~.
.276// or use :Xu// fillet
FIGURE 26
The problem in Figure 23 has been analyzed on
the basis of simple levers with the compression load Here:
concentrated on the column Bange. It ignores the com- e 16.15//
pression area under the web of the column and illus- f 9//
trates the problem where the channel Bange of the
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
anchor bolt attachment does not bear against the base
plate.
D
B
280/4//
24//
3.3-16 / Column-Related Design
-l2j.
I
e
r-- .68"
14"----j 4"
I
:
1r
f-
1-4'~ 13" [ 31.8#
1
0 16" lonq
.42" I 00 16
" t13~ four W' X 3%" It's
14.5"
1 N.A. I .61"
- r-- x--+-l
_ 11_
.375" ~ r-- 2J
Tensile stress (1 {
FIGURE 27
in bolts t
L.L..L.u...L..L.L.l....L..l..L..L.J..u:::.."""'TT"T"TT1 Compression stress at outer
edge of channel stiffeners
E
n = E: = 10 (E c = 3000 psi) y = +10 - ---3707
1%" bolts Y = +12 - -1960
~ ~ - Y; - eJ
K1 = 3 ( e - ~)
P, = - P, D
= 3 (16.15 - ~%) 2" -3 + f
K 2 = 6 n A. (f
B
+
= 6 (1O~(6.22) (9 + 16.15)
e)
= + 44.5
130k
k
[
2
28%
2
_
3
13.9 + 9
3 J
= 392 which is the tensile load on the hold-down bolts.
Distance: C.G. to
ref. axis y-y Area Moment Moment of inertia
---
(y) (A) (M) ('.) (I.)
Size 01 Welds Attaching Stiffeners to Channel Web and the required fillet weld leg size is-
Compressive force is carried by each of the four 856
channel stiffeners. The average compressive stress on 11,200 ..... for E70 welds (Table 5, Sect. 7.4)
these stiffeners is-
.076" or use %6"~ (Table 2, Sect. 7.4)
5.15" .
a; = 6.93" (8220 pSI) + 4300 psi
With this leg size, intermittent welds can be used
6110 psi + 4300 psi = 10,410 psi instead of continuous welding-
bottom)!
~------lij~
(0)
T
d = 13"
(b)
-Ell -81"" (c)
13"
(d)
d
2(2b
+ d) = + d' d2
S... = 3(b + d) S... bd 3 S... =
3
S... = bd
M M M
h == -Sw fb =
Sw
fb = -
Sw
(174,200) (174,200) (174,200) (174,200)
(86.1) (242.2) (56.3) (185.9)
= 2020 Ibslln. 720Ibslln. 3100 Ibslln. = 935 lbs/In,
V V V V
f. = L f. = L f. =
L L
(123,400) (123,400) (123,400) (123,400)
2(13) + (14.5) 2(13 + 14.5) 2 (13) 2 (14.5)
= 3050 Ibslln. = 2240 Ibslln. = 47501bslin. = 4260 Ibslln.
@Seismicisolation
Ll .506" or Yo" = .389" or 7/16" Ll
Column Bases / 3.3-19
F= tr A
8000
48,0001bs
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
placed across the column flange and channel flange,
with no longitudinal welding along the channel web.
( 8.25)
18,000 psi
3.3-20 / Column-Related Design
At the center of the 3" bar, the bolt loads are section modulus of weld
supported by tension and compression forces in the (1288)
1" thick web plates above and below the bar. The Shottom = ( 11.5)
web plates are attached to the column flange, opposite
the column web, by we Ids that carry this moment and 112 in.2
shear into the column.
(1288)
The shear and moment caused by the anchor bolt Stop =
(9.5 )
forces, which are not in the plane of the weld, deter-
mine the size of the vertical welds. The welds extend 135.5 in. 2
15" above and 3" below the 3" transverse bar.
The properties and stresses on the vertical welds maximum bending force on weld
are figured on the basis of treating the welds as a line, M
having no width. See Figure 30. (top) r, =--s:-
r
( 84,600 )( 3 )
neutral
a.X;,s
9.5"
.: 2" f
f 13.5"
IS"
V
f. = Lw
( 135.5)
1870 lbs/in.
11.5" (84,600)
"
(36)
.
FIGURE 30*
Take area moments about the base line (y-y):
x 2340 lbs/in.
= ~ ( 1870) 2 + (2340)2
A y M I. I.
= 3000 Ibs/In.
2 welds X 3" 6 1.5 9.0 13.5 4.5
2 welds X 15" 30 15.3 405.0 5467.5 562.5 required fillet weld size
Total
3000
36 414.0 6048
Cl) - 11,200 ..... E70 allowable
Ctop
= 11.5"
= 9.5"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation In (a) of Figure 31, small brackets are groove butt
Column Bases / 3.3-21
y, -
Horizontal plate
stiffeners may be
placed between
column flanges I
Channel set back
slightly from end
_ y of column
FIGURE 31
welded to the outer edges of the column flanges to this moment. The only slight drawback is that the
develop greater moment resistance for the attachment attaching plates will not stiffen the overhung portion
to the base plate. This will help for moments about of the base plate for the bending due to tension in the
either the x-x or the y-y axis. A single bevel or single V hold-down bolts, or due to the upward bearing pressure
joint is prepared by beveling just the edge of the of the masonry support. However if this is a problem,
brackets; no beveling is done on the column flanges. small brackets shown in dotted lines may be easily
For column flanges of nominal thickness, it might added.
be easier to simply add two brackets, fillet welded to The plates can be fillet welded to the outer edges
the base of the column; see (b) and (c). No beveling of the column flange as in (c), although there is not
is required, and handling and assembling time is re- good accessibility for the welds on the inside. Some of
duced because only two additional pieces are required. these inside fillet welds can be made before the unit
In (b) the bracket plates are attached to the face is assembled to the base plate.
of the column flange; in (c) the plates are attached to For thick flanges, detail (a) might represent the
the outer edge of the column flange. In any rolled least amount of welding and additional plate material.
section used as a column, greater bending strength Short lengths of pipe have been welded to the
and stiffness is obtained about the x-x axis. If the outer edge of the column flange to develop the neces-
moment is about the x-x axis, it would be better to sary moment for the hold-down bolts; see (d). The
attach the additional plates to the face of the column length and leg size of the attaching fillet welds are
as in (b). This will provide a good transverse fillet sufficient for the moment.
across the column flange and two longitudinal fillet In (e) two channels with additional stiffeners are
welds along the outer edge of the column flange with welded to the column flanges for the required moment
good accessibility for welding. The attaching plates from the hold-down bolts. By setting this channel
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
and the welds connecting them to the base plate are
in the most effective position and location to transfer
assembly back slightly from the milled end of the
.column, it does not have to be designed for any bear-
3.3-22 / Column-Related Design
Problem 6
FIGURE 32
-, 9= /:.03"
d I.-_-
~
I·
------b 2 = 50'·----~~
-I
-. . 30~ c.c.
= 5.51" or use 6"-thick plate
d
A = (b i +b 2 )2 A y M 17 I.
P=A<T
= (690 in. 2 ) (750 psi) moment of inertia about N.A.
= 516 kips M2
In = l, +
I, - A
M = P g
(27,990) _ (1596.6)2
= (516 k)(12.03") ( 172.2)
= 6.225 in.-kips 13,190 in,"
Since:
M = <T S
S=~
<T
1" t 2
6
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 36
3.3-24 / Column-Related Design
25,200#/in
- - - - -- .- - N.A. - f- (Dd_-
6"
- - - - - - - - - - - ~, Cb = 9.27"
1
2"
24,630#/in
~----- - - - r-1---16.7"~ -- -- -- --- -- J ...L-
ob = 4370 psi 7
Bending stress (0) Shear force (f)
[o] (b) [c]
FIGURE 37
same region as does the maximum unit shear force. Alternate method. In cases where the forces are
However the analysis does not take long: high, and the requirement for welding is greater, it
would be well to look further into the analysis in order
bending force on weld to reduce the amount of welding.
fb (T t In Figure 37, it is seen that the maximum unit
force on the vertical weld due to bending moment
(9770 psi) ( 1%")
occurs at the top of the bracket connection (b) in a
14,660 lbs/in, (one bracket and two fillet region of very low shear transfer. Likewise the maxi-
welds) mum unit shear force occurs in a region of low bending
or moment (c). In the following analysis, the weld size
= 7330 lbsyin. (one fillet weld) is determined both for bending and for shear, and the
larger of these two values are used:
vertical shear force on weld
(assuming uniform distribution) vertical shear requirement
516.5 k (maximum condition at N.A.)
f. =4 X 30" £1 = 25,200 lbs/In.
= 4310 lba/In,
to be carried by four fillet welds.
resultant force on weld
actual force
= allowable force
f. ::::: ~ fb 2
+ f. 2 W
% (25,200)
=~ (7330)2 + (4310)2 (11,200)
.562" or %6" ~
= 8500 lbs/in.
bending requirement
(maximum condition at top of bracket)
required leg size of vertical fillet weld
actual force 7330 lbsym,
Cl) = allowable force
actual force
(8500) allowable force
(11,200)
(7330)
.758" or use %"~ (11,200 )
.654" or %" ~
Hence use the larger of the two, or %" fillet welds.
Although this alternate method required a slightly
smaller fillet weld (.654") as against ( .758"), they
both ended up at 0/4" when they were rounded off. So,
in this particular example, there was no saving in
using this method.
Column stiffeners
A rather high compressive force in the top portion of
these brackets is applied horizontally to the column
flange. It would be well to add stiffeners between the
column flanges to transfer this force from one bracket
through the column to the opposite column flange;
Figure 38.
It might be argued that, if the brackets are milled
to bear against the column flanges, the bearing area
may then be considered to carry the compressive hori-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 38
zontal force between the bracket and the column flange.
Also, the connecting welds may then be considered to
3.3-26 / Column-Related Design
.. force on FIGURE 39
, bearing area Slight tensile prestress
Unit shear between bracket in weld before load is
force on weld and column flange applied
carry only the vertical shear forces. See Figure 39, left. actual force
w
If the designer questions whether the weld would allowable force
load up in compression along with the bearing area
( 4310)
of the bracket, it should be remembered that weld
(11,200)
shrinkage will slightly prestress the weld in tension and
the end of the bracket within the weld region in com- .385"
pression. See Figure 39, right. As the horizontal com-
pression is applied, the weld must first unload in but 3" thick column flange would require a minimum
tension before it would be loaded in compression. In W' ~ (Table 2, Sect. 7.4).
the meantime, the bracket bearing area continues to If partial-penetration groove welds are used (as-
load up in compression. suming a tight fit) the following applies:
This is very similar to standard practice in welded
allowables (E70 welds)
plate girder design. Even though the web is not milled
along its edge, it is fitted tight to the flange and simple compression: same as plate
fillet welds join the two. In almost all cases, these welds shear: T = 15,800 psi
are designed just for the shear transfer (parallel to the
weld) between the web and the flange, any distributed shear force on one weld
floor load is assumed to transfer down through the f. = 4310 lbsjin.
flange (transverse to the weld) into the edge of the
web which is in contact with the flange. Designers required effective throat
believe that even if this transverse force is transferred
through the weld, it does not lower the capacity of f.
t, =~
T
the fillet weld to transfer the shear forces.
Refer to Figure 37(b) and notice that the bending (4310)
action provides a horizontal compressive force on the ( 15,800)
vertical connecting welds along almost their entire .273"
length. Only a very small length of the welds near
the base plate is subjected to horizontal tension, and if using bevel faint
these forces are very small. The maximum tensile
forces occur within the base plate, which has no con-
necting welds.
.954" or use %" Figure 41 shows the resulting column base detail.
3690
ell = 11200
,
.33" or %"
o o
I~ ~I
.... ....
- - - - - - - - - - _.... ~
", I
I
I
,)
..--
6"
..L.. ~ ---J
FIGURE 40 FIGURE 41
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
COLUMN BASE PLATE DIMENSIONS (AI SC, 1963)
~} ~}
COLU MN BASE PLATES COLUMN BASE PLATES
I. B .1
Dimensions for maximum
column loads
Base plates, ASTM A36. Fb = 27 ksi
Concretej", = 3000 PSI
g g Dimensions for maximum
column loads
Base plates, ASTM A36. Fb = 27 ksi
Concrete,l'c = 3000 psi
I. B
.1
Column I
Unit Pressure on Support
F p = 0.25/" = 750 psi
I Unit Pressure on Support
F, = 0.375/" = 1125 psi Column
Unit Pressure on Support
F p = 0.25/" = 750 psi
Unit Pressure on Support
F p = 0.375/" = 1125 psi
Nom. S:ize:! WI. I Max. Dimen-
sicns Thickness of Plate Gross 1\ Dimen-I
sions Thickness of Plate l'I Sross
Nom. Size WI. Max.
Dimen-
sions Thickness of Plate Gross
Dimen-
sions Thickness of Plate Gross
& Destg- i per I load --- -----'1------ & Desig- per load WI.
WI. WI. nation FI. WI.
nation ! Ft. I B Ic Calc. I Fin. Rolled I; B i C Calc. I Fin. Rolledi
1
Note: Rolled plate thicknesses above 4 Inches are based on finished thickness plus suggested
allowances for finishing one side, and may be modified to suit fabricating plant practice.
When it is required to finish both surfaces of base plates, additional allowance must be made.
[
..a
ID
ID
A.
~J ~J
COLUMN BASE PLATES
A441 Columns
Dimensions for maximum Dimensions for maximum
I. B
Column
,I
II
column loads
Base plates. ASTM A36, Fb = 27 ksi
I
Concrete, t' c = 3000 psi
Column
.1
column loads
Base plates, ASTM A36, Fb = 17 ksi
ccncrete.v-, = 3000 psi
I~
nation per Load WI.
Rolled I
---
Ft. B C Fin. Rolled B C Calc. Fin. nation Ft.
~;I ~
Calc. Fin. Rolled I WI. B C Calc. I~ Rolled
--------
I In. I Lb. Kips In. I In. In. lin. lin. Lb. In. I In. In. 1 In'-I In. In. Lb. Kips In. In. In. Lb. In. In. In. In. In. Lb.
-------- --------
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BP12 4421123
316 20 26
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219 1551 44 47 4.61 4% 5 2929 36 39 4.19 4'4 4% 1840
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I
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r::a
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\/IF
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125
III
III
III
@Seismicisolation
I 5.7 31 6 7 .59 % i .53 % % 5
% I 7 w
@Seismicisolation I
Note: Rolled plate thicknesses above 4 inches are based on finished thickness plus suggested
allowances for finishing one side. and may be modified to suit fabricating plant practice.
When It is required to finish both surfaces of base plates. additional allowance must be made.
~
-0
to
For A242-A440- COLUMN BASE PLATES For A242-A440- <,
~} ~}
COLUMN BASE PLATES A441 Columns
A441 Columns
Dimensions for maximum Dimensions for maximum n
2-
B
column loads
B
column loads c
Base plates, ASTM A36, Fb = 27 ksi :I
~~
Base plates. ASTM A36. F" = 27 ksi
Concrete, t' c = 3000 psi I. B .1 Concrete, t' c = 300Dpsi ~
I
Nom. size
Column
WI. Max.
Dlmen-
sions
Unit Pressure on Support
F. = 0.25/" = 750 psi
Thickness 01 Plate Gross
Unit Pressure on Support
F.
Dimeo-
sions
= 0.375/" = 1125 p.i
Thickness of Plate Gross
s.
f---
Nom ...ze
Column
I W
t.
i'
I,
.
Unit Pressure on Support
F p = 0.375/" = 1125 p.i
ID
Cl.
& Desig· per & Dealg- per Load 1:--- WI. - - - WI.
nation ft.
Load
B C Calc.
-------
Fin. Rolled
WI.
B C Calc. I~ Rolled
WI.
nation 1 Ft. II B , C 1 calC.] Fin. !
Rolled B Ie,
Calc. I Fin. Rolled I C
ID
IG'
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~
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34 3':4 73 5731127 29 2.29 2% 2% 527 22124' 1.92 2 2 299
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99 813 32 34 3.21 31,4 31,4 1002 26 28 2.86 2% 2¥. 593 12 X 12 74 604 127130 2.661 2'.4 2% 631 22 25 2.36 2% 2% 370
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I
85 698 30 32 2.89 2% 2¥. 782 24 26 2.52 2'/2 2'12 442 10 X 10 57 456 24 26 2.35 2% 2% 420 19 22 2.17 2':4 2',4 266
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72 590 27 30 2.61 2% 2% 602 22 24 2.18 21,4 2',4 337
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10 X 10 112 906 33 37 3.76 1297 27 30 3.38 774
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77
72
622
581
28
27
30
29
2.86
2.73
2¥.
2%
2¥.
2%
684
610
23
22
25
24
2.59
2.45
2%
2V2
2%
2'/2
428
374
w: 20 159 14 16 1.42 IV, 1':12 95 11 13 1.25 1':4 1',4 51
15.5 124 12 14 1.19 1':4 1':4 59 10 12 1.07 IV. Ilk 38
66 532 26 28 2.58 2% 2% 541 21 23 2.30 2% 2% 325
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49 394 22 24 2.09 2lk 2lk 318 18 20 1.83 1¥. 1¥. 191
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w: 58 454 24 26 2.51 2Yl 2Yl 442 20 21 2.33 2% 2% 283
4X4M
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I
17.25
12.5
133
97
12
10
15
13
1.33
1.06
1%
Ilk
1%
Ilk
70 I 10
41 8
12
11
1.25
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1'.4
1
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1
42
25
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8 X 6Yl 28 207 1.61 16 82 5X3 14.75 112 11 14 1.32 1% 1% 60 9 12 1.23 1',4 11,4 38
15 19 1% I'll. 131 12 1.44 1V2 1'/2
I
w: 24 178 14 17 1.36 1% 1% 93 11 15 1.29 1% 1% 64 10 75 9 12 1.01 1 1 31 7 10 .91 1 1 20
4 X 2% 9.5 71 9 11 1.02 1 1 28 7 10 1.04 Ilk Ilk 22
8 X 5':4 20 134 12 15 1.12 Ilk Ilk 57 9 14 1.08 Ilk Ilk 40 I 7.7 57 8 10 .87 % ¥. 20 6 9 .89 1 1 15
w: 17 112 10 15 1.07 Ilk Ilk 48 8 13 .93 1 1 29
3 X 2% 7.5 54 8 91 .89 1 1 20 6 8 .91 1 1 14
I 5.7 41 7, 8 .73 % '.4 12 6 7 .68 % % 9
Note: RoUed plate thicknesses above 4 Inches ere based on finished thickness plus suggested
allowances for finishing one side, end may bfll modified to suit fabricating plant practice.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
When It Is required to finish both surfaces of base plates, edditlonal allowance must be made.
Column base plates for the 32.story Commerce Towers, Kansas City,
Mo., were shop-fabricated and shipped separately. At the site they
were positioned and bolted to the concrete. The heavy columns were
then erected and field welded to base plates. This was facilitated by
use of semi-automatic arc welding with self-shielding cored electrode
wire. Process quadrupled the speed of manual welding and produced
sounder welds.
Ten-ton weldments were required for tower bases on lift bridges along
the St. Lawrence Seaway. Edges of attaching members were double-
beveled to permit full penetration. Iron powder electrodes were speci-
fied for higher welding speeds and lower costs. Because of high
restraint, LH-70 (low hydrogen) E7018 electrodes were used on root
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
passes to avoid cracking, while E6027 was used on subsequent passes
to fill the joint.
3.3-32 / Column-Related Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 3.4
Column Splices
AISC specifies that, where full-milled tier-building In Figure 1( a), a plate and two angles are punched
columns are spliced, there shall be sufficient welding or, if necessary, drilled. The plate is shop welded to
to hold them securely in place. These connections shall the top of the lower column. The two angles are shop
be proportioned to resist any horizontal shear forces, welded to the web at the lower end of the upper
and any tension that would be developed by specified column. The upper column is erected on top of the
wind forces acting in conjunction with 75% of the lower column and erection bolts are inserted. The
calculated dead load stress and no live load, if this upper column is then field welded to the connecting
condition will produce more tension than full dead load plate. Where additional clearance is needed for erec-
and live load applied. (AISC Sec 1.15.8). tion of beams framing into the web of the lower
Figures 1 and 2 show various designs of column column, it might be necessary to shop weld the plate
splices which eliminate punching of the columns. Note to the upper column and then field weld in the over-
that these details require only handling and punching head position to the lower column.
of small pieces of angles or plates which are easily If the upper and lower columns differ in size, the
carried to, and welded to, the columns in the shop. connecting plate is designed as a member in bending
The details provide for temporary bolted connections due to misalignment of the flanges, and its thickness
in the field prior to making the permanent welded is determined from this; Figure 1(b). If the lower
connections. column's section is much deeper than the upper column,
Sometimes the column connections are placed stiffeners can be welded directly below the flanges of
about midway in height, in order to get the connection the upper column. These stiffeners will reduce the
away from the region of heavy bending moment caused required thickness of the connecting plate; Figure 1 ( c ).
by windloads, etc. The result is a. connection sufficient A splice for heavy columns is shown in Figure
to hold the columns in place and designed for hori- 1( d). Two small plates are punched with holes aligned
zontal shear and axial compression only. as indicated. They are then carried to the column sec-
3.4-1
3.~2 / Column-Related Design
Erection
Bolts
Field
Weld
Shop
Weld-
tions and welded thereto. In the field the column on the web of the columns, Figure 2 (b). The advantage
sections are bolted temporarily prior to welding, as of this position is that they do not extend beyond the
indicated at (d). ends of the column for possible damage during transit
In Figure 2 ( a) the ends of both column sections or erection.
are first milled for a square bearing surface. Then Four plates are punched, then shop welded be-
the two lower erection splice angles are shop welded tween the flanges of the two column sections as shown
on opposite sides of the web of the heavier column in Figure 2 ( c ), leaving enough space between the
section, so as to project past the end of the column. back of the plates and the column web to insert a
The outstanding legs of these angles are provided with wrench. Two splice plates are also punched and shop
holes for erection bolts to engage the outstanding legs welded to the lower column section before shipping
of the other two angles that are shop welded to the to the erection site. After bolting in the field as indi-
upper column section. In this type of detail where cated, the permanent connection is made by welding.
lighter connecting material projects from heavy main The splice in Figure 2 ( d) is similar to that at (a)
sections, care should be taken in handling to prevent but is for connecting two columns of different sizes.
damage to the lighter material. The flanges of the upper column lie inside of the flanges
The flanges on the lower end of the upper column of the lower column. Before shop welding the erecting
section are partially beveled or "J" grooved, and this angles, splice plates are first shop fillet welded to the
partial penetration groove joint is then welded in the inside face of the flange of the lower column. They
field. are milled with the lower column section. As an
The purpose of the angles is to splice and hold the alternate to this, splice plates with their lower edges
two adjacent columns together temporarily while they prepared for welding are shop fillet welded to the
are being field welded. outside face of the flanges on the upper column.
These erecting angles may be placed horizontally In case only one side of the column is accessible,
for example when new steel is erected adjacent to an
old structure, a combination of this procedure may
TABLE l-Allowables for Weld Metal in be used. Place the lower splice plates on the inside
Partial-Penetration Groove Welds
face of the lower column and the upper splice plate
For Field Splices of Columns
on the outside face of the upper column; See Figure
E60 Welds E70 Welds 2 ( d). In this manner all field welds on both column
SAW·! SAW·2
flanges can be made from the one side.
compression same as plate same as plate Where splice plates are used and filler plates are
needed because of the difference in sizes of the upper
tension transverse to cross-
section of throat area 13.600 psi 15.800 psi and lower columns, these plates are welded to the
upper column. See Figure 2 ( e ). This allows the greater
shear
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
13.600 psi
~ 45° ¥e"
;\ 45°
J \
_1
t=~ t=:j
A A A .
y
the Hat position result in higher welding speeds and un welded portion, these field splices should never be
lowercost. After erection the splice plate is field welded subject to radiographic inspection.
to the lower column.
Two attaching plates are shop welded to the upper 4. EXAMPLES
end of the lower column. The column may be hoisted
by attaching the cable to the erection holes of these Figure 4 illustrates a typical field splice used on
plates. After erecting the upper columns, these plates columns of the Detroit Bank & Trust Building in
are field welded to the upper column. Detroit, Michigan. These fabricated columns were
spliced by partial-penetration bevel joints in the column
3. WELD ALLOWABLES
..
ends and field bolted during erec tion, using high-t ensil e
bolts. These bolts were left in place and carried any
horizontal shear in the direction of th e column web, BUILT-UP
hence no field welding was required on the web of COLUMN I
the columns. I
Figure 5 illustrates th e field splice of columns in
the Michigan Consoli da ted Gas Co. Building in D etroit,
Michigan. These fabricated A36 steel box-sh ap ed col-
L-..J
umns were field welde d with E70 low-hydrogen elec-
trodes. Partia l-pe netration J-groove welds were used
on all four flanges aro und th e periphery of th e column.
Notice the schedu le of weld sizes .
BUlLT- UP
COLUMN
FIELD SPLICE
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIG. 7-Field splicing of column flanges, using
vapor-shielded arc welding process.
SECTION 3.5
Bearing-Pin Connections
-~-£
1. TYPICAL CONNECTION
A = 3.98 in 2
I
l: 't
I
Y2" X 4" X 4" L
The next step is to compute the thickness of the
connecting plate. This is based on the minimum re-
quired bearing area of the plate because of the pin
reaction against the plate, Figure 3. The 9O,000-1b load
I is divided by the allowable bearing pressure, which
in this case is 24,000 psi assuming no rotation, (AASHO
c.c. =1 90 k
.935" +l f+ o/a" X 20" Il ~ 3.4.2) and the minimum bearing area comes out to be
I 3.75 in. 2
I 90,000
A
I 24,000
J
FIGURE 1
'1) 2'/"" dio
3.5-1
3.5-2 / Column-Related Design
various parts of the compression member by the ratio Since the required section modulus is in terms
of the individual areas to the total area. Accordingly, of (d):
the compression load carried by each angle would be--- M (T S
P.<::= (90 k ) 32~5 andS
M
(T
P~= (90 k ) 1:
05 Since
t d2
= 56 kips S -6-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE .4
Bearing-Pin Connections / 3.5-3
3
~ 1 1.1" X 3" X 12" It
c
Y2" X 4" X 4" L
Y2" X 1%" X 12" ba r 2" It
%" X 20" It
Y2" X 1%" X 12" bar
20"
0 T 6"
~
Y2" X 4" X 4" L
/
:J 2"
> Iw' X 3" X 12" It f.
I < llW'--~
FIGURE 5
2.625" of angle leg
lost at connection;
replaced by adding
stiffening plates
I 7"
-+2W
t i 2"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
3.5-4 / Column-Related Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 3.6
T
203A"
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1
(e)
1
1. ADVANTAGES OF WELDED BUILT-UP
COLUMNS
In the past, when engineers required steel columns of
heavier section than those commercially available, they ~
designed the columns to be made by riveting cover .--~
plates to the flanges of 14" WF rolled sections. See
Figure 1(a). The cover plates were sized to produce
the required additional section area.
In recent years, fabricating shops have simply sub-
stituted fillet welds for rivets and produced the same FIGURE 2
column section; Figure 1(b ). This practice has pre-
sented a design problem in getting an efficient transfer of forces on the beam-to-column weld.
of tensile force from the beam flange through the cover The best design is a completely welded built-up
plate into the column without pulling the cover plate column; Figure 1( c). This gives the exact section
away from the column flange. The cover plate, being required without any increase in welding, and there
attached only along its two outer edges, tends to bow is no problem in transferring tensile forces from the
outward; Figure 2. This results in uneven distribution beam flange through the column.
I
24" I 24"
FIGURE 3
T
24"
T24"
1@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
(a) (b)
3.6-1
3.6-2 / Column-Related Design
....
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 5
2. WELD REQUIREMENTS
... t
(b)
There are two general requirements for the welds (a)
holding the plates of the columns together; Figure 4.
a. The entire length of the column must have
sufficient welds to withstand any longitudinal shear FIGURE 6
resulting from moments applied to the column from
wind or beam loads; Figure 4( a). Notice at the left c. ] and U groove welds (Fig. 7) require the plates
the rather low change in moment along most of the to be gouged or machined. Machining is seldom used
column length. in the structural field, although air carbon-arc gouging
b. Within the region where the beams connect to is becoming more popular. The J and U welds may
the column, this longitudinal shear is much higher not require as much weld metal as the bevel or Vee
because of the abrupt change in moment within this weld. AWS and AISC allow the full throat or depth of
region; Figure 4(b). Also the tensile force from the groove to be used.
beam flange will be transferred through a portion of
this weld. These two conditions require heavier welds
in the connection region.
Various types of welds are employed in fabricating:
a. Fillet welds (Fig. 5) require no plate prepara-
tion. They can be made to any size simply by making
(b)
more passes. However, since the amount of weld metal
varies as the square of the leg size, these welds can
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
require a large amount of weld metal for the larger
sizes. For nominal size welds (approx. W' to %"),
(a)
FIGURE 7
Designing Built-Up Columns / 3.6-3
'120'1 ~60'---y
a FIGURE 8 b
depth of
9 reave or
Ie9 size of
f iIIet weld
Ih"
- .482
4,800
5,600
q~ ~'\
'.+
~ " L
twEIGHT FORCE WEIGHT FORCE WEIGHT FORCE WEIGHT
.850
6,800
7,900
.536
W///:/j
5,100
5,925
45
.425
::~(:: 1
4.34
therefore AWS and AISC deduct Va" from the prepared 16,800 21,725
15,600 20,400
1%" 5.09 5.66 23,700 4.49
18,200 · 25,675
----
TABLE l-AISC Allowables for Weld Metal -
22,100
16,800 438 23,800 6.57 5.21
1%" 5.91
19,600 · 27.650 25,675
A36 - - ----
1.5.3.1 E60 & SAW-1 A36, A242*, A441* steel 23,800
18,000 4 84 25,500
1.5.3.2 A7, A373 steel 17/s" 6.79
21,000 · 29,625
7.55 27,650 5.98
1.17.2 E60 & SAW-l E70 & SAW-2
E70 & SAW-2 19,200 27,200 25,550
2" 7.72 5.32 8.58 6.80
FillET WelDS 22,400 31,600 29,625
~
COMPLETE PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS
tension 26,400 37,400 35,700
2%" 14.60 8.72 16.23 41,475 ~.
compression 30,800 43,450
bending same as plate same as plate
27,600 39,100
shear 27/s" 15.96
32,200
9.21
45,425
17.75 37,40011407
43,450! .
bearing
28,800 40,800 39,100 30
, low hydrogen E60 & SAW·] may be used for Iillet welds & partial 3" 17.37 9.84 19.300 45,425 15 .
1
33,600 47,400
#
allowable T = 13,600 psi)
@Seismicisolation
penetration groove welds an A242 or A441 steel. (at the lower
@Seismicisolation
only lor splices or connections of columns or other members subject
primarily to axial compression stress
lorce - Ibs per linear inch -
8,400 9,610 10,810 12,010 13,010 14,410 15,620 TABLE 4--Joints to Carry Force of 20,000
112" 9,770 11,160 12,540 13,930 15,320 16,720 1}130 Ibs./lin inch
.970 1.18 1.5 I 1.85 2.36 2.87 .44
A36 Steel E70 Welds
9,610 10,810 12,010 13,210 14,410 15,620 16,820
%" 11,160 12,540 13,930 15,320 16,720 18,130 19,530 ALLOWA8LE WEIGHT OF WELD
1.15 1.42 1.75 2.09 2.59 3.10 3.68 FORCE METAL
10,870 12,010 13,200 14,410 15,620 16,820 18,020
%" 12,620 13,930 15,320 16,720 18,130 19,530 20,930 w = 1'l's" 21,000#/in 6.79#/ft
1.44 1.71 2.04 2.38 2.89 3.40 3.97
12,250 13,270 14,410 15,620 16,820 18,020 19,220
1"
7/s " 14,220
1.78
14,000
16,270
2.18
15,410
2.05
14,620
16,980
2.45
16,720
2.39
15,660
18,170
2.79
18,130
2.73
16,820
19,530
3.13
19,530
3.23
18,020
20,930
3.63
20,930
3.74
19,220
22,310
4.14
22,310
4.32
20,420
23,700
4.72
±Jl I 1%" 21,725#/in 3.12#/ft
1'1~1
3.14 3.41 3.75 4.09 4.59 5.10 5.68
18,300 19,000 19,700 20,730 21,750 22,830 24,000
I¥s" 21,240 22,060 22,860 24,040 25,250 26,550 27,850 1112" 21,725#/in 3.82# 1ft
3.69 3.96 4.30 4.64 5.14 5.65 6.23
t ~ lY2"
19,900 20,510 21,260 22,180 23,100 24,160 25,240
/ 12"
1 23,120 23,810 24,680 25,780 26,830 28,060 29,350
4.30 4.57 4.91 5.25 5.75 6.26 6.84 ~
- W = l!h" w = 11/4"
21,460 22,100 22,800 23,600 24,510 25,470 26,550 T
1.- 1= %" 20,930#/in 3.97 # 1ft
1%" 24,930 25,670 26,460 27,400 28,450 29,600 30,830 t -= 3f." i..,'
4.97 5.24 5.58 5.92 6.42 6.93 7.51 -'--- W'
r
23,100 23,650 24,350 25,100 25,950 26,850 27,900 -L
13k ' 26,830 27,500 28,300 29,200 30,170 31,220 32,400 w = Y2"
5.63 5.96 6.30 6.64 7.14 7.65 8.23 T T w =
112"
I ~ 110" 1 = 13/s" 21,240#/in 3.69# 1ft
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
lsI value force Ibs per linear inch A7, A373 sleel & E60 welds
2nd value force Ibs per linear inch A36, A441 sleel & E70 welds
3rd value weighl of weld melal Ibs per fool
1- v."L
,-
Designing Built-Up Columns / 3.6-5
5. COMBINING WELD TYPES The web plate is beveled to the proper depth on all 4
edges along the entire length. Groove weld (a) is
There are several ways in which different types of first made along the entire length. Second, fillet weld
welds can be combined in economically fabricating (b) is made over the groove wdd within the connection
built-up columns to meet the two basic requirements: region to bring it up to the proper size.
a) welds from end-to-end of column to withstand
longitudinal shear resulting from (wind and beam
load) applied moments, and b) heavier welds in Case 3 I
connection regions to withstand higher longitudinal
shear due to abrupt change in moment, and to carry
tensile force from the beam flange, The following cases
8
illustrate combinations that permit optimum use of
automatic welding:
I Case 1
e Welda
Region of beam to
FIGURE 11
FIGURE 9 Case 4
If the weld sizes are not too large, the column may be
first fillet welded with weld (a) along its entire length.
Second, additional passes are made in the connection
e Welda
Additional beveling in
region of beam to
region to bring the fillet weld up to the proper size for ..... ---' ~ooo"t;oo
weld (b).
I Case 2 I
@ Region of beam to
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
6. BOX SECTIONS tack welds are air carbon-arc gouged. When this is
completed, the entire length is automatically sub-
In column box sections, J and U groove welds may be merged-arc welded together; Figure 13( c ).
substituted for bevel and Vee groove welds if the fabri-
cator is equipped to gouge and prefers to do so rather 7. BEAMS FRAMING INTO BUILT-UP
than bevel. Since beveling is a cutting method, the BOX COLUMNS
plates must be beveled before assembling them to-
gether. Gouging, however, may be done either before At first glance it might be thought that the require-
or after assembling. Further, heavy J or U groove ments for a beam flange welded to the flange of a
welds normally require less weld metal than the bevel built-up box column, Figure 14(a), would be similar
or Vee groove welds. to the beam flange welded to the flange of an I shaped
Some fabricators, in making built-up box sections, column, Figure 14(b). This is because the box column
have assembled and lightly tack welded the plates flange is treated as a beam simply supported at its two
together without any preparation; Figure 13( a ). The outer edges, Figure 14 ( c ); it has the same maximum
joints are next air carbon-arc gouged to the desired bending moment as the WF column flange treated
depth for very short distances and further tack welded; as a beam supported at its center, Figure 14(d).
Figure 13(b). Next, the longer distances in between The following analysis of a beam flange welded to
Column Column
FIGURE 14
(a) Beam flange
{C)~M<l
= w8b~
Moment diag!:Q!!!
~
Moment diagram
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Mot. = - -
8
Designing Built-Up Columns / 3.6-7
1~1~:-=._
- - -10
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 16
3.6-8 / Column-Related Design
or distance ®-® = 6\ Va 2
+ 36 t 2
Section x-x
V 0 2 + 36 t 2
o I
\c.-Ll-j
I I
I
I I
I
I
I
I I
I
I I
...... ~
I
I ....
.... ,
I
I
I
6t ,-----
- o V 0 2 + 36 t 2
Section y-y
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 17
Designing Built-Up Columns / 3.~9
allowable force
external work = internal work
= (~ ~)(O"Y4t2)( 2 ~)
internal work
r, A a + b + 36
=M p A [2(a3~ b) + 4 (a
2
ta3~ t
2
)J
= 2 ~; A( 2 a + b + 36~)
Example
where the plastic moment (M p ) , in in-Iba/linear inch Here:
is-
t = 3lh"
t)_O"yt2
t
Mp = 2 ( a; X 2 X 1" X 4" - -4- a = 5"
b = 14"
0" = 22,000 psi
= t I~Y ( + b + 36 ~)
FIGURE 18
P 2 a
24" -----+1~~
t --j3W'
---,-
2"
0==5"
t t
.i
b == 14"
FIGURE 19 t
~
0==5"
-----L
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
3.6-10 / Column-Related Design
18" t >
- - - / 6 1 . -----..
l Y2"
1
FIGURE 20
FIGURE 21
FIGURE 23
attac hed to th e column ends so that all welds could usually requires th e d esign and fabrication of special
be dep osited in th e flat po sition . The columns with colu mns; Fi gure 24.
trunnions attached were th en transferred to th e auto- The column d esign on th e righ t was used in the
mati c welding unit. After pr eh eating to th e correct Inl and Steel Building in Chicago . Th e inn er portion
temperature, using natural gas torches, th e shorter- of th e built-up column is a sta nda rd WF section; th e
length groove we lds we re mad e first. The remaining outer portion is a flat pl at e from 1" to 3" thi ck. A web
length of un we ld ed column wa s then fillet we lded. plat e, from %" to 1%" thi ck, joins th ese two segments.
Afte r weld ing, trunnions were remo ved and th e Notice th at a section of th e ma in girde r was shop
column ends machine faced to proper len gth. Con- wel ded to th e fabrica ted column. Dotted lin es show
nection pl at es were att ach ed aft er machining, with most th e spandrel beams an d rema inder of th e girde r that
welds positioned downhand to achie ve maximum weld- were field we lde d to p rodu ce a rigid connec tion. Th e
ing speed. Pr eheating preced ed th e manual welding of main girde rs span 60'.
these pl at es in position, using low-hydrogen electrodes; On th e left is a typi cal column from th e North
Figure 23. Carolina National Bank Building in Cha rlotte. A spe -
cially roll ed vVF sec tion is th e main segme nt of this
Inland Steel Building
column. Wing pl at es have been ad de d to one flang e
& North Carolina National Bank Building
and a cover plate to th e othe r to develop th e needed
Elimination of interior columns in a building d e- column properties. Th e main girde rs and spandrels
signed for welded construction is not unique, but (dotted sections) were late r attache d b y field welding.
FIGU RE 24
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
3.6-12 / Column-Related Design
FIGURE 25
Fabrication of special column sections demand flux recovery unit, and welding generators are mounted
low cost, high production assembly and welding tech- on a self-propelled carriage having a 65 ft track travel
niques. Submerged-arc automatic welding is used ex- distance. Two identical welding fixtures are positioned
tensively in fabricating these columns. The welding parallel to and on either side of the carriage track.
head, Figure 25, is mounted on a universal, track This has reduced handling time for setup and re-
traveling type welding manipulator. The manipulator, positioning of the columns.
During fabrication of columns for the North Caro-
lina National Bank Building, they were placed in a
specially designed trunnion fixture; Figure 26. This
stood the columns on end. Shop welding of connection
details could then be performed in the flat and hori-
zontal position. This facilitated use of semi-automatic,
submerged-arc welding and minimized weld costs.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 26
Figure 28. Automatic submerged-arc welding is then
used, with the fixture on a rail-mounted carriage.
Designing Built-Up Columns / 3.6-13
T T
18" 18W'
FIGURE 29
I~ 22" ~I
1 1 I~ 22" ~I
(a) (b)
First Federal Savings & Loan Co . Building smaller plates were set out slightly.
In general, these full-length welds w ere 1J2'1 fillets;
On this project in Detroit, Michigan, the engineer
with %" fillets for plates 2%" or less in thickness. This
originally detailed the fabricated columns to the 17th
eliminated plate preparation except for short distances
£loor as built-up box sections, flush around the out-
in the region of the beam-to-column connections. Here
side periphery. U-groove welds were to be used; Figure
the plates were previously b eveled, to the required
29( a) . This would have meant grooving the plates for
depth , varying from %" to 'XG" depending upon load
the entire length of the column.
requirements. The typical joint consisting of the beveled
The fabricator, chose to set one set of plates slightly
groove weld topped by th e continuous fillet weld ex-
in or out; Figure 29 (b). This would allow use of con-
tended 9" above and below the b eam-to-column con -
tinuous fillet welds for the b asic welding. The fabricator
nection.
obtained permission to exceed the original outside col-
umn dimension in one direction by ¥4". Any further 9. FI ELD SPLICES
adjustment was precluded because of the already de-
tailed curtain walls, etc. Partial-penetration groove welds; either single bevel or
The original outside dimensions of the columns single J, may be used for the field splicing of columns.
were 18" X 22" to th e 5th £loor, 18" X 20" to the The information presented previously under "Partial-
11th £loor, 18" X 19" to the 13th Hoor, and 18" X 18" Penetration Groove W elds" will apply here.
to the 17th floor. Above the 17th floor, WF sections Attaching angles shop-welded to the columns
were used. The modified box section on the lower floors serve to temporarily hold the column sections in align-
were th en built up from two 18%" X 4%" flange plates, ment. For the H column in Figure 30, using high
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
with two 12%" X 4%" web plates recessed slightly to
permit the fillet welding. Above the 5th floor, the
tensile bolts, this connection was conside re d sufficient
to transfer any horizontal shear force across the
3.6-14 / Column-Related Design
BUILT-UP
COLUMN
BUILT-UP
COLUMN ..
1
I
L-.I
depth ot f(ange I
,
groove thICkness ,,,
.%: ei« over I
I
I "
~;.
I I
I I
radius
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
depth of chamfer
I I ~. to I~"
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I ,
I
I I
~
FIGURE 30 FIGURE 31
web in this dir ection. The column field splice, con- For the box colu mn in Figure 31, the column
sisting of two sing le bevel, partial-pen etration groove field sp lice con sisted of a partial-penetration J groove
welds, would transfer any horizontal shear in the other weld on all four sides of th e column. These four welds
dir ection. would transfer any horizontal shear in th e column
splice. The attaching angles her e were used simply to
facilitate erection.
Partial-pen etration welds on column splices permit
fast semi-automatic welding techniques to b e used in
th e field. In th e Commerce Towers project, semi-
automatic ar c welding with self-shielding, cored elec-
trode p ermitted deposition of 100 Ibs/man/8-hour day;
Figure 32.
10. CONCLUSION
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 32
Designing Built-Up Columns / 3.6-15
I SP. CI FI. O IN
COL . S CH ED . FROM
I I~ "TO~'(FOR
I) WINDMOMENT ~
A5~ -trt°o:-N~L~Y)=;:=-:- ~
~
•
{~8'R' ''-+----=J=FF---+'=' -JUJ:l.....L_..J.tL_-l..&U,45
r-
-U--+-L.---.l..Jo;
r-
~
Typical splice Alternate splice Typical sp lice
for built-up column for built-up column fo r WF column
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Splice details from the Michigan Consolidated project show
how maximum use was made of material at minimum weight.
3.~16 / Column-Related Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTIO N 4.1
_ At d 2
--2-
+ ~
Aw d 2 since A w = t w d TABLE l-Suggested Girder Depth Limits (AISC)
AISC Steels Others
For simplicity, this assumes web depth is equal to
ay d/L a d/L
(d), the distance between the centers of gravity of the
A7. A373 33,000 1/24.2 45,000 1/17.8
two flange plates.
A36 36,000 1/22.2 50,000 1/16.0
I
S = - - or 42,000 1/19.0 55,000 1/14.6
d/2
A441 46,000 1/17.4 60,000 1/13.3
= At d + Aw d
6 50,000 1/16.0 65,000 1/12.3
90,000· 1/8.8
S
M
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 100,000·
4.1-1
4.1-2 / Girder-Related Design
1 .r
, 6
Section used to
deterrmne s, or
could use r, of
enhre secnce
Compression elements which are not "compact" but meet the fallowing AISC Sec 1.9 requirements--
<
b - -3,000
--
• t ~
(1.9.1)
B
< a.oOO
----
• t -r»; (1.9.2)
14,000,000
(1.1 0.2)
VIrJ(lrJ + 16,500)
0 0
If +
Use the larger of
0
reduction in allowable compressive bending stress due to possible loterol
displacement of web. (1.10.6)
when ~
t..
< 24.000
-rs;
Ir. = allowable compression
stress from above
* This ratio may be exceeded if the compressive bending stress. using a width not exceeding this limit, is
within the allowable stress. The above toble does not include the higher bending stress (Ir .66 Ir J ) for =
"compact" sections because most fabricated plate and box girders will exceed the width-thickness ratio of
"compeer" sections.
stresses for plate and box girders. (but not more than 2.3; can
conservatively be taken as 1.0)
In Table 2:
L = span or unbraced length of compression
Bange
r radius of gyration of a Tee section compris-
O'b allowable compressive bending stress from
ing the compression flange plus 1/6 of the above
web area, about the y-y axis (in the plane
of the web). For girders symmetrical about
M1 is the smaller, and M2 is the larger bendlua
their x-x axis of bending, substitution of r y
moment at the ends of the unbraced length (L), take
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
of the entire section is conservative
area of the compression Bange
about the strong axis of the member. M 1/M2 is the
ratio of these end moments. When M1 and M2 haw
Welded Plate Girders for Buildings / 4.1-3
+.10
-~
+ .8 - -
~+r-,
C b = 1.75 - 1.05
(~~) + .3 (~r
+ .6
+.5
+ .4
""'I ........... +.-
but not to exceed 2.3
. . . . . d-
~
"
<, + .2 ---+" d-:-....
~
d
'0
0-
I~ct-
Q
2 . -f - - - f---
<, .i.
-0 I r-;
'" --
-+--- -~
,TT-,-
.4 _. ----
_-
11
-.5 - ..
FIGURE 1
' I
,
I I I i I
-1.0
1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3
Value of C b
the same signs, this ratio is positive; when they have for the fillet welds joining them.
different signs, it is negative. When the bending These horizontal and vertical shear stresses com-
moment within an unbraced length is larger than that bine and produce both diagonal tension and com-
at both ends of this length, the ratio is taken as unity. 0
pression, each at 45 to the shear stresses. In steel
Figure 1 is a graph showing the value of C, for structures, tension is not the problem; however, the
any given ratio of M J/M 2 • diagonal compression could be high enough to cause
When the bending moment within an unbraced the web to buckle. Stiffeners are used to prevent the
length is larger than that at both ends of this length, web from buckling in regions of high shear stress.
the ratio shall be taken as unity, and C, becomes 1.0. The ratio of web thickness to clear depth of web
in the older specifications was based on predications
2. TRANSVERSE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS of the plate buckling theory: the web being subjected
Loads applied to beams' and girders cause bending to shear throughout its depth, and to compressive bend-
moments along the length of the member. When these ing stresses over a portion of its depth. See Figure 2.
moments are non-uniform along the length of the mem- The plate buckling theory assumes the portion of
ber, both horizontal and vertical shear stresses are set the web between stiffeners to be an isolated plate;
up because shear is equal to the rate of change of however, in the plate girder, the web is part of a
moment. built-up member. 'When the critical buckling stress in
The horizontal shear forces would cause the flange the web is reached, the girder does not collapse. This
of a plate girder to slide past the web if it were not is because the flanges carryall of the bending moment,
'-
f'- -
,
1-- -
1- - -
1- _
, ,- - --
i Diagonal compression
from shear forces
Compressive
bending stress
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 2
4.1-4 / Girder-Related Design
~~
~~ ~
~ :-
FIGURE 3
f Diagonal tension field in web
Transverse stiffeners act as compression struts
the buckled web then serves as a tension diagonal, and needed for bearing (AISC 1.10.5.4).
the transverse stiffeners become the vertical compres- 3. For intermittent fillet welds, clear spacing (s)
sion struts. This in effect makes the plate girder act as between lengths of weld must L::. 16 t w and L Hr'
a truss. See Figure 3. (AISC 1.10.5.4).
The carrying capacity of the plate girder is greater 4. Welds joining stiffeners to web must be suffi·
under this analysis, being equal to that supported by cient to transfer a total unit shear force of-
the beam action shear (Fig. 2) and that supported by
the diagonal tension field in the web (Fig. 3). AISC (AISC 1.10.5.4)
Formulas 8 and 9 will meet this requirement. These
formulas appear further along on this page.
This shear force to be transferred may be reduced
in same proportion that the largest computed shear
AISC Specifications
stress (T) in the adjacent panel is less than that allowed
Intermediate stiffeners are not required when the ratio by AISC Formula 8 (AISC 1.10.5.4).
(dw/t w) is less than 260 and the maximum web shear 5. If lateral bracing is attached to stiffener, welds
stress is less than that permitted by AISC Formula 9 connecting stiffener to compression flange must be suffi·
(AISC 1.10.5.3). cient to transfer a horizontal force (F) = 1% of flange
Figure 4 partially summarizes the AISC specifica- force (AISC 1.10.5.4).
tions for intermediate stiffeners. When intermediate stiffeners are required, their
These requirements apply: maximum spacing (a) depends on three items: aid",
1. If single stiffeners are used, they must be dw/t w, and shear stress (T).
welded to compression flange (AISC 1.10.5.4). The largest average web shear stress (TBV = VI A,,)
2. Intermediate stiffeners may be cut short of in any panel between transverse intermediate stiffeners
tension flange for a distance less than 4 t w when not shall not exceed the following (AISC 1.10.5.2):
:-
®
,(161.(1d"2 + dw
;. 0--
I---
>
T
1
single stiffe~
®
Cut short of tension
flange < 4 r,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 4
Welded Plate Girders for Buildings I 4.1-5
1.15~ 1 +
T (Ty
2.89 [ (dw) . . (3a) as the basic allowabie tensile stress and (.~) as (Tr ) .
(AISC Formula 8 For greater depth to thickness of web (dw/t w) and
greater stiffener spacing (al d w ), the values of (C v )
This provides an allowable shear stress (T ) up will become lower. This will result in lower values for
to about .35 (Ty and takes advantage of tension field the allowable shear stress in the web. For these condi-
action. tions, AISC Formula 8 has an additional factor which
takes advantage of the increased carrying capacity
when C, > 1.0 or when no stiffeners are used provided by the diagonal tension field and results in a
higher shear allowable. When C, = 1, this factor be-
< (TyC v < 40 comes zero and AISC Formula 8 becomes Formula 9.
T - 2.89 . (Tr •••••••••••••••• (3b )
The ratio a/d., shall not exceed (AISC 1.10.5.3);
(AISC Formula 9)
< 260
a/d., = - d
/ (4)
This provides an allowable shear stress (T) within w tw
the range of .347 (Ty to .40 (Ty and does not take advan-
tage of tension field action. nor
Ik = 400
.
+ 5.34
(a.jdw )2
where T is the computed average shear stress in the
when aid." > 1.0 web:
k = 5.34 + 4.00
(a/dw )2 T
V
Aw
Above, the one C, formula picks up exactly where It is necessary that the stiffeners have sufficient
the other leaves off. The value of C, may be read cross-sectional area for them to act as compressive
directly from the nomograph, Figure 5, without sepa- struts to resist the vertical component of the tension
rately computing the value of k. field in the web.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Both ASIC Formulas 8 and 9 contain a basic factor
This cross-sectional area, in square inches, of inter-
mediate stiffeners when spaced in accordance with
,.
FIG. 5 Value of C.. to Determine Allowable Web Shear Stress (1.10.5.2)
Cv I
'.Z
-
b.
.......
•
% I
:;.
.
Do
CD
I
~ - J6(J
JfO
.3
~
tw d~ '3/0
...
D
300-f- CD
•
0
Z4-0
..0 2Z0 I i'
.J,D + :::I
ZOO
Z.D
J.tJ
'"~
M·
/.Z 0; .7
~,ooo
LO
""---- .16,000
.~
-------- ~=:::::::::i...-- ~ .,
. .64(J(J(J ~ ~O()(J
000
S!s,O()(J
'0,000
__
- - - - _
~
~
1.0
.7 6$.OH - - - ~
----------------~~----------------
1tf.O(JD
~ji(JH
I.Z
( WHEN ~N ( 1.0 ) (WHEN <Ydw >/.0)
1.3
.S $..34- 4-.00 i
d~w • 70 I.'
(WHEN CV <.tJ ) (WHEN c, >.8 ) FIND Cy • 1./8 1.7
1.8
c•
(;:)j~
4-5,000, 000 k /.!J
V oy (dWAw)Z C." 2.0
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Welded Plate Girder. for Building. I 4.1-7
1 >
• 1 .>
1----0
i- > r--- a
0 t-
f f f TT (a) End panel (b) Panel with large hole
FIGURE 6
AISC Formula 8 (total area when in pairs) must not T = allowable web shear stress from AISC
be less than (AISC 1.10.5.4)- Formulas 8 or 9
O"b = allowable bending tensile stress
A. > 1 - C [~ _
v (a/d w )2 ] YD a, t
2 a, VI + (a/dw )2 (7) It can be shown that this formula will result in-
a) full bending tensile stress allowable, if the con-
(AISC Formula 10)
current shear stress is not greater than 60% of
the full allowable value, or
(See the appropriate AISC Table 3) b) full shear stress allowable, if the concurrent
where: bending tensile stress is not greater than 75%
of the full allowable value.
y = yield point of web steel See Table 6B for abbreviated Formula 12 to use
yield point of stiffener steel for a specific yield strength of steel.
D 1.0 for a pair of stiffeners
1.8 for a single angle stiffener 3. BEARING STIFFENERS
2.4 for a single plate stiffener
When the greatest shear stress (T) in a panel is
less than that permitted by AISC Formula 8, this area Concentrated loads cause high compressive stress at
(A.) requirement may be reduced in like proportion the web toe of the fillet along a distance of N K for +
(AISC 1.10.5.4). end reactions, and N +
2K for interior loads.
The moment of inertia of a pair of stiffeners or a If there are no bearing stiffeners, this compressive
single stiffener, with reference to an axis in the plane stress shall not exceed (AISC 1.10.10.1)-
of the web, shall not be less than (AISC 1.10.5.4)-
for end reactions
~
........................ (8)
0" = t
w
( N K) < .75 0" y
........... (lOa)
(AISC Formula 14)
See Tables 3, 4, and 5.
Plate girder webs, subjected to a combination of
bending tensile stress and shear stress shall be cheeked for interior loads
according to the following interaction formula:
0" - t ( N ~ 2K) < .75 O"y
........... (lOb)
~)
w
O"b < (0.825 - 0.375 O"y or .60 O"y
(AISC Formula 13)
.... (9)
(AISC Formula 12)
Also, the sum of the compressive stresses from
where: concentrated and distributed loads on the compression
d.. I.
11
d.. I.
of Intermediate Stiffener
For a Giyen Web Depth fdwJ
d..
I. 2:
I.
(:~)4
d.. I. d.. I.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Welded Plate Girders for Buildings / 4.1-9
2" .66 .82 .99 1.16 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31 2.66
21
12" 1.46 1.83 2.19 2.56 2.93 3.66 4.39 5.21 5.85
3" 2.25 2.81 3.37 3.94 4.49 5.62 6.75 7.87 8.99
3 112" 3.55 4.44 5.32 6.21 7.10 8.88 10.6 12.4 14.2
4" 5.33 6.66 8.00 9.32 10.7 13.3 16.0 18.6 21.2
Width 4112" 7.59 9.49 11.4 13.3 15.2 19.0 22.8 26.6 30.4
of bar
(d) 5" 10.4 13.0 15.6 18.2 20.9 26.1 31.3 36.5 41.7
8" X 8"
1"
564.5
%"
506.4
*"
444.0
o/a"
379.3
,<,"
354.1
Y2"
310.2
~6" %" §{6" 1/.."
6" X 6" 224.0 201.9 178.5 153.8 140.4 127.2 113.0 98.3 79.9
5" X 5" 111.7 99.8 86.2 71.8 63.8 55.8 47.3
Angle
4" X 4" 48.2 42.1 35.4 31.7 27.8 23.6 19.4
size
3'12" X 3'12" 23.0 20.7 18.3 15.7 12.8
3" X 3' 14.0 12.6 11.2 9.6 7.9
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.1-10 / Girder-Related Design
J.
,
f I--N + 2K-J
t - N + K------1
-,r-
K ,
T T
FIGURE 7
if flange restrained against rotation Bearing stiffeners with the above sections of web
are designed as columns (AISC 1.10.5.1).
o:
<
=
[55
. + (
4 a/d., ) 2
J
10,000,000
( dw/t w) 2 ...... (
lla
)
These requirements apply:
1. Bearing stiffeners shall extend almost to edge
(AISC Formula 15) of Bange (AISC 1.10.5.1).
2. Bearing stiffeners shall have close bearing
against Bange or flanges to which load is applied
if flange not restrained against rotation (AISC 1.10.5.1).
3. Clear spacing of intermittent fillet welds < 16
<
o: =
[2 + 4)2](a/d w
10,000,000
(dw/tw )2 (llb)
t w < 10" (AISC 1.10.5.4.).
4. Deduct leg of fillet weld or comer snipe for
(AISC Formula 16) width of stiffener (b,) effective in bearing at 90% 0",
(AISC 1.5.1.5.1). If parts have different yield strengths,
use the lower value.
Concentrated loads and loads distributed over a
5. The limiting ratio of stiffener width to thick-
partial length of panel shall be divided by either the
ness shall be-
product of the web thickness and the girder depth or
the length of panel in which the load is placed, which- b. < 3000
ever is the smaller panel dimension. Any other dis- - = ,~ (AISC 1.9.1)
t. "cry
tributed loading, in Ibs/Iinear in. of length, shall be
divided by the web thickness. 6. Use L, >- 3/4 d, for slenderness ratio (Lefr) of
If the above stress limits are exceeded, bearing column section to determine allowable compressive
stiffeners shall be placed in pairs at unframed ends stress (AISC 1.10.5.1); r is figured about an axis in
and at points of concentrated loads, Figure 8. the plane of the web.
-J12 t k-
w
-- 25 tw I--
(or less)
--
12 tw -- ~
---
12 tw -- I+.2
12 tw tw
(or less) 12 tw 12 tw 12 tw
(or less) (or less)
(a) Single pair of (b) Single pair of (e) Double pair of (d) Double pair of
stiffeners at end stiffeners - interior stiffeners - interior stiffeners at end
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 8
Welded Plate Girden for Buildings I 4.1-11
.F
Corner snipe
of stiffener
'CD
® t,
1
Leg of ® -- r--
fillet weld ~
®
fR
FIGURE 9
tension flange (AISC 1.18.3.1) n number of fillet welds holding flange area,
usually 2 welds
< <
s 24 X thickness of thinner plate = 12" ( 12 ) S. SUMMARY OF SPECIFICATIONS
FIGURE 10
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
......
~
I
TABLE 6A-Summary of AISC Allowables and Limiting Ratios ~
dw
< 14.000,000 345 320 282 266 260 243 223 207 192 143 136 130
tw
= V ir, (tT, +
16,500)
(1.10.2)
I
Up to this limit the web is capable
of providing verticol support for
the compression flange
Bending stress allowable (tensile)
< (1.5.1.4.4) 20,000 22,000 25,000 27.000 27,500 30,000 33,000 36,000 39,000 54,000 57.000 60,000
a
= .60 tT, (1.5.1.4.3)
Cc = ~2 "" E
tT,
(1.5.1.3) 131.7 126.1 116.7 112.8 111.6 107.0 102.0 97.7 93.8 79.8 77.6 75.7
f. = dw
sss <
soa, asa, 43 d w 48d w so a, ss a, 65 dw 74d w 84dw 136 d~· 153 d w 159.5 d w
Web crippling ollow@e a = .75 tT, 25,000 27,000 31,500 34,000 34,500 37,500 41,500 45,000 48,500 67,500 71,250 75,000
for use in formulas 13 & @ (1.10.10
Max longitudinal spacing between
intermittent fillet welds attaching
compression flange to girder
< 4,000 < 22.0t 21.0 t 19.5 t 18.9 t 18.7 t 17.9 t 17.1 t 16.3 t 15.7 t 13.3 t 13.0 t 12.6 t
s = -- t
..;u;- = 12' (1.18.2.3)
125 kips
120 kips uniformly distributed
FIGURE 11
R = 122.5 kips R = 122.5 kips
k---------- L = 50' = 600" -------------';~
bending moment shear
for the uniform load, v = 122.5 kips
WL (120) (600)
M£ = -8- 8
9,000 in.-kips
Design Procedure
for the concentrated load,
1. Design the girder web for the shear require-
FL (125) (600) ments, assuming it held to a depth of 66",
Mi: = -4- 4
18,750 in.-kips
V
Total M ~ 27,750 in.-kips
Aw = --
T
= av
tw dw
r
(T,
T <
33,000 (T. = 20,000 - .576 ( -~
--c;;- L
(T. = 27,000 - 12,500 -;:: = 20.000
T.
<
= 22,000
T.
<
= 25,000
1.310 ( L ) T <
50,000 (T. = 30,000 - -----c;;- ---;:- 2
O'b = 41,000 - 18,500 -,::- = 30,000
r
C. r
T <
60,000 (T. = 36,000 - -----c;;-
1.89 ( -r-
L (T.
= 49,500 - 22,500 -,::- = 36,000
4.24' ( L ) T <
90,000· (T. = 54,000 - -----c;;- ---;:- 2
ab = 74,250 - 33,750 -
T.
= 54,000
4.73 ( L ) T <
95.000· (T. = 57,000 - -----c;;- -r-
2
O'b = 78,375 - 35,625 T:- = 57,000
Consider the following average shear stress ('Tav ) remaining moment of inertia required of flanges
and maximum panel length (a) for various web thick- It It --=-- r,
nesses (tw ) :
(44,880) - (7487)
37,393 in."
t"
T ..
Actual
V
= A.., (max)
Actual
dw/t.., aId.., = ( d..,/t..,
260 r (max) and since
It = 2 At cl
here:
Or = 33" + W'
'14" 7430 psi 264 .97
J<," 5950 211 1.52 = 33.5"
¥a" 4950 176 2.18 area of flange required
It
Although the 1f4" thick web would result in a At = 2 er2
reasonable shear stress of 7430 psi, the greatest stiff- ( 37,393)
ener spacing (a) allowed would be 97% of the web - 2(33.5)2
depth (dw ) ; this would require more intermediate stiff-
eners. It would be more practical, in this eample, to
= 16.67 in. 2
increase the web thickness to %6", thus allowing a or use two 17" X 1" flange plates.
greater distance between stiffeners.
final properties of girder
Aw = (66)(%6)
I = 2 (17 in. 2 )( 33.5")2
(5/1 6 " ) (66")3
= 20.6 in. 2
+ I]
12
_ (%6)(66)3 46,766 in." > 44,880 in." OK
Iw
12 I
S
c
= 7487 in."
a,,«, = (46,766 in. 4 )
211
( 34")
2. Design the flange to make up the remainder of 1375 in." > 1320 in." OK
the moment requirements. Assume a bending stress of
actual bending stress in girder
about CT = 21,000 psi.
M
CT = S·
section modulus required of girder
M _ (27,750 in.-kips)
S (1375 in.")
(27,750 in.-kips) = 20,200 psi
(21,000 psi)
reduced allowable compressive bending stress in flange
1320 in." due to possible lateral displacement of the web in the
compression region (AISC 1.10.6)
distance from neutral axis of girder to outer fiber
assuming a flange thickness of about 1" CTb <: CTb[1.0 - .005 Aw(d w- ~)]
d, t w 'V CTb
c = If.! d w + tt
= (33") + (1") (22,000) [1.0 - .0005 \~7~) (211 - 162)]
= 34"
21,347 psi > 20,200 psi actual OK
v= 122.5 kips
V = 115.6 kips
V = 62.5 kips
FIGURE 12
3. Design the transverse intermediate stiffeners. Since the girder web's ratio is-
Figure 12 is a shear diagram of the girder.
«d~~wr
table, the values in the four corner cells are read
directly from the AISC table. Then the required values
obtained by interpolation are filled into the center cell.
«:if Within each cell, the upper value is the allowable
shear stress (T) and the lower value is the required
< 1.52
area of stiffener (A.).
or a < 1.52 dw Thus, for our problem;
< 1.52 (66") T 8.0 kips or 8000 psi> 5950 psi OK
< 100" A. 10.5% Aw
also check AISC Sec 1.9.1: wherever the calculated shear stress exceeds 60% of
b. 3% that allowed according to AISC Formulas 8 and 9.
t, - % The allowable shear stress was found to be
T = 8000 psi and 60% of this would be 4800 psi.
9 3_ <
-- . ",3000
~ o r 16 OK - This would correspond to a shear force of
- vU"y
V TAw
required moment of inertia
(4800 psi) ( 'X 6 X 66)
I. = (~or 99.0 kips
FIGURE 13
U"b < (0.825 -
@Seismicisolation
Welded Plate Girders for Buildings / 4.1-11
11'1'1'1' il
r-10"-j
FIGURE 14
= 746 lbs/in.
2
(122.5 kips)( 17 in. )( 33.5")
(46,776 in.") (2 welds)
b = Z"
'~ t
+
1 17"
1
FIGURE 15 5/'6"
leg size of fillet weld
D.
746
Cll - 11,200 ... 33,4" ~
= .066" = 12 tw
Bearing Stiffeners
area of this u.eb portion
6. Check to see if bearing stiffeners are needed at
the girder ends (AISC 1.10.10.1); Figure 14. (3 3/4" ) (%6")
= 1.17 in. 2
compressive stress at web toe of girder fillet
R required area of bearing stiffeners
U' - tw(N + K) 6.10 - 1.17 = 4.93 in. 2
(122.5 kips)
If stiffeners extend almost the full width of the
- %6 (10" +
1%6")
flange, a width of 7" will be needed on each side.
= 34,700 psi > 27,000 psi, or .75 CTJ'
A. = 2 (7") t.
This stress is too high; bearing stiffeners are
needed. Try a single pair and treat the stiffeners along = 4.93 in. 2
with a portion of the web as a column. Assume an 4.93
acceptable compressive stress of about 20,000 psi. t. - 2(7")
sectional area required to carry this stress 8. Check stiffener profile for resistance to com-
pression (AISC 1.9.1).
R
A- CT
b. 7
_ (122.5 kips) t, %
- (20,000 psi)
= 6.1 in. 2
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
= > 18.7
3000
,~or 16
v CTJ'
4.1-18 / Girder-Related Design
This ratio is too high, so use a pair of 7" x ~o" force on iceld (treating weld as a line)
bearing stiffeners.
R
9. Check this bearing stiffener area as a column, f = L
Figure 16. _ (122.5 kips)
(264")
= 464 lbsjin.
5/ 1:"
.042" or use :x 0"
slenderness ratio
L. %(66")
r (4.6")
= 10.6
length of weld
L = 4 d;
rx
ff (106.8 )
= 4 (66")
= 264" @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation = 3.92"
( 8.56)
Welded Plate Girders for Buildings / 4.1-19
dw = 66"
>
h = 85"
FIGURE 18
r (3.92")
< [2 + 4 ] 10,000,000
12.5 tr = ( ajd".)2 ( d,jt w ) 2
bearing stress in center stiffener 14. Consolidate these findings into the final girder
design, Figure 19.
F
As a matter of interest, reducing the web thickness
A
to W' would have saved about 143 lbs in steel. How-
(125 kips) ever, this would have required 13 pairs of stiffeners
- 2(7" - 1") (Ylo") instead of 9 pairs, Figure 20. The additional cost in
= 23,800 psi < 27,000 psi or .75 U y OK fitting and welding the extra 4 pairs of stiffeners prob-
ably would exceed any savings in steel.
13. Check the compressive stresses from the uni- Increasing the web thickness to =7'8" would only
formly distributed load of 120 kips on the compression reduce the number of stiffeners by 2 pair, Figure 21.
edge of the web plate (AISC 1.10.10.2). See Figure 18. However, this would increase the weight by 287 lbs.
~ 45"
85"~ l--85"3
45"
- - - - - - - - L = 50' = 6 0 0 " - - - - - - -
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 19
4.1-20 / Girder-Related Design
66"XY4"web=
18"Xl"flang e .
'----'~~ ~
FIGURE 21
6. HOLES CUT INTO GIRDER WEB When this is done, it must he remembered that this
flange hecomes a part of the Tee area and is subjected
Many times access holes must be cut into the webs of to the same axial tension (Flo) and compression (F t )
beams and girders for dud work, etc, If sufficiently force caused hy the bending moment (M x ) from the
large, they must be reinforced in some manner. external loading. Therefore, this flange must extend
Since the flanges carry most of the bending forces, far enough beyond the web opening to effectively
the loss of web area does not present much of a prob- transfer this portion of the axial force back into the
lem, However, since the shear (V) is carried for the main web of the girder; see Figure 24, Of course in
most part by the web, any reduction of web area must the region of low moment (M,), this axial force may
be checked, See Figure 22, he low and not require this extra length of flange,
If the hole is located at midspan (b), the shear
is minimum and may have little effect on the strength
of the girder. If the hole is located near the support
in a region of high shear, the additional bending
r---- -< ~ v,
:::- I
stresses produced hy this shear must be added to the I
conventional bending stresses from the applied beam I
load, See Figure 23, I
I
An inside horizontal flange may be added to the
Tee section in order to give it sufficient bending I
strength, or sufficient compressive buckling strength, I
I
-, - - - - _ ?
Applied load
FIGURE 23
FIGURE 22
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation In the usual analysis of a Viercndeel truss, the
horizontal shear (V,,) along thc neutral axis of the
Welded Plate Girders for Buildings / 4.1-21
II
II ~Vt ~ {
?-
~
Extra iength
II
II
II
II
II
II
;,. II
FIGURE 24
II
It {
FIGURE 25
FIGURE 27
@Seismicisolation
II@Seismicisolation
4.1-22 / Girder-Related Design
> >
FIGURE 28
compression must be checked against buckling accord- is divided between these two sections in proportion to
ing to AISC 1.9.1: their depths. For Tees of equal depth, Vt = Vb = lh V•.
The top and bottom Tee sections must be capable
bf > 3000 of withstanding this combined bending stress, and the
tf va; vertical shear.
b. > 3000 A flange may be added around the edge of the
t. \leT,. web opening to give the Tee section sufficient strength
for the bending moment. An additional plate may be
added to the web of the Tee to give it sufficient
strength for the vertical shear (V).
7. COVER PLATES
It may be advantageous in some cases to use
partial-length cover plates in the bearing regions of
a beam or girder, to reduce the required thickness of
the flange plate extending from end-to-end of the
--j 1--1. member.
FIGURE 29 Related discussion will be found further along in
this text under Section 4.3 on Welded Plate Girders
If the resulting bending stress in the stem is for Bridges (see Topic 12) and under Section 6.1 on
excessive, it must be reinforced by an inside flange Design of Rigid Frames (see Topic 3).
or stiffener. The termination of partial-length cover plates for
Corners of the hole should always be round and buildings is governed by AISC Sec. 1.10.4. The fol-
smooth. A minimum corner radius of 2" is recom- lowing paragraphs summarize these requirements.
mended when the hole is not stiffened. Partial-length cover plates shall extend beyond the
Usually it is assumed the point of contraflexure theoretical cut-off point for a distance (a'), defined
of the moment in the top and bottom portions produced below. This extended portion (a') shall be attached
by the shear (V,) and (V Io ) is about midsection of the to the beam or girder with sufficient fillet welds to
hole (<t.). It is also assumed the total vertical shear develop the cover plate's portion of the bending force
FIGURE 30
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Welded Plate Girders for Buildings / 4.1-23
in the beam or girder at the theoretical cut-off point section (a') must be increased, or the actual end of
which is equal to- the cover plate must be extended to a point of lower
moment.
MQ The length (a') measured from the actual end
IF We1d -r- ....................... (14)
of the cover plate shall be:
1. A distance equal to the width of the cover
where: plate when there is a continuous fillet weld equal to
M bending moment at section in question or larger than % of the plate thickness across the end
Q statical moment of cover plate area about of the plate and continued welds along both edges
neutral axis of cover-plated beam section of the cover plate in the length (a').
2. A distance equal to 11/2 times the width of the
I moment of inertia of cover-plated beam cover plate when there is a continuous fillet weld
section
smaller than % of the plate thickness across the end of
the plate and continued welds along both edges of the
The moment, computed by equating M
rQ to the cover plate in the length (a').
capacity of the connecting fillet welds in this distance 3. A distance equal to 2 times the width of the
(a') from the actual end of the cover plate, must equal cover plate when there is no weld across the end of
or exceed the moment at the theoretical cut-off point. the plate but continuous welds along both edges of the
Otherwise, the size of the fillet welds in this terminal cover plate in the length (a').
1 1 1
'''T'"';~= '.
N,,'mIO';'</ Me v1C ~"~---'~ v;:~:""OIO'"
comp"",o"~ }- ---- ~~) ~
Tension
I Top section
I
t----a/2_
(.
Hole
~----a--------.I
Bottom section
@Seismicisolation
applied beam load
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 31
4.1-24 / Girder-Related Design
ri
I
I
I
I
I Moment diagram
I I I
If Inner end of terminal development lies If terminal development starts at
beyond theoretical cut-off point theoretical cut-off point
M, a y
En d we Id F --- -- = ~) ~nd F = --I-
\' ~
weld -+
2I~)
f
I 2I
I
I .» I I ~ I....
'-W-+j I w < Cover
w >
= 3,4 t V -a'~ I ..-L w ? 3,4 tV
I
Inner end of
. I
,,1----.
,J . .
L...-- Theoretical cut-off point ~ w
I ~
terrmno development I+--a'
M2 a y f - '!....Qx
End weld ~F = -----y- ~nd weld ~F - 2I)
I I
I
I
tw Cover I
--±- I
J1
Inner end of -\ cNo transverse
terminal development) weld
FIGURE 32
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
ALLOWABLE SHEAR STRESSES IN PLATE GIRDERS, KSI
And Required Gross Area of Pairs of Intermediate Stiffeners
AISC TABLE 3-33-Steel of 33 ksi Yield Point AISC TABLE 3-36-Steel of 36 ksi Yield Point
Shear Stress, ksi (Shown on 1st line) Shear Stress, ksi (Shown on 1st line)
StiHener Area, % 01 Web Area (In italics, on 2nd line) StiHener Area, % 01 Web Area (In italics, on 2nd line)
W ----·--1--------
0.5 0.610.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1 1.211.4 1.6 1.8
U.OU.OU.OU.OU.OU.OU.6
2.0 2.5 3.0 3
- - - -----
0.51 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5
lover
3.0
--
3
----so -- -- -- -- -- 13.0 13.0 12.9 12.5 12.2 12.0 11.6 11.5 11.0 70
-- -- -- --
14.5
--
160 12.6
12.3 11.9 11.3 10.8 10.3 9.5
1.2 2.8 4.7 6.1 7.1 7.6
12.1 11.6 11.0 10.4 10.0 9.2
8.9 ---s:4 8.0 7.6 6:9 6.4 3.7
7.7 7.5 7.2 6.8 6.0 5.2
8.6 8.1 7.7 7.3 6.6 3.2
~
11>
Q.
~ 0.3 2.3 4.4 6.3 7.5 8.2 8.6 8.5 8.2 7.8 7.4 ~ 0.1 2.1 4.1 6.0 7.2 8.0 8.4 8.3 8.1 7.7 7.3 6.3
-- 11>
.i:!. 180 11.3 10.9 10.3 9:B "'9,3 ---s.s
---s.2 '7.6 '7.1-6:7 lf4 - - - - "2.6 ~
170 12.4 12.0 11.3 10.7 1O~ 9.7 9.0 8.3 ""7.8'f.4 7.0 2.9 Q.
~ 1.1 3.0 5.6 7.2 8.3 8.9 9.2 9.0 8.6 8.2 7.7 0.9 2.8 5.3 7.0 8.1 8.7 9.0 8.9 8.5 8.1 7.7 - - - -
..
~
~
.~ 200 11.1 10.5 "'9.9 9'A' ---s.9 9:5 7:6' "7.3 "'6.8 --. - - - - - - "2.1
] -i80 12.3 11.7 11:0 10.5 10.0 9.5 ~ 8:T 7.6 ----;;:z 6':'8 2.6
Q
.
"'il 2.3 5.2 7.4 8.7 9.5 10.0 10.1 9.8 9.3
------------------------------
220 10.8 10.2 9.6 9.1 8.7 8.3 7.6 7.0 1.7 ~
e --- 1.6
200 12.0
4.0 6.4 7.9 8.8 9.4 9.6
11.3 10.7 10.1 9.6 9.2 8.4
9.3 8.9 8.5 8.0
7.8 '7.3
-- --
2.1 11>
~ ..
4.0 6.8 8.7 9.8 10.5 10.8 10.7 10.3 2.9 6.0 8.0 9.2 10.0 10.4 10.4 10.0 9.5
240 10.5 -9:9 '9A---s.9 9:5 8:T - - - - - - - - --. - - --1':4 S --,- ~
" 220 11.6 10.9 10.4 9.8 9.4 8.9 8.2 7.5 1.7
5.5 8.1 9.7 10.6111.2 11.4
260 -i'iJ-:3 "9.7 "9.2---s.s'''8,3 - - --,-- - - - - - - - - -1.2
- J 4.8 7.5 9.2 10.2 10.8 11.1 11.0 10.6
----- ---- -- --I-
..
Q.
-
rJj ~
240 11-:3 10.7 10.1 9:8 9':2 8.7 1.4 11>
_~..!!.:!!...10.4 11.3.~ 11.9 1_ _ 1_ _1_ _1_ _ 1 6.2 8.6 10.1 11.0 11.5 11.7 I
- - ""1.2
o..
1
----
280 10.1 9.6 9.1 8.6 260 11.1 10.5 10.0 9.5 9.0 8.6
7.7 9.8 11.1 11.8 7.3 9.5 10.8 11.6 12.0 12.1
300 10.0 '9A""9.0--'--'--'--'--"-'--'--'--'--'-- 10.3 9.8
"'9,3-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
280 10.9
ta
i:i ;ij~I-I---I-I-'-'.-'·-'-'-
8.2 10.2 11.4 -
12.1
---
-----1- - C
320
3409:7------------
9.7 I
-----1--1--
l ,i' I
300 10.8
9.0
320 10.7
9.5
10.2 9.7
10.8 11.8 - - - -
10.1
11.2 I
-1-1-1-1-
Q.
~
IQ
III
Girders so proportioned that the computed shear is less than that given in right-hand column Girders 80 proportioned that the computed shear is less than that given in right-hand column
<,
do not require intermediate stiffeners. do not require intermediate stiffeners.
o For single angle stiffeners, multiply by 1.8; for single plate stiffeners, multiply by 2.4. o For single angle stiffeners, multiply by 1.8; for single plate stiffeners, multiply by 2.4.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
These tables simplify the design of intermediate stiffeners to
AISC specifications, as discussed on pages 4.1-4, 5 and 7.
!"
....
~
VI
~
....
~
0.
..
CI.
/l)
I
;Ill'
AISC TABLE 3-42-Steel of 42 ksi Yield Point AISC TABLE 3-46---Steel of 46 ksi Yield Point
Shear Stress, ksi (Shown on 7st line)
Stiffener Area, % 01 Web Area (/ n italics, on 2nd line)
Shear Stress, ksi (Shown on 7st line)
Stiffener Area, % 01 Web Area (/n italics, on 2nd line)
..
/l)
Ci
/ l)
CI.
c
/l)
lit
10·
::I
Aspect ratios a/h: stiffener spacing to web depth Aspect ratios a/h: stiffener spacing to web depth
over over
0.5 06 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3 0.5 06 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 14 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3
70 17.0 17.0 16.7 161 15.7 15.5 15.0 14.8 14.2 60 18.5 18.5 18.5 18.5 18 5 18.3 18.0 17.3
80 17.0 17.0 16.4 15.3 14.6 144 14.2 14.0 13.6 13.4 124 70 18 5 18.5 18.3 17.5 16.9 16.5 16.2 15.8 15.3 14.9
O. I 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.2 0.3
90 17.0 16.8 15.5 14.7 14.2 13.8 13.5 13.3 13.1 12.6 12.2 10.4 80 18.5 18.3 17.2 16.1 15.7 15.4 151 14.9 14.5 14.2 13.0
o I 1.0 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 o I 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.2
~
c
~
100 17.0 166 151 144 141 13.6 13.2
0.7 1.5 2.3 2.7
12.6 12.2
3.4
11.8
3.4
11.1
3.2
10.6 84 ~c 90 185 17.6 16.3 15.8 15.3 148 i 14.5 14.2 13.8 13.1 12.6
0.1 16 2.0, 22 2.3 2.5 25 2.3
10.4
3.2 29
-" -"~
.:: 110 17.0 15.1 144 14.0 136 12.9 12.2 11.6 11.1 10.7 10.0 9.5 6.9 100 185 17.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.6 13.9 13.3 12.8 12.4 11.6 11.0 8.4
Z 1.0 20 2.7 3.9 4.5 4.7 4.7 4.6 4.2 3.8 :B 0.3 1.3 2.1 29 36 4.0 40 4.0 3.7 33
""~
~ 120 17.0 15.5 144
0.9
14.0 13.6 130 12.1 114
2.1 3.2 45 5.5 59
10.8 10.4
5.8
9.9
5.6
92
5.0
8.6
4.4
5.8 ""~
~ 110 18.5 178 16.0
0.3
15.5:15.1 14.6 13.6 12.9 12.3 11.7 11.3 10.5 9.9
16 2.6 36 4.8 5.3 5.4 5.3 5.2 4.6 4. I
6.9
59
3 130 16.6 14 6 141 136 13.0 12 4 11.5 108 10.2 9.7 9.3 8.5 7.9 5.0 3 120 18.5 16.3 156 15.1 14.5 138 12.9 12.1 11.5 10.9 10.5 9.6 90 5.8
o 3 20 3.3 4.9 6.0 6.8 69 6.8 6.6 63 5.6 4.9 ..::: 1.5 2.7 4.2 5.4 6.2 6.5 6.5 6.3 60 53 4.7
0. 0.
c
~ 140 15.5 14.3 13 9 13.2 12.5 11.9 11.1 104 9.8 93 8.8 8.0 74 4.3 "0
130 174 15'.8 15.3 14.6 13.9 13 2 12.3 11.5 10.9 10.3 99 9.0 8.3 50
"0
.o 1.4 29 49 63 7.2 7.7 79 7.6 7.3 6.9 6.0 5.3 1.0 2.5 4.3 5.8 6.7 7.4 7.5 7.3 7.0 6.7 59 .5 I
~ ~ 141 134 128 11.8 11.1 104 9.8 9.4 8.4 7.8
~ 150 14.6 14.1 135 12.7 12.1 11.5 10.7 10.0 9.4 8.9 8.4 7.6 70 3.7 ~ 140 16.2 15.5 14.9 4.3
0.2 2.2 43 6.2 7.4 8.1 8.5 85 8.2 78 7.4 6.4 5.6 1.9 38 5.8 70 78 8.3 8.2 8.0 7.6 7.2 6.3 55
<,
160 14.4 13.9 131 12.4 11.8 11.2 104 9.7 9.1 85 8.1 7.2 3 2 150 15.9 15.3 14.5 13.7 13.0 124 11.5 10.7 100 94 9.0 80 7.4 3.7
"".9
00 I. I 31 5 6 7.3 8.3 8.9 92 9.0 8.7 8.2 7.8 6.7 ""00
0
0.8 2.8 5.3 70 80 8.7 9.0 8.9 85 8.1 7.7 6.7 58
170 14.3 13.6 12.8 12 1 11.5 110 10.3 9.4 8.8 8.3 7.8 29 160 15 7 14.9 14.1 134 12.7 121 11 2 104 9.7 9.1 8.6 7.7 3.2
~ I 8 4:1 6.7 8.1 9.1 96 9.7 95 9. I 8.6 8.1 i: 1.7 4.1 6.4 79 8.9 9.4 9.6 9.4 9.0 85 80 6.9
~ 180 14.1 13.3 125 11.9 11.3 10.8 9.9 9.2 86 8.0 7.6 26 ~ 170 15.5 14.6 13.8 13.1 12.4 118 10.9 10.1 9.4 8.9 8.4 29
~
~
Girders so proportioned that the computed shear is less than that given in right-hand column Girders so proportioned that the computed shear is less than that given in right-hand column
do not require intermediate stiffeners. do not require intermediate stiffeners.
@Seismicisolation
* For single angle stiffeners, multiply by 1.8; for single plate stiffeners, multiply by 2.4.
@Seismicisolation
* For single angle stiffeners, multiply by 1.8; for single plate stiffeners, multiply by 2.4.
ALLOWABLE SHEAR STRESSES IN PLATE GIRDERS, KSI
And Required Gross Area of Pairs of Intermediate S~iffeners
AISC TABLE 3-50-Steel of 50 ksi Yield Point Bethlehem TABLE 3-45-Steel of 45 ksi Yield Point
Shear Stress, ksi (Shown on 1st line) See Notes Below
Stiffener Area, % of Web Area (In italics, on 2nd line)
Aspect ratios alh: sttttener spacing to web depth
hit over
0.5 0.6 OJ 0.8 0.9 10 12 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 20 2.5 I 3.0 3.0
60 18.00 18.00 18.00 18.00 1800 18.00 18.00 18.00 18.00 18.00 18.00 1800 18.00 17.95 17.65 16.96
Aspect ratios ajh: stiffener spacing to web depth 18.00 18.00 ]8.00 18.00 18.00 18.00 17.93 17.47 17.09 16.79 16.53 16.13 15.84 15.45 i 15.25 14.54
g:~ g:~
70
I
I I over 18.00 1800 18.00 18.00 17 92 16.82 ' 15.69 15.44 15.27 15.11 14.97 14.73 14.53 14.14 13.88, 12.72
0.5 0.6 o7 oR 0.9 1 0 1 2 1.411.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3 80
1
02
03
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.9
0.9
1.1
1.1
1.3
12
14
12
15 UI
60 20 0 20.0 200 20.0 19.7 19.1 18.8 18.1 18.00 18.00 18.00 17.19 15.93 15.33' 1485 14.64 14.45 14.27\14.11 .13.82 13.50 12.81 12.34 10.27
90 0.6 ' 15 1.7 19 2.0 2.1 2.2 23 2.3 2.2
70 20 0 20.0 19 1 18 2 17.6 17.3 17.1 16.7 16.5 15.5 'I 1 0.7 18 2.1 2.4 2.5 2.6 I 2.7 2.9 2.9 ' 2.8
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 15.54 15.13 14.23 13.89 13.55 1325 ! 12.97 12.09 11.33 10.81 8.31
80 20.0 19.1 17.9 17 1 16.7
0.6 1.2
16.4
1.4
161
1.6
15.8
1.6
i
15.4 15.0 113.1
1.6 1.5
100
18.00 1800 17 00
0.1
0.1 1.5
114.76
1.2 II 2.0
2.5
I 2.7
3.4
31
39
3.4
4.3
3.6
4.5
3.8 1
4.7
i
i
. 13.9
249
4.8
3.9
4.8
3.6
4.5
3.2
4.1
1800 17.38 15.54 1509 I 14.67 13.30 1291 12.57 1225 111.96 i 11.46 11.04 10.24 9.68 6.87
4.5
~0
90 20 0 18 3 17.3 16.9 16 3 15 R 15 3 14.8 14.3 13~i130 10.4 v
c
110 0.1
0.1 L~ ~.~ ~.~
114.20
I t~
4.9
6.1
5.1
6.4 i~ ~.~ I ~.~
5.0
6.3 5.7
4.0
5.0 I-
0.4 1.:1 2 1 25 2.8 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.8
18.00 15.93 11~:j7 14.71 14.11 1~~6. 1~;6 12.17 1 i.82 1149 111.20 10.f9 10.24 9.41 8.82 5.77
.>:
100 200 18 1 17.2 16 7 16 3 15 4 14.6 13.9 13.4 12.9 12.0'11.4 8.4 £ 120 26 3.9 6.3 6.4 6.4
~.~ In - 5.9 5.2 4.6
~'" 09 1 9 2.6 :1.1> 4.4 46 4.6 4.5 4.1 3.7 , 1.7 3.2 4.9 64 7.6 7.8 79 8.0 7.4 65 5.8
~
v
1706 15.35 14.85 1422 13 52 1289 11.98 11.59 11.23 10.91 10.60 10.08 9.63 876 8.15 4.92
110 20.0 18.5 172 16.7 16 2 15 4 14.4 13.6 12.9 12.3 11.8 10.9 10.3 69 0
I
~ 130 18.2 17.0 16.4 156 14 R 14.1 13.1 12.2 11.5 10.9 10.4
...~
9.4 R.7 5.0
,
~
v 22 45 6.9 8.6 9.6 102 10.2 10.2 10.0 9.8 I 9.4 8.9 7.8 68
0.9 3.3 63 8.5 9.9 10.7 11 I 11.1 11.0 108 10.5 110.0 9.5 8.2 7.1
140 17.3 16.7 15.9 151 14.3 13 6 12 6 11.8 110 10.4 9.9 8.9 8.2 4.3
"~ 2 . .5 4.7 6.5 7 7 1>.4 H.7 86 8.3
1
0
s:
ro 15.19 14.52 13JO 12.98 12.34 11.76 10.86110.46
1
1009 9.75 i 9.44 I 84
8.89 8.41 7.49 1 325
~
0.5 7.9 7.5 6.5 .5 7
~:~ I i:~
160 6.2 7.8 8.7 : 9.3 ,9.5 9.4 9.3 9.1 1 8.9 7.9 6.9
7.8 9.7 109 i 116 119 i i.s 11.6 11.4 111.1 ~5 9.9 8.6 i
150 17.1 16.4 15 5 14 6 13.9 13.3 12.2 11.4 10.7 10.0 9.5 8.5 7.7 3.7 v
-e 1.4 3.6 6.0 r.« H.fi 92 94 92 88 8.4 7.9 6.8 5.9 e
170 I ]~ ~1 14.19 13.40 12.71 12.08j 11.51 1021 984 950 1 9.18 8.62 8.14 I I 2.88 !2.
~
160 16.9 16.0 15.1 14.3 13.6 13 0 11.9 11.1 10.3 9.7 9.2 8.1 , 3.2
v
'0
e
v
28
5.1
63
72
9.0'
8.6
10.8
9.4
11.8
9.9
12.4
10.0
12.5
11O.bl
9.9
12.4
9.1
12.1 1 i.·~ 11 i.t Ilg.·g 8.2
10.3
i I CL.
(l)
22 49 7.1 1>5 94 9 I> 9.9 9.7 .9.2 8.7 8.2 7.11 en lO 00 7.92 2.57 CL.
" r-no
~ 16 7 15.6 14.8 14.0 13.3 12.7 11.7 10.8 10.1 9.5 89 2.9
180
14.82
3D
13.91
61
7.6
13.15
8.1
12.48
93
1186
10.0
11.30 10.40
10.4 IDA 10.3
12.8
9.62
10.1
12.6
9.28 i 8.96 118.40
9.8
12.3
9.6
12.0
9.0
11.3
85
10.6 I
3.8 10.1 11.6 12.5 13.0 I 13.0 i
'"
E
"C
0
'"
'"
2.9
180 16.3
4.1
'1. 200 15.8
6.0 1>.0 9 2 100 10.4 104 10.0
15 4 I 14 5 13 8 13.1 12.5
7.0 1>.8 10.0 105 10 9 110.1>
106
1 1 . 5 10.4
9.6
9.9
9.8
9.0
9.2
93
85
8.7
8.7
26 200
14.30
5.1
63
13.92
13.48
7.7
9.6
13 15
12J6
9.4
11.7
1247
12.12 11.52
1'J.4 11.0
13.0 ,13.7
11.85 11.27
i~:r i~:?7
14.0
,I
10.73: 9.83
13.9
9.66
10.9
13.6
9.42
9.2~
10.6
13 3
9.04 1
8.9< !I8.62 I
10.4
8.70m T
110.1
1
I
i 208
i
1.72
..
"V
Q
(l)
14.9 14.1 13.4 12.8 122.!11.1 103 9.5 ' 2.1 i
..
220 6.6 8.9 10.3 11.2 11.6 11.8 : 11.6 11.3 111 10.7
59 8.4 9.9 10.8 11.4 11.fil11.4 :10.9 103 : 8.2 11.1 12.9 14.0 145 14.8 '14.5 14.2 13.8 13.4, ' I C"
'-1';-- 13.63 12.91 12.25 1164 11.08 10 55 1 144
1 7
220 15.4
7.3
14.6 138 13.2 12.5 11.9! 10.9,10.0
9.5 10 8 11.6 12 0 12.1'11.8f· 3 ! 240 7.7
9.7
9.8
12.3
11.1
13.8
11.8
14.7
122
15.2
12.3
153 1
I
..
CL.
(l)
I 240 1-51 Ii 13.41 12.71 12.08 11.49 1093 10.40 1.23
8.3
j14.3,113 6\13.0 12.3 11.7
10.3 11 .5 12.1 12.4 12 ..5
i 1.4
260 8.6
10.8
10.5
13.1
11.6
14.5
12.3
15.3
12.6
15J
12.6
15.8
Fl~Ufl'." gin'l} III lOp hnnzontullinc opJlHsitt, our-h 11 I \'alu(' indicuu- allowahh, shear stresses F,.
iii
cr..
Girders so proportioned that the computed shear is less than that given in right-hand column
do not require intermediate stiffeners. Figurr-, gi\('1l III SE'('IIIH! Inelicall' rpl/Ulfl·d g-rlls." ureu of pair." of intr-rmediutt- stifleners, as per ('PClt
hllrlr.()lltallltlt'
or art-a A ,using ,,-) ksi vicld-poutt qt'l·1 r"r thr- suflr-nvr-, r ~ 1.00; /}= 1.00 1 . Illl:I
* For single angle stiffeners, multiply by 1.8; For single plate stiffeners, multiply by 2.4. W(,I>
C
FI~url's g-in'l\ In third h'jri/.ol1t"llitlt, uulirutr- re-quired g-ro.":-' <In';l <If pairs uf mtcnm-diute stiffeners, as per cent Ill'
\\('\1 an'a A ,w,ing- :jli kxi vit-hl-pouu ."h'f'l fur tho stiflr-ners .)" = I.:!,~); j}=1.1I0,. Q:
Cirdl'r.":-'o pro!lHrll(JIlE'd that thv cumpun-d shear it: I(,s." than thut grvon in thc extreme right-hand column do
11llt n-quin- inlt-fIll(·dl<ul' sti(Tt·tH·r~. ~
Ia
For sing-It' angh- xtiffc-m-rs , multiply values in second and third horizontal lines hy 1.8. iii
Fur singl(' plate stiffenr-rs. multiplv values in second and third horizontal lines by ~A.
<,
-This and preceding tables for the ASTM specification steels presented here by -This and following tables for some of the proprietary steels presented here by courtesy
courtesy of American Institute of Steel Construction. of Bethlehem Steel Corp. (Similar tables have been developed by United States Steel Cerp.)
@Seismicisolation ...
~
@Seismicisolation ~
......
ALLOWABLE SHEAR STRESSES IN PLATE GIRDERS, KSI ...
~
And Required Gross Area of Pairs of Intermediate Stiffeners ~
CD
<,
Bethlehem TABLE 3-50-Steel of 50 ksi Yield Point Bethlehem TABLE 3-55-Steel of 55 ksi Yield Point ~
See Notes Below See Notes Below a-
~ect ratios a/h: stiffener spacing to web dept1h -l
..
III
I
:lIl'
hit
60
70
0.5 1 0.6
i 20.001 2 0 .0 0
1 0.7
1
2 0 .0 0
I 0.8
1
1 0.9
2 0 .0 0 120.00120.00
I 1.0
I 20.00120.00120.00120.00 120.00 I 20.00 120.00 120.00 I 20.00 120.00 120.00 I 19.84
1 1.2
1
18 .9 0
I.
1
1.3 I 1.4 I 1.5
1.0 1,2 1.3 1,4 1.5 1.6 1,8 2.0 2.5 3.0
over
3.0
..
III
Q
III
Q.
0.4 0.6 0.6 60 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 21.65
0.3 0.8 21.32 20.81 20.43 19.84 19.52 18.75
0.5 0.8
22.00 22.00 22.00 122.00 22.00 21.26 19.82 19.31 18.96 18.79 16.62 18.34 18.10 17.66 17.36 16.07 C
20.00120.00 20.00120.00118.89117.73116.96116.74116.54 16.36116.19115.90115.66 r 15.20114.88 112.99 70 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 III
80 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.6 I
1.5 0.1 0.5 0.7 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.4
III
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80 0.3 1,2 1,5 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.0 ~
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180 1 I 'I
10.8 10.6 9.8 9.3 8.7 17.23 16.26 15.41 14.63 13.92 13.25 12.15 11.65 11.19 10.77 10.38
113.7 I 14.6 . 15.1 15.0 14.7 13.7 I 12.9 12.1 190 5.9 8.3 9.9 10.8 11.3 11.5 11.3 11.1 10.9 110. 6 10.3 ~~6 I 2.30
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15.65114.77113.99 13.29 ' 12.64112.04 9.78 208
200 5.9 8.4 9.9 10.8 11.3 11.6 10.6 17.00 16.06 15.23 14.46 13.76 13.10 112.00 11.50 11.04 10.61 10.22 2.08
8.2 11.7 13.8 115.1 1 15.8 16.1 14.7 14.3 200 6.7 9.0 10.4 11.2 11.7 11.8 11.6 11.4 11.1 10.8 10.4
10.2 13.7 15.9 17.1 17.8 18.1 17.7 17.3 16.9 16.4 16.0
15.27114.44113.70113.02112.39111.80110.79110.341 9.92 9.53 1.72
220 7.3 9.5 10.8 11.6 12.0 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.2 10.9 16.79 15.88 15.07 14.32 13.62 12.97 11.86 . 11.37 10.91 10.48 1.89
210 7.3 9.5 10.8 11.6 12.0 12.1 11.8 11.6 11.3 10.9
10.1 13.1 15.0 16.1 16.6 16.8 16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 I 11.2 14.5 16.5 17.7 18.3 18.5 18.0 17.6 17.2 16.7
14.98114.20113.48112.82112.20111.61 1.44 16.61 15.73 14.94 14.20 13.51 12.86 11.75 11.25 10.79 10.36 1.72
240 8.3 10.3 11.5 12.1 12.4 12.5 220 7.9 9.9 11.2 11.9 12.2 12.3 12.0 11.7 11.4 11.1
11.6 14.3 15.9 16.8 17.3 17.4 12.1 15.2 17.1 18.1 18.7 18.8 18.3 17.9 17.4 16.9
Figures given in top horizontal line opposite each It! ( value indicate allowable shear stresses F,.. Figures given in top horizontal line opposite each hit value indicate allowable shear stresses F,.
Figures given in second horizontal line indicate required gross area of pairs of intermediate stiffeners, as per cent Figures given in second horizontal line indicate required gross area of pairs of intermediate stiffeners, as per cent
of web area A"., using 50 ksi yield-point steel for the stiffeners (Y = 1.00; D = 1.00). of web area A 14· , using 55 ksi yield-point steel for the stiffeners (Y = 1.00; U = 1.00).
Figures given in third horizontal line indicate required gross area of pairs of intermediate stiffeners, as per cent of
web area A w" using 36 ksi yield-point steel for the stiffeners (Y = 1.39; U = 1.00). Figures given in third horizontal line indicate required gross area of pairs of intermediate stiffeners, as per cent of
Girders so proportioned that the computed shear is less than that given in the extreme right-hand column do web area Au·, using 36 ksi yield-point steel for the stiffeners (Y = 1.53; D = 1.00).
not require intermediate stiffeners. Girders so proportioned that the computed shear is less than that given in the extreme right-hand column do
For single angle stiffeners, multiply values in second and third horizontal lines by 1.8. not require intermediate stiffeners.
For single plate stiffeners, multiply values in second and third horizontal lines by 2.4. For single angle stiffeners, multiply values in second and third horizontal lines by 1.8.
@Seismicisolation
For single plate stiffeners, multiply values in second and third horizontal lines by 2.4.
-Note that AISC and Bethlehem values for steel af 50 ksi yield vary anly slightly. The
Bethlehem table is included here for the additional values for area of stiffenera fabricated
fram A36 s_l.
@Seismicisolation
ALLOWABLE SHEAR STRESSES IN PLATE GIRDERS, KSI
And Required Gross Area of Pairs of Intermediate Stiffeners
Bethlehem TABLE 3-60-Steel of 60 ksi Yield Point Bethlehem TABLE 3-65-Steel of 65 ksi Yield Point
See Notes Below See Notes Below
Aspect ratios etn: stiffener spacing to web depth
hit over Aspect ratios a(h: stiffener specmg to web depth
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 15 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.0
hit over
24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 23.53 2303 22.61 22.27 21.73 21.34 20.74 20.49 19.59 OA 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.0
60 0.1
0.2 50 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 25.89 25.46 24.46
24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 23.64 22.20 20.73 20.48 20.25 20.05 19.86 19.53 19.25 18.73 18.38 16.79 26.00 2600 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 25.13 24.49 23.97 23.54 23.18 22.62 22.32 21.87 21.57 20.39
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.2 60 0.1 0.4 0.4
70 0.2 0.7 0.8
0.6 i.i 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.1 2.0
18.57 18.Q\ 17.50 16.56 15.91 12.99 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 24.61 23.11 22.07 21.79 21.53 21.29 21.08 20.70 20.38 19.78 1937 16.97
80
24.00 24.00 24.00 24.00 22.33 20.74 20.25 19.59 19.30
0.1 0.9 1.8 2.0 1~:~311~:~9 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.5 70 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.5
3.8 4.0 4.3 4.5 4.5 4.1 1.1 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.7
0.1 1.6 3.0 3.4 3.7
24.00 24.00 24.00 21.81 20.47 19.92 19.42 18.48 17.97 17.51 17.10 16.72 16.07 15.52 14.49 13.77 10.27 26.00 26.00 26.00 25.54 23.25 22.15 21.62 2088 20.55 20.25 19.81 19.42 18.74 18.17 17.11 16.39 12.99
0.7 3.5 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.0 3.6 80 0.6 1.5 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.2 2.9
90 1.7 2.5
2.8 5.8 6.4 6.9 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.3 6.7 6.0 1.1 2.7 4.1 4.5 4.7 5.2 5.6 5.9 6.0 5.7 5.2
1.1 4.1
24.00 24.00 22.07 20.44 19.83 19.25 18.37 17.16 16.65 16.18 15.75 15.36 14.68 14.11 \3.01 12.24 8.31 26.00 26.00 25.52 22.70 21.90 21.31 20.74 19.44 18.88 18.38 17.93 17.52 16.80 16.19 15.05 14.25 10.27
90 1.2 2.2 3.0 4.3 46 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.0 4.8 4.4 3.9
·
100 08 2.1 3.1 4.4 5.4 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.9 5.7 5.5 4.9 4.4
2.2 4.0 5.3 7.7 8.3 8.7 8.9 9.0 9.0 8.7 7.9 7.0
·
1.4 3.5 5.1 73 9.1 9.5 9.7 9.8 9.8 9.6 9.2 8.2 7.3
c
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o 24.00 23.28 20.58 19.92 19.20 18.24 17.39 16.19 15.67 15.19 14.76 14.36 13.66 13.06 11.91 lLll 6.87 c 26.00 26.00 22.97 21.90 21.24 20.37 19.43 18.12 17.56 17.05 16.59 16.16 15.41 14.78 13.57 12.71 8.31
,5 7.1 7.0 6.7 6A 5.6 4.9
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100 1.4 2.6 4.0 5.2 6.1 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.2 5.9 5.2 4.6
0.5 2.1 3.5 5.1 6.2 6.9 7.0 7.0
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110
s·
.0 11.7 11.2 10.7 9.4 8.2 2.5 4.7 7.2 9.3 11.0 11.4 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.1 10.7 9.5 8.3
0.8 3.5 5.9 8.5 10.3 11.5 11.7 11.8 11.6
• 24.00 21.34 20.16 19.42 18.38 17.47 16.66 15.45 14.92 14.44 14.00 13.59 12.87 12.26 11.08 10.24 5.77
D
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26.00 24.23 22.08 21.36 20.37 19.36 18.46 17.15 16.58 16.07 15.59 15.15 14.39 13.73 12.47 11.58 6.87
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7.8 110 1.0 2.6 4.4 5.9 6.8 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.1 6.7 5.9 5.1
s: 120 1.7 3.3 5.4 6.7 7.5 8.0 8.1 8.0 7.9 7.4 7.1 6.2 5A 0
4.7 8.0 10.6 12.3 13.4 13.6 13.6 U.S 13.3 12.8 12.1 10.6 9.3
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130
23.92 20.53 19.80
0.7 2.7
18.74
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17.75 16.87 16.08 14.87 14.34 13.86 13.41
6.8 7.9 8.6 8.9 8.9
14.3 14.8 14.8
8.8 8.6
14.6 14.4
13.00 12.27 11.64 10.44
8.4
14.1
8.0
13.4
7.6 6.6
126 10.9
9.57
5.7
9.5
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120
26.00 22.43 21.64 20.66 19.56 18.59 17.72 16.41
0.2
0.3
2.2
3.9
4.2
7.6
6.1 7.3
11.0 13.2
8.1 8.5 I 8.5
14.6 15.3 115.3
115.84
15.31 14.83 14.39 13.61 12.94 11.64 10.72
8.4 8.3 8.1
15.2 15.0 14.7
7.7 7.3
14.0 13.3
6.4
11.5
5.6
10.0
5.77
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1.2 4.4 8.4 11.3 13.2
22.21 20.21 19.29 18.19 17.24 16.39 15.62 14.42 1388 13.39 12.94 12.52 11.78 11.15 9.92 9.04 4.24 .
~
24.89 22.05 21.18 19.97 18.92 17.99 17.14 15.84' 15.26 14.73 14.24 13.79 13.00 12.32 10.99 10.05
9.2 9.1 8.9 8.7 8.3 7.8 6.8 5.9
4.92
Q.
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4.1 6.4 7.9 8.9 9. 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.2 8.9 8.5 8.0 6.9 6.0 -c: 130 1.2 3.3 5.8 7.4 84 9.0 9.3
0 140 1.6
2.2 6.0 10.5 13.4 15.2 16.3 16.8 16.7 16.4 16.1 15.7 14.9 14.1 12.2 10.6 ~
~ 16.0 15.8 156 15.3 11.5
2.7 6.8 10.7 13.2 14.8 15.7 14.9 14.1 13.3 10.0 0
23.11 21.72 20.58 19.43 18.42 17.51 16.69 15.38' 14.80 14.27 13.78 13.32 12.52 11.82 10.48 9.52 4.24 Ci
··
20.75 19.94 18.80 17.76 16.84 16.01 15.25 14.05 13.51 13.02 12.56 12.14 11.40 10.75 9.51 8.61 3.70
140 21 4.9 7.1 8.5 9.3 9.8 9.9 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.2 8.7 82 7.1 6.1
··
150 2.5 5.4 7.5 8.8 9.6 10.1 10.1 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.4 8.8 8.3 7.2 6.2 I I)
c 3.8 88 12.8 15.3 16.8 17.7 17.9 17.7 17.4 17.0 16.6 15.7 14.8 12.7 11.1
4.1 9.0 12.5 14.7 16.1 16.8 16.9 16.7 16.4 16.0 15.6 14.7 13.9 11.9 10.4 c
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c
VI 160
20.51 19.58 18.39 17.40 16.51 15.70 14.95 13.75 13.21 12.71 12.26 11.83 11.08 10.43 9.17
0.8 3.6 65 8.4 9.6 10.3 10.6 10.6 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.7 9.1 8.6 7.4
3.25 -c
·
c 150
22.31 21.39 20.09 18.99 18.01 17.13 16.32 15.01 14.43 13.89 13.40 12.94 12.13 11.43 10.07 909
0.5 3.0 6.1 8.1 9.3 10.0 10.4 10.4 10.3 10.1 9.8 9.6 9.0
17.8 17.3 16.3
8.5
15.3
7.3
13.2
63
11.4
3.70
..~
..
1.3 5.9 109 14.0 16.0 17.1 17.7 17.7 17.4 17.0 16.6 16.2 15.2 14.3 12.3 VI 0.9 5.5 11.1 14.6 16.8 18.1 18.8 18.8 18.6 18.2 Q.
22.05 2092 19.68 18.63 17.68 16.82 16.02 14.71 14.13 13.59 13.09 12.63 11.81 11.10 9.73 3.25 II)
-
20.28 19.18 18.06 17.10 1623 15.44 14.70 13.50 12.96 12.46 12.00 11.57 10.81 10.16 2.88
4.7 7.4 11.1 11.0 10.8 10.5 10.3 10.0 9.4 8.8 160 1.3 4.3 7.1 8.9 10.0 10.6 10.9 10.9 10.7 10.4 10.2 9.9 9.3 87 7.5
170 1.5 9.2 10.2 10.8 III
2.5 7.9 12.4 15.3 17.0 18.0 18.5 18.3 18.0 17.6 17.1 16.6 15.7 14.7 2.3 7.8 12.9 16.1 18.1 19.2 19.8 19.6 19.3 18.8 18.4 17.9 168 15.8 13.5
180
20.09 18.86 17.78 16.85 16.00 15.22 14.49 13.29 12.75 12.25 11.78 11.36 10.59 9.94
2.1
3.5
5.7 8.2
9.5 13.7
98 10.7 11.2
16.3 17.9 18.7
11.5 11.3
19.1
11.1 10.8 10.5 10.2
18.8 18.5 18.0
9.6 9.0
17.5 17.0 16.0 15.0
2.57
170
21.83 20.53 19.35 18.33 17.41 16.56 15.77 14.46 13.88 13.33 12.83
1.9
3.5
5.4 8.0 9.6 10.6 11.1
9.8 14.4 17.3 19.1 20.1
11.4 11.2 11.0 10.7
20.5 20.2 19.8 19.4
10.4
18.9
:~i71'~~4
18.3 17.2
21.62 20.20 19.07 18.08 17.18 16.34 15.56 14.25 13.66 13.12 12.62 12.15 11.32
10.83
90
16.2
10.61
2.88
2.57
..o
19.87 18.58 17.55 16.64 15.81 15.03 14.32 13.11 12.57 12.07 11.60 11.17 10.41 9.74 2.30 a:II
190 2.8 6.5 8.9 10.3 11.2 11.8 11.6 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.4 9.8 9.2 180 2.5 6.3 8.7 10.2 11.1 11.5 11.7 11.5 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.4 9.7 9.1 C
11.6
4.6 11.4 15.7 18.4 20.0 20.8 21.2 20.8 20.3 19.8 19.3 18.7 17.6 16.5
200
4.7
3.8
6.3
10.9
7.2
12.1
14.8 17.2
94 10.8
15.7
18.6 19.4
11.5
19.7
11.9 12.1
19.3 18.9
11.8 11.5
18.4 17.9 17.4 16.3
19.56 18.34 17.35 16.46 15.64 14.88 14.17 12.96 12.42 11.91 11.45 11.02
11.2 10.9 10.6
15.3
2.08
190
21.26 19.92 18.84 17.87 16.98 16.15 15.38 14.07 13.49 12.94
3.6
6.4
7.1
12.8
9.3 10.7
16.8 19.3
11.5 11.9 12.0 11.7 11.5 11.2
20.7 21.4 21.7 21.2 20.7 20.2
10.9
19.6
=..- it,f
19.0
11.14
~ 9~.9
17.9
230 Q.
:::I
17.9 19.2 19.9 20.; 19.7 19.2 18.7 18.2 17.6 lQ
III
Figures given in top horizontal line opposite each hlf value indicate allowable shear stresses F~. Figures given in top horizontal line opposite each hll value indicate allowable shear stresses F".
Figures given in second horizontal line indicate required gross area of pairs of intermediate stiffeners. as per cent Figures given in second horizontal line indicate required gross area of pairs of intermediate stiffeners, as per cent
of web area A"" using 60 ksi yield-point steel for the stiffeners (Y = 1.00; D = 1.00). <,
of web area A u-, using 65 ksi yield-point steel for the stiffeners (Y = 1.00: D = 1.00).
Figures given in third horizontal line indicate required gross area of pairs 'of intermediate stiffeners, as per cent of
web area A .... using 36 ksi yield-point steel for the stiffeners ()" = 1.67; D = 1.00). Figures given in third horizontal line indicate required gross area of pairs of intermediate stiffeners, as per cent of
@Seismicisolation
web area Au., using 36 ksi yield-point steel for the stiffeners (}'= 1.81; D= 1.00).
Girders so proportioned that the computed shear is less than that given in the extreme right-hand column do
not require intermediate stiffeners.
...
~
For single plate stiffeners, multiply values in second and third horizontal lines by 2.4. For single angle stiffeners, multiply values in second and third horizontal lines by 1.8. ~
For single plate stiffeners. multiply values in second and third horizontal lines by 2.4. -0
4.1-30 / Girder-Related Design
Access holes cut in girder web must be reinforced . In regions of high bending moment,
flanges must extend far enough beyond web opening to effectively transfer forces into
main web of girder. Semi-automatic welding, with self-shielding cored electrode wire,
is used here in attaching reinforcements at double the speed of manual we lding.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 4.2
the least cost for the whole structure. This may not
necessarily be the lowest weight design. d w2
Aw tw d w -
K
Most structural texts suggest a method of girder
design in which some assumption is made as to the
depth, usually from J'1o to YJ. 2 of the girder length (a
minimum of y:!,,). Knowing the web depth, the web
thickness is then found. This is kept above the value
required for web area (A w ) to satisfy the shear forces
and also to insure that the ratio K = dw/t w will be
below the proper value.
Table 1 lists the AASHO (Bridge) limiting values
of K = dw/t w for common materials, with or without
transverse stiffeners.
2. DESIGN APPROACH
4.2-1
4.2-2 / Girder-Related Design
No transverse
K ~ 60 K ~ 52 K ~ 50
stiffeners
(1.6.80)
Transverse
K ~ 170 K~ 145 K ~ 140
stiffeners
(1.6.75)
Longitudinal
stiffener with K ~ 340 K ~ 290 K ~ 280
transverse stiffeners
(1.6.75)
Therefore, the total girder area is- Also, the total area of the girder is-
At 2 At +A w
dw
2
+d w
2
K K
3KS 2
2 and W t = 6.8K d w II'
Ibsmear ft .............. (5)
Idw = ~ / 3 2K S ,I
Figure 2 contains two curves showing the weights
,-" (2) and depths of girders for a given set of requirements;
in this case a section modulus of S = 5,000 in."
Curve A gives the weight (W" lbs/lin ft) and
also
depth (d w , inches) of the girder for any given value
of K.
These two values come from Formulas 2 and 5:
Since
S dw 2
At = d w - 6 K
These combine to form-
I til···
2 dwH dw2
-3Kdw - 6 K
w, = 8.91 (6)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
.......................... (3)
which is the weight of girder not including weight of
Efficient Plate Girders / 4.2-3
Weight of efficient
girder for
625 different vo Iues of K = dw
tw
.s:
OJ
Jf
Q)
~ min. weight for maximum
a; 600
value of K:
c
S2
QJ
l:t:
.~
W, = 9.80 -
K
a 575
c
~
<,
_------4 WeighJ of girder for K =
170
as depth (dJ increases or
..0 550
decreases
zOJ
FIG. 2 Relationship of effi- QJ min. weight at efficient depth
~
dent girder weight and 525
depth for given require- a;
1? d=.3fTKS
ments (here, 5=5,000 in.3 ) . OJ e V 2
2 500
a
c:::
475
ttl·
be made at the start of the design rather than later.
dw _~3KS
2
stiffeners at the start (right-hand girder) weighs only
- 74% as much as the design which eliminated the stiff-
eners after the depth was determined (center girder).
@Seismicisolation
the weight decreases as the ratio (K) increases; hence
@Seismicisolation
use as large a K ratio as is possible (see Table 1). Once
the flange area (At) is determined, the actual profile
The graph in Figure 4 shows the direct effect of
changing web depth. Changing the combination of
flange dimensions, but using same depth of web (~)
4.2-4 / Girder-Related Design
Pia" X 12.9"
~ ,"" -, <:- ,-,, "
.385"
---.. I--- --1'/1--1.09" .77'
65Y2" 4 6.33"
r-,
K == 170 K == 60 K == 60
W, == 188.5 Ibs/ft W, == 328 Ibs/ft W, == 243 lbs/ft
S=~
tr
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation This may occasionally exceed the depth permitted
by architectural considerations, in which case the latter
Efficient Plate Girders / 4.2-5
= J~
~
170 Efficient web depth de 3 S
d 2
160 Area, one flange Af = --"'2 -K--
"3" -
dw
~
<,
S.e 150 -- - - where: K -- -
tw
-0
~
::J
--
We --
2+
(~:J (this curve)
Wo = weight of actual girder
1: 140 We
en
<ll
da We = weight of efficient girder
C
~
\\t 3
a:
<ll
'u 130
- - de = depth of actual girder
~
<ll
'0
\f- de = depth of efficient girder
C
<ll 120 1\.'1
u
Q; Efficient depth (de)
c.. "\j I
110 " 1/
<,
1'-.1 I r- V
must be used.
c
2. For web thickness, use
K = dw
tw
Aw = d w t w
Method A. cont'd dw
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
tance from the entire section's neutral axis to the outer
fiber (c), and then compute c-: FIG. 5. Girder description.
.Ilo
Q
........
..
~
o o WT 1.8S/FT
t¥ I GlRDE/?
1,000
\V
(r'II,OOOpsl)
..
a.
(1)
I
:ll'
S
INJ
I~{)()I
EFFICIENT
DEPTH
de
900
BOO
ISOO KIPS
1400
1:500
IZOO
..
(1)
Q
(1)
a.
30
'JODO 700 JlOO
c
I, DOD
7,1X1O
6,l1li0
o ;
'q;
~ ~
~
""
~
""
o.lr
600
500
1000
'JOO
BOO
(1)
(II
lAo
::I
s,11f)() ,, dw ~ ~
, K' - ~ ~ ~
o tw ,'700
4,ODO " , 40 ~ ~ ~ ~O
, 'fl ~ <c " 600
~ooo
" ,, I I I
, ;,'
300
TRIINSVERSE __ 14-5
145
1,001
170
STIFFENERS { 170~X. {.
'00
~oo
1BO
Z90
700 "40 ZOO
LONG/TUOIHIIL ,,{Z80
STIFFENERs;- 290 IBO
'00 ,,/ 340"" I c:
500 , I(}O 160
1
100 WILL GIVE MINIMl/M GIRDER
3 K5 WEIGHT FOR A GIVEN 0K"_
AS 'K" DECREASES, WEIGHT 50
d.~ '" 3
EFFICIENT
2 WILL INCRElloSE
30
1 40
DEPTH
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Efficient Plate Girders / 4.2-7
6. With this, compute the section's total required which must equal or be less than the maximum allow-
moment of inertia: able value of K.
Having selected d., and t w , return to Step 4 of
It = S c Method A and follow through to completion (Step 8).
This final value of section modulus (S) must equal If the right-hand line 6 should indicate an allow-
or exceed the value initially stated as a requirement able shear value (V) for the efficient web which is
to resist the bending moment. less than the actual value, the girder design must be
based on the shear-carrying capacity of the web. This
is done by going to the second nomograph, Figure 7:
I Method B IWhen Shear Governs Design of Girder Here:
Line 1 actual shear value which must be carried
If the web area (A w ) computed back in Step 3 by the web (V)
does not equal or exceed the given required amount, Line 2 required ratio of web depth to web thick-
take these additional steps before proceeding with Step ness (K)
4 of Method A. Line 3 (read:) web thickness to be used (tw)
3A. Calculate the web thickness ( t w ) and web Line 4 required ratio of web depth to web thick-
depth (d,,) from the required web area (A w ) and ness (K)
required depth-to-thickness ratio (K), using the fol- Line 5 ( read:) web depth to be used (d w )
lowing formulas: The weight of this shear design may be estimated
by the third nomograph, Figure 8. Two values of weight
are obtained; these must be added together.
Here, for first weight:
Line la required section modulus (S)
and Line 2a = web depth (d)
Line 3 = (read:) estimated weight (Wd
For the second weight:
Line Ib = shear to be carried by web. (V)
3B. Using this as a guide, adjust the thickness Line 2b = allowable shear stress (1')
(tl\") and depth (dl\") of the web plate to satisfy the Line 3 = (read:) estimated weight (W t)
above conditions and also the following: The sum of these two weights still does not include
the weights of stiffeners if required.
[ Problem 1 I
which must equal or exceed the required value of Aw Design a bridge girder for the following loads:
(= Vir); and
dw
tw
< K @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation M
V
7500 ft-kips
600 kips
FIG. 7 Required Thickness and Depth of Plate Girder Web
.t
Based on Shear-Carrying Capacity
........
(I)
THICKNE.sS OF
WEB PLATE ..e
.sHEAR) V} KIP.5
@ t; t-F ® o .
D-
ID
I
~
..a
INCHES
ir = II) 0001'.51 )
WIDTH OF
.3
s"
~
WEB PLATE l
dw
oID
tw ) ;K 3"
8
dw = tw K
INCHES
300
...
lit·
:::I
.~
7"
if. « K = dW
tN 200
z)o.
0 dw .5
I "
Z
340
230
K=- 2~O
tw ---
34-0
L(JN6ITUDINAL .'l 170
Z90
zeo
STIFFENER s-
a --- 145 100
--- 140 90
-------------- lro J 80
-i45 - TRIIN5. -INTEIf. - - - - - - - ------
,sTIFFENER 70
140
.8 ~GO
-r
~O .9
7"
8 K~~
v': 50
Sz. NO STIFFENER 50
40
so 1.0 r
EXAMPLE: /.I
If EXAMPL£": 30
LZ
V = 1,000 KIPS
It tw • 4..J IN.
1.3
d, d
K : ~ = 170 IA- If K • - w =170 20
tw tw
zoo~ I
READ t w =.7Z5 IN. JIN.
OR
1.5 It READ d w a/Z.IN.
I.r;
1.7
11"
I}"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
1.8
I. 'J
2.0-+-Z-
-10
I
IfIO
Efficient Plate Girder. / 4.2-9
S=~ Ct =
dw
2
+ tt
o:
_ (7500) (12) (110) + (2)
(18 ksi) 2
= 5000 in." = 56.0"
V 6. It = S c
Aw = -
T = (5000 in.") (57")
(600) = 285,000 in."
(11 ksi)
7 b _ It - Iw
= 54.5 in. 2 • t - 2 tt Ct2
Wt
o L85/
/FT
S IN J
10,000 10
",,000
8,000
7,000
to.BY
e,OOD
4,000
3, 20
"", ,
,
......
.... .... 30
.... ,
.J,Ooo .... ....
.... 40
....
.... ,
....
.... .... SO
-, Ze~ 60
....
,,@
....
T 70
80
.... ~O
I, ()(I() 15,000p!Si --+-/00
'00
60D
--- --- --- ""
_' __-/4,OOOp6i
700 - - - __ J?,_OOOpsi............ ,
fOO
zo
-----
II} OOOpsi - - --~
-,
SOO -....--
.... zoo
....
....
/0
.... ....
JOO
300
400
EXAMPLE:
zoo s .. 5,000 IN' Ie dw = 1~4 IN, HEAD Wt· Z7S "Yrr SOO
size fraction based on available plate. The actual plate is increased to V = 1000 kips. This will illustrate the
girder example using a web depth of llO" weighed work to be done where shear (V) would govern the
488 Ibs/ft, yet the efficient girder for this same depth design.
should weigh 473 lbs/ft.
Four other combinations of flange dimensions were Here:
figured, using the same web depth (dw = 108.45"), V
but there was little difference in girder weight. The T
thinner and wider flanges .result in a very slight re-
( 1000)
duction in weight.
(ll ksi)
Problem 2 90.9 in."
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Consider the same girder in which the shear load Following the suggested outline:
Efficient Plate Girders / 4.2-11
t w d w3
1.d,,=~3~S 4. I w
12
_ ~'{3(l70)(5000) _ (3f4)( 124) 3
-,- 2 12
= 119,164. in.!
= 108.45"
2. tw =1(
a, 5. Let flange thickness be tt = 2":
dw
( 108.45) c =2+ tt
- (170)
= .638" = (~24) + (2)
= (11/16)( 110)
_ (124) + (2)
2
= 75.6 in. 2 < 90.9 in.2
= 63"
In this case the 1%6" X 110" web plate has in-
sufficient area to carry the shear load. So, switching to 6. It = S c
Method B: = (5000 in. 3 ) ( 64" )
= 320,000 in."
M.tw=~
-' (90.9)
=" (170)
(320,000) - (119,164)
= .732" 2 (2)(63)2
or use a 0/4" -thick web plate. = 12.65"
or use 13" wide x 2" thick flange plates
d.. =twK
= (0/4)( 170) 8. Then, to find properties of the actual proposed
= 127.5" section:
Problem 3 Given:
V 1000 kips
Find the approximate web dimensions and weight
for the same girder, using the nomographs, Figures 6, K = 170
7 and 8.
read:
tw .725" or use 3;4"
1sf Nomograph
Given:
Given:
S 5000 in." K 170
dw
K = 170 read:
tw
d w = 126" or use 124"
read:
d = 108" 3rd Nomograph
Given: Given:
dw S 5000 in."
K 170
tw d 124"
read: read:
w, = 4701bs/ft Wt ) 275 lbs/ft
and: Given:
V 750 kips allowable V 1000 kips
T 11,000 psi
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 4.3
I ntermediate transverse
Research at Lehigh University tested, among other 1/170 1/145 1/140
stiffeners
things, the effect of the web thickness on the ultimate ~ - - - t--~ - --_. t------
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
carrying capacity of the girder; see Figure 1. It was
found that the ultimate load carrying capacity of the
Longitudinal stiffeners 1/340 1/290 1/280
4.3-1
4.3-2 / Girder-Related Design
If the value of (Ter resulting from the above formula 3. TRANSVERSE IN"rERMEDIA"rE S"r1FFENERS
is equal to the yield point of the steel in uni-axial (AASHO 1.6.80)
tension (what is commonly called the yield strength,
(T y ), it is assumed this combination of stresses will just Transverse intermediate stiffeners shall preferably be
produce yielding in the material. Hence, the use of in pairs. They may be either single or double, and be
this formula will give some indication of the factor of plates or inverted tees. When stiffeners are used on
safety against yielding. only one side of the web, they shall be welded to the
compression flange to give it proper support.
The moment of inertia of the transverse stiffener
shall not be less than-
~Y2"1
7/
12"
r---=--i ~- 3" II = aal~~;2J I.. · · (2)
16" ~4
I/4 "
" 1 "
~4
where:
I~- f- 3~6- f-
¥-
1 ..
50"
I ..
~8
50"
~8
50" IJ= 2.5 20 = 51 (3)
I IT III
I = minimum required moment of inertia of stiH-
ener, in.4
-
a, = required clear distance between transverse
stiffeners, in.
a, actual clear distance between transverse stiH-
eners, in.
(a) Cross-sections of test specimens dw unsupported depth of web plate between
flanges, in.
?/Py
t w = web thickness, in.
3'1 ar = ~ tw I (4)
a where:
Girder GI G2 G3
T = average unit shear stress in the web's cross-
200 'f00 section at the point considered, psi
(b) Comparison: ultimate and critical loads of 4. LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS (AASHO
bending tests
1.6.81)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 1 Effect of web thickness on ultimate carry-
ing capacity of the girder. The longitudinal stiffener shall lie along a line 1/5 d:!,
Welded Plate Girders for Bridges / 4.3-3
-----17
....... /"
"~
Longitudinal stiffener .......
.......
.......
.......
.......
Facio side of
,/
" "....... .......
.......
,,/
'"
" "" .......
.......
.......
Longitudinal and ,/ " ....... .......
from the compression Bange. Its moment of inertia tudinal stiffener must be cut into short lengths and
shall not be less than- then inserted between the transverse stiffeners. This
results in increased welding time and production costs.
Some states have used longitudinal stiffeners on
1 I = dw twS (2.4 ~ - 0.13) I (5) the outside and transverse on the inside; Figure 2(b).
This method saves on fabricating time and also allows
the use of automatic welding techniques to join the
These stiffeners do not necessarily have to be con- longitudinal stiffeners to the girder web, thereby sub-
tinuous, but may be cut where they intersect transverse stantially increasing welding speed.
intermediate stiffeners if they lie on the same side of
the web. 6. WELDING OF S"rlFFENERS
K' min __ ,
max.:
5~'t
a
~
1lt1t . . 5/J?1 ~ ,.
100,000 CYC'LES 2~800 PSI 25. 400 psi 22,900 psi
2,000,000 cytLE5 Z~ 8001'4; 18,900 p6; 13.'00 psi
Some engineers have felt this reduction in fatigue connecting fillet weld of the stiffener. See Figure 5.
strength is due to the transverse fillet welds; however, It was discovered that the fatigue failure in the
it is caused by the abrupt change in section due to the stiffener area did not necessarily occur at the point
attachment. It is believed these plates would have of maximum bending stress of the beam. Failure
failed at about the same value and location if they had started at the lower termination of the fillet weld con-
been machined out of solid plate without any welding. necting the stiffener to the web. When the bottom of
This same problem exists in the machining of stepped the stiffener was also welded to the tension flange,
shafts used in large high-speed turbines and similar failure started at the toe of the fillet weld connecting
equipment. the stiffener to the beam flange. After the flange had
Figure 4 illustrates the effect of welding transverse failed, the crack would progress upward into the web.
stiffeners to tension flanges." Tests, again at the Uni- Here, the failures usually occurred in the maximum
versity of Illinois, were made from tension to zero moment section of the. beam.
tension in bending (K =
0) and at 2 million cycles. This test indicated fairly good correlation when
Eliminating the weld between the stiffener and the results were considered in terms of the principal
the tension flange increased the fatigue strength of the tensile stresses (including the effect of shear) rather
beam. In addition, leaving the weld off the lower than simply the bending stress. The angle of the fatigue
quarter portion of the web in the tension region gave a failure in the web generally was found to be about
further increase in fatigue strength.
Later tests at the University of Illinoisv" took into
* "Flexural Strength of Steel Beams", Bull. 377, University of
consideration not only the bending stress in the flange, Illinois, 1948.
but also the resulting principal tensile stress in the ** "Fatigue in Welded Beams and Girders" W. H. Munse &
web at critical locations, such as the termination of the J. E. Stallmeyer, Highway Research Board, Bull. 315, 1962, P 45.
~/'"
x·!!!!!1·
max.=0
8'-6"
2.000,000 CYCLES
1 T'r If"
IZ"
FIG. 4 Effect of welded in·
termediate stiffener, on ten-
sion flange.
INTEANlI!DIATe
~J
INTEAMEOIA1S INTERMEDIATE
ST/~~ENEIU STIFFENER' >STIFFENERS
WftDED 7D we~ AND WELDED 1t) WEB AND lNaoeD7D
"ll /Jl1TH ,.LANtJ e . Tr>P FLANflE ONL Yo COMPt:tESS/OAJ RAN6E
AND Tr> UPPER ~...
OFWE/J.
IB.400P5; @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Z',600 psi. .32,700 p5i.
Welded Plate Girders for Bridges / 4,3-5
d n-
'",
Il ~ 7 rT
.t,,; V '1,0 3/16
~
'",
I-.-J
'",
NOWEIJ} NOWEI.D NOWELO ,
'",
j h 'Nl
\ ff.JI \
ff /-"'"
,
r-. .... I
• ~
>--
,
' ........
..............
•
P,
-....... r-,.' 11 -.......
----- .-....
P<
......
0
o'
---
" t - oll.-+- + ~
"I
, " 1-"';-- t-
0
.... -+- 0
flange will present no maintenance problem. Although fillet welds are specified, W' possibly, savings from the
this does not comply with the above AASHO require- introduction of continuous welds and automatic equip-
ment, many girders for highway bridges are fitted with ment become questionable.
stiffeners in this manner. With thin, deep web plates, a smaller size weld
Plate girder research at Lehigh University" has may tend to reduce distortion. In this case, automatic
indicated the stiffener does not have to contact the welding would be of benefit, provided this substitution
tension flange to develop the ultimate capacity of the of continuous welds for intermittent welds does not
girder. They recommended the stiffeners be cut short increase weld length to any major extent.
as described in the alternate method above (2). The
distance between the lower and tension flange and the 7. FLANGE-TO-WEB WELDS
stiffener is set at 4 times the web thickness; see their
recommendations in Figure 7. These welds hold the flanges to the web of the plate
There is no clear-cut answer as to whether con- girder. They are located in areas of bending stresses
tinuous or intermittent fillet welds should be used to and must transfer longitudinal shear forces between
attach the stiffener to the web. The latest research at flanges and web. Some restraining action may develop
Illinois on stiffeners indicated that fatigue failures with thick flange plates, but any resulting transverse
occurred at the terminations of fillet welds, regardless residual stress should not reduce the weld's load-carry-
of whether they were continuous or intermittent. Natur- ing capacity. This being parallel loading, the actual
ally, a continuous weld will have fewer terminations, contour or shape of the fillet weld is not as critical
hence fewer areas for potential fatigue cracks. as long as the minimum throat dimension is main-
Where large, intermittent fillet welds are specified, tained.
%" for example, replacement with ¥4" continuous fillet Shop practice today usually calls for submerged-
welds made by automatic welding equipment achieves arc automatic welding equipment to make these welds.
a considerable saving in cost. Where small intermittent For the usual thickness of web plate, the two fillet
welds penetrate deeply within the web and intersect
• "Strength of Plate Girders", Bruno Thurliman, AISC Proceed- as in Figure 8( b ), giving complete fusion even though
ings 1958; "Plate Girder Research", Konrad Basler & Bruno
Thurliman, AISC Proceedings, 1959. simple fillet welds are called for, as in (a). A few
either
I IP I
F
V ... r
. f-F~ 7 -v/ I
~
or nom.
-;n ,
I
I
t - t I-t
I
I
I
I
• t
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 7 Summary of design recommendations relative to girder stiffeners.
Welded Plate Girders for Bridges / 4.3-7
©
states recognize this penetration and are now detailing No difference was indicated for the fatigue strength of
this weld with complete fusion. This proves no problem the beam using either joint design, with both types
on the normal web thickness. In the future, however, demonstrating a fatigue strength in the beam of 22,000
if the same detail is shown on much thicker web plates, to 24,000 psi (bending stress); Figure 9.
the fabricator will have to use a double-bevel edge
preparation to obtain the intersection (c), even though Fillet Weld Minimum Size
detail (d) is sufficient.
From a design standpoint, these welds may be
It should not be necessary to detail groove welds
quite small. Their actual size is usually established by
for this joint from a design standpoint. Selection of a
the minimum allowable leg size for the thickness of
groove T-joint design should be based on a cost com-
parison with fillet welds. The grooved T-joint requires TABLE 2-Minimum Fillet Weld Sizes
about lh the amount of weld metal compared with For Various Plate Thiclcnesses (AWS)
fillet welds (assuming full-strength welds). However,
the grooved joint has the extra cost of preparing the THICKNESS OF THICKER MINIMUM LEG SIZE
PLATE TO BE JOINED OF FILLET WELD·
double bevel.
In respect to the physical performance of either THRU 112 inch 3/16 in.
the fillet or the grooved T-joint design, tests have been Over 112 in. thru % in. 1/4 in.
Over % in. thru 1112 in. 5/16 in.
made, by A. Neumann, of these welds under fatigue Over 1112 in. thru 2 1/4 in. % in.
bending from 0 to tension, K = 0, at 2 million cycles." Over 2 1/4 in. thru 6 in. 112 In.
Over 6 in. % in.
• Need not exceed the thickness of the thinner plate
strength.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 9 Both· weld types showed same fatigue • "Discussion at the Symposium on Fatigue of Welded Struc-
tures" The British Welding Journal, August, 1960.
4.3-8 / Girder-Related Design
TABLE 3-Allowable Shear Forces On axial normal stress from the bending, applied to the
Fillet Welds For Various Fatigue Loadings fillet weld, would increase the maximum shear stress
applied to the throat. For a given applied normal stress
100,000 600,000 2,000,000 ( U' ), the resulting maximum value for the allowable
CYCLES CYCLES CYCLES
force (f) which may be applied to the fillet weld of a
1 = 8800 w Ib/in. ~ = 7070 w Ib/in. 1 = 5090 w Ib/in. given leg size (w) under parallel loading is expressed
K K K by the formula:-
1-"2 1--
2 1-"2
but shell nat exceed 1 =8,800 w (f60 or SAW 1 welds)
1= 10,400 w (E70 or SAW 2 welds) f = w ~ 88W - c: (6a)
Where:
(E60 or SAW-l welds)
K = MINIMUM (shear (V) applied to girder)
MAXIMUM
~
w = leg size 01 fillet
f = w 10,4002 -; ••••••••••••• (6b)
Determination of Combined Stress (E70 or SAW-2 welds)
The combined stresses in a fillet weld between the
girder web and flanges is seldom considered for the This formulation still permits the maximum shear
following reasons: stress resulting from the combined shear stresses to
1. The maximum bending stress for a simply sup- be held within the allowable of T = 12,400 psi (£60
ported girder does not occur at the same region as or SAW-l welds) or 14,700 psi (E70 or SAW-2 welds).
the maximum shear force. For a continuous girder, Allowable Fatigue Strength
however, the negative moment and shear force are
Table 3 contains the formulas for establishing the
high in the same region near the support, and perhaps
allowable shear force that may be applied to fillet welds
the combined forces in this fillet weld should be
under various conditions of fatigue loading.
checked.
2. The maximum bending stress in the outer sur- 8. FLANGE BUTT JOINTS
face of flange is always designed for something less
than the allowable (Bridge code = 18,000 psi). The In nearly all welded plate girders, the flange is a single
weld lies inside of the flange and is stressed at a lower plate. These plates are stepped down as less area is
value. Ex: If the weld is in an area of 15,000 psi required. A smooth transition is made between the two,
bending stress, this additional normal stress would re- by reducing either the thickness or width of the larger
duce, theoretically, the allowable shear force for the flange to correspond to that of the smaller.
weld from f = 8800 w to f = 7070 w, or about 80% When this transition is made in thickness, the end
of what it would be if just horizontal shear were con- of the larger flange is beveled by a flame-cutting torch.
sidered (E60 or SAW-1 welds). There is a practical limit to the angle of bevel, but this
3. Usually these welds must be larger than design slope, according to AWS Bridge Specifications, should
requirements because of the minimum weld size specifi- not be greater than I" in 2%" (an angle of 230 ) . On
cations listed above. the Calcasieu River bridge, this slope was decreased to
Nevertheless, if desirable to determine the com- about I" in 6" (an angle of about 9th 0). Transitions
bined stresses, it can be theoretically shown that the also can be made by varying the surface contour of
2!2
"""'J I FIG. 10 Plate bevels made by
[-----__\_-.Jo~~J f~
flame cutting.
N·/0o-0OON
1(-0
N-z,ooqooo",
When the transition is made in width, the end of
the wider flange is cut back at an angle, again with
the Harne-cutting torch. There is no problem in cutting
in this manner, and any slope may be used; many times
1 in 12, but usually a maximum slope of 1 in 4. Often
this taper may extend back for several feet.
t D ,ft-
1 3~600ps/ 18,SOOps;
t (
tension or compression are used. See Figure Ll. If a
curve tangent to the edge of the narrow flange at the
point of termination is used, it may be assumed the
Ranges have equal widths. Thus, for equal plate thick- ,of"
z~
t 34,900 /9,500
nesses and with the weld reinforcement removed, the f I 1
butt groove weld may be assigned the same allowable tran.sition in width
stress as the flange plate, under any condition of fatigue
loading. FIG. 12 Making a transition in flange width
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Studies at the University of Illinois have indicated
a slight advantage in making a transition in width
rather than thickness has a slight advantage
in fatigue strength.
4.3-10 / Girder- Related Design
Also, ratio of depth to length of span shall prefer- in the above table for the more common steels.
ably not be less than lh 5; for lower depth the section
10. DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
shall be increased so that the maximum deflection will
not be greater than if this ratio had not been exceeded The dimensional tolerances in Figure 14 have been set
(1.6.11). up for welded plate girders by the AWS Bridge Speci-
Also, web thickness shall meet requirements given fications.
COMbillld walllG~
en! Tilt of Flange
6(...11 z'Wolli·
lateral Oeviolion Betw_ Centerline TIlt of
II Web en! CenIertine of FlOlllJl at Flan,e
Conlact Surface
Ii
(~) I Dewiafion From Specifi,d
Li
Camber of 'Welded Girders
A~' t~bulNoI LesslhGntf
r
0
Lenglhs of 45 and Under
t
l:.1 inches) • but Nol Over
0
Lenqthl Over 45 Sweep of Wllided Girder.
Alinchesl : ~ l:.lncIIts· t6
@Seismicisolation
depth. up to "·incl. Deviolion From Flolne" of Girder Web in lMIqfh
@Seismicisolation
Q
Figure 15 illustrates several types of diaphragms used, %" and under 27,000 psi
and represent the extremes in designs and fabrication. over %" 12"
to 11 24,000 psi
Diaphragm (a), although so simple in design that no Over 11 12" to 4" 22,000 psi
shop welding is required, must be fitted and welded in
the field. Diaphragm (b), although much more com- Many methods have been suggested for termination
plicated, may be mass-produced in the shop: The angles of cover plates. The existence of at least four conditions
are sheared to length, and the plates are sheared and which affect this makes it impossible to recommend
punched. These are placed into a simple fixture and one specific cover plate end which will best meet all
welded together at low cost. The field erection is conditions.
simpler, since the diaphragms are put into position, First, the tensile forces, assumed to be uniformly
held by an erection bolt, and then welded into place. distributed across the width of the cover plate, should
be transferred simply and directly into the correspond-
12. COVER PLATES
ing flange of the rolled beam without causing any stress
Using A-441 steel (previously A-242), it may be ad- concentration in the beam flange. In general, a large
vantageous in some cases to use two plates, a flange transverse fillet weld across the end of the cover plate
plate and a cover plate, to make up the flange. This does this in the simplest manner.
will permit use of thinner plates and take advantage Second, there must be a very gradual change in
of the higher allowable stresses. This steel has the the beam section at the end of the cover plate, in
following allowable tension in members subject to order to develop a similar gradual change in bending
bending: stress of the beam. Any abrupt change in beam section
(a) (c)
(d) 0
(b)
"--
c.
~
~u..{-G.-- ~
FIG. 15 Diaphragms used in modern bridges: (a) angles cut to length and dropped into
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
place; (b) Shop welded diaphragm, field welded to girder stiffener; (c) angles attached
to stiffeners; and (d) channel welded to web and stiffeners.
Welded Plate Girders for Bridges / 4.3-13
K. mi" • 0
mar
f'
ito F==iW.Z;W;;~=~ __~N: Z) 000)000 cye tes
8,900 psi
~M" 8 cover Il
will reduce the beam's fatigue strength. This would 1. In general, continuous fillet welds were better
tend to favor a gradual tapered width at the end of the than intermittent fillet welds for joining cover plates to
cover plate. the beam flange.
Third, some caution should be exercised relative 2. On cover plates extending beyond the width
to terminating the cover plate in the narrow zone of of the beam flange and connected with longitudinal
the flange that is in direct line of the beam web. This %6" continuous fillet welds, adding a %6" fillet weld
is a rigid portion with little chance for localized yielding across the end of the cover plate produced a slight
to prevent the build-up of possible high stress con- increase in fatigue strength (from 8900 psi to 9300 psi
centration. at 2 million cycles). Omitting the welds for a distance
Fourth, the selected joint should be economically at each corner of the cover plate increased this value
practical to make and answer functional requirements. up to 11,000 psi; see Figure 16.
For example: The intersection of the longitudinal and transverse
1. Continuous welds may be needed to provide fillet welds could present a point of weakness if not
a positive seal and prevent moisture from entering properly made. This "cross-over" usually results in a
underneath the plate and causing connection deterior- very shallow concave weld. By eliminating this weld
ation. for 1" back from each comer, the fatigue strength is
2. Minimum appearance standards may eliminate increased. This does not apply if the cover plate lies
some joint designs. within the beam flange, since the weld does not have
Early fatigue testing at the University of Illinois" to "crossover."
on rolled beams with cover plates indicated that: * Bull. No. 377, Jan. 1948.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
no test» made with the transverse fillet weld left off
U"iver:;ity of Illinois - Butteiin No. 377
4.3-14 I Girder-Related Design
(q)
i I 1 2fO,500ps; 11,.300 pSI
(0)
i ---r
:::::JJ.,.
tz
t 33,000 11,500
(c) 1-
CI~~. 30,700 14,500
mf ) 1 2~OOO 11,700
3. For cover plates lying within the width of the What is more important is the effect the trans-
beam flange, increased fillet weld size across the end of verse weld and shape of the cover plate's end has on
the cover plate produced a gradual increase in fatigue the stress in the beam flange adjacent to where the
strength. A %6" fillet weld had a strength of 9400 psi cover plate is attached. This is the region of lower
at 2 million cycles, a %" fillet weld 11,000 psi, and a section modulus and higher bending stress and is much
%" X I" fillet weld up to 12,600 psi. This particular more critical than any region within the cover plate.
size of cover plate was not tested with the transverse The drawing, Figure 18, illustrates variations of
fillet weld omitted; see Figure 17. cover plate terminations. * The data summarizes recent
The latest work reported at the University of tests on the fatigue strength of beams with partial cover
Florida on steady loading of 18" WF 70# beams with plates, conducted at the University of Illinois. Although
5", X %" cover plates showed that the beam flange the common method of terminating the cover plate
within the cover-plated region was stressed lower when directly across the flange with a transverse fillet weld
a 0/8" fillet weld was placed across the end of the cover is satisfactory and acceptable by the AWS Bridge
plate as compared to that with no transverse weld. The Specifications, this data would seem to indicate that
transverse weld also produced a more uniform distri- tapering the end of the cover plate and eliminating
bution of stress across the cover plate as well as the transverse welds across the end slightly increases the
beam flange, and allowed the plate to pick up its share fatigue strength.
of the beam force in a shorter distance. However, all
of these factors occur within the cover-plated region of
flange of beam
It should be noted that a small ¥4" fillet weld was fillet weld across the end and along both edges of the
used across the end of the !h" thick cover plate. The cover plate, the minimum terminal development length
results might have been different if a larger transverse measured from the actual end of the cover plate to
weld had been used. Most states require continuous the theoretical end or cut-off point shall be 1!h times the
welds on cover plates and across their ends, thereby width of the cover plate.
limiting the selection to termination types a or b. Since B. With tapered ends having no transverse weld
the data indicates that tapering has little effect, final across the end but welds along both tapered edges,
selection between a or b would have to be made on tapered beyond the terminal end to a width not greater
the basis of some other factor such as appearance, or than ¥3 the width, but not less than 3", the terminal
lower dead weight. development length shall be 2 times the width of the
In summary, it would appear that the short section cover plate.
of the transverse weld across the end of the cover plate Normally the inner end of the terminal develop-
directly over the web of the beam (1) is restrained and ment length will lie at the theoretical cut-off point; see
(2) when tested under severe fatigue loading may Figure 20, (A) and (B). However, the cover plate
reduce the fatigue strength of the connection unless may be extended farther so that the distance between
it is made large. A large transverse fillet weld, especially the actual and the theoretical cut-off point exceeds
in this central section, would more uniformly transfer the required terminal development length. In this case
this force through the surface of the beam Bange into only the required terminal development length shown
the end of the cover plate. See Figure 19. in (A) and (B) shall be used for the length of con-
Summary of Coyer Plate Specifications necting weld when determining weld size, rather than
CAWS Art. 225) the actual length between the actual and theoretical
cut-off point; see (A') and (B').
The AWS Bridge Specifications limit the thickness of Fillet welds between terminal developments along
cover plates to 1!h times the thickness of the Bange to the cover plated length, shall be continuous and be
which it is attached (225 e 1). designed to transfer the horizontal shear forces:
For partial-length cover plates, their end shall
extend beyond the "theoretical end" (theoretical cut-
off point) which is determined by the allowable stresses
from fatigue formulas (1), (3), or (5) of Section 2.9,
I f = W I .. ·.. ·.. ·· (7)
Table 1. (for each weld, there are 2 welds along the edge of
The ends of the cover plate shall extend beyond the cover plate)
this "theoretical end" a sufficient distance to allow Fillet welds within the terminal development zone
"terminal development" (transfer of cover plate bend- (between the inner end of the terminal development
ing force into the beam Bange) by either of the fol- and the actual end of the cover plate) shall be con-
lowing two methods: @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
A. With square ends and a continuous transverse
tinuous and be designed to transfer the cover plate
portion of the bending force in the beam at the inner
4.3-16 / Girder-Related Design
Moment diagram ,
I
~lY2 w-l
rather than actual length (A' and B/)
between actual and theoretical cut-off
points. f-
- Y..s!.::L
21 ,
Cut-off point ~ In
I
.
~ner end of terminal development
..,
r: End weld: F
_
-,-
M1 a y
> '1•
I
end of the terminal development length (usually the
theoretical cut-off point):
Cover It I
I
I ....
::J (B)
~2w---l
Cut-off point ~ I""
rrAz. 1.······ .. ··· ... ··········(8) - ~
f-
.
~er end of terminal development
M ay
21 ). I .c End weld: F = -21 -
My
-1-
~
I
I I
:. Cover It I (A')
t I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
would come from formulas (10), ( 14), or (18) of
Table 1, Section 2.9, and shall conform to the minimum
where
d = depth of beam (feet)
SECTION 4.4
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
• "Design of the Bridge Over the Quinnipiac River" by Roman
Wolchuk. FIGURE 1
4.4-2 / Girder-Related Delign
Compression I
---..-
: d
:~Fh=M
h. d F
4-----""""",",,::::"
o F _ _h_
I ~ -.- cosO FIGURE 2
) Resistance of bottom
F. = Fh tan 0 flange due to its
vertical component
of tensile force
Simply Supported Girder Continuous Parabolic: Haunc:hed Girder
Straight or CUlTed Bottom Flange
See Figure 3.
See Figure 2.
Here the external shear is-
Here the external shear is-
V = A., 'Tw + M
d tan 9
V = A., 'Tw + dM tan 9
M
V - d tan 9
In this case the vertical component is subtracted In this case the vertical component is subtracted
from the web shear. from the web shear.
Tension I
I •
- n ~~
I 1 1~"';'Io","Ofweb
r
~ due to its shear FIGURE 3
d ~ Resistanceof bottom
: ~ flange due to its
I ~ -. vertical component
......",,,.....Iooo:::;;,,. . .,I+~ compressive force
I (F Fh F.
I •
Compression I
III
FIGURE 4
1D ~
_ ~ Resistance of web
due to its shear
i~
R / :If ~ vertical component
~::::Io-''''''':=..I
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@Seismicisolation
yr • Fh
fJ of tensile force
F
Bridge Plate Girden With Variable Depth / 4.4-3
T " I
~_fie~n~S'O~nj'I
.. ~
J 1D ~
- - - A-t... Resistance of web
due to its shear
d ___
I
I
--jt:::::=~.1 +-- Fx = Fh= dM
FIGURE 5 Compression I
FIGURE 6
Simply Supported Haund.ed Girder between the fish belly haunch and the parabolic haunch
See Figure 4. in the area of the compression flange near the support.
Here the external shear is- See Figure 6.
Conditions include the following:
M
V = Aw Tw - d tan 8 Use of A441 steel
M = 55,000 It-kips
and the modified shear is- V = 1200 kips
V' = Aw Tw Ix = 3,979,000 in."
127+'16"
Continuous Fish Belly Haunched Girder
See Figure 5.
Here the external shear is-
V = Aw T
_ _ _ 21' J_
In this case the flange force has no vertical com-
ponent; hence, there is no reduction of shear in the
web.
I Problem 1 I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Check the haunched girder section (at point of sup-
port) shown in Figure 7, to determine the difference FIGURE 7
4.4-4 / Girder-Related Design
I
I
I
I
I
..£- -r' = 4890 psi
11D~
1-..
I
~ Fh -
I F' _______
I
F. = 353 k
FIGURE 8 or:
F, = 2030 k
IF = 353 k
'T'
'Tw tan a
%(crx' + cry')
1200 - 353 4890
(252 X lYt6)
4890 psi @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation %(20,900)
.4680
Bridge Plate Girders With Variable Depth / 4.4-5
:
-
7"' = 4890 psi
0' ~
----+ - - -+- - - . - -
I I a' = 20,900 psi
FIGURE 10
, I b' x ax = 21,950 psi
a~ = 0
p= 5.08°
7"' = 4890 psi
2() = 20°
ex: = 25~08° ,---*;-- ax = 1050 psi
4-\~
_ 0 .
7" = 1020 pSI
ax = - 21,950 psi
7" = 1020 psi
b' -"
FIGURE 11 a: = 20,900 psi
7" = 4890 psi
a = 25.08° fry = k - n
( 10,450) - (11,500)
f3 = 25.08° - 20°
= 1050 psi, tension
= 5.08°
radial force of lower compression flange against web
sin f3 = .0886
cos f3 = .9961
m = V k + (r') 2
2
= V (10,450)2 + 48902
= 11,540
r = m sin {3
= (11,540) ( .0886)
= 1020 psi
FIGURE 12
n=mcos{3
= (11,540) (.9961)
= 11,500 psi f
(Tx = k +n (2030)
= (10,450) + (11,500)
= 21,950 psi, compression
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation (200 X 12)
= 846 lbs /Iinear in.
4.4-6 / Girder-Related Design
(846)
(1 X 17ia)
1230 psi, compression
r
/
= 100'
8=?---
t
FIGURE 14
This produces the final stress condition of:
@Seismicisolation
haunch with the same web and flange dimensions:
@Seismicisolation 1670 Ibs/Iinear in.
Bridge Plate Girders With Variable Depth / 4.4-7
-... T = 6930
.--L..-...,~
ax = - 20,900
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
Using the Huber-Mises formula:
r,
= '\I (20,900)"-( -20,900) ( +2460) + (+2460)2+ 3( 6,930)2
fx cos (J r,
= 25,100 psi f
Sx SI1 Sll
cos (J
F.S. - sr,
U'er
or the approximate:
( 42,000)
- (25,100)
= 1.67
I f = ern
V' Ibs/in.
f =
Vay
rn- lbs/In.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation n
d
number of welds connecting web to Range
distance between C.J. of Ranges, in.
4.4-8 / Girder-Related Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Portion of 295' span of bridge on Connecticut Turnpike being settled onto supporting
piers. Note continuous parabolic haunched girder construction.
SECTION 4.5
\\
\
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@Seismicisolation
4.5-1
4.5 -2 / Girder-Related Design
FIG. 2 Bridge plate girders being weld fabricated. With flanges flame-cut
on a curve, weight of the rolled web is utilized in making it conform to
desired radius.
FIG. 3 A two-span continuous box girder and curved ramp construction pro-
vided the answer to space limitations in reaching elevated parking area at
busy New York terminal complex. Smooth, clean lines, without outside stiffen-
ers, demonstrate aesthetic possibilities inherent in welded design.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 4.6
Tapered Girders
1. FABRICATION AND USE span design, the central span can use the tapered flange
up, forming the slope of the roof; the two adjacent
The use of tapered girders has become widespread, spans use the tapered flange down to provide a Hat
especially in the framing of roofs over large areas where roof, but tilted to continue the same slope as the
it is desirable to minimize the number of interior central section.
columns or to eliminate them altogether. They permit The problem of lateral support for the top com-
placing maximum girder depth where it is needed, pression flange of tapered girders is no different than
while reducing the depth considerably at points where with other beams and girders. Generally the roof deck
it is not needed. is sufficiently rigid to function as a diaphragm, and it's
Tapered girders are fabricated either 1) by weld- only necessary to attach the deck to the top flange.
ing two flange plates to a tapered web plate, or 2) by There's apparently no advantage in designing with a
cutting a rolled WF beam lengthwise along its web at reduced stress allowable, in accordance with AISC
an angle, turning one half end for end, and then Formulas 4 or 5, in order to permit a greater distance
welding the two halves back together again along the between bracing points at the top flange.
web. See Figure l. Where tapered girders are critical, Section 5.11 on
Rigid Frame Knees goes into more detail relative to
Camber When Required
stresses (elastic design).
Camber can be built into the tapered girder when Because of the reduced depth at the ends of the
required. When the girder is made from WF beams,
each half is clamped into the proper camber during
assembly. Then the butt joint along the web is groove
welded while the girder is held in this shape. Since
En- -~cutI
the weld along the beam web lies along the neutral axis,
no bending or distortion will result from welding, and
the girder will retain the shape in which it is held
during welding.
When the girder is made of two flange plates and
a tapered web, the proper camber can be obtained by
f----r ! d
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
tapered flange down. There are many combinations of
roof framing systems possible. For example, on a three- FIGURE 1
4.6-1
4.6-2 / Design of Welded Structures
tapered girders , th eir connec tion to supporting columns First, th e flang e area remains the same; th e only
may offer little resistance to horizontal forces. For thi s weight saving is in the w eb. See Figure 2.
reason, some knee braces may be required unless the Second, th e depth of th e tapered girder at midspan
roof deck or a positive syst em of bracing in th e pl an e mu st b e increased over that of th e conventional straight
of the roof is stiff enough to transmit th ese forc es to beam to be sufficient at the critical section (about ¥4
ad equately braced w alls. span ). This is necessary to develop the required section
At first glance, th ere appears to b e quite a w eight modulus along th e full length of the tapered girder.
saving in tapered girder ; however , thi s is not always as This wiII slightly offset th e initial weight saving in
great as it might seem: th e web . See Figure 3.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Tapered Girders / 4.6-3
~
quired-depth curve at this point in order for th e b eam
to have sufficient depth along its length. .30 L
Setting th e slope of th e tap ered girde r flange so
78.6%
that the critical section is located at th e % span will I I
I -- 2 A((d t
+ tw w ~80 ~ I I
2) 12d - --- - - - - - - -
.20 L
l At d t2 t w d.,
S
= d b2 ---a;;- 6 db FIGURE 5
Af
This formula for section modulus can be simplified
with little loss in acc uracy, b y letting-
[depth b.lw"oT
e.G. of flanges)
dw d, = db
df
dw
(de h lt
db
(overall
IS At d w +~ I· (1)
1
of web) de pth) If th e sec tion modulus required to resist the bend-
ing mom ent is known, th e required b eam depth (d )
is solved for:
177';'77~~7'7;~
6 S
tw
o
FIGURE 6
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
oIlo
t
TABLE 1
2 3 . 5 uniform
load
cone. load cone. loads cone. loads cone. loads cone. loads
f 1 t ~ ~ ~ t ***** t 1++****++"...
critical depth 01 01 load 01 lsI loads 01 lsI loads 01 1/4 span 01 1/4 span
01 1/2 L ¥.lL 1/4 L %L 1/4 L 1/4 L
crilical
~c:tr + ~e:')' + c~'r+ ~e:'r + ~c:'r + ~c:tr + -
depth 3 Pl 3A, 2 Pl 3A, 9 PL 3At 2A PL 3A, 13 PL 3A, 9 wL2 3A r
---
21w <T Iw twD' tw 41w lT Iw twa tw 41w lT Iw 161 I w lT w
dw
depth 01
cenler line dtt. = d w dl£ = dw + % Ian 9 d~ = dw + 1/4 Ian 9 dCj; = dw + .3 LIon 9 d~ = dw + 1/4 Ian 9 d'i: = dw + '/4 Ian fJ
d'i,
deplh 01 end
d.
d. = dw - 1/2 Ian 9 d. = dw - ¥.l Ian 9 d. = dw - 1/4 Ian 9 d. = dw - .2 LIon 9 d. = dw - 1/4 Ian 9 d. = dw - 1/4 Ian 9
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Tapered Girders / 4.6-5
= L/4:
I ~( At) +~-~At I
ordw=~ 3
6 S 3
Also, at x
~~ + ;6~wL; - ~I""'"
2 (2)
Idw .(3)
For a simply supported, uniformly loaded, tapered
girder-
0
1 -
.75 w L
cr (t d + 3 At)
w w
I (4 )
3. CONCENTRATED LOADS
FIGURE 8
Figure 9 shows the effects of placing multiple loads
upon a simply-supported tapered girder. These effects
wx on the bending moment and the critical depth of the
2 (L - x)
girder can be explained as follows:
• In the case of the single concentrated load at
M"
S" tr midspan, the critical depth section is at midspan, and
the maximum slope is O.
• In the case of 2 equal concentrated loads applied
at 1f.J points, the critical depth section is at the points
or to find the depth in one step-- of load application and the maximum slope is O. Assum-
ing the slope were to pivot about this critical depth
3 At section, any slope less than this value would cause the
--t
- depth at the end to increase at twice the rate at which
w
the depth at centerline is decreasing. Since such a shift
To find the slope of the critical-depth curve formed would increase the web weight, this maximum slope
by points d" along the girder length, this expression for value of 0 should be used initially.
depth (dx ) is differentiated with respect to the dis- If more depth is needed at the end because of
tances (x): higher vertical shear, do this by pivoting about this
critical depth section. This will result. in the least
3w increase in web weight. It can be shown that, under this
dd, 2 t w cr (L - 2x ) condition, the resulting depth at centerline will be-
8
dX = _/(3 At)2 + 3 w x (L _ x)
1
I~ =
tw t w o:
w
3 d 2- del (7)
It is simpler to find the slope at 114 span, letting x
== L/4:
• In the case of 3 equal concentrated loads applied
3wL at 114 points, the critical depth section will be chosen at
4 t w 0' lf4 span. The slope of the girder must lie somewhere
8
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation between 0 and 4>. For any angle between these two
values, the weight of the web will remain the same
4.6--6 / Girder-Related Design
p
the depth at the end as the slope is varied. Therefore,
"~ for the lowest web weight, keep the depth at center-
<-, line as small as possible, hence use the angle O.
" ,<,
" "'- Moment diagram • In the case of 5 equal concentrated loads applied
" - <,
Critical depth curve
CD Load ' <,
Girder web outline
at ~ points, the critical depth section will be taken
at the Y4 span for convenience. The slope of the girder
will be O.
p
I
I
I
Problem 1
I
I
I Moment diagram
::--L _ Design a welded tapered girder, with a uniformly-
o Loads
Critical depth curve
Girder web outline
distributed load of 600 lbs/ft, Figure 10. The girder
has a length of 50' and is simply supported. Use A36
steel and E70 welds.
M ( = 2250 in-kips
Moment diagram M = 1687.5 in-kips
o Loads Critical depth curve
- - - Girder web outline
p p p p
I-- L/4----..j Moment diag!:!!!!
V = 1~
® Loads
16.96 + 8.12
T
= 25.08
L
de = d w - "4 tan ()
db = 18.00"
tw = .358" = (16.96) - (8.12)
1 FIGURE 11 = 8.84
Before going further, check the
shear stress at the end of beam-
depth of beam
(25.08)
d<t, = a, + 2( t f ) (.358 )
= (25.08) + 2(.57) = 78 OK
= 26.12"
Also, practically no shear here.
de = d w + 2 (tf)
= (8.84) + 2(.57) M~ 2250 in.-kips
= 9.88" Sc£ Af d w +t w
:
w2
= a (1 + .99~54) _ (2250)
- (166.8)
= 2.0014 a and = 13,500 psi OK
26.12
a = 2.0014 4. DEFLECTION OF TAPERED GIRDERS
= 13.06" The area-moment method may be used with good
results to find the deflection of tapered girders, where
or use the dimension (a = 130") to determine the start- no portion of the member has a constant moment of
)01
ll.----
b
cos fJ
a
cosO @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.6-10 / Girder-Related Design
Depth of web at end at center! ine For each division, the moment of inertia (In),
dw = 11.2" dw = 36.8"
moment (M n ) , and distance to the end (x) are deter-
{
~s~s~s"""s",*"-s-+l mined and listed in table form.
M, Moment diag!Q!!!
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14
inertia. This method is described under Topics 5 and Here, for each segment:
7 of Section 2.5 on Deflection by Bending.
+ t w l~w3
I
d t2
At 2 (8)
I Problem 3
M. X
la ¥I ·
x d", dt I. M.
~I
I.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 4.7
Open-Web
Expanded Beams and Girders
1. DESIGN CONCEPT
4.7-1
4.7-2 / Girder-Related Design
-
- -- -- -
1'----j_~. J
._4__-- - - - - + I
q, = 45
0
FIGURE 6
q, = 60 0
q, = 70 0
h h
tan 4> =1)
or
1- b - tan 4>
FIGURE 7
Applied load
~ @ b
Loaded open-web expanded beam
Shear diagram
Moment diagram
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
3. RESISTANCE TO APPLIED FORCES
bottom Tee sections due to the moment produced by
Since the beam flanges carry most of the bending load, shear, is assumed to be at mid-section of the opening
the loss of web area is not much of a problem as far (e/2). It is further assumed that the total vertical
as moment is concerned. However, shear (V) is carried shear (V) at this point is divided equally between
by the web, and must be considered. these two Tee sections, since they are of equal depth.
At each web opening, two Tee sections act as Actually, the design and stress behavior of an open-
members of a frame in resisting vertical shear forces. web expanded beam or girder is very similar to that of
At midspan b , Figure 9, the shear ( V) is a Vierendeel truss. The primary design considerations
minimum and may have little effect on the beam's are as follows:
strength. Approaching the support in the region of high 1. The top and bottom portions of the girder are
shear a ,the bending stress produced by this shear subjected to compression and tension bending stresses
on the shallow Tee section must be added to the con- from the main bending moment, lTb = M/S b • There
ventional bending stress from the applied beam load. must be a continuity of these sections throughout the
The bending moment due to shear is diagrammed girder length to transfer these stresses. In addition, the
in Figure 10. Usually, the point of inflection in top and compression portion must be checked for lateral sup-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 10
4.7-4 / Girder-Related Design
Point of inflection
~ofTee section
s;:M (beam) ~~ "I
2 I
I
I
I
I I
\ I
\I
I.
1\
1\
\
I \
I
I
FIGURE 11
port, minimum width-to-thickness ratio, and allowable of support. Bearing stiffeners may be needed at the
compressive stress; see the left end of Figure 11. ends of the girder where reactions are applied.
2. The vertical shear (V) in the girder is carried
by the web, and produces vertical shear stresses in the 4. TOTAL BENDING STRESS IN THE GIRDER
web section, both in the solid portion of the web, and
in the stem of the Tee section of the open portion. The main bending stress (<TIl) Item 1, acting on a
3. In the open portion of the web, the vertical section where the open Tee section starts, is assumed to
shear (V) is divided equally between the top and increase linearly to a maximum at the outer fiber. To
bottom Tee sections (assuming same depth of Tee this stress must be added or subtracted, depending
sections). Assuming the shear is applied at the mid- upon signs, the secondary bending stress (<TT), Item
opening, it will produce a bending moment on the 3. See central portion of Figure 11.
cantilevered Tee section; see the right-hand end of
Figure 11. The resulting secondary bending stresses At point @
Secondary bending stre~t stem of Tee due to vertical
shear (V) at Section ~, added to main bending
must be added to those of the main bending moment, stress at stem of Tee due to main moment (M) at
Item 1. If needed, a flange may be added around the
inside of the web opening to give the Tee sections
Section ®:
added strength.
4. The horizontal shear force (V h ) applied at the MIla h + VISe (la)
g 4 s
solid portion of the web along the girder's neutral axis
may subject this portion to buckling. See Figure 20.
The resulting compressive bending stress on this un- At point @
reinforced web section is important because of the
possibility of this web section buckling under this
Secondary bending stress at flange of Tee due to vertical
stress.
5. The solid portion of the web may transfer a
shear (V) at Section 0) , added to the main bending
stress at flange of Tee due to main moment (M) at
vertical axial force (compressive or tensile) equal to
one-half of the difference between the applied vertical
Section @ :
shears (Vd and (V2 ) at the end of any given unit panel
of the girder. See Figure 27.
@Seismicisolation
6. There should be 100% web depth at the points
_~lh2dl: +~ISe
@Seismicisolation g 4 t
(lb)
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-5
A36 steel
Cm = .40
e
.i::
AISC
CD O"b
0"0
= 22,000 -
O"b
~ 1.0
3.61
(t r
T;
22 }7; =
e
CD 0"0 + O"b
~7.'
= 10
0"0 .40
@ ~ 1.0
O"b
"""
~
0
E
0
li3
.;;;
-'"
20
= 20 0"0
+
Q)
E [1 - :; ) O"b
Z .s: ~
Q)
OJ
E 18
.s: 0
r
1,490,000
E a'e =
"0..
Q)
Q.
16
(K ~
0
14 0"0
~ 1.0
g
E
® .60"y +
O"b
O"b
1012
t:l t:l
-;;u
'" (f)
Q) -
~~ 10
OJ
c
-sc 8
Q)
.D
-&o "'::'"
g Q.
Q)
>
.~
t1I
6
:> -5i E
'"
~.£:
0
U
o .Ql c
Q) .s: '0
Z - ~ 2 60 40 30
50 20,10'0
L 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Secondary bending stress
~@Seismicisolation
Near ct.
(high moment)
(O"r)
(AISC O"b)
from applied shear, ksi
Near support
(high shear)
-1
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 12
4.7·-6 I Girder-Related Design
the point of inflection of the Tee section. This is con- Buckling Due to Axial Compression
venient because it is the same section at which we
assume the vertical shear (V) is applied for the secon- The Tee section, because it is subjected to axial com-
dary bending stress. They also assume this force (F) is pression, also must be checked against buckling accord-
uniformly distributed across the Tee section. ing to AISC Sec 1.9.1. See Figure 13, and see Table 1
This simplifies the calculations, since for a given of limiting ratios for steels of various yield strengths.
unit panel only one section must be considered for
both the applied moment (M) and the applied shear
(V). This is Section CD
at the point of inflection of
the Tee section. Also, only one total bending stress is
required for this section-the maximum secondary
bending stress at the stem added to the average main
bending stress. It does not require calculating at two
different points-the stem at Section @ and the
flange at Section ® FIGURE
0"1 -
1
dMAT + 4~~
S, (2 ) Tee Section
Tee Section Stiffened by
Flange Welded Around
Unstiffened Web Opening
since F and b- _< 3000 b < 3000
i
t;-~ t;-~
F
= AT or = b < 8000
0"
s -r
t, 'J 0"),
The main bending stress (O"lJ) and secondary bend-
ing stress (O"T) may be considered according to AISC Number of Points to Check Along Girder's Length
Interaction Formulas 6, 7a, and 7b. These are shown
graphically in Figure 12. (Note that AISC refers to It will be desirable to check the proposed design at
main bending stress as 0"" and to secondary bending only a limited number of points to determine initially
stress as O"b') whether it will work.
;.--
I
2o
,L...---
~
V = 25 kips
18
I
at stern
------+-:w . s\( e Ss 1-/ »:
- - - - ~
- -- -
- -- 16
~ 'oe(\~ , /
/ ~
-- <,
14
t?I ,/
/
/
/
0<;-'0
~
e
12
/ ~
,/ ,e ,," 1o
/ <}
.~O:> 8
,/ ~o~
~/'Qe _.
6
/ ;y
,
1_,/",6- - _ . 4
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 14
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-7
4
2
o Va v. ~6 12
Support V. Span Midspan
Point Along Length of Beam
FIGURE 15
Referring to Figure 11, notice the bending stress TABLE I-Limiting Ratios of Section
(O'b) from the applied moment is assumed to be maxi- Elements Under Compression
mum at the outer fibers of the flange. The bending
3,000 4,000 8,000
stress (<TT) from the applied shear is greatest at the
vu;- VU; vu;-
stem of the Tee because its section modulus (S8) is
less than the section modulus at the outer flange (Sf)' 33,000 16 22 44
For this reason, combinations of bending stresses must 36,000 16 21 42
0 _ -
- - F F-~
- d
d
FIGURE 16
F
l=================:::::::::::===l-~ F
Then: ation of bending stresses due to applied shear and
applied moment lies somewhere between 1) the support
l<T
h
=f=bl······················(3) (region of high vertical shear) and 2) the midspan
( region of high bending moment ). This point of
maximum stress is indicated in Figure 17 by an arrow.
This bending stress is the same at the outer flange Unless the beam is examined as in Figure 17 for
of the Tee section as well as the inner stem. It is now the maximum stress all the way between the support
only necessary to add the greater bending stress from and midspan, it would be well to check a third point
the applied shear (V) of the Tee section. Therefore, in addition to the support and midspan. A convenient
the smaller section modulus at the stem of the Tee point would be at % span.
section will be used, and only one set of total stress
values will be considered.
In Figure 17, the applied moment (M) has been S. HORIZONTAL SHEAR STRESS
converted into a concentrated force (F) applied at the
center of gravity of the Tee section and assumed to be There are three methods of checking the horizontal
uniformly distributed across the section. shear stress along the beam's neutral axis (N.A.):
This illustrates that the point of maximum combin- 1. Use the conventional formula for shear stress,
Total
bending
r-
stress
r"~
28
'JC)~ 1_
± ~~=:r r'r
+ "'V'
f~+-m~,~
I rna, 26 FIGURE 17
I' _' 24
22
f::'1~=t-~~ ---+-~;;o,~)
';;;
-><
20 ~
c
18 + .<>
f'51, ,7:
/'/
16
14
12
~
~
v;
OJ
c
-0
t;'~~
c
III
10 <:0
0
...\~ - - - 8 "0
I-
a If>
4
2
FIGURE 18
VI
2:(1------
FIGURE 19 F1 = ~I ~ 1-------
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.7-10 / Girder-Related Design
VI
V] V2
2J Load 2{1~<-- ------1'2
--::-+1- ---- - -- j F==~~::::::::~::::::::========:~
- - -- ~ F2
F] F]
a 1 d
2
FIGURE 22
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-11
M]
Edqe
buckling
T2h
TL
FIGURE 23
•.J 1:::::::::=====:::1 ~J- v
1
M2
f::i
= - M]
M2
Moment applied
to member
Therefore, the radial bending stress along curved section, resulting in increase of the secondary bending
section (a): stress in the Tee section (UT)' As an alternative to
increasing distance (e), it would be possible to stiffen
3 V h (p - f) the outer edge of this wedge portion of the web by
u, - 2 t p~ (j2 .......•.•.•....... ( 10) adding a flange around the edge of the hole in the
w
web in the particular panel which is overstressed.
It can be shown that the curved section (a) having
Allowable Compressive Bending Stress
the greatest bending stress i o:r) occurs at a distance
of: There are two suggestions for determining the allow-
able compressive bending stress along the sloping edge
of the wedge section of the web:
1. Treat this section as a prismatic member and
apply AISC Sec. 1.5.1.4.5 Formula 4; see Figure 23.
This value of (m) will be less than (h) and may
AISC Formula 0
for allowable compressive stress:
be used in the following Formula 12 if (e) does not
exceed these values- U = [1.0 - 2 ~jr)~J .60 u y
and
in Formula 11.
This value of (m) for the position of the greatest
bending stress may be inserted back into Formula 10,
and the following will give the greatest bending stress
along (a): See additional notes, Section 3.1.
Since M 1 = - M~ in the above formula, G. = 2.83;
3 VII tan () but since it cannot exceed 2.3 therefore C ll = 2.3 and
(rna:) - 4 tw e(J~ (12) AISC Formula 8)
becomes-
The next step is to determine the allowable com- I ~ = [ 1.0 - 10.434 ( t:-
-ey- h ) 2] .60 U) I •••. (13)
pressive bending stress (Q). If the above bending stress
in the solid portion of the web (u r) is excessive, it See Table 2 for values of Formula 13 for various steels.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
might be possible to increase the distance (e). How-
ever, this will also increase the length of the Tee 2. As an alternate method, treat this as a canti-
4.7-12 / Girder-Related Design
36,000 22,000 - 14.44 ( t~ r mine the allowable compressive stress from the AISC
tables.
46,000 27,500 - 23.04 (t~ r obtain the allowable compressive bending stress (T).
Since VII = T t., e and holding the maximum bendTrig
or:
Figure 24.
Formula 14 for allowable shear stress C!) has been
Tyr
simplified for various angles of cut ((J); see Table 3,
f Support
r-e-j If the allowable shear stress (1) in this web section
IIZZZ2Z77Z:ZZ:Z~Z1:07127272171
-l
t t, is held within the value shown in Formula 14, no
r--:; ,;,. ~=
h <p L _h_ further check of web buckling due to the compressive
I/ bending stress will have to be made, nor will this
edge have to be reinforced with a flange.
Vh To keep the resulting shear stress within this
allowable, either (t w ) or (e) may have to be increased;
FIGURE 24 see Figure 25.
e2
~ t- I ~ e, f+- It. I
t f- -+II- 4j 2 e f+- t
Support
-leI
@Seismicisolation
I
@Seismicisolation
Y4 point e2
FIGURE 25
I
I
Y4 point
Support
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-13
FIGURE 26
f SS55S
tw
J~to,;; -~ -L/
0= 2 pO
f
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
-L
4.7-14 / Girder-Related Design
Toward
support
• ~1 1~ . .
f----\
This value of (m) could then be used in Formula 7. WEB BUCKLING DUE TO COMPRESSION
12 for the bending stress. This would give the following
formula for the greatest bending stress: Any direct transverse load applied to the upper flange
of the open-web girder is carried as vertical shear on
the web. See Figure 27. Since this resisting shear is
Vh ~ 1 + 2 At equally divided between the top and bottom Tee section
20 K chords, half of this transverse load applied to a unit
(17)
K + 2 At + (K + At) ~ 1 + 2 KAt panel segment of the girder (distance s) must be trans-
ferred as compression down through the solid portion
( e) of the web into the bottom chord.
where: If it is felt that this solid web section, acting as
a column, cannot handle this force, it could be rein-
forced with a transverse (vertical) stiffener. Usually
this force, one-half of the applied transverse load with
the segment (s), is small. Thus, the resulting com-
pressive stress within this web section (e) is low, and
stiffening is not usually required.
Compressive stress in web section (e):
.............. (18)
~ =
r -
-p- .29 t w
Shear diagram
FIGURE 28 @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-15
8. GENERAL OUTLINE FOR DESIGN OF in order to keep the vertical shear stress in the stem
OPEN-WEB EXPANDED GIRDER of the Tee section within the allowable:
2850"k
Sg -- 22,000 psi = 130 in."
I~
s, - ~~ = 86.4 in." (use this as a guide)
Try an 18" WF 50#/ft beam, having Sb = 89.0 in." 5 - .57 4.43"
Now, refigure K 1 using the S, of the actual selected STEP 6. Determine the allowable compressive bending
beam: stress on wedge section of web, using modified AISC
Sec 1.5.1.4.5 Formula G):
where:
Cc
STEP 4. Determine the height of cut (h) and round
off to the nearest inch or fraction of an inch:
* Could assume shear (V) is about 95% of maximum shear (at
h = db (K 1 - 1) I the support) because first panel will be away from the point of
support. However, because we are not at the support, there
h = 18.0 (1.46 - 1) = 8.3" or use 8" will be some main bending stresses to be added to these
@Seismicisolation
secondary bending stresses in the Tee section from applied
@Seismicisolation
However, (h) cannot exceed the following value
shear (V). Hence, it would be better to use full value of shear
(V).
4.7-16 / Girder-Related Design
'-------' _L e
s
T max
'T
FIGURE 30 Since:
S
'T T max -
or from Table 2 (values for different steels): e
I T ma x = 1.16 Ta y = 1.16
t
w
V~ g
I Distance (e) is usually constant along the full
length of the girder. However, it is possible to vary this
distance; in this case there will be two dimensions (e.)
95% (25 k ) and (e-). Near the support, (e.) lies along the neutral
T max 1.16 2960 psi
(.358) (26) axis of the girder determining the width of the solid
web section and (e2) determines the width of the Tee
* Where (V) is the shear at the first wedge section, assume section. See left end of Figure 31.
about 95% of the maximum shear (at the support) because the At the % point, the details are reversed, and dimen-
first panel will be away from the point of support. This is all right sion (el) rather than (e2) will control the secondary
here because we are working with just one stress (shear); there
is no main bending stress to be considered. bending stress (crT)' See right end of Figure 31. Since
FIGURE 31
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-17
the shear (V) at this % point is reduced to about half From this we get-
of that at the support, the distance (e.) may be double
that of (e2) and still not increase the resulting second- ~ 23.67
4.039"
ary bending stress (<TT). Therefore, K3 = e2/el should ~=5.861
not be less than %.
Using the two dimensions (el) and (e2), the above
formulas become:
Ih Iy - c. My I
IT 105.53 - (4.039) (23.67) 9.93 in."
I S. IT I
c.
Let 9.93
S 2.46 in."
• - 4.039
Since d = 2 (h + c.) I
s d = 2 (8 + 4.039) 24.077"
then
el
>
= 1
2 h tan () I Ig = 2 h + ¥I
-- 1 -
K2
K3 r, = 2( 9.33) + (5.861) (24.077)2 1719.1 in."
2
r
STEP 10. At the support, check the secondary bending
stress:
FIGURE 32 FIGURE 33
5.861 in." ~
~
(25 k ) (8)
23.67 in." <TT = 4 ( 2.46 ) = 20,300 psi
I <T =[ -*(trJ1.0 .00 ",I undoubtedly, the WF beam selected cannot be used
and a larger WF beam must be tried.
If the main bending stress (U"b) is within the
allowable, but the secondary bending stress (O"T) in
or, from Table 4 of values for different steels-
Step 10 exceeds the allowable, (U"T) may be greatly
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
STEP 72. If the main bending stress (U".) in Step 11
is excessive, it may be reduced slightly with a higher
ITT =
IT. =
12,600
22,230
ITT =
IT. =
20,300
21,600
ITT =
IT" =
33,300
21,000
ITT
IT.
=
=
65,700
20,250
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-19
FIGURE 34
TABLE 6
SECONDARY MAIN TOTAL
x, -- --
X Xb V. M. Mb ", @ ", @ "2 @ "2 @ "= ", + "2
stem a flange b stem a flange b stem a flange b
1 32" 36" 40" 21.05 K 744" K 911" K -17,100 -4,065 - 3,460 - 6,880 -20,560 -10,945
2 64" 68" 72" 17.55 1372 1515 -14,270 -3,390 - 6,380 -11,450 -20,650 -14,840
3 96" 100" 104" 14.04 1892 2200 -11,420 -2,715 - 8,800 -16,620 -20,220 -19,335
4 128" 132" 136" 10.53 2300 2385 - 8,560 -2,035 -10,700 -18,030 -19,260 -20,065
5 160" 164" 168" 7.02 2595 2650 - 5,710 -1,360 -11,600 -20,000 -17,310 -21,360
6
7
192"
224"
196"
228"
200"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
3.51
0
2778
2849
2807 - 2,860
0
- 680
0
-12,920
-13,250
-21,200
-21,550
-15,780
-13,250
-21,880
-21,550
4.7-20 / Girder-Related Design
I• t, = (n + Y2)S + 2z • I
~z~s~ ~s~z~
'O'~51
<::===========================~ :::::1
I.. L -I g=ns+2z
I. Lb = In + lh)s + 2z ..I
(b'~kX&O§§§O§OQgNE~ FIGURE 37
I~ t, = n s + 2z I I
In either case (a) or (b), there probably will be It might be possible to adjust the value of (e) so
a small hole left in the girder at the ends which must that the panels will fit exactly into the length of the
be filled. The simplest method is to add one or a pair girder (Lg ) . See Figure 40.
of web doubling bars or plates at each end to cover
and lap over the holes. See Figure 38. Here:
FIGURE 38
2 e +Lg-e
2 h tan ep I ()19
If the same size holes are to be used, that is ej
= e2, and the girder is not to be symmetrical about its
centerline, then start a unit panel right at one end of Second, find the required value of (e) from the
the girder. The other end may have a partial hole in following formula-
the web which will have to be covered. The only ad-
vantage to this method is that just one end will have
a hole in the web to be covered. See Figure 39.
I" Lb = (n + Y2)S + e .\
FIGURE 39
n S ------------------~
- - - - - - - - - Lg = n S +v ------------~
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Hole in web on this
end must be covered
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-21
c~
~:01
FIGURE 40 ns----.I.I
Lg = n s + e = e(2 n + 1) + 2 n h tan cf>
t-2 el+j
F==?:=*===========l~===4=t=t==i=======!==j= =.t
---I
=------:: r:: :
I \,'
I )- 0(
FIGURE 41 (a)
II I
" ,
__ J "-_.
L V4 point ct.
Lg = (n + 2) e l +(n-2)K 3e j + ( n - l ) h t a n c f > ~
F=============F=========~=
=======
r --
I
(b)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation L V4 point I
ct.
Lg = n e , + n K. e j + (n -l)htan cf>
4.7-22 / Girder-Related Design
Reverse top half end for end Reverse top half end for end
( .A. , t ( A. '\
t j
FIGURE 42
In tapered open-web expanded girders, the axial well as the maximum bending moment. See Figure 43.
force in the chord which slopes has a vertical com- A transverse stiffener at the point where the sloping
ponent (F; = F, tan a); here (F h = Mid). flange changes direction would transfer the vertical
Whenever this chord changes direction, for example component of the flange efficiently into the web. The
at the midspan of the girder, this vertical component greater the change in slope, the more important this
must be considered. It will be carried as shear in the would become.
web members back to the support, and in this case has If there is a panel opening at this point, the Tee
a sign opposite to that of the main shear (V). Hence, section must resist this vertical component in bending
its effect is to reduce the shear over most of the girder's (in this example, the top Tee section). This is similar
length, but to increase it in the midspan region. to the analysis of the secondary bending stress (O'T) due
The modified shear becomes- to the shear applied to the Tee section at midopening
where each half behaved as a cantilever beam. See
V' = A w T = V - F; = V - -~~ tan a Figure 44. However, in this case, the cantilever beams
have fixed ends (at the centerline of the girder); reo
This means there is a vertical shift of the initial suIting in one-half the bending moment and stress.
shear diagram on each half of the girder, so that the (This half length Tee section is treated as a beam fixed
central portion to be checked which initially had zero at one end and guided at the other end, with a con-
shear (V = 0) now has a shear value (V' = Fv) as centrated load.)
Shear diagram
----"~;rnnrr~TT"1;rnnrrTTT,,JIII I I I II I II I 1I1111111111111 from vertical
11I111111111111111111 11111]
component (FJ
Diagram of
----LJ..L.L.L.J....LJ..L..L..L..LL.Ju....L:e-"""'I:l'TTrt'-'L..I:Ioo......E:J:rTTT~..,..,...TTTTT"1..,..,...- mod ified shea r
V' =V - Fv
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 43
Open-Web Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-23
'a~- ----- fF Fh
00
v
I
I
,======~;;;;j - - - - - ...
FIGURE 44
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.7-24 / Girder-Related Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 4.8
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.8-1
4.8-2 / Girder-Related Design
----B---·
..
-_~+I· b, ~ I• I~1-4----B---~
Concrete slab}
(a) Slab on both sides of beam (b) Slab on one side of beam
FIGURE 2
capacity of the composite beam is unaffected whether dicate possible combinations of rolled beam and con-
shores have or have not been used. crete slab.
Shear Connector Spacing
AASHO requires the determination of shear connector 2. DESIGN OF CONNECTORS
spacing, which may vary along the length of the beam.
Now AISC requires just one determination of spacing, In order to get the transformed area of the concrete
and this value is used throughout the length of the floor, it is necessary to decide how large a width of the
beam, greatly simplifying the work. This is because concrete acts along with the steel beam to form the
the allowables are such that at ultimate loading of composite section. This is known as the effective width
the composite beam, some of the connectors will yield (B) of the slab. AISC (1.11.1) requires the following:
before the others. This movement provides a redistri-
bution of shear transfer so that all connections are slab on both sides of beam, Figure 2(a)
ultimately loaded uniformly, hence uniform spacing B < ¥4 beam span
is allowed. a < lh distance to adjacent beam
Composite Section Properties a < 8 times least thickness of slab (te)
A further help is a series of tables listing properties of
possible combinations of rolled beams with typical slab on one side of beam, Figure 2(b)
concrete slab sections, similar to tables in wide use for B < :ri2 beam span
available rolled beam sections.
B < lh distance to adjacent beam
These new tables have been published in the AISC
"Manual of Steel Construction," Sixth Edition, 1963, B < 6 times least thickness of slab (te)
and in Bethlehem Steel Co.'s "Properties of Composite
Sections for Bridges and Buildings." This effective width of concrete is now trans-
The new tables eliminate the various calculations formed into an equivalent steel section, having the
for composite sections. A simple calculation will in- same thickness as the concrete ( te), but having a
dicate the required section modulus of the composite width equal to l/n that of the concrete. See Figure
section, and a quick reference to the tables will in- 3. Here n, the modular ratio, is the ratio of the modulus
of elasticity of the steel to that of the concrete.
From this transformed section, the various proper-
ties of the section may be determined.
_... lof
Distance to outer fiber
tension flange
slab as a Tee section in which the top of the beam is
at least llh" below the top and 2" above the bottom
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 3
of the slab, and encased with at least 2{' of concrete
around the sides of the beam. With these conditions,
Shear Attachments - Building / 4.8-3
shear attachments are not used (AISC 1.11.1). after hardening of the concrete.
If no temporary shores are used, the total bending If shear attachments are used, encasement is not
stress in the tension flange of the encased steel beam needed and it does not matter in the design whether
is figured under two conditions: temporary shores are used or not used. In either case,
1. The steel beam acting alone for any dead loads the steel tension flange acting with the concrete slab
applied prior to hardening of the concrete. to form the composite section shall be designed at U" =
2. The steel beam acting with the concrete for .66 U"y * to carry all of the loads (AISC 1.11.2.2). If no
any live loads and additional dead loads applied after temporary shoring is used, the section modulus of the
hardening of the concrete. composite section (Sc) in regard to the tension flange
The beam shall be so proportioned that the above of the beam shall not exceed the following:
stress under either condition does not exceed .66 U"y.
(AISC 1.11.2.1).
If temporary shores are used, the tension steel s. « 1.35 + 0.35 ~~) S. .............. (1)
flange of the encased beam acting with the concrete (AISC Formula 17)
slab to form the composite section shall be designed
at U" = .66 U"y * to carryall dead and live loads applied
where:
S, = section modulus of composite section (rela-
• If steel section is not compact: u = .60 a r- tive to its tension steel flange)
a II loads prior
with
to hardening
of concrete
Without
and
Shoring
camp~site I
I section
with all loads after
hardening
of concrete
Mn ML <
S. + S. = .66 u. ~ .60 u.
or also
steel with roll loads]
beam =
S. < ( 1.35 + 0.35 ML)
Mn S.
(AISC formula 17)
u. =
Mn +
S.
ML <
=.76 u.
* a = @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
=
.66 u. for "compact" beams; otherwise u .60 u.
4.8-4 / Girder-Related Design
f..- ay....j
Within elastic limit Ultimate load condition
FIGURE 4
S. section modulus of steel beam (relative to beam, is equal to the total horizontal forces (Fh) from
its tension flange) bending acting on either the slab or the beam. See
dead-load moment prior to hardening of con- Figure 5.
crete
M L = moment .due to live and additional dead load
after hardening of concrete
where:
Table 1 summarizes these requirements for encased
beams without shear attachments and for composite B effective width of slab
beams with shear attachments. t, thickness of slab
Forces Carried by Connectors compressive strength of concrete
For elastic design, the horizontal unit shear force is cross-sectional area of steel beam
obtained from the well-known formula:
cross-sectional area of effective concrete slab
_ Va y yield strength of steel
f - I
Figure 6 diagrams the bending moment that results
However in the new AISC Specification for build- in horizontal forces; compression in the concrete slab
ing applications, the design is based on the shear and tension in the steel beam.
connectors allowing the composite beam to reach ulti- These horizontal ultimate forces are then reduced
mate load. In the usual composite beam, the ultimate by a factor of safety of 2, and concrete is taken at 85%
load is reached after the full depth of the steel beam of its strength. These formulas become:
reaches yield stress in tension. This force is resisted by
the compressive area of the concrete slab. See Figure 4.
V - .85 fIe A e
The total horizontal shear (V h) at ultimate load h -2 (.2)
to be transferred from concrete slab to steel beam
(AISC Formula 18)
between section of maximum moment and ends of the
Concrete slab
I=============: NA
Steel beam
r <
Concrete slab
---------------
Steel beam
NA
(a) Neutral axis lies within steel beam (b) Neutral axis lies within concrete slab
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Vh = Fh = b te f' e
FIGURE 5
Vb = Fb = A. cry
Shear Attachments - Building / 4.8-5
~--*--*
=========:===l
Moment diagram
-- -- -- t:= } F, ~ f; b I, [compression]
'"'--
----...
I:===========f· n~ F, A, °,[""';°"1
FIGURE 6
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Later the Joint ASCE-ACI Committee on Com-
posite Construction recommended these same basic
%" diem. spire I bar
w = length of chennel in inches.
17.8 18.5 19.1
4.8-6 / Girder-Related Design
I~
~1
B
--------84"---------
• I
I•
__- - - - - 7 2 " - - - - - - - -
a :j a .. I
FIGURE 7
w,
1 ~ Iq
L
ff1
leJl .x = 166(1 +" t)w v'F.1· .. (5)
8
(26,160) ( 480)
8
1570 in.-kips
n = ~: = 10 (modular ratio) B = 2a + b,
= 2(36) + (12)
dead load moment = 84" < 120" 0K
Steel beam 6,000 lbs
and width of transformed concrete area is
Concrete slab = 20,160 lbs 84"
Total w, = 26,160 lbs Bin = 10 = 8.4"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Shear Attachments - Building / 4.8-7
J~e!,e,="~e ..
y = 20.92" (1570 + (14,400)
+ 11.15" (670)
23,800 psi < .66 U'y
oxrs
check section modulus
Since no shores are to be used, a further require-
ment is that the section modulus of the composite
section shall not exceed-
FIGURE 8
< [1.135 + 0.35 (t;5~~) ] (502.9)
horizontal shear
The horizontal shear to be transferred by connec-
Area A y M = Ay Iy = My I. =
(B/n)1 3
-12-
tors will be the smaller of the following two values:
Transformed
50.40 ',+ 20.92 1054.37 22,057.4 151.2 .85 fIe Ae
slab Vh = 2
36"WF 150 lb.
44.16 0 0 0 9,012.1
beam .85 (3000) (6 x 84)
2 .
TalaI -+ 94.56 1054.37 31,220.7
= 642.6 kips
M2 As U'y
(I y + Ig ) A -2-
(44.16 ) ( 36,0(0)
( 31,
220 7 ) _ (1054.37)2
.
19,462 in,"
(94.56)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 2
794.9 kips
4.8-8 / Girder-Related Design
number of channels
V
n = -h
q
Spiral Connector
(642.6)
- (4]3f Use 3/4" diameter bar. From Table 2, q 17.8 kips
per tum.
= 14 channels
number of turns
from centerline to each end of beam, or 28 channels
per beam. Vh
n =
q
approximate spacing ( 642.6)
24<Y' (half length) (17.8 )
s
14 (channels) = 36.1 from end to end or 37 turns from center-
line to each end of beam.
and use lh of this or 8%" for spacing first channel from approximate pitch
end of beam. 240" (half length)
To compute the required size of connecting weld: s
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.8-10 / Girder-Related Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 4.9
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.9-1
4.9-2 / Girder-Related Design
----B----
... bf"""+I"'·- -
--·+I~ I·
_---B---+
·1
Concrete slab J
(a) Slab on both sides of beam (b) Slab on one side of beam
FIGURE 2
steel in this area to be effective in tension when proper modular ratio, is the ratio of the modulus of elasticity
shear attachments are continued throughout the area. of the steel to concrete.
This approach slightly reduces the beam's cross- From this transformed section, the various section
sectional area. properties may be determined:
F~. I
moment, in."
Ie moment of inertia of transformed composite
I q : (2)
section
r----Effective slab width (Bl--1
transformed area
In order to get the transformed area of the concrete r:::--:::-
I r-B/n--l A
--:-lr.::--~= <:>
c
<:> 0
I
0 <:I 0
deck, it is necessary to decide how large a width of a 0 0 o 0
the concrete acts along with the steel beam to form the c::. <:> <:>
<) <:>
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
ness as the concrete (te), but having a width equal to
lin that of the concrete. See Figure 3. Here n, the FIGURE 3
Shear Attachments - Bridge / 4.9-3
where:
Q = useful capacity of one shear connector,
beyond which the connector permits an Q 3840 d ~ r····· .(5)
appreciable slip between concrete slab and
steel beam, lbs
~T ~
Q=330d2~ factor of safety
...... (3)
when hid > 4.2
ooo~ The factor of safety to be used in computing the
allowable design load for one shear connector, is ob-
tained from the following formula *:
Cl 1
~;n--
F.S.
2.7( 1 + Cme + Cm; Co) - (C me + Cm;) + Cv
t Q = 80 h d -vr:- 1 + C v
...... (4)
when hid < 4.2
5
........ (7)
t::J 1
f-W-I * AASHO (1.95) now allows as an alternate, a factor safety of
4 in lieu of calculating it with the above formula.
I
r
~bape t». b. t
b _ 5 It b ,. G ft I b _ 7 It
Shape
S ••
tn.!
S./As.
b-5£t b = () rt
T b = 7 ft
t .. 6 in.
t - Ii
in.
t - 7
in.
, - 8
in. in.
, - 7
in.
, - 8
in.
, - 7
in. I
,- 8
in.
, - 6
in. s:m. 71 '.-
In.
8
t = ()
in.
, .- 71 ' .- 81 ' .- 7
m. In. In,
, - 8
in.
1
36 WF 300 20,290 32,OG2 3ol,OM 3C1,08S 33-;1\48 35,820 38,017 37,386 39,715 36 WF 300 1,105.1 12.5 1,306.0 1,340.3 1,375.2 1,325.8 1.361,5 1,397.7 1.379.0 1,41(,.9
36 WF 280 18.819 30,237 32,147 34,080 31,H3 33,813 35,903 35.285 37,494 36 WF 280 1.031.2 12.5 1,223.Z 1.255.2 1,288,7 1,241.9 1,275.5 1,309.9 1,292,0 1,327.2
36 WF 200 17,234 28,265 30,083 31,920 29,682 31,646 33,624 33.0111 35,104 36 WF 200 951.1 12.4 I,J3tl.1 1,10tl.9 1,198.4 1,153.1 1,185.2 J,217.4 1,200.3 1,233.5
36 WF 245 16,092 26,810 28,5()1 30,328 28.164 30,043 31.932 31,338 33,323 36 WF 245 892.5 12.4 1,070.9 1,100.2 1.130.0 1,087.0 1,117.3 1,147.8 1,130,9 1,162.7
38 WF 230 14,988 25,403 27,076 28,166 26,083 28.477 30,279 29,696 31,583 36 WF 230 835.5 12.3 1,007.7 1,035.4 1,063.8 1,022.7 1,051,2 J,080.6 1,064.4 1,094.0
36 WF 194 12,103 22,172 23,713 25,259 23,328 24,903 26,594 26,036 27,732 36 WF 194 663.13 11.6 838,3 863.9 889.4 851.7 818.1 904.3 889.5 916.5
36 WF 182 11,282 21,028 22.49G 23,9fl7 22, 1I6 23,6G8 25,215 24,070 26,274 36 WF 182 621.2 11.6 788.5 812.1 836,8 801.0 825.8 850.7 836.3 801.7
36 WF 170 10,470 19,880 ~1.270 22,6G3 20,890 22,31\3 23,823 23,292 24,802 36 WF 170 579.1 lL.6 739.0 761,5 184.2 750.3 773.3 796.8 783.2 806.8
36 WF 100 9,739 18.845 20,172 21.500 19,805 21.198 22,58G 2:!,066 23,498 36 WF 160 541.0 11.5 695,4 716.8 738.0 706,1 728.2 750.4 737.0 759.5
36WFIM 9,012 17,800 19,000 20,319 18,699 20,017 21,330 20,823 22,174 36 WF 150 502.9 11.4 651.5 672.1 692.5 661.4 682.2 709.3 690.6 711.8
33 WF 220 12.312 21.334 22,806 24,298 22,425 24,001 25,591 25,038 26,703 33 WF 220 740.6 11.4 902.5 92{L3 956.6 916.1 943.8 971.9 955.6 08"\.3
33 WF 200 11.048 19,046 21.019 22,409 20,647 22,108 23,582 23.047 24,584 33 WF 200 669.6 11.4 821,7 846.5 871.6 833.9 859,2 885,2 869.7 806.2
33 WF 141 7,442 15,002 11\,099 17,200 15,754 lG,899 18.047 17,572 18,753 33 WF 141 446.8 10.8 581.9 600,9 620.3 590.5 609.9 629.7 617.2 637,..1
33WF 130 6,699 13,896 14,919 16,046 14.584 15,648 16.715 16,257 17,353 33 WF 130 404.8 10.6 533.8 551.7 573.5 541.8 559.9 578.4 566.4 585.5
30 WF 124 5,347 11.376 12,2M 13,145 11 ,939 12,855 13,781 13,355 14 .300 30 WF 124 354.0 9.7 472.8 489.G M7.1 479.7 497.1 615.0 503,0 521.3
30 WF 110 4,919 10,704 11,535 12,316 1l,22li 12,090 12,963 12,550 13,449 30 WF 116 327.9 9.0 441.6 457.11 474,2 448.0 464.5 481.4 469.9 487.3
30 WF 108 4,4111 9,983 10,703 11,553 1O,4H3 11.271 12,000 II .692 12,533 30 WF 108 299.2 9.4 408.8 423.9 ..139..1 414.7 430.2 440.1 435,3 451.6
Z1 WF 102 3,004 8,187 8.658 9,541 6,578 9,27] 9,981 9,liL-l 10,345 27 WF 102 266.3 8.9 363.1 377..1 392,3 368.3 383.0 398,3 387.5 403.2
ZlWF 94 3,207 7,612 8,234 8,87] 7.964 8.008 9,209 8,91G 9,597 27 WF 94 242.8 8.8 334,4 347.7 301,6 339.0 352.8 31l7.1 356.8 371.7
36(1.6
24 WF
24WF
100
94
2,987
2,083
6,739
6,379
7,3IG
6,936
7,9B
7,512 7.050
0,681 I 7,G57
7.21iO
8,281
7,8/'11
7,940
7,5'27
8.585
8,148
24 WF
24WF
100
94
248.9
220.9
8.5
8.0
332.8
308.0
3-lH.11
321.4
31i1.0
33.'>.5
337.3
312.5
351.4
326,3 341.0
355,11
330.3
371.2
345.6
24WF 84 2,364 5,791 6,298 0,822 0.054 1),579 7.120 G,811 7,371 24WF 84 196.3 7.9 271;'3 288.5 301.3 280.1 292,8 306.2 296.3 3ID.:?
24WF 70 2,090 5,292 5,757 6,239 5,524 6,005 6,508 6.210 6,730 24WF 70 175.4 7.8 249.9 201.2 273.2 253.3 265,0 277.5 268.3 261.3
21 WF 73 1.000 4,202 4,603 5,020 4.390 4,807 5 ••50 I 4,975 5,435 21 WF 73 150.7 7.0 219.4 230.5 242.6 222.11 234.3 246.7 237,4 250.5
21 WF 08 1,478 3,955 4,334 4,733 4,127 4,521 4,939 4,075 5, III 21 WF 08 139.9 7.0 205.1 215.7 227,1 208.1 219.1 231.1 222,0 234.n
21 WF 02 1,327 3,640 3,990 4,361 3,793 4,157 4,545 4,294 4,700 21 WF 02 126,4 6.9 187.1 197.0 207.7 J89.8 200.1 211.4 202.7 214.11
18WF 60 984 2,834 3,137 3,464 2,957 3,274 3,619 3,389 3,751 18WF 00 107.8 6.1 164.2 174.2 185.0 ion.s 177.2 188.8 179.9 192.3
18WF 65 890 2,622 2,905 3,211 2,732 s.oes 3,353 3,133 3,474 18WF 65 98.2 0.1 150.9 ]60.2 170.5 153.2 163.J 174.2 165.7 177.4
18WF .>0 801 2,412 2,674 2,959 2,510 2,78G 3.088 2.879 3,199 18WF 60 89.0 0.1 137,7 146.5 156.1 139.8 149,1 159.6 151.5 162.7
10WF .>0 055 2,056 2,300 2,507 2,B4 2,401 2,68u 2,486 2,789 16WF 50 80,7 5.6 128.3 137.4 147.4 130.5 140.2 151.1 142.7 154.3
16WF 45 683 1,876 2,100 2,349 1,953 2,190 2,..156 2,268 2,551 16WF 45 72.4 5.6 116,2 124.0 134;2 lI8.1 127.3 137.5 129,6 140,6
16WF 40 510 1,097 1,903 2,133 1,764 1,983 2,230 2,053 2,31G 16WF 40 64.4 5.5 J04.2 112.1 120,9 JOO.O 114,5 110.8 127.2
16WF 30 440 1,532 1,723 1,937 1,592 1,795 2,027 1,85Y 2,107 16WF 36 56.3 5.3 93.6 10l.0 109.5 95.3 103.4 IU21
112.6 JOS.n 115.6
14WIo' 34 339 1,230 1,401 1,597 1,281 1,4u5 1,677 1,522 1,751 H WF 34 48.5 '.9 82,9 90.5 99.2 84.7 93.0 102,5 95,3 J05.6
@Seismicisolation
14WF 30 1, HI 1,311 1,510 1,303 1,579 80.f)
@Seismicisolation
""'0 1,000 1,253 1,435 14 WF 30 4l.8 U 73.5 88.7 75.2 82.0 92.0 85.2 95.2
I
From "Composite Construction In Steel and Concrete" by Viest, From "Composite Construction in Steel and Concrete" by Viest,
fountain & Singleton. Copyright © 1958. McGraw-Hili Book Com- Fountain & Singleton. Copyright © 1958. McGraw-Hili Book Com-
pany. Used by permission. pany. Used by permission.
4.9-4 I Girder-Related Design
~:
% 12,600 13,800 15.000 16,000
C. = Note: A factor of safety must be applied to the above useful ca-
pacity, Q, to arrive at the working value, q.
Cv = ~:
TABLE 5-Useful Capacity, Q,
Per Turn of Spiral Connector
where:
MDe = max. moment caused by dead loads acting on Spiral wire
die, in.
CONCRETE STRENGTH, f'" psi.
MD. max. moment caused by dead loads acting on liz 13,580 14,210 14,770 15,270
% 16,970 17,760 18,460 19,000
steel beam alone % 20,360 21,310 22,150 22,900
% 23,760 24,870 25,840 26,720
max. moment caused by live load
Note: A factor of safety must be applied to the above useful ca-
section modulus of composite beam for ex- pacity, Q, to arrive at the working value, q.
treme tension fibers VD vertical shear caused by dead load acting on
S. section modulus of steel beam for extreme composite section
tension fibers VL = vertical shear caused by live load
Steel benm
= 10, b = effective slob width,
27 WI' 102 0.0331 0.0337 o 03-10 0 03-11 o 03-11> o 03-17 0 0352 o 03;)1
27 WI, O. o 0338 o 0343 o 034.'"1 o 03-18 o O;l.-)2 o 03,;2 o 0357 0 0351; 3. DESIGN OF CONNECTING WELDS
2-1 WI' 100 o.oaui 0.0307 o 031;9 o 0372 0.037b 0 0370 o 0383 o 0381
:l-l \\'1" g. 0.0371 0.0370 o (J37i o 0382 0 038,; 0 038-1 o 0391 o 0388
2-1 WF 8'
24 WF 7"
0.0381
0.0390
0.038·1
0.03!!2
o 0:183
o 03~1O
o
o
0391
0399
o 0392
O.O:·Hl!l
0 03llD
0.039,)
0,0397
o 0-103
o
o
0393
0398 Welds joining shear connectors to beams should be
21 WF 73 0.0430 0.0435 o O-l:i2 o 0-1-1.; 00-1-11 o 0·135 0.04-17 o O-l3b designed to the allowable fatigue force (f w ) , for the
21 WF 08 O.O-Hl o OHO o 0-13,-) 0.0-1;)0 O.O-l-lh 0 0-138 o OH9 o 043U
21 WV H:l O.O-HG 0.04..Hi 0.O-l3H 0.0-157 0.0-151 00-1-12 0.0-153 o 0-111 range (K) of shear stress and the working load (q)
18 WF GO o 0507
18WF 55 o 051-1
0.0501
o 0::;05
o O-l8il
o OI!1:!
0.0514
o 0[,20
0.0503
0.0508
o 0-190
0 0-193
0 050,)
o OS09
o 0-18\1
o O-l\Jl
of the connector. See Table 7.
18 WF 50 o 0519 o 0500 o O-l!l:; o 0.",1.; o 0510 0 0-1\1-1 o 0511 O.O-l!U
4. COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION SUMMARY 7. Studs may also serve as "high chairs". to support
steel reinforcing mesh for the concrete.
l.a. Without shoring, dead load carried by steel 8. Future connector designs may be more efficient
and live load is carried by the composite section. and reduce the number required.
b. With shoring, dead loads and live loads are
carried by the composite section. TABLE 7-Allowable Fatigue Force on
2. With shoring, there is reduction in steel but Fillet Welds
added cost of shoring. Cycles Allowable force on Formula No. in
weld, Ibs/linear in. AWS Bridge Spec.
3. Type and cost of shear connector must be bal-
5090w
anced against installation cost. 2,000,000
fw =
I-k No. 10
N
-2
4. In taking advantage of composite action, effort
should be made to reduce weight and depth of steel fw
7070w
beams. N 600,000 I-k No. 14
2
5. Savings in steel from use of bottom cover plates = 8484w
must be evaluated against additional fabricating cost. N = 100,000 fw 1_ k No. 18
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
6. Composite construction has the advantage of
greater rigidity.
2
Stud Connectors
Problem 1
Use %," dia. x 4" studs. From Table 4, Q = 10.2
To determine the working load (q), spacing (s), and kips/stud.
weld length (L w ) for each of several types of shear
working load
connectors, for a typical composite section.
In the building field, the total horizontal shear q -- Q
force to be carried by the shear connectors is based on F.S.
the total bending force in either the concrete or the ( 10.2)
steel section resulting from the maximum positive (3.81)
moment on the beam. It is assumed this force will be
2.68 kips/stud
transferred from the concrete slab into the steel beam
by the connectors along a distance from the point of spacing of connectors ( use 4 studs per transverse
maximum positive moment out to the end of the beam, section)
for simply supported beams; or from the point of
maximum positive moment out to the point of contra- n q
s = Vb
flexure, for continuous beams.
In the bridge field, this shear transfer is based on (4) (2.68)
the vertical shear applied to the beam. In most cases - (1.21)
this value will vary along the beam's length. For this = 8.85" or use 8%"
reason, more than one section may have to be checked
when the size and number of shear connectors are weld length
determined.
This example considers just one point of appli- Complete contact surface of stud is joined to beam.
cation, the section near the pier supports, and assumes No calculation of weld length is necessary.
certain conditions:
Channel Connectors
Use a 4" 5.4-lb channel of 10" length. From Table 6,
~----6~~C8~Ms~aN~------~
Q = 49.6 kips/channel.
working load
F.S.
q=Q
( 49.6)
- (3.81)
= 13.0 kips/channel
FIGURE .4 spacing of connectors
nq
s = Vb
f'c -- 3000 psi (concrete)
(1) (13.0)
m (1.21 )
.0244/in. (See Table 3)
I; 10.75" or use 1Olh"
F.S. 3.81
Vmax 49.6 kips allowable force on weld
_ (21.31)
- (3.81)
= 5.6 kips/tum
pitch
n q
s = Vb
_ (1) (5.6)
- (1.21)
= 4.61" or use 4%"/ turn
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.9-8 / Girder-Related Design
,.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 4.10
FIGURE 2
3. STEEL PLATE
FIGURE 1
2. STEEL GRI D
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 4.10-1
4.10-2 / Girder-Related Design
tudinal members, a built-up section is produced which The floor system in Figure 4 (b) is made up of
greatly increases the strength and stiffness of the two longitudinal steel girders with a concrete floor
member. This has sometimes been called "battledeck attached to the girders by means of shear connections.
flooring". Although spiral shear connections are shown here, this
composite beam could be made by using any type of
4. TYPICAL FLOOR SYSTEMS shear attachments. Shear attachments can also be used
on the floor beams.
The design in Figure 4 ( a) utilizes a steel grid floor In the design in Figure 5( a), the top portion of
in order to reduce the dead weight of the structure. the girders helps to form the curb. For this reason,
The steel grid rests on the main girders and the longi- the floor beams must be lowered, so as to get the bridge
tudinal stringers. The floor beams are set lower so that floor below the top flange of the girders. To keep this
the stringers, when placed on top, will be flush with floor level down, the stringers run between the floor
the top of the girder. Brackets are shop welded to the beams and their top flanges are flush with the top
girders to receive the floor beams. The top bracket flanges of the floor beams. Although this produces a
plate is slightly narrower than the flange of the floor very compact and efficient design, it does involve a
beam, and the bottom bracket plate is slightly wider little more fitting and welding than the previous Hoar
than the flange of the floor beam. This is so that down- designs.
hand fillet welds may be used in the field connection A very popular design today is the continuous
of the floor beams to the girders. girder deck bridge, Figure 5 (b). Several plate girders
With a little extra care in shipping and erecting, are placed side-by-side with sufficient cross bracing.
it would be possible to shop weld the railing and like A composite concrete floor is attached to the top of
attachments to the girders and further reduce the field the girders by means of shear connectors. For short
welding. spans, rolled beams are used with cover plates added
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Floor Systems for Bridges / 4.10-3
at points of high moment. For longer spans, deeper with floor beams extending outward to support the
plate girders are fabricated. For a more efficient design, bridge floor. In Figure 6 ( b ), longitudinal stringers are
these girders are deeper at points of high moment. The supported on the floor beams, and the floor rests on
outside girders usually have their intermediate stiff- these. It has even been suggested that a similar design
eners placed on one side only, the inboard side, so that could be made from a large diameter fabricated pipe
they have a more pleasing appearance. section.
Box girders have been used for bridges; usually
two or more are used. They may be joined by several s. TORSIONAL RESISTANCE
methods. The example in Figure 6 ( a) uses floor beams Designers are coming to realize the importance of
flush with the top of the box girder, on which is placed designing bridge floors, etc., with more inherent lateral
a concrete floor attached with shear connectors. stability and torsional resistance.
FIGURE 6
Box girder construction has several advantages. It When a simple member is subjected to a torsional
presents a flat surface for other attachments; hence, moment, shear stresses occur; one set being at right
the floor beams do not have to be coped when they angles to the axis of the member and the other set
are welded to the girder. There is less of a corrosion lengthwise. In Figure 7, shear forces (b) act at right
problem because of the flat surfaces. Also, since the angles to the lengthwise member and cause it to twist.
box girder ends may be sealed off, the inside is pro- A flat section or any open section offers very little
tected. Perhaps the greatest advantage is the tremen- resistance to twist. The cross members are subjected
dous increase in torsional resistance offered by the to the shear forces (a) and, likewise, twist. If a diagonal
closed box section. It also has good lateral stability. member is placed in the structure, both shear forces
These torsional and lateral stability properties are be- (a) and (b) act on it. However, the components of
coming recognized advantages, and more bridge engi- these forces, acting at right angles to the diagonal
neers are making use of them.
Some designs have made use of a single box girder,
FIGURE 7
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 8
4.10-4 / Girder-Related Design
member, cancel each other out, so there is no twisting These changes in length can be compensated for
action applied to the member. These forces do combine by corresponding deformations within the structure
to place tension and compression in line with the mem- itself. This is because changing the stress in the struc-
ber, thus placing the diagonal member in bending for ture will also cause it to change in length in proportion
which it is very rigid. Welding can be used to very to its modulus of elasticity. However, it is usually more
good advantage in diagonal bracing. economical to use expansion joints since the forces
Figure 8 is from a bridge designed by Camilo that are required to deform a structure are very large.
Piccone and erected over the Rio Blanco River in Masonry materials such as stone and concrete
Mexico. It is based on an earlier design of Thomas compress elastically but will not stretch. Therefore,
C. Kavanagh. The floor makes use of diagonal mem- they are likely to crack when subjected to the stresses
bers which produce a grid type structure, extremely of temperature contraction.
resistant to twisting and lateral movement. For these reasons and others, most structures are
designed with provision for expansion joints at inter-
6. EXPANSION JOINTS vals to take care of the normal movements of expansion
and contraction and to relieve the thermal forces. Many
Thermal changes in temperature cause certain physical types of joints in common use have been designed to
changes in the size and shape of all construction do this, varying from open joints, simple planes of
materials and in their completed structures. The changes weakness, and elastite joints such as are commonly
are in proportion to the dimensions of the structure, used in pavements, to the long interlocking fingered
the coefficients of expansion for the materials, and the castings and sliding bar joints used in bridge work.
number of degrees of temperature change.
The structure contracts with the cold and expands One Example
with the heat, so a typical bridge might be approxi- The all-welded expansion joint shown in Figure 9 is
mately 1" longer per 100 linear feet in the summer similar to those in the deck of a large bridge built in
than in the winter. It will also have daily and short- recent years. This joint is made entirely from rolled
time changes of a lesser degree in proportion to every structural plates and angles at a great saving in cost by
change in temperature and it will have additional move- welding.
ments from the elastic deflections of the structure. It is typical of many cases wherein welding has
12J.· •
.• ~ (--+--,--lL--1I'-
4- 8 C. TO C. FLOORBEAMS NOR~tL:1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 9
Floor Systems for Bridges / 4.10-5
not only simplified and improved bridge deck designs teeth. The slight side taper of ¥.!" in the length of the
but has also reduced the cost of the installation to tooth adds to the clearance as the teeth are pulled apart.
considerably less than half the estimated cost of con- The 18" length of tooth is determined by adding 1"
ventional type of segmental cast steel fingered joints. clearance at extreme expansion movements, plus a
The joint as shown provides for 16" of movement minimum lap of 1" when the bridge is fully contracted
computed at the rate of 1%" per 100' for the 1200' to the 16" of required movement.
length of structure. The teeth are spaced on 4" centers. This spacing
The joint (Fig. 9) is made in two halves, each half is as small as practical in order to distribute the loads
being symmetrical by rotating 180 0 with respect to the from the roadway surface over as many teeth as pos-
other half. The joint integral with the curbs, extends sible. It is also desirable in order to avoid having large
the full width of the 24' roadway in one piece. This holes between the teeth when the joint is open. The
s~- '"
16 2 SLOPE sf
I.f FIGURE 10
\: 7- f" I <Ii
a::
N
- :-- - S'~~"RIBS~ r R
j ,'t
I I
I I
I I
I-
U
s
, 1I
..., (I 1" - - - - - - - ~ ::- ==-=.- - -\...\: -=-- _". I"=-=- iA "...-_
2- - - - - - - - - - 2 2- - f,I,-
• I I
I- . 1I <Ii
- f-- ~) a::
.
't
2
~I !"-
2- -
-
- - - - -
- - -
--
-:- -
- - -
i-
I
~ I
l-
,u
'£
I 1
, t
S- IS"TEETH J
'I
5"
FIGURE 11
,'- s"
2'· o'
111-
2
f eOj T S ON I6 CT RS.
•
is fabricated to fit the curvature of the roadway crown. upper surfaces of the ends of the teeth are ground
The interlocking teeth which form the top surfaces down and rounded slightly to insure a smooth tran-
on both sides of the joint are flame-cut in a single op- sition of the loads from one side of the joint to the
eration from a common 28" x 1" x 24' plate as shown other.
in the layout of Figure 10. The cut is made just wide The joint shown in Figure 9 is designed to support
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
enough to insure finish on both edges of the cut and
to give proper clearance for the final meshing of the
16,OOO-lb H-20 truck wheel loads with 100% impact.
This load is distributed equally to each of five adjacent
4.10-6 / Girder-Related Design
teeth and is assumed to be applied on a contact area bars in the slab for continuity, and the end of the con-
3" long, centered 1%" from the end of the teeth. While crete casts into the pocket formed by the surface plate
in this extreme position, the teeth on only one side and the 7" x 4" x %" angle.
of the joint support the entire load. On this basis the The vertical leg of the 7" x 4" angle is flame cut
depth of the web, the thickness of the plates, and other to fit the curve of the roadway crown before welding
proportions are determined to support these load re- to the I" plate. This helps to hold the joint in proper
quirements. shape. The ribs are all held together at the bottom by
The unusually long cantilevered projection of the welding to the 5" x %" continuous plate bolted to the
teeth is reduced by supporting the teeth directly on an auxiliary cross beam.
auxiliary end cross beam. The cross beams in tum are The entire joint should be assembled in the shop
supported from the end floor beams at 10'-3" intervals with the cross beams and the field holes drilled to
by means of cantilevered stringer brackets. The floor insure a proper fit in the field.
beams span 35' center-to-center of trusses, and the Field erection consists simply of setting the bridge
trusses are supported on expansion rocker or roller shoes the proper distances apart, shimming the end
bridge shoes. cross beams to proper grade, and a final adjustment of
The strength of the teeth in this case is obtained the jacking bolts and the bolts to the cross beams. The
by continuously groove or fillet welding 5" x W' X I'· concrete slab is then cast up to the joint around the
8%" vertical web plate ribs to the underside of each anchors and cured, and the joint is ready for traffic.
tooth, as shown in Figure Ll. The rear ends of these One complete 24' joint as shown in Figure 9
ribs are anchored for uplift by groove welding to the weighs 6250 lbs. This compares to an estimated weight
back of the 7" x 4" X %" slab closure angle. This angle of 8500 lbs for a conventional cast steel fingered joint.
is continuously welded to the I" surface plate, and This comparison indicates that the welded detail
serves also as a lateral distribution beam between the accomplishes a saving in metal weight of 26%, in addi-
plate anchors. tion to replacing expensive cast steel metal with rolled
Plate anchors composed of 5" x Sfs" X 1'-5" web structural material. The relative cost of rolled metal
plates are welded to the rear of the joint opposite the is much less per pound.
web of every fourth tooth. These plates are spaced at 7. ORTHOTROPIC DECKS
16" centers, and each plate engages two %" jacking
bolts to the flange of the floor beam. These bolts serve A very important type of floor construction is the ortho-
both as erection bolts for setting the joint to elevation tropic deck, in which all elements of the structure work
and grade, and as anchor bolts to hold down the rear together. Having principal application in the bridge
of the joint against uplift caused by traffic. The plate field, orthotropic construction will be covered separ-
anchors lap with the main longitudinal reinforcement ately in the following Section 4.11.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 4.11
1. THE ORTHOTROPIC DESIGN CONCEPT properties: bending resistance about the x-x axis (trans-
verse to the length of the bridge), bending resistance
There is a growing interest in this country in the use about the y-y axis (parallel to the bridge), and torsional
of orthotropic bridge design and construction, a system resistance about the y-y axis. A concentrated load
now commonly used in Europe. placed upon the deck plate is distributed over a wide
With conventional bridge structures, the three main area to several adjacent floor beams. The longitudinal
elements-longitudinal main girders, transverse floor stiffeners below this load act as beams on elastic sup-
beam, and lighter longitudinal stringers or stiffeners- ports. With increasing load, the rather flexible deck
all act independently of each other. Usually an 8" and stiffeners spread the load over a greater area. This
thick concrete floor distributes the applied loads; see action has been confirmed by many tests on models as
Figure I(A). well as actual bridges.
In contrast, all elements of the orthotropic structure In the tests of the model of one bridge, the computed
work together; see Figure I(B). This new system uses test load corresponding to maximum allowable design
a thin steel deck plate across the entire width and stress was 2.06 tons. The computed ultimate load was
length of the bridge, and this serves as the top flange 5.6 tons. During testing, measurements indicated there
plate of the (1) longitudinal main girders, (2) transverse was perfect elastic behavior up to an actual load of
floor beams, and (3) lighter longitudinal stiffeners. The 4.1 tons. When loaded above the elastic limit, there
deck plate also contributes to the torsional resistance was no rapid and unrestrained increase in deflection
of the stiffeners when it forms a closed section. as is customary in the usual bending of beams; rather
Having a common top flange member, all three ele- the deflections increased linearly just a little faster
ments act and load up together in the most efficient than the applied load. At a load of 48 tons, a crack
manner. The steel deck plate is topped with a light started to appear in the stiffener region, and at 56
1lf.!" thick asphalt wearing surface for complete elimina- tons this had spread over the entire depth of the
tion of the heavy concrete floor. stiffener. This test indicated an apparent factor of
The combined orthotropic deck structure acts as a safety of 27 to 1.
single plate or membrane with three separate sectional With optimum use of welding, orthotropic construe-
1"steel deck If
CA)
Conventional Bridje
(8)
Orthotropic Bridge Ma-in box .J1'reler
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 1
4.11-1
4.11-2 / Girder-Related Design
tion results in the bridge superstructure usually weigh- assemble the sections for automatic downhand welding
ing only half as much as would result from any other and modern fabricating methods. Since numerous iden-
design system. This weight saving is such a tremendous tical deck sections are required, they may be set up in
advantage on long span bridges, that orthotropic de- a jig and automatically submerged-arc welded with
sign is rapidly replacing truss design on all European minimum time and cost.
bridges having spans of 400' or more, and should do
the same in this country. 2. JOINING LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS TO
AISC has published an excellent design manual on DECK PLATE
"Orthotropic Steel Plate Deck Bridges" by Roman
Wolchuk (1963). It contains theory, methods of design, In European orthotropic bridge design, longitudinal
and suggested details of orthotropic bridges. stiffeners are commonly of trapezoidal cross-section for
This type of bridge design would be impractical torsional rigidity. American design interest appears to
without the extensive use of welding. The miles of favor this approach; see Figure 2. Although not too
welded joints afford a good opportunity to sub- clear on the sketch of the Port Mann bridge, the edge
Interrupted Interrupted
rib rib
Web of
floor beam
Web of G,.
floor beam
'v-
Duisburg-Homberg Mannheim-Ludwigshafen
Interrupted Continuous
rib <, r-- 12
"l rib )
;-
•
. II
II
II
}I
II
< :.- . II
II
II
W eb of rz;p
floor beam
'K- Webof <-
floor beam
Weser Porta Port Mann
r 13
" ----1 Continuous
rib ~ 13" ----1 f W'
-:
~ ~6"~
71 50"
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
The D esign Manual for Orthotropic Steel Plate
of the stiffener was cut square without any bevel. It D eck Bridges multiplies this torsional resistance (R)
was shown in tests by th e fabricator that a single pass by a reduction factor (fL) which has b een determined
made with the automatic submerged-arc welder would by testing of various shapes of stiffen ers. This factor
produce a sound weld with throat greater than stiffener is affect ed by the shape of th e stiffener.
thickness; see Figure 3. Stiffeners can be readily form ed to th e trapezoidal
shape on a press brak e. Becaus e of th e tonnage re-
The torsional resistance of any closed tubular quired, it might be more economical to purchase a
section, as indicated by Figure 4, is : special mill-rolled section for the stiffen ers; see Figure
5. Thus th e outer portions of the plate width wh ich
4 [A] 4 [A] become webs of the built-up trapezoid section ar e
R rolled th inner, and the central portion is left thicker
f dt ~+~ for th e lower flang e. This places th e material wh ere
ds bli. b.
required, furth er reducing th e bridge weight and ton-
nage of steel required. The plate could be rolled to th e
where: final trapezoid section, thus eliminating th e braking
[A] = area enclosed by th e trapezoid operation Lengths of this section would nest and
tit = thickness of d eck plate present no problem in shipping.
Another refinement would be to provide slightly
t, = thickness of stiffener
greater thickness at web extre mities so as to give mor e
h I! = width of deck plate within region of stiffener bearing against the deck plate and great er throat to
b. = undev elop ed width of stiffener th e connecting weld.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.11-4 / Girder-Related Design
FIGURE 5
Backing har
(A)
~====~~======i~9
/F
I·- - - I S ' ·1· 15'--- ·1 e 9rofJvt wtltls
Two splices tvery /5'
(8)
FIGURE 6
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
any questions as to the safe transfer of main bending
stresses.
to have the highest fatigue strength, (T = 28,000 psi,
when tested with a stress range of
Orthotropic Bridge Decks / 4.11-5
K min
max
=+ .2 final means of transport, in some cases a barge. Each
longitudinal joint of the top deck plate can be made
with a two-pass weld; one pass on each side using a
The shape of the closed tubular longitudinal submerged-arc automatic welder. This joint iii a simple
stiffener tested had no appreciable effect upon the square-butt joint without any backing bar, and requires
test results. Cold forming of the stiffeners had no effect. no beveling of plate edges. After making the first pass,
They recommend that the designer place the field the four floor' beams are manually welded in place.
splice of the stiffeners in low-stressed regions. Each beam consists of a bottom flange plate and a web
plate having trapezoidal cutouts along the top edge to
4. SHOP FABRICATED SUBASSEMBLIES fit around' each stiffener.
With the transverse floor beam welded in place,
It is possible to fabricate nearly the entire deck of the
bridge, in sections, under optimum shop conditions and
thereby minimize the amount of field welding. This
includes deck sections lying between the main box I
fioOO
girders, and any sections to be cantilevered out from
the box girder.
I.. 9'--
(A)
21'
V
f (I t
2,,,1 pass
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 8
4.11-6 / Girder-Related Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
partially beveled at the top and a backing bar used
so that full-penetration welds can be made in the down-
backing bar on the outside; the weldor then makes all
the splices while working from the top of the deck.
Orthotropic Bridge Decks / 4.11-7
--- -----------------
Continuous backing bar for ~ Trapezoidal .Jtiffenttr
transverse automatic weld
of deck field splice of "tifftnttr
FIGURE 11
-------r=== L
Positive
~
=I 1 Nega.tive
!b--
""l{(1~ " -
i= moment (+M)
<'fIII1l11TI] 11111111111 ~
"'<CQ]J~
l11omentC-M)
..aT11TIIJ1T
)
y I... )
Deck Ie + "tilf~ner . y
serving Cl..5 the top Deck Il .. .5tiffener
fla.nge, is in serviflJ as the. top
compr es slon flange, is in tension
FIGURE 12
7. RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION near the pier supports. However, this comes from the
dead load of the structure and any live load spread
This type of inspection should be limited to critical over a rather large area, thus the range of stress varia-
joints which the Engineer should select. Fatigue con- tion and the number of stress cycles would be relatively
ditions that reduce the allowable stress in design may small; see Figure 12.
indicate such a need; for example, groove welded butt 2. The stiffener serves along with the deck plate
joints subject to tension, a wide range of stress, a high as a short beam between floor beams, and any localized
stress, and a large number of cycles. As the factors wheel load would produce a wide range in stress and
that produce fatigue loading are reduced, the necessity the number of applications could be very high. How-
for radiographic inspection is likewise reduced. ever, by using Method B to detail the network of floor
If all of the groove welds in the deck plate are beams and stiffeners the only critical welds would occur
made by the submerged-arc automatic process, proper at about every 60' of bridge length. The influence lines,
procedures can be established to insure good welding. see Figure 13, show the moment due to concentrated
This should eliminate the need for costly radiographic wheel load at given points as the load progresses along
inspection of these welds, although limited spot checks the span between floor beams. By locating the field
could be made. splice of the stiffener at a point about YIo L along
Any field splice in the lower flange of the main the span between supporting floor beams, the bending
box girders in a region of positive moment, might be stress on the weld is rather low and without much
inspected by radiography. fluctuation.
Field splices in the longitudinal stiffeners must be Spot checks of the stiffener field splices by gamma
considered from the type of loading: ray inspection, if required, could be made by drilling
1. The stiffer::er serves along with the deck plate a small hole in the l/2" deck plate and lowering the
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
as the top flange of the main structure, and as such
is subjected to tension in the negative moment region
capsule down halfway into the interior of the trape-
zoidal area, with the film wrapped around the outside
4.11-8 / Girder-Related Design
I· L I
Deck I in ten,ion ; bottom
... ...rJ1I1!IJIIIIJ't;~.:..m
"<tQL~ CQJ.U .
Moment diagram
~ ~
,Ifax. momeni: (au. to
concentrated loQ,cI)
on deck section
-..- (
r
\
~j Mcz.)(' moment (due
toconcentra.ted load)
tm «ec« secxton
at fielt/.Jp-/ice
FIGURE 13
of the stiffener. This hole can be filled later by welding, to the shrinkage of the welds; see Figure 14.
or by tapping it and screwing a pipe plug into it. To find the properties of this section, select refer-
ence axis (x-x ) along underneath surface of deck plate.
8. WELDOR QUALIFICATION This is almost through the center of gravity of the 2
welds, and the resulting distance to the neutral axis
In addition to the standard AWS weldor qualification (n) will also be the distance between the neutral
test, it would be well for those Men assigned to field axis and the center of gravity of welds (d).
weld the stiffeners to first weld a test joint of this splice
in position. This can be given a visual inspection, M~
including sawing of the joint at one or more points and INA = Ix + III - A
etching to determine if proper fusion was obtained. It
might be well to consider weldors who have had some (279.87) - (-35.412)2 (From Table A)
( 16.179)
experience in pipe welding.
279.87 - 77.51
Problem 1 202.36 in."
M
An orthotropic deck is to be fabricated in units 104" n
A
wide containing 4 trapezoidal stiffeners each 13" wide
and on 11" centers. The stiffeners are welded to the ( -35.412)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
%" deck plate along their edges. If these units are 30'
long, estimate the amount of bending or camber due
(16.179)
-2.19" also d
Orthotropic Bridge Decks / 4.11-9
26"------------------j
----5W' -----1-'-'- ------ 13 " ------~ 1 5\1/' -----j )10 ......
~" It
T
Neutral aXIS
~3.5--1
IJ-~
9W
~6"---->-
() = 69.8° 2 welds A w = 1 12
FIGURE 14
TABLE A
Plate A y M - Ay r,
- M y I.
_©
-----
bending or camber L 30' 360" In order to find the property of this built-up
.005 An- d U section, it is necessary to know the properties of the
I arc of a circle which forms the round bottom portion.
Problem 2 FIGURE 16
are shop welded into panels about 65' wide, the width r sin ()
d[
of the bridge in between the main longitudinal girders, ()
and 25' long; as shown in Figure 15. Estimate the
[e + :2 sin" e]
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
amount of bending or camber due to the shrinkage of
the welds.
Ig t r'
( about center of gravity)
1
12 sin 2 () --
()
4.11-10 I Girder-Related Design
_-------------24"----------~
r = 3Y2"
TABLE B
Plate A Y M =A Y I. =M y I.
® 24" Jl V2 11
12.00 + .25 + 3.00 + .75 .25
@ .656" " 6%" 451 -3.4375 -15.50 + 53.29 17.73
In this example: M2
A
t o/t6"
( -38.76)2
(323.35) - ( From Table B)
r 3lh" ( 19.27)
(J 72.45° or 1.263 radians 323.35 - 77.96
245.39 in."
A 2 (o/t6 )( 3lh)( 1.263)
M
2.76 in." n -1\
(31f2) (.9535) ( -38.76)
1.263 ( 19.27
-2.01" = d
2.64"
bending or camber L 25' 300"
I. ( %6)( 3lh) [1.263 + lh( .575) - 2( i~~~)2 J A _ .005 A w d L2
a - I
1.46 in.!
.005 ( .130) (2.01) (300)2
These values will now be used in finding the prop- (245.39)
erties of the built-up section. To find these properties, .48" (ends would go up this amount)
select reference axis (x-x) along the underneath surface
of the deck plate. This is almost through the center of This means when the 25' long unit is upside down
gravity of the 2 welds, and the resulting distance to for welding, the fixture should be curved sufficiently
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
the neutral axis (n) will also be the distance between
the neutral axis and the center of gravity of welds (d).
to pull the central section of the unit down by this
amount or about lh".
SECTION 4.12
FIGURE 2
1. PLATE PREPARATION
ing heads usually fit th e flang es to th e web and then
Flange plates may be ordered as bars rolled to th e complete th e fillet welding.
proper width and thickness. No further preparation is Plate girders may b e fitted and assembled by one
required except cutting to proper length and beveling of th e following procedures:
the ends for the butt joint. First, one flang e is laid Rat on th e Roar. A chalk
Some fabricators will Harne cut the Range plates line is marked along the centerline of the Range and
from wide plates; Figure 1. Since th er e is some shrink- small right-angle clips tack weld ed at int ervals along
age due to the flame cutting operation, the flange w ill th e length of the Range near this centerline. See Figure
have a sweep or bend if it is cut along just one side. 2. Next, the web is placed vertically on the flange and
For this reason the flange is made by cutting along temporarily supported with angles or bars tack welded
both sides, usually with a cutting unit having mu ltip le between th e web and the Range. Th e clips along th e
torches which are cut at the sam e time. flange align the web along th e centerline of th e Range.
For girders with a horizontal curve, the Range Th e top flang e plate may th en b e plac ed on top of th e
plates are flame cut to th e proper curve. web . This method may b e used for straight girders if
th ey ar e not too deep.
2. FIT-UP AND ASSEMBLY The plate girder may be assembled by placing
the web down on a fixtur e in th e horizontal position;
Fabricators having full-automatic, submerged-arc we ld- Figure 3. The Range p lat es ar e put in position and some
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 4.12-1
4.12-2 / Girder-Related Design
FIGURE 3
~s,s,s"~"SS"\~
I""'' '""" """"m\ FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 6
@@
FIGURE 7
@Q)
®@
FIGURE 8
Q)@
in the left fixture and weld CD is made. The next side of th e girde r and we ld ® is made. Final~the
easiest step is to pick up th e girder with th e cr an e girder is turned com p lete ly ove r an d we ld ~ is
hooked to the upper R a~e and swing it over to th e made.
right fixture. Here weld ~ is made on th e same Range The differ en ce in th e above sequence of welding
but opposite side of the web. Now th e girde r must b e p asses dep ends entirely on th e fixturing an d methods
picked up, laid down on th e floor, turned over , and used rather th an any effect on distortion.
placed back into one of the fixtur es wher e weld @
is made in the Rat position. Finally th e girder is picked 4. ANGULAR DISTORTION AND TRANSVERSE
,~an d swung over to th e other fixtur e where weld STIFFENERS
~ is made.
In Figure 8, the fabricator uses a set of trunnions Usually after th e Ran ge-to-web fillet we lds h ave been
on the end of the girder assembly, or pl aces th e girder complet ed, th e transverse stiffeners are fitted an d
within a series of circular hoops, so th at th e girder m ay welded into th e girde r; Fi gure 9.
be revolved. After weld CD is co~ted, the girder If the Rang es are thin and wide, th e girders may
is turned completely over and weld ~ is made. Now exhibi t some an gular distortion of th e Range plat es.
the welding head must be moved over to the b ack If thi s h as occurred, th e Ranges may have to b e forced
FIGURE 9
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@Seismicisolation
4.12-4 / Girder-Related Design
apart before the stiffeners can be inserted between girder before welding the flanges to the web. 'This is
them. easily done since the unwelded flanges are Bat (not
The following formula will help in estimating distorted). With the girder web in the horizontal posi-
the amount of angular distortion of the flanges: tion, the semi-automatic welders are used to make the
fillet welds between the Bange and web as well as the
stiffeners in the same set-up.
The corners of the stiffeners are snipped so that
the flange-to-web fillet weld may be continued in back
of the stiffeners. Quite often all of this welding is com-
pleted in a single panel area before moving to the next.
The girder is then turned over and the welding com-
I~
pleted on the other side.
=
0.02 W
t2 Dr FIGURE 10
S. POSITION OF WELDING
where: TABLE A
The girder may be positioned with the web at an angle
D= w 1.3 w 0 between 30° and 45° with the horizon, pennitting the
welds to be deposited in the Bat position. This position
K6 .113
is desirable, since it makes welding easier and slightly
1/4 .164
faster. It also permits better control of bead shape and
~6 .220
the production of larger welds in a single pass when
See Table A for value of D % 228 necessary.
corresponding to actual leg For example, the largest single-pass fillet weld
k'6 .342
of weld (w). made in the horizontal position is about %6" with a
112 .406
single wire, and W' with tandem arc; whereas in the
% .543
Bat position this single-pass weld may be about %oil
% .688
with either process.
1 1.000 For a 1/4" or %6" fillet weld, the position in which
the weld is made, whether horizontal or Bat, would not
AASHO bridge specifications (2.10.32) state that make much difference.
these stiffeners shall fit sufficiently tight after painting If a %" or W' fillet weld is required, the fabri-
that they will exclude water. In addition, no attach- cator has several choices.
ments should be welded to the tension Bange if it is If the girder may be positioned with the web
stressed above 75% of the allowable. vertical, this will allow both welds on the same Bange
Some interpret the AASHO specification to mean to be completed without moving the girder. See Figure
a force fit; this is costly and not necessary. The follow- 11( a ). If the fabricator has two welding heads, these
ing procedure will comply with this: two welds may be made simultaneously, thus reducing
1. Use a loose stiffener so it may be fitted easily. the overall welding time. However, this horizontal
2. Push this tight against the tension Bange. position does limit the maximum size of the weld which
3. Weld this to the web of the girder. may be made in a single pass.
4. Weld this to the compression Bange. If the fabricator has a single-wire automatic head,
Some states have not been concerned with this he must make this fillet weld in two passes. If he has
tight fit and have cut the stiffeners short by about a tandem setup, this weld can be made in a single
1"; these have been pushed tight against the compres- pass with less welding time. .
sion Bange and welded to the web. If just a single By tilting the girder at an angle, either a single
stiffener is used, it is also welded to the compression wire or tandem heads can make this weld in a single
Bange. The recent plate girder research at Lehigh pass; however, only one of the welds can be made
University found that the stiffeners do not have to be at one time. See Figure 11(b). It would be necessary
against the tension Bange in order to develop the full to rotate the girder for each weld with increased
capacity of the girder. The new AISC specifications handling time.
follow this in allowing transverse intermediate stiff- A fabricating shop with two automatic welding
eners to be cut short at the tension Bange by a distance heads can make two fillet welds on the girder simul-
equal to 4 times the web thickness. taneously. To do this, the shop must decide between
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Fabricators having semi-automatic welding equip-
ment sometimes insert the transverse st.Heners into the
two methods of positioning the girder; Figure 12.
It might be argued that method (a) should be used
Fabrication of Plate Girders / 4.12-5
FIGURE 11
x- - - - x
FIGURE 12
\ /
(a)
because the girder is much more rigid about this axis plate on each flange, this shrinkage on top and bottom
(x-x) and therefore would deflect less as a result of flanges of the beam will balance and the beam will not
the first two welds on the bottom flange. distort. However, if there is a cover plate on just the
However in method (b) the weld is next to the bottom flange, the unbalanced shrinkage will cause
neutral axis (y-y) of the girder. Its distance to this the center of the beam to bow upward; in other words,
axis is much less than that in (a), and therefore it it will increase the camber of the beam.
would have very little bending effect on the girder. The cambering that results from this unbalanced
Since this is a thick flange, there may be concern welding can be estimated by the following formula:
about getting a large enough fillet weld to provide
enough welding heat for the mass of flange plate.
Therefore, it might also be argued that method (a) I Ll = 0.005 ~ d U I
would provide double the amount of heat input on the
flange. where:
Actually there should be little difference between
these methods in the effect of weld shrinkage after A = total cross-sectional area of welds, sq. in.
all of the welds have been made.
V///I//. __ -1d _ _
plate may be added to the bottom flange for increased
strength. All of these beams must have a certain ' [ Center of gravity
amount of camber. of weld area
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The welds connecting the cover plates to the
beam flange tend to shrink upon cooling. With a cover FIGURE 13
4.12-6 / Girder-Related Design
FIGURE 14
_ _ _]JL...---JD: _
If more comber is needed
d distance from the center of gravity of welds beam should be interrupted at the corner, if it is wider
to the neutral axis of the section, inches than the beam flange, as shown in Figure 15.
L length of the beam, inches
1. SHOP WELDING VS FIELD WELDING
I moment of inertia of the section, in."
It is practical to do as much welding in the shop as
This may be more or less than the final desired possible and to make only those welds in the field that
camber, Figure 14. If this camber due to welding is can't be made in the shop. The following two sections
excessive, the beam must be supported in such a man- on the Field Welding of Buildings (Sect. 4.13) and of
ner that it tends to sag in the opposite direction before Bridges (Sect. 4.14) include some recommendations on
welding. If the camber due to welding is not enough, shop welding specific connection joints.
then the beam must sag in the same direction before
welding.
A good experienced shop man will support the
beam either near its ends or near its midpoint so as
to control the direction and extent to which the beam
bends before it is welded. Don't hook weld
around corner; will not
If the cover plate does not extend to the full
have full throat
width of bottom flange, it must be welded with the
beam upside down, Figure 14(a). Supporting this beam
near its ends will increase the final camber, and sup- Rolled beam
porting the beam near its midpoint will decrease the
final camber. If the cover plate extends beyond the
bottom flange, it must be welded in this position and
just the opposite technique must be used in supporting
it; Figure 14(b).
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The fillet welds holding this cover plate to the FIGURE 15
SECTION 4.13
FIGURE 1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 4.13-1
4.13-2 / Girder-Related Design
':':. : = ~ .~:.:."
2"
~! I"
,.
I"
~
I.
!:i I
~rection cleats, clarrps,ond blocks in use for 'landIng'and draWi!l9'
Hardwood blocks
FIG URE 2
2. ERECTION HELPS the temporary seat angle of the column. A tie bolt is
th en screw ed on to hold th e b eam in proper alignment
Several methods of temporarily fastening these con- with th e column. Next , th e b eam is welded directly to
nections have been used. Tack welding alone may be the column, and any temporary lugs th en disconnected
unsatisfactory because it does not make allowance for and uscd over again.
plumbing th e building before final welding. Saxe ere ction clips, whi ch are weld ed to the beam
Clamping th e beams to the column seat is not ends and th e column, have b een used with success;
always safe, although this has been used for "site see Fi gures 3 and 4. These units consi st of a forged
erection" of lighter struc ture s; see Figure 2. steel clip and seat. The clip is shop weld ed to the
The steel is ordered cut to length and deliver ed end of th e b eam , and th e sea t is shop weld ed at the
to th e site of erection. Temporary seat angles are proper position on th e column. During erection, the
d amped onto th e column at the proper position, and beam is placed in position so that th e clips drop down
a temporary lug clamped onto th e top flange of th e into th e seat. An adjustable clip has been developed
b eam . The b eam is hoisted into position and set upon to take care of possible poor fit-up b etween the beam
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 3 FIGU RE 4
Field Welding of Buildings / 4.13-3
(0) (b>
FIGURE 5
and the column. flan ge. The ere ction bo lts arc run through the vertical
It is recommend ed that th e wor king load on any legs of th e two angles.
one seat should not excee d 20,000 lbs. If a gr ea ter Welded studs may be used for erect ion. In Figure
erection load is to be carrie d, such as a hea vy pl at e 6, two studs ar e p laced on th e beam we b and serve
girder or truss, it is recomm ended that two or more th e sam e purpose as erection bolts. The welding of
seats be used, side by side. th e studs wou ld b e don e at the sam e ti me th e beams
The use of a few erec tion bolts has been found arc laid out. Since the studs ar e placed on th e beam
to be a satisfactory means of temporaril y fas te ning web , it wou ld be difficult to damage them in transit
before welding. Bolting may be don e directl y to main or erection since the overh ang of th e beam flanges
members. It is less costly to punch sma ll attachments would protect them.
for erection bolts than to move hea vy main memb er s The a ttaching plate on th e column is designed for
into the punch shop for punching. Man y tim es, hol es
are flame cut in the ends of b eams for erection bolts.
In Figure 5 (a) , a small connec tion pl at e is sh op
welded to the bottom beam flan ge a t th e en d. A seat
is also shop welded to th e column flang e at th e proper
height. During erection, th e beam is placed upon th e
seat and two erection bolts ar e used to hold th em in I~
.- /
place.
In Figure 5(b) , the beam is connected to th e
column web. A seat angl e is shop welded to th e insid e
faces of the column flanges and/or to th e column web .
Aflat plate is shop weld ed at th e end of th e low er b eam
flange; see Figur e 5 ( c ). During er ection, th e b eam is
held in place by two erection bolts. All punching h as
been done on small attaching plates or ang les. No
punching has been necessary on th e heavy main mem-
bers. Any of several methods may be used to tie in th e
top beam flange.
Figure 5( d ) indi cat es th at wh en th e b eam flan ge
is too wide for easy access to bolts ap plie d as at F igure
5(c), the angle welded between th e column flan ges
may be reversed. In thi s case, anothe r angle of same
size is welded to the underside of th e low er b eam FIGURE 6
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4.13-4 / Girder-Related Design
FIGURE 7 FIGURE 8
the shear reaction and is shop w elded in th e flat po si- engage s a small attaching plate shop welded to the
tion for minimum cost. No punching or drilling of th e column. This plate has a slot punched in it, the slot
main member is necessary. Since th e attaching plate b eing lengthwise with th e beam.
would b e punched with a templat e having th e sa me With this arra nge ment, th e b eam can be simply
distance b etween hol es as th e punch marks for the lowered down into position, with the studs dropping
weld ed studs, th er e should be no difficulty in fitting into place and locating th e b eam squar ely and tightly
the beam in place during erection. for field welding.
The small attaching plate may b e punched with A po ssibl e improvement of this method would be
a slot in the horizontal dir ection of the beam. This will to have th e two welding studs on th e bottom flange
allow some adjustment, to tak e car e of dim ensional so th ey would engage into th e hol es first. This third
tolerance on th e column size or beam length and yet stud just under the top flange could be threaded and
give a positive location for th e height of th e beam. wh en tightened with a nut would hold th e beam from
With this arrangement, the only field w elding accidentally b eing knocked upward and out of the
would be th e top and bottom flan ge butt joints and connection.
whatever vertical welding would be required for the A slight modifi cation can b e made by placing this
shear reaction to th e beam web. The flange butt welds third stud on th e b eam web , near th e top; see Figure
would have th e proper root op ening and us e a light 8. The small attaching plate has a hole larger, perhaps
backing strap, about l/s" x 1" . This b acking strap by l/s", than th e stud diameter. In erection, the beam
could extend slightly b eyond th e joint so as to form is low er ed into position as b efore, but mu st be rolled
a shelf or run-off tab to insure proper build-up at the slightly to engage the w eb stud. A nut is drawn up
end of the joint. tightly on this stud for firm holding.
By welding a seat plate to th e column flange, as A further variation could use aT-shaped stiffened
in Figure 7, any vertical welding in th e field would b e scat bracket with th e horizontal plate punched accur-
eliminate d. The plate would have sufficien t size and at ely to receiv e the two studs on the bottom flange of
attaching weld to transmit th e shear reaction of the th e beam. The third stud could be placed on the
beam. H er e, two short welding stu ds ar e placed on e undersid e of th e top b eam flang e to provide horizontal
on each side of th e bottom flan ge's centerline at th e stability.
beam ends. They ar e spaced to the thickness of th e It is true that with this method of using welding
seat plate, and after erection, will keep th e beams studs to avoid making hol es in th e main members,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
securely position ed over th e sea t. A third w elding stud
is placed on th e undersid e of th e top b eam flange and
th ere would b e no provision for usin g the tapered end
of a structural offset or sp ud wr ench to bring the
Field Welding of Buildings / 4.13-5
beam end into proper alignment with the connection. t.. thickness of plate
However, with the accuracy of placing the welding W av average width of weld
studs and laying out the corresponding slotted holes so
as to allow for some horizontal adjustment, there should The cross-sectional area of the weld may be com-
be little difficulty. puted by breaking it down into standard areas; that
is, rectangles for root opening, triangles for included
3. FIELD WELDING angle of bevel, and parabolas for weld reinforcement.
This calculation can be greatly shortened by making
Plumbing of a building usually starts around an elevator
use of standard table giving the weight of weld metal
shaft or service core. This is usually centrally located
for various joints; use Table 6 in Section 7.5. It is
and has greater bracing. The butt welds of the beam
only necessary to divide these values by 3.4 to arrive
and girder flanges to the supporting column will have
at the area of the weld. This value is then placed into
some transverse shrinkage. It is necessary that this
one of the above formulas for shrinkage.
shrinkage be estimated and the joint opened up by
this amount before welding. Otherwise, this shrinkage
will accumulate along the length or width of the
Problem 1
building and build up to a sizable amount. See Figure 9.
A good estimate of this transverse shrinkage is-
To determine the shrinkage effects in making the welds
.10~1
indicated in Figure 9. The girder with a 1%" flange
A = is to be welded to a column. The joint has a W' root
tit
opening, an included angle of 45°, and uses a backing
bar.
A = .10 W av I From Table 6 in Section 7.5, the weight of weld
metal is 5.93 lbs/ft, and has an area of-
where:
Aw = cross-sectional area of weld Aw = 5.93
3.4 =
17
. 4 in.
2
. >
I>- :.
I-w'
Beam or girder
- + - - - - - - - - - A f t e r welding, welds w i l l - - - - - - - - - - + -
shrink and pull columns
back to proper distance
- @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 9 - ........
4.13-6 / Girder-Related Design
• . t:. \
r ":::.-J
....
;_;-0 -, '
The transverse shrinkage is- wou ld b e ope ne d up an extra Va" on each end of the
girdc r so th at th e distan ce between the faces of the
.10 ( 1.74) two columns is %" greater th an the detail calls for.
1%
Aft er welding, th e tw o joints should shrink sufficient
.116" or about Va" to b ring th e two columns b ack to th e desired spacing.
T his shrinkage could b e checke d after welding and this
Using IN' fillet welds on th e web will res ult in
valu e adjuste d.
very little transverse shrinkage. T he average w idth of a
%" fillet weld is Va", and 10% of this is .012" or about
10% of th e shrinkage of the flange butt welds .
* * *
In this example, the join t of the girder flanges The bo x columns in th e building shown in Figure
FIGURE 12
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Field Weld ing of Buildings / 4.13:....7
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14
10, were fabricated by welding tog ether four angles. A plate was placed between th e top b eam flang es
After they were er ected , a short an gle section was and th e girde r. The top flan ges of th e b eams wer e butt
removed and a long section of th e girder was slipped groove weld ed tog ether , using th e plate as a ba cking
into position within th e column. Later th e an gle section strap. The plate wa s th en fillet weld ed to th e b eam
was put back. flanges. A lon g cover plate wa s th en weld ed to th e beam
The ends of the beams were cop ed back so th ey flang es to tak e care of th e increased negative mom ent
could be slipp ed into place with th eir top flang e rest- of th e b eam at thi s support point. No tice th at this typ e
ing on the top flang e of the girders ; Figure 11. A short of weld ed connection makes th e b eam continuous,
seat angle shop welded to the girder web supported th er eby redu cin g its req uir ed size. At th e same ti me, it
the lower beam flange. This resulted in a very fast do es not tic th e top flan ges of th e b eam to th e girde r,
erection procedure without th e use of erection bolts. which might produce some bi axial stresses . All of th e
Later the bottom beam flange was field welded to th e field welding shown her e wa s don e in th e flat position,
girder web, using th e seat angle as a backing strap. greatl y speed ing up th e erec tion we ld ing .
FIGURE 15
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@Seismicisolation
4.13-8 / Girder-Related Design
FIGURE 16
Welding is used quite extensively on rigid frames. assembled on the ground, Figure 15. The sections were
Figure 12 shows the shop fabrication and welding of laid out on wood blocks and jacked up to proper posi-
sections of a large rigid frame. For small structures, the tion and checked with a transit. The field joints were
entire frame is fabricated and erected in one piece. then welded. Three crawler cranes picked the entire
For larger structures, th e frame may be divided frame up and placed it in position. Some of the field
into two or more sections and assembled at the job site welding which was inaccessible when on the ground.
and erected. Figures 13 and 14 show the construction such as the back side of the web butt joint, was corn-
of a rigid-frame freight terminal area, and the upright pleted in the air.
portions of the frame being unloaded from the railcar
and hoisted into position by the rail crane. Later the 4. WELDING OF JOISTS AND FLOORING
central portions of the arch were put into position.
Welding machines, also on flat cars, were brought in Welding is used universally in the attachment of open
and the field joints welded. web joist to beams. This becomes a simple matter of
Frames for the Long Beach Harbor Shed were laying the joist on the beam at the proper place and
later welding in the flat position. A considerable amount
of light-gauge steel roof decking is used on top of joists
or beams. This is easily and quickly attached by means
of welding in the flat position. The use of both open-
web joist and steel decking is shown in Figure 16.
Floor decking of heavier gauge has been used as
a support for any of several floor materials. Welding is
used in the flat position to fasten this steel deck to
beams of the steel structure. Many times this deck is
designed to take the horizontal forces on the structure
caused by wind or earthquake.
5. WELDOR PLATFORMS
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@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 17
wooden platform with four ropes attached to it. The
platform is fastened to the steel structure at the proper
Field We lding of Buildings / 4 .13-9
FIGURE 19
FIGURE 18
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4.13-10 / Girder-Related Design
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SECTION 4.14
Shop Splicing
Shop splices in flange and web plates should be made ffRl
before the girder is fitted together and welded, pro-
viding the resulting sections are not too long or heavy
to handle. These shop splices do not have to be in a
tLkU
413. 251ft.
single plane, but are placed where they are most con-
venient, or where a transition in section is desired.
In the shop, flange plates can be turned over
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@Seismicisolation
easily as welding progresses, so that on thicker plate!"
double-V joints would be used. They require the least FIG. 1 Relative cost of flange butt welds.
4.14-1
4.14-2 / Girder-Related Design
~TOPflange
)(
\ /
(b)
. .
I-
Web
, .
(c)
) ~
I Direction of
welding:
vertical up
70 f--
.cI
TYPEA(o) TYPE 0(.)
t--
SO
-. t-- r-- r--
- CD OJ f--
ifIJ
as --- -
r---
--
-;;-- .~ Xv
._-- -- .-.... --
N
f--
• ----r--:
Z5
......
~
x
r--, ~
--
-4-
r-~
r;- I- 10-.
1-..... _ ...
;- ZE 0·7
...·n- .-
W4 'roN
.... •
.-
15 r ~
~ .... -- '- Io-.~
r--" I-- I--r-. I- J(
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
CYCI.ES TO FAILURE N THOUSANDS
t2 2?2?2? Z zr::t:J/922221222222m ~z WI
FIG. 8 Weld clip along one edge only, so it may be removed easily with a
hammer. Drive steel wedge below clip until plate edges are in alignment.
(a) Plates forced into alignment and held there by means of strongbacks.
Pressure is applied by means of wedge driven between yoke and strong back.
(b) For heavier plates, pressure may be applied by means of bolts tempo-
rarily welded to the plate. Strongback is then pulled tightly against the plate.
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@Seismicisolation FIGURE 9
Field Welding of Bridges / 4.14-5
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@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 11
4.14-6 / Girder-Related Design
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@Seismicisolation
Shop weld-fabricated girders of variable depth provided important economies and
facilitated erection of Thompson's Bridge near Gainesville, Georgia.
SECTION 5.1
Beam-to-Column Connections
_(a)
_simple
_ _frame
_ _ _-+1 _A_IS_C_T_y_p_e
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@Seismicisolation
at this load. The length of the reduced section should
be about 1.2 times its width to allow the plate to yield
moments increase. Fully rigid connections for uniformly
loaded beams result in a center moment of M = Y:!4
5.1-1
5.1-2 / Welded-Connection Design
o o
Flexible connection
No restraint, R =0
Full rotation
o
rv- Full restraint, R = 100% --"v-
rotation
) No
R -- 100%
Fully Rigid Moment diagram
L.y-
R -- 75%
IF'r=============:::~4F=
Plastic Design Moment diagram
o
FIGURE 1
W L, and the end moment of M = ~~ 2 \V 1.. Thus, the be equal, or M = ~~ n W L. This would produce the
beam needs a section modulus just 7:1 of that required least requirement for section modulus, being !h of that
for a simply supported beam using flexible connections. -ieeded for the original simply supported beam. This
Advocates of semi-rigid connections point out that is true, but this ideal condition depends on two
the above redistribution of moment has been carried a requirements:
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little too far. They advise that if a semi-rigid connection
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is used instead, having an end restraint of R = 75%,
both the center moment and the end moments would
1. The supports to which the connection joins the
beam must be unyielding, i.e. absolutely rigid.
2. The beam must not be influenced by adjacent
Beam-to-Column Connections / 5.1-3
spans from which additional moments might be carried AISC allows semi-rigid connections only upon
over through the connection. evidence that they are capable of resisting definite
This condition of R = 75% restraint does produce moments without overstressing thc welds. Design of
the minimum section modulus for the uniformly loaded the members so connected shall be based on no greater
beam, but it does not offer any leeway or range of degree of end restraint than the minimum known to
connection rigidity. If the resulting connection should be effective.
be a little too rigid (anything over 75%), the end mo- This type of connection may necessitate some non-
ment increases above the allowable; if the connection elastic but self-limiting deformation, but under forces
is a little too flexible (anything below 75%), the center which do not overstress the weld (AISC Sec. 1.2).
moment increases above the allowable. To take care of
this, it is usually suggested that the beam be designed 4. RIGID CONNEC"1"I0NS (Elastic Design>
for an end restraint of R = 50% (center moment of
Yl2 W L), and the connection for a restraint of R = For fully rigid connections the actual moments must
75% (end moment of 'li o W L). This appears to be found by one of several methods, and the beams and
be good until it is remembered that this resulting design their connections designed for the proper moments and
moment of 'li 2 W L is no lower than if fully rigid shear forces. The connections must have sufficient rigid-
welded connections were used; so, there is no saving in ity to hold virtually unchanged the original angles
beam requirements by using the semi-rigid connections. between connecting members.
It could be argued that this semi-rigid connection The rigidity of a connection is also influenced by
results in a slight reduction in the amount of connecting the rigidity of its support. For beams framing into
weld. This might be true if the fully rigid connection column flanges, a decrease in rigidity will occur if the
used a top connecting plate (groove weld to the column column flanges are too thin, or if stiffeners are not used
and fillet weld to the beam), but would not be true between the column flanges in line with the beam
if the beam flanges for the rigid connection were flanges. For a single beam framing into a column web,
groove welded directly to the supporting column with- a decrease in rigidity may occur unless the beam flange
out the additional fillet welds. is also welded directly to the column flanges or attached
Although perhaps not intended, most structural with suitable connecting plates.
texts, and other literature on the subject, imply that
the engineer simply takes each span one at a time and 5. PLASTIC-DESIGN CONNECTIONS
designs the beam for an end restraint of R = 50% and
the connection for a restraint of R = 75%. It wouldn't The use of welded connections based on plastic design
be difficult to calculate the cross-sectional area and the has several advantages:
length of reduced section of the proper top connecting 1. A more accurate indication of the true carrying
plate for this semi-rigid connection to arrive at the capacity of the structure.
actual required restraint. 2. Requires less steel than conventional simple
Those who voice the apparent advantages of semi- beam construction. In many cases, there is a slight
rigid connections seldom discuss how to apply them to saving over conventional elastic design of rigid frames.
actual frames of several spans and stories and different 3. Requires less design time than does elastic
span loadings. design of rigid frames.
In frames using fully rigid, welded connections, 4. Tested by several years of research on full-scale
the resulting moments must be found. For example, if structures.
the moment distribution method is used, the end mo- 5. Backed by the AISC.
ments must be determined for each span, treating each So far, plastic design connections have been largely
as an isolated, fixed-end beam. A distribution factor is restricted to one-story structures, and to applications
required for each member so that the unbalanced mo- where fatigue or repeat loading is not a problem. See
ment at each joint may be properly distributed about separate Sect. 5.12 in this manual for a full discussion
the various members connecting at a given joint. Carry- of Welded Connections for Plastic Design.
over factors are needed to determine the amount of the
unbalanced moment to be carried over to the opposite 6. BEHAVIOR OF WELDED CONNECTIONS
end of the member.
For a frame using semi-rigid connections, all of One way to better understand the behavior of a
these factors (end moments, distribution factors, and beam-to-column connection under load, and its load-
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carry-over factors) will be affected by the connection's
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degree of rigidity. This would make the analysis more
complicated.
carrying capacity, is to plot it on a moment-rotation
chart; see Figure 2.
The vertical axis is the end moment of the beam,
5.1-4 / Welded-Connection Design
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
CQ> \ ~ Beam line at 1~ working load
E
o
E
'\
-0
c:
w
\
Beam line at working load
~
\ _-----0
\
\
FIGURE 2
which is applied to the connection. The horizontal axis completely restrained ((Jo = 0), in other words a
is the resulting rotation in radians. Basically this is fixed-end beam, and is equal to-
another type of stress-strain diagram. WL
Superimposed upon this is the beam diagram. The ( a) Me = ------rr-
equation expressing the resulting end moment (Me)
and end rotation ((Je), for a uniformly loaded beam Point b is the end rotation when the connection has
and any end restraint from complete rigid to simply no restraint (M,. = 0), in other words a simple beam,
supported, is: and is equal to-
WU
1 M e -_ _ 2EL ~!J__ WLI
12
(b) (Je =- 24 E 1
chart represents the addition of a safety factor, and is sect the beam line at 1% load relative to their crossing
usually 1.67 to 2 times that of the first which is based of the beam line at working load.
on the working load. The actual results of testing three top plate con-
The point at which the connection's curve inter- nections on an 18" WF 85# beam are shown in Figure
sects the beam line, gives the resulting end moment and 4. Two conditions are considered, as shown by the load
rotation under the given load. From this it is seen how diagrams, Figure 3.
the beam's behavior depends on its connection. Beam line a (in Figure 4) is based on a design
It is assumed, in this case, the beam is symmetri- moment of 1Js W L at centerline, i.e. simply supported.
cally loaded and the two end connections are the same. Beam line al is for a load Ph times that of the working
In this way both ends will react similarly. load.
Curve 1 represents a flexible connection. At a very Beam line b is based on a design moment of Yt2
low moment it safely yields (M 1 ) and allows the con- W L at the ends, i.e. fixed ends, and will support a 50%
nection to rotate (0 1 ) , This is typical of top angle greater load. Beam line b, is for a load 1% times that of
connections, web framing angles, and top plate connec- the working load. Both of these two beam lines stop at
tions small enough to yield. Notice, even with these R = 50%, because at this restraint the center of the
so-called flexible connections, some end moment does beam now has this moment of Yt 2 W L and a restraint
set up. lower than this would overstress the central portion
Curve 2 represents a semi-rigid connection. One of the beam.
type is the top connecting plate so detailed that under Top plate # 1 is a 'X 6" thick plate, 3" wide at the
working load it elastically yields sufficiently to provide reduced section, and has a cross-sectional area of
the necessary rotation of the connection, and yet has All = .94 in." It is widened to 6" at the butt-welded
sufficient resistance to develop the proper end moment. connection. This connection should reach yield at about
Although thick top angles have been suggested for
M = All a, db = (.94) (33,000) (18) = 558 in.-kip.
service as semi-rigid connections, they are impractical The actual value from the test is about M = 600 in.-kip.
to design and fabricate with the desired built-in Above this moment, the plate yields and due to strain
restraint. hardening will have increased resistance. The ultimate
Curve 3 represents a rigid connection, using a top moment should be about twice this yield value, or about
connecting plate detailed to develop the full end mo- M = 1200 in.-kip. The resulting restraint is about
ment. Since no elastic yielding is needed or desired, R = 34.5%, a little too high for the beam to be classed
the plate is made as short as practical. as simply supported.
All three of these connections have ample reserve
Top plate #2 has the same %6" thickness, but has
carrying capacity, as shown by where their curves inter-
a 6" width throughout its length. It has double the
cross-sectional area, All = 1.88 in. 2 As expected, it is
twice as rigid. It should reach yield at about M = 1110
Case a
M(. _ W L in.-kip. The actual is about M = 1000 in.-kip. The
- 8 18" 'IF 85#
restraint is about R= 58%. Notice if the beam had been
W== 139
fl-uuqUU ~ k
designed for a moment of "Yt2 W L, i.e. a restraint of
R = 100%, the connection's curve would have inter-
~-----15' sected the beam line b just short of the R = 50% value.
There would then be a slight overstress of the beam at
Simply supported beam
centerline.
designed for R == 0
Top plate #3 is 'l's" thick and 7W' wide, having
a cross-sectional area of All = 6.56 in. 2 This greater
area produces a more rigid connection with greater
Case b WL
M. == - 12 18" 'IF 85# restraint. The actual connection curve (solid) shows
slightly more flexibility than the calculated curve
~
(dotted). The extra flexibility probably comes from
some movement of the lower portion of the connection
which has just short parallel fillet welds joining the
lower flange of the beam to the seat. A butt weld
Fixed end beam
placed directly across the end of this lower flange to
designed for R == 100%
the column, undoubtedly would bring the rigidity of
FIGURE 3
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation the connection curve up almost to that of the calcu-
lated curve.
5.1-6 / Welded-Connection Design
F#.~~~~~~~~~'-"'-9
"LL67 WELD
6DOO
j"lf7 r 70P I-
AI' • 1#.5" IN a
\
\
\~
\
FIGURE 4
Figure 4 from: "Tests of Miscellaneous Welded Building Connections"; Johnston & Diets; AWS Welding
Journal Jan. 1942 and "Report of Tests of Welded Top Plate and Seat Building Connections"; Brandes &
Mains; AWS Welding Journal Mar. 1944
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@Seismicisolation
restraint would be only about R = 45%.
This shows the importance of proper stiffening.
type of Bange weld. The relative merits of three types
are discussed here.
Beam-to-Column Connections / 5.1-7
® IB"W" Itrw
FIGURE 5
Figure 5: From "Tests of Miscellaneous Welded Building Connections"; Johnston & Deits; AWS Welding
Journal, Jan. 1942
In Figure 6, the flanges are directly connected to The backing strip just below each of the flanges
the column by means of groove welds. This is the most allows the weld to be made within reasonable fit-up,
direct method of transferring forces and requires the as long as there is a proper root opening.
least amount of welding. There is little provision for over-run of the column
dimensions which may be as much as .± l/s". For
excessive over-run, the flanges of the beam may have
to be flame-cut back, in the field, in order to pro-
vide the minimum root opening. For under-run, the
. excessive root opening will increase the amount of
. welding required, but the joint is still possible.
It is usually more costly to cut the beam to exact
length; in addition there is the cost of beveling the
flanges. :Milling the beam to length is costly and not
recommended because the over-run or under-run of the
FIGURE 6
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation column having a tolerance of .± 118 " would reduce this
accuracy in fit-up.
5.1-8 / Welded-Connection Design
In Figure 7, a top connecting plate is shipped length. All of this field welding is done in the Rat
loose and, for proper fit-up, is put in place by the position.
weldor after the beam is erected. A greater tolerance In Figure 8, the lower Range is not groove welded
can be allowed in cutting the beam to length, and any directly to the column; instead, the bottom seat plate
method can be used (circular cutoff saw, Harne-cutting, is extended farther along the beam, and is fillet welded
to the beam Range. These welds are designed to transfer
the compressive force of the Range back into the col-
umn. All of the field welding is done in the Rat position.
. This connection requires a little more care in handling
and shipping so that these longer plates are not dam-
. aged. This also requires a little more weight of
connecting material.
A beam that is "compact" (AISC Sec. 2.6) permits
a 10% higher bending stress, <Tb = 0.66 <T).• However,
to take advantage of this higher bending allowable in
the connection, it is necessary that the web be welded
FIGURE 7
almost its full depth to the support. Thus, it might be
possible to stress the entire depth of the web to yield
etc.) without subsequent beveling of the Ranges. The
(<T y ) in bending to develop the plastic moment (M p ) ,
beams frequently are ordered from the steel supplier
(AISC Sec. 1.5.1.4.1). These same beams if continuous
cut shorter than required: %" ± If4". Sometimes beams
over supports or rigidly framed to columns, may be
are ordered still shorter, allowing a cutting tolerance
proportioned for 90% of the negative moment provided
of ± %". This greatly reduces the cost of cutting and
the maximum positive moment is increased by 10% of
preparation.
the average of the two negative moments (AISC Sec
This type of connection requires the extra connec-
1.5.1.4.1) .
ting plate, which must be cut to size and beveled. It
Check to see if stiffeners between the column
doubles the amount of field welding on the top Range.
Ranges are necessary. Recent research indicates web
It also can interfere with metal decks placed on top of
crippling is the deciding factor and if the column web
the beam. Occasionally, the top plate is shop welded to
has sufficient thickness, stiffeners are not required.
the top Range on one or both ends of the beam. This
If Range stiffeners are required, consider whether
decreases the amount of field welding but eliminates
they can be fillet welded to the column. Usually the
the fit-up advantage.
groove type of T joint is detailed, i.e. the stiffener has
The beam's bottom Range may be groove welded
a single 45° bevel all the way around three sides. If the
directly to the column if sufficient root spacing is ob-
fillet weld has a leg size of about % the stiffener thick-
tained, even though the edge of the Range is not bev-
ness, it will develop full plate strength. Both of these
eled. Although this is not an AWS Prequalified Joint,
joints would require about the same amount of weld
it is widely used, perhaps because the bottom Range
metal. The single bevel joint requires extra fitting, a
weld is in compression. One disadvantage is that the
lower welding current and smaller electrodes for the
beam length must be held accurately. As the beam
first few passes. The groove joint in this case is not very
Range increases in thickness, the required root spacing
accessible for the weldor and presents an additional
must increase. The bottom seat also serves as a backing
problem because it is difficult to get down in between
strip. Sometimes for additional strength, the Range is
the column Ranges to do this welding. On this basis,
fillet welded to this plate for a short distance along its
fillet welds would probably cost less and be' easier
to use.
Double bevel joints require about half as much
welding as the fillet welded joint; but unless the stiffen-
ers are extremely thick, perhaps above 1%", fillet welds
would still be the lowest in cost and trouble.
Consider the use of iron powder manual electrodes
or the semi-automatic submerged-arc process for Rat
welding in the field as well as in the shop.
Shear Transfer
FIGURE 8
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation The shear forces lie almost entirely within the web of
the beam and must be 1) transferred directly out to the
Beam-to-Column Connections / 5.1-9
In Fi gure 12, a shop-weld ed seat provides support This allows the b eam to slip easily into place during
for the dead load of th e beam . The beam is held in ere ction. On e type of Saxe clip is adjustable and allows
pl ace by mean s of erection bolts through th e bottom a movement of :;~ fi " as well as som e rotation.
flan ge. Consider th e use of welded studs on main members
In Figure 13, a shop-welde d plate on the column in place of erec tion bolts; this will eliminate th e punch-
provides temporary support for th e beam. Erection bolts ing of main members. These have already been ac-
cepted in th e building and bridge fields for use as shear
attachments, and an incr easing number of fabricating
shops have this equ ipment. See Figures 15, 16 and 17.
-
@
@ <
'--
Ir-"
FIGURE 13
FIGURE 14
@Seismicisolation
to th e und er sid e of th e b eam flang e and the seat is
@Seismicisolation
shop weld ed in th e proper position on th e column.
FIGURE 16
Beam-to-Column Connec tions / 5.1-11
J
------- -~
Between the time the beam is erected and the d esigned for welding. It is not sufficient to apply
joint welded, the columns are pulled into proper align- weld ing to a riveted or bolted design.
ment by cables. Careful layout in the fabricating shop Use rigid , continuous connections for a mor e effi -
and a positive location in the conn ection will facili- cient structure. This will reduce th e beam weight and
tate this. usually reduces the overall weight of th e complete
Any over-run or under-run of the column requires structure.
some adjustment of th e conn ection.. Otherwise the col- Use plastic design to reduce stee l weight below
limn would be pulled out of line in order to ge t the that of simple framing, and reduce the design tim e
beam in place and th e conn ection lin ed up. be low that of conventional elastic rigid d esign.
The greatest portion of welding on a connec tion
General shou ld be don e in th e shop and in th e flat po sition. As
m uch as possible, misc ellaneous plates used in connec-
Use the newer A36 steel for a 10% higher stress allow- tions, such as seat angles, stiffeners on columns, etc..
able and about 5 to 7% savings in steel at little addi- should be assembled, fitted , and welded in th e shop in
tional unit pr ice in steel. E70 we lds have 16% high er the Rat position.
allowable for fillet welds. The connection must offer proper accessibility for
Use a 10% higher allowable ben ding stress for welding, wh ether done in shop or field . This is espe-
"compact beams ", U" = .66 U"J' instead of .60 U"y, and cially tru e of b eams framing into th e webs of columns.
for negative mom ent region at supports use on ly 90% Prop er fit-up must b e obtained for b est weldin g.
of the moment ( AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1). Care must b e used in layout of th e conn ection , flame
Many connections provide a direct and effective cutting the beam to the proper length , preparation of
transfer of forces and yet ar e too costly in preparation, the joint, and erecting th e member to the proper posi-
fitting and welding. tion and alignment. Good workmanship , res ulting in
Maximum economy is ob tained when a joint is good fit-up pays off.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.1-12 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.2
1. BEHAVIOR UNDER LOAD the same slope as the loaded beam, the point of contact
moves back (2,c).
When designing a flexible seat angle, it is important to
understand how it is loaded, and how it reacts to its
load. See Figure 1.
I
- -
FIGURE 2
@Seismicisolation
bending moment on the seat, causing the leg of the
@Seismicisolation
angle to deflect downward. As the deflected leg takes
R vertical bearing reaction at end of beam, kips
5.2-1
5.2-2 / Welded-Connection Design
2. ALLOWABLE STRESS IN BEAM reaction is applied to the angle, so that the eccentricity
or moment arm (e) of the load may be known.
AISC (Sec. 1.10.10) specifies that the compressive stress
at the web toe of the fillet of a beam without bearing
stiffeners shall not exceed (T = .75 (T y psi. This stress
is located at distance K up from bottom face of flange.
N t
w
(. 7~ (T y ) - K[ ( 2)
See Figure 3.
Beam
a+~I . ·.. · . ·.. ·.. ·.. ·.. ···(3)
e = er - t - %" I (4)
Nomograph No.1 (Fig. 4) for A 36 steel will give
the value of er for flexible seats or e. for stiffened seats.
(Stiffened seat brackets are discussed further in the
following section.) Known values needed for use of
Column this nomograph are the end reaction (R) of the beam
FIGURE 3 in kips, the thickness of the beam web (tw ) , and the
distance from the bottom of the beam flange to the
top of the fillet (K), obtained from any steel hand-
book.
Step 2: Determine the required thickness of the
For end reactions, the following formula is given: angle (t) to provide sufficient bending resistance for
the given beam reaction (R).
R
not over .75 y psi
tw (N + K) (T 1M = Rei (5)
(AISC Sec 1.10.10) (1)
1M = (T SI (6)
A7, A373 A36 A441 or weldable A242
2
yield (O'y) 33,000 36,000 42,000 46,000 50,000
75% allawable 25,000 27,000 31,500 34,500 37,500
IS b: 1··························... (7)
From this we get-
This means that the web section (N K) may +
be stressed to (T = .75 (Ty psi. This plane lies at the (T b t2
Re=M=(TS= 6
top of the toe of the fillet of the beam web, or at
height K. This can be projected down at 45° to the
base of the beam flange to get the minimum bearing
length (N). It is assumed the bearing reaction (R) may
".I~ ~ :2[ (8)
be centered midway along this length (N).
Since the outstanding leg of the angle acts as a
3. SEAT ANGLE DIMENSIONS
beam with partially restrained ends, the AISC Manual
AISC (Steel Construction Manual), recommends the (1956, P 263) allows a bending stress of (T = 24,000
following method for finding the required size of the psi for A7 or A373 steel. For A36 steel, a value of (T =
seat angle. The point of critical bending moment in 26,000 psi will be used. This then becomes:
the angle leg is assumed to be at the tangent of the
fillet of the outstanding leg of the angle. This is approxi- A7 or A373 Steel A36 Steel
mately %" in from the inside face of the vertical leg,
R 4.0 t 2 H 4% t 2 . (9)
for most angles used as seat angles.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Step 1: Determine the point where the beam
lJ- -
er-t-% b er - t - %
FIGURE 4----Eccentricity of Load on Flexible or Stiffened Seats For A36 Steel
NOMOGRAPH NO. 1
110J--
I/O R
(KIPS) N
9"
100
if
FLEXIBLE PROBLEM: FINO THE ECCENTRICITY (es) TO BE USED FOR THE FOLLOWING STIFFENED SEAT
SEAT SEAT R: 58 KIPS (EN[) REACTION)
t w ' 'If, INCH (WE8 THICKNESS OF SUPPORTED BEAM) "
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
K' /% INCH (FROM PROPERTIES Of ROLLED BEAM JECTlON)
READ t:.s • 3.32. INCH (IF Ln • 4 INCH) «II
t
FIGURE 5---Thickness of Flexible Seat For A36 Steel E
NOMOGRAPH NO.2 <,
~
II)
ii:
----.. ~ JI II)
a.
n
o
~
e '---, ..
~
II)
n
o·
~
t
c
I-b-l R
KIPS
II)
fit
lAo
~
140
1i!0
100 '"
90
70
eo .. .... "' ..
"' "'
60 ","
JIIIOTH (Jf' .50 ",'"
JEAT ANGLE 4"0,,."" ,.,
b
3tz.
""
14"
////' 20
IZ"
10· ......
9,.
..S"
" .... 10
9
10
8
7
7" 6
5
~"
R 47.3 t Z
b=ef-t-%J"
PROBLEM: FINO THICKNESS OF FLEXIBLE JEAT FOR THe FOLLOWING CONDITIONS.
b' s: (LEG OF SEIIT AN6LE)
R • 30 KIP,s (END REACTION)
&f' 2.41' (ECCENTRICITY OF LO/lO)
READ t • r (THICKNESS OF FLEXIBLE SEAT)
r z" .3" 4"
A rtf
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Flexible Seat Angles / 5.2-5
To solve directly for (t), the formula #9 may be TABLE l-Values of Rib
put into the following form: For A36 Steel
~
THICKNESS OF SEAT ANGLE (I)
A7 or A373 Steel A36 Steel
%" "Kl' Ih" J<l' %" %" 'l'a" 1" IVa"
R R ..... (ll) 1.0 2.44 4.41 8.66 21.9
A = 4.0 b" A -- 4% b
1.1 1.74 2.88 4.81 8.44
1.2 1.35 2.13 3.34 5.21 8.45
Knowing the values of A and ef, the thickness of
1.3 1.10 1.70 2.54 3.78 5.63
the seat angle ( t) may be found from the above
formula. 1.4 .937 1.41 2.07 2.97 4.23 7.86
Nomograph No.2 (Fig. 5) for A36 steel makes use 1.5 .812 1.20 1.73 2.44 3.39 6.50
of formula #9 and will give values of seat angle 1.6 .717 1.05 1.49 2.07 2.82 5.14 9.48
-
thickness (t). The width of the seat angle (b) is known 1.7 .631 .934 1.31 1.80 2.42 4.24 7.37
since it is usually made to extend at least W' on each 1.8 .579 .840 1.17 1.59 2.11 3.62 6.04 10.20
side of the beam flange. A line is drawn from this
1.9 .530 .763 1.05 1.42 1.88 3.14 5.10 8.26
value of (b) through the value of (R) to the vertical
2.0 .487 .697 .964 1.29 1.69 2.78 4.44 6.93 10.96
axis A-A. The required thickness of the angle (t) is
found at the intersection of a horizontal line through 2.1 .451 .644 .883 1.17 1.54 2.50 3.90 5.98 9.15
A-A and a vertical line through the given value of 2.2 .420 .596 .818 1.08 1.41 2.28 3.47 5.26 7.83
(ef)' In case these lines intersect between two values 2.3 .393 .557 .761 1.01 1.30 2.08 3.16 4.68 6.85
of angle thickness, the larger value is used as the 2.4 .369 .521 .710 .936 1.21 1.92 2.88 4.22 6.09
answer.
2.5 .349 .490 .666 .877 1.13 1.78 2.65 3.85 5.47
Table 1 will give values of Rib in terms of seat
2.6 .329 .463 .628 .824 1.06 1.66 2.46 3.53 4.98
angle thickness (t) and eccentricity (ef)' Table 1 is
for A36 steel. 2.7 .312 .438 .593 .777 .996 1.55 2.30 3.27 4.57
Step 3: Determine the horizontal length of the 2.8 .297 .416 .562 .736 .940 1.45 2.14 3.04 4.21
seat angle leg (L h ) . This must be sufficient to permit 2.9 .284 .396 .536 .698 .891 1.37 2.02 2.84 3.91
easy erection and provide ample distance for the con- 3.0 .271 .379 .510 .663 .845 1.30 1.89 2.66 3.66
necting welds and erection bolts on the bottom flange
3.1 .486 .631 .806 1.23 1.80 2.52 3.42
of the beam. -
'This minimum length is: 3.2 .466 .604 .769 1.17 1.70 2.37 3.23
-
3.3 .446 .579 .736 1.12 1.62 2.25 3.04
IL h = a +N I (12) -
3.4 .428 .555 .705 1.07 1.55 2.14 2.88
-
3.5 .412 .533 .677 1.03 1.47 2.05 2.74
Step 4: Determine the vertical length (Lv) of the -
connecting fillet weld, for a given leg size of weld (w). 3.6
-
.650 .986 1.41 1.95 2.61
This will determine the required length of the seat 3.7 .628 .947 1.35 1.86 2.49
-
3.8 .604 .912 1.30 1.79 2.38
-
3.9 .584 .878 1,26 1.71 2.29
Hook W.ld Around -
,•. " 4.0 .564 .848 1.20 1.65 2.19
Seat Angle
TJ
Lv
r 1 NA
p
angle's vertical leg, being assumed equal.
I·
1 P
Tap
FIGURE 6 @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
also:
5.2-6 / Welded-Connection Design
~
f, = 2 Lv VERTICAL LEG LENGTH OF SEAT ANGLE (L.)
R - 19.2 L y2 R 22.4 L.2 2.2 19.5 26.2 33.6 50.4 70.0 90.6 112.8 135.2
- - - .... (14)
(d
V Lv' + 20.25 e,2 (d
V L.2 + 20.25 e,2 2.3 18.7 25.4 32.4 48.7 67.9 87.8 109.7 131.8
2.4 18.0 24.2 31.2 47.0 65.6 85.1 107.0 129.5
Since there are a limited number of rolled angles
2.5 17.3 23.2 30.0 45.5 63.6 82.8 104.2 126.0
available (for example, L = 9", 8", 7", 6", 5", 4", etc.)
2.6 16.7 22.4 28.9 44.1 61.5 80.5 101.5 122.5
it might be well to select a vertical leg length (L,') =
vertical weld length, and solve for the required leg 2.7 15.9 21.6 28.0 42.6 59.6 78.4 98.8 120.2
size of fillet weld (w). 2.8 15.5 21.0 27.1 41.4 58.0 76.4 96.2 116.7
Nomograph No.3 is based on formula #14 and 2.9 15.0 20.3 26.2 40.2 56.3 74.4 93.6 114.6
will give the required length of the vertical connecting 3.0 14.6 19.7 25.4 39.0 54.5 72.2 91.3 112.0
weld (L,) and its leg size (w) if the other values (R
3.1 14.2 19.1 24.7 37.9 53.1 70.6 89.2 109.2
and er) are known. (The weld length is assumed equal
3.2 13.8 18.5 24.0 37.0 51.8 68.8 87.2 107.7
to the seat's leg length.) Nomograph No.3 is for A36
steel and E70 welds. 3.3 13.3 18.1 23.3 35.9 50.6 67.1 85.2 104.3
Table 2 will give values of RIw in terms of vertical 3.4 13.1 17.6 22.6 35.0 49.3 65.3 82.2 102.2
leg length of the seat angle (Lv) and eccentricity (et). 3.5 12.6 17.1 22.0 34.1 47.9 63.8 81.4 100.0
Table 2 is for A36 steel, and E70 welds. 3.6 12.4 16.7 21.5 33.2 46.6 62.3 79.6 9&.0
4. APPLYING CONNECTING WELDS 3.7 12.0 16.2 21.0 32.3 45.6 60.7 77.8 95.7
3.8 11.7 15.8 20.4 31.5 44.6 59.5 76.3 93.8
The two vertical fillet welds should be "hooked" around 30.7 43.5 58.1 74:6 92.1
3.9 11.3 15.4 19.9
the top portion of the seat angle for a distance of about
4.0 11.1 14.9 19.4 30.0 41.3 56.9 72.8 90.4
twice the leg size of the fillet weld, or about lh", pro-
vided the width of column flange exceeds the width
of seat angle.
A horizontal fillet weld across the top of the seat angle.
angle would greatly increase its strength; however, it These seats may line up on opposite sides of a
might interfere with the end of the beam during erec- supporting web, either web of column or web of girder,
tion if the beam were too long or the column too deep if the leg size of the fillet weld is held to % of the web
in section. thickness when determining the length ( Lv) of the
When width of the seat angle exceeds the width weld. This will prevent the web within this length of
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
of the column flange, connecting fillet welds are placed
along the toes of the flange on the back side of the
connection from being stressed in shear in excess of a
value equivalent to % of the allowable tension.
FIGURE 7---leg Length of Flexible Seat and Weld Size For A36 Steel & E70 Welds
NOMOGRAPH NO. 3
B
PROBLEM: FIND LEG J/ZE OFFLEXIBLE SEIIT FDR THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS.
w .~. (WELD J/ZE" SINCE SEAT ANGLE THICKNESS 1$ 1cf INCH)
R • 30 KIPS (~ND REACT/ON)
Cf' 2.41· (ECCENTRICITY OF LOAD)
READ L' 6 INCH (lEN6TH OF SEAr AN6I.E'.S' VE.RTtCA/. LE6) R tU
-tF
._ ~I
t
R
~f"
"
~
fiLLET
140
:~g
I/O
kiPS
'
, 1;- I
I
WELD 'DO ,'1
SIZE i!JO "
w . 110 , ,
70
, ,,
"
1"
60
,,
~ SO
,,"
3" 4.0,'
,
4. ,,
, , JO
f , ,,
s,. ,,
, 20
,,
I
, ,,
;6
7"
, ,,
, "'"
,, /0 i'
"
f , ,, 8
ir
i'
.
G" .1" CIt
",. ~
s
II
~
:::I
4 la
i'
III
R U.4L:
w = JL:I-ZO.ZS~! I ~ ,I .......
@Seismicisolation
I
FIGURE 8
5. HORIZONTAL STABILITY greater than usually required under normal load con-
ditions.
A flexible top angle is usually used to give sufficient Notice in the following figure, that the greatest
horizontal stability to the beam. It is not assumed to movement or rotation occurs in the fillet weld connect-
carry any of the beam reaction. The most common is a ing the upper leg of the angle to the column. It is
4" x 4" x ¥4" angle, which will not restrain the beam important that this weld be made full size.
end from rotating under load. After the beam is erected, This test also indicated that a return of the fillet
this top angle is field welded only along its two toes. weld around the ends of the angle at the column equal
For beam flanges 4" and less in width, the top angle to about ¥4 of the leg length resulted in the greatest
is usually cut 4" long; for beam flanges over 4" in width, strength and movement before failure.
the angle is usually cut 6" long.
In straight tension tests of top connecting angles
at Lehigh University, the 4" x 4" x ¥4" angle pulled out
as much as 1.98" before failure, which is about 20 times
Column flange
Top
connecting angle
--------- FIGURE 10
'------
beam
Problem 1
FIGURE 9
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation beam, having an end reaction of R = 30 kips. Use A36
steel, E70 welds.
Flexible Seat Angles / 5.2-9
-.,,
,
--'
End return: Place top angle on
twice leg size side of web if it
of weld l. can't be above beam
-1,~f-o.:~~~
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 12
5.2-10 / Welded-Connection Design
weld, would select the 8" x 6" x 1" angle (b). He knows From Table 2, using tlt = 2,4"
that the cross-sectional area of a fillet weld, and there- a) If L, = 6", R/w = 65.2
fore its weight, varies as the square of the leg size. He or leg size of fillet weld,
figures the ratio of the leg sizes for (a) and for (b)
to be 8 to 5. This ratio squared produces 64 to 25, or w -- 65.2
30 -_ . 460" or use lh"
as far as he is concerned 2Ih times the amount of weld
metal. b) If r., 8", R/w = = 107.0
Alternate Method Using Tables or leg size of fillet weld,
From Table 1, R/b = 30/8 = 3.75. Using et = 2,4" 30
would give this value if t = 1". (Here R/b = 4.22) w 107.0 = .280 or use %6"
SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS set by AISC Specification, Sectiona 1.17.4 and 1.17.5, increaae the wuId size
or material thickness as required.
Welded-E60XX &E70XX electrodes No reduction of the tabulated weld capacities is required when un-
otifl'ened Beala line up on oppoeite sides of a oupporting web.
TABLE VIII If the reaction values of a beam are not abown on contract drawinp, the
connectiona ohall be selected to oupport half the total uniform load capacity
Top en"e, abown in the tabl... for Allowable Loads on Beams for the given ahape, opan
4' (min.)[ \4' mln.thk. and oteel opecificotion of the beam in question. '!be efI'ect of concentrated
~4" (optimum)
lh"nomln81- TABLE VIII·A Outstanding Leg Capacity, kips (based on OSL ~ 3~ or 4 inches)
setbllck ii!:~=J~---r ~":~I~,:~~urn
Angle thlekneas
(Teble VIII·A)
Angle lenlllh
r-----" I Weld lenlllh
~ro-_-oI~TebleVIII·B)
I A:::~:~:'~,I ~211:'0 EC:~611:'411:'41 1~311~:~4
\4 9.0 12.4
1
n:r
:'2
15.8 19.1 22.5 25.3 10.1 13.8 17.6
1
11:'4
Ii411
25.0 25.3
(Teble VIII;A) Beom ~,11.3 15.9 19.8 23.7 27.6 31:6113.1 17.4 21.7 26.0130.4 34.0 I
Seated connections are to be used only when the beam is supported by a I ~~~kn...
I
~ 12.4
II, 13.4
19.3
21.1
24.3 28.7 33.2 11IT 114.3
1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.3
R
1 - - - - e, - - - - I 1 - - - - - e, - - - - I
FIGURE 1
1--°1
I
----+-----
I
I
I
I
R I
F=--
sin <I> I
I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.3-1
VI
~
a::fD
Q.
C I
VALUES OF fZ.s I n
o
R ~
~
I KIPS
"- fD
35"
·3.4"
/ -,
-, . t
...
n
0"
R / -- 140
33' / -, ~ ~
3.Z" -, 120 ~ C
/ -,
i :
/-
r- fD
-3.1" / -, too
B ~'. Ie
G"
3.0· / -, 90 ~
~
-, /"
2.'" ~~Ql~~~
Jt
4,' 4" -, 80 ~ II ... II ~
z.~· ~lnlo .. Q1~
-, 70 1" ... Ql~in .~
2.7" -, 8 .~ •• ;it
60 ~~
l!' ~
~
2.'" -, ~':'\
- SO "'';P ~
r-- J - / I II I ':l::t:j
2.5"1
* -, V.
;:!
40 -, ~~
;::l:a:; ~
~jf~-
/ -, ~
90' "''''
~~
3zr·L'J ~
-,
I
-, ~~
~~h~
.3 70' ~ ........
v.
3.( / 30 -, ~
""I
/ ~O· -, ~
3.0· 2.Z· i"\ ~
/ ~
/
-, ," ~
LJ, oS"~ Z.,· -, ~ ~
3.7· /
/ so'
20 ....
Vi
"'
~
2.~"-L. 3.'" / 45- ....
r-
/
~
2.7" 3.5· Lh" " / ~
CI\
I
4.Z" .14" ""
/ ~
4,'" 3.3· I ~
I ;!
4,0"
3.2· / 10 ~
L".7'·~ U" ~.,..
t -[ IOls-ZLIl] R 9
!oil
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation C
Stiffened Seat Brackeh / 5.3-3
~
FIGURE 4
AISC Manual, page 4-39 recommends for A36
bracket material that the bracket web's thickness be at
least equal to 1.33 times the required fillet weld size
Thus it can be shown that:
(E70 welds). Also it should not be less than the sup-
ported beam web thickness for A7, A373 and A36
neutral axis of connecting weld
beams, and not less than 1.4 times the beam web thick. Lv
ness for A242 and A441 beams. x = 2.4
For stiffened seats in line on opposite sides of the
(Lv).
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
column web, the fillet weld size should not exceed %
s,
the column web thickness when determining its length
section modulus of connecting weld
(top)
= 0.6 L v 2
FIGURE 5---Length of Stiffener and Size of Weld for Stiffened Seat
For A36 Steel & E70 Welds
r'"
<,
NOMOGRAPH NO. 5
~
ii:
ell
ICl.
n
FILL£T II
b
.ZL~
~~
t2Lv R
L'30"
L.'ze"
L.'z~"
I-'Z."
L'll"
o
:::II
.
:::II
ell
n
0'
:::II
~
wao L'~O" Ii'
:::II
SIZe CU REACTION L.' 18"
R KIPS L'Ir;;"
r
7"
j
,"
If
lOa
I!C
16e
140
l" IZO
~
100 _-
I" so
-90 _-_ ... - -
l
z: 70 ---
g"
16
--- --' "'0
60--
r:" -- - -- ----
40
.30
16
I"
t zo
10
8
1&
R _ 26.~8 L:
W - /Ll+16 fll
v S
58 kips
Bracket Width A7, A373 Steel & E60 Welds A36 Steel & E70 Welds
b= 0.4 t, w =
R
2 V L2v + 16.00 e'. W = __R_..J
26.88
L2 + 16.00 + e •
2
23.04 Lv v
b = 0.5 t, w =
R
24.00 L2v
V L2v + 14.06 e 2• w = _R_
28.00
V L2v + 14.06 + e a•
b = 0.6 Lv w =
R
24.96 2
Lv
J r, + 12.57 e 2• w = _R_
29.12
V L2v + 12.57 + e'.
b = 0.7 Lv w =
R
25.92 L2v
J 2
Lv + 11.37 e 2• w = _R_J
30.24
L2
v
+ 11.37 + e 2•
b = 0.8 t, w =
R
2 ..J L2v + 10.44 e 2• R
w= 31.36 V Lv2 + 10.44 + e 2•
26.88 Lv
b = 0.9 t, w =
R
27.84 L2v
J 2
Lv + 9.65 e 2• w = _R_
32.48
V L2v + 9.65 + 2
e •
b = 1.0 r,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
28.8~ J +
w = + L2v L
2
v 9.00 e 2• w = _R_J
33.60
L2
v
9.00 + e 2•
5.3-6 / Welded-Connection Design
.. R=58 kips
R= 58 kips
/ N
t-
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Stiffened Seat Brackets / 5.3-7
STIFFENED SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS Baaed on ASTM A36 bracket material. !!!in.i!IIwu~..J>Iak.thickneaa..l.
ahall-;'ot beJe;;th~i.he8upported beam web thickn... for ASTM A7, A373 and
Welded-E60XX or E70XX electrodes A36 beams, and not 1... than 1.4 times the beam web thickn... for ASTM A242 and
TABU x A441 beama. Baaed on ASTM A242 or A441 bracket material. I ahall not be I...
than the beam web thickn.... regardl... of beam material. Minimum .tiffener
plate thickn , I, ahall be at leaat 1.33 times the required weld size.
Thickn I, of the horizontal _ t plate. or flange of tee. shall not be I... than
Top angle. 1f4" min. thk,
the thickn of the stiffener.
%"nominal
:::J/ Optionallocation,top angle If seat and stiffener are separate plates, fit stiffener to bear against seat.
h--f (weldtoes) Welda connecting the two plates ahall have a strength equal to or greater than u.s
r-t y2'
selbaCk~ --,
-.IN ~(OPtimUm) horizontal welda to the aupport under the aeat plate.
'I. "2Im,n.) I--'-'--- Welda attaching beam to aeat may be replaced by bolta or rivets, providing the
V t weld size (min.)
limitationa on the use of ASTM A307 bolts, stipulated in AISC Specification. Sect.
Optional~
~ r+- 1.15.12, are observed.
For stiffened seats in line on opposite sides of a column web. select a weld
size no greater than % of the column web thickness.
Should combinationa of material thickn... and weld size aelected from Table
trim lines
X. or ahown in the sketch above. exceed the limita aet by AISC Specification. Sect.
I' 1.17.4 and 1.17.5. increase the weld size or material thickn... aa required.
-Jlt In addition to the welda shown. temporary erection bolta may be used to at-
~ tach beama to aeata (optional).
Seated connectiona are to be used only when the beam ia aupported by a top
angle placed as sketched above, or in the optional location, 88 indicated..
Allowable leeds in Table X are based on the use of E60XX electrodes. For If the reaction values of a beam are not shown on contract drawings, the con-
E70XX electrodes. multiply tabular loada by 1.16. or enter the table with 86% nectiona shall be aelected to aupport half the total uniform load capacity tabulated
of the given reaction. Note: Advantage may be taken of the higher allowable unit in the beam load tables for the given shape, apan and steel apecificatfon of the beam
etreee of E70XX electrodes only if both bracket and aupporting members are in question. The effect of concentrated. loads near an end connection shall also be
ASTM A36. A242 or A441 material. conaidered.
11 41.3 51.61 61.9 72.2 44.9 53.8 62.8 71.8! 39.4 47.2 55.1 63.0 16 67.0 80.3 93.7 107. 61.1 73.3 97.7 122. 112.
I 89.5
12 47.3 59.1 70.9 82.7 51.9 62.2 72.6 83.0' 45.8 55.0 64.1 73.3 17 74.0 88.8 104. 118. 67.7 81.2 108. 135. 74.6 99.5 124.
13 66.7 80.0 93.4 59.0 70.8 82.6 94.4 52.5 63.0 73.5 84.0 18 81.2 97.4 114. 130. 74.6 89.5 119. 149. 82.4 110. 137.
14 I 74.4 89.3 104. 66.4 79.7 93.0 106. 59.4 71.3 83.2 95.0 19 88.5 106. 124. 142. 81.6 97.9 130. 163. 75.4 I 90.4 121. 151.
15 82.2 98.6 115. 73.9 88.6 103. 118. 66.5 79.8 93.1 106. 20 95.9 115. 134. 153. 88.7 106. 142. 177. 82.2 I 98.6 131. 164.
t
16 90.0 108. 126. 81.5 ~7.7 114. 130. 73.8 88.5 103. 118. 21 103. 124. 145. 165. 95.9 115. 153. 192 89.1 107. 143. 178.
17 97.8 117. 137. 89.2 107. 125. 143. 81.2 97.4 114. 130. 22 111. 133. 155. 178. 103. 124. 165. 1
207.. 96.2 115. 154. 192.
18 106. m.1
148. 96.9 116. 136. 155. 88.7 106. 124. 142. 23 119. 142. 166. 190. 111. 133. 177. I 221. 103. 124. 165. 207.
19 113. , 136. 159. 105. 126. 147. 167. 96.2 115. 135. 154. 24 126. 152. 177. 202. 118. 142. 189. 236. 111. 133. 177. 221.
20 121. 146. 170. 112. 135. 157. 180. 104. 125. 145. 166. 25 134. 161. 188. 214. 126. lSI. 201. 252. 118. 142. 189. 236.
21 129. 155. 181. 120. 144. 168. 192. 112. 134. 156. 179. 26 142. 170. 199. 227. 133. 160. 213. 267. 125. 151. 201. 251.
22 137. 164. 192. 128. 154 179. 205. 119. I 143. 167. 191. 27 150. 180. 209. 239. 141. 169. 226. 160. 213. 266.
23 145. 174. 203. 136. 1
163.. 190. 218. 127. 153. 178. 203. 28 157. 189. 220. 252. 149. 179. 238. W·I133.
298.141.
1
169. 225. 281.
24 152. 183. m 144. 173. 201. 230. 1l5. 162. 189. 216. 29 165. 198. 231. 264. 157. 188. 250. 313. 148. 178. 237. 296.
25 160. 192. 224. 152. 182. 212. 243. 143. 171. 200. 228. 30 173. 208. 242. 277. 164. 197. 263 329. 156. 187. 249. 312.
1 .
26 168. 202. 235. 159. 191. 223. 255. lSI. 181. 211. 241. 31 181. 217 253. 289. 172. 207. 275. 344. 1164. 196. 262. 327.
27 176. 211. 1 246. 167. 201. 234. 268. 158. 190. 222. 254. 32 189. 1
227.. 264. 1 302. 180. 216. I 288. 360. 171. 206. 274. 343.
Note 1: Loads shown above apply to welds rT'Iede with E60XX electrodes. Few E70XX electrodes, Note 1: Loads shown above apply to welds mad. With E6QXX el.ctrod... Few E70XX electrode.,
multlply tebular loads by 1.16, or enter the 'eble with 86'A) of the IIlyen re.ction. Increased multiply tabular loads by 1.16, ew en~er the table with 86'A) of the &lven reectlon. Incnla.ed
yalues are applicable only when E70XX electrodes ara used with A,STM A,36. "242 or A,441 y.h.... are appUcable only when E70XX electrodes are u.ed wtth A,STM AJ6. 11.242 or A,441
m.terlal. matertal.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.3-8 / Welded-Connection Design
Extensive use of modern structural techniques and welding processes speeded erection
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
of Detroit Bank & Trust Co. Building . Stiffened seat bracket can be seen at upper left.
Angle clip to facilitate field splicing of column lengths shows immediately above.
SECTION 5.4
- If- t'j
not to exceed lh leg of
angle, usually ~" ...,
R
1I9l"
t
r '1o/
C"7.1..
t
1/ 1/6 L,
2
1 Lv
2/3 Lv
T)
5/9 L,
1/ ~
p
~fh-1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 1
'"
FIGURE 2-Framing Angles and Size of Field Welds
For A36 Steel & E70 Welds
t
<,
NOMOGRAPH NO.6
~
ID
D:
ID
Do
FIELD R n
WELD rLh1 ,f o
:::lI
..
:::lI
ID
fD~ 1
n
L=.]o
o·:::lI
LO c 8
1..:<4-
.. C
ID
III
l..·cc ~.
:::lI
JIZE OF REf!CTIOiY '-=cO
r W
<00
1;
B ,eo
".0
:1/
~4
'40
,,0
100
~~ '0
sa
70~ .... -
Yz 60
- --
so
J;.,
.- --- -
40
~
.~ . - .10
//6
-t-i!0
}:.
f.
:f
'0
R l2.4 L~
W .; L ~ of- /1.96 LI/
PROBlEM: FI/vO THE LENGTH(L v) OF THE FR/m/tf6 AI'IGLE UNDER TilE FOLlOWlfiG COt/PIT/MS.
W =7;'~" (SIZE OFflEt.O W£LO)
R :58 i(IP5 (EN/) R£IlCTlON)
Ln = 3" (LEG SIZE OF ANGLE)
REIID L y: 12' (l.ENGTH OFliNGLE)
z"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation eI
21" J" .J{ 4"
Ln
5" G" 7"
(LEG SIZE OF /INGLE)
B"
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-3
R
2L v leg of Ang Ie (lh)
( ~_R~ll ) ~+ (~)2
---- -
6" 84 64 51 41 35 30 27
5 r., 2L v
7" 108 84 67 55 47 41 36
or:
-'
. 8"
9"
131
156
105
127
85
105
71
88
61
76
53
66
47
59
R 19.2 L v2 R- 22.4 Li . (2) 26" 560 536 505 476 443 413 3B4
- -- - ---
w
~Lv2 + 12.96 L2
II
Cd
~Lv2 + 12.96 L l2 28"
30"
607
654
583
630
547
603
523
571
491
540
461
509
425
480
1
leg size (w) of the field weld on this axis.
Table 1, for A36 steel and E70 welds, gives values >
overstressed in shear.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
For a single pair of framing angles on just one
side of the supporting web, assume the leg size of the FIGURE 3
5.4-4 / Welded-Connection Design
In Figure 3, analysis of the shop weld shows- resultant force on outer end of connecting weld
1Y
n
2b + L, /
I
/
/f
If"f("'09'h of weld /
/ r
~@
/
/
/
(2b + Lv)3 • /
/
12
FIGURE 4
twisting (horizontal)
- T c,. _ R (Lb - n) Cv
fb - T - 2 Jw . (3 )
leg size of fillet weld
twisting (vertical)
shear (vertical)
f V2 = R/2
2b +L (5)
en = 9600
fr
en =
f,
11,200
(7)
v
Unfortunately there is no way to simplify these
A7
Steel A36 A242, A441
A373
Then: Maximum leg size of fillet weld to use in calculating vertical length
leg size
w
Web thickness (t w ) over -
U6"
¥a" @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
.844
.937
.868
.964
.741
.824
.681
.756
.630
.700
FIGURE 5---Size of Shop Weld of Framing Angles
For A36 Steel & E70 Welds
NOMOGRAPH NO. 7
F
L-30"
LEG 5/ZE OF MIN, WEB THICKNES.s
L 'ur
TO HOLD .sHEil/? STRESS f----
fILLET WELD CV
-, BELOW 14J500 f'.51 L'Z""
/ SHOP WELD
L'Z4'
r /~ L'Zl"
3 "
7 • --/~ L 'ZO'
'& I"
--/~ R
KIPS 1.'18"
~.-[--/~" L 'If,"
~.
r :lee
Ito: L'14"
.9
--~
7"
tee
~.
14C
.8 .. L'lr
~.
-'% IN
""
.7 ICC "
""
Jri 5 ..
30
"" ,-10"
- 1"8
""
80
-.6
s.: 7:J/" " L-9"
~ --~i' -fO
.5-:Z. I.-~"
S·
~
"" 50
~
"
""
t1)
-" 40 c-r: IT
~. ~/>"3-&"
4 .> "
30 L'~"
..
."
a
3
:::I
Ia
-~~6' 20 1..'5"
~
:::I
PIlO8LEM: FINO JIZE Of SHOP WELD fOR THE FOLLOWING FRAME ANGLE.
L.. • 3" (LEG SIZE OF ANGLE)
L'~"
- Ia
if
L • ie: (LENGTH OF ANGLE) c I ........
R • 58 KIPS (END REACTION) 2 1" J. Ji"
READ"'" Y.$. (SIZE OF SHOP WELO)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
2
Ln • LEG SIZE OF ANGLE
4"
t
VI
5.4-6 I Welded-Connection Design
== t -
I
Wmcll. = t
I I Wm o x 1/
16"
l
I I
Wmcll. == t
I
----.i / 16 "
FIGURE 6
formulas into one workable formula. It is necessary to equal to or exceeds this value found just opposite the
work out each step until the final result is obtained. resulting leg size of the weld.
The leg size of this shop weld may be determined Some engineers feel this limiting shear value (A36
quickly by means of Nomograph No. 7 (Fig. 5), for steel, T = 14,500 psi) is to insure that the web of the
A36 steel and E70 welds. In the chart on the right-hand beam does not buckle, and that a higher allowable
side, from the point of intersection of the angle's hori- value might be used here, perhaps 3/4 of the allowable
zontal leg length (L h ) and its vertical length (Lv) tensile strength. In this case the maximum leg size of
draw a horizontal line to the vertical axis F-F. From the weld would be held to 3/4 of the web thickness.
this point, draw a line through the reaction (R) to the
left-hand axis. Read the leg size (w) of the shop weld
along the left-hand scale of this axis.
Iw = 3/4 tw I (9)
If the nomograph is used from left to right to AISC (Sec 1.17.5) specifies the maximum leg size
establish an angle size, be sure that the leg size of the of fillet weld relative to angle plate thickness to be as
fillet weld does not exceed a value which would over- shown in Figure 6.
stress the web of the beam in shear (AISC Sec 1.17.5) Table 3 will give values of R/w in terms of leg size
by producing too short a length of connecting weld (Lv). of angle (L h ) and length of angle (Lv). Table 3 is for
The following limits apply to the fillet weld leg direct use with A36 steel, and E70 welds.
size (w) relative to the thickness of the beam web (as
used in calculating the vertical length of connecting
weld) : TABLE 3-Values of R/w
A7, A373 Steel and E60 Weld
For Shop Weld of Framing Angle To Beam Web
For A36 Steel & E70 Welds
(T 13,000 psi) (fw = 9600 w lbsyin.) R Reaction, kips
'0 Leg size of fillet weld
13,~0 < 676 w 2/;
w < tw 2 X 9600 =' t or < 3 tw Leg of Angle (Lh)
294.4
Cl
<: 16" 347.0 345.2 343.0 340.5
However, the actual leg size of the fillet weld used E __...
-
-
~
-
_
.
may exceed this value. .g 18" 395.0 393.0 390.7 389.0
Table 2 reflects the limiting value of w = % two '0 20" 443.0 439.0 436.5 434.5
.s:
AISC holds to this limit for shop weld of the angle to 0,
<:
22" 490.5 487.0 484.0 481.5
----- -- - - -
the beam (AISC Manual, pages 4-25). .3 24" 537.0 535.5 533.5 530.0
Notice the left-hand axis of Nomograph No.7 also
26" 586.0 583.5 580.5 576.7
gives the minimum web thickness of the beam in order
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
to hold its shear stress (T) within 14,500 psi. Just be
sure the actual web thickness of the supported beam is
28"
30"
635.0
681.0
631.0
680.0
~ _
628.5
.. _ - - 1 - - - -
676.5
625.0
673.5
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-7
As indicated by Figure 3 and the related weld Shop Weld 01 Framing Angle to Beam Web
analysis, the fillet welds connecting angle to beam web
Nomograph No.7 shows that for a reaction (R) of
should be hooked around the ends of the angle, top
58 kips, an angle leg (L h ) of 3" and length (Lv) of
and bottom, for the distance (b) to the end of the
12", a %" fillet weld (w) would be required. Hence
beam web. They should not be continued around the
use 3"· X 3" X %" framing angles, 12" long, %G" field
end of the web, Figure 7.
weld to column and %" shop weld to beam web.
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 7
Table 4 gives the AISC allowable loads (kips) on
web framing angle connections, using A36, A242 and
I Problem 1 I A441 steels and £70 welds. The table gives the capacity
and size of (Shop) Weld A connecting the framing
To design a web framing angle connection to
angle to the beam web, and of (Field) Weld B con-
support a 20" 85# I beam, having an end reaction of
necting the framing angle to the beam support.
R = 58 kips. Use A36 steel and £70 welds.
See Figure 8.
I Problem 2 I
Field Weld 01 Framing Angle to Column To select a web framing angle connection for a
Nomograph No.6 shows that for a %" fillet weld 16" B 26# beam (0.25" web thickness and T 14") of =
( w ), a reaction (R) of 58 kips and an angle with a A441 steel, with end reaction of R = 35 kips. Use £70
leg (L h ) of 3", its length (L,) should be lOW'. How- welds. Allowable shear is 20 ksi.
ever, for a %(;" fillet weld (w) the angle length (Lv) This beam would take an angle with length L, =
would only have to be increased to 12". 10" or 12". In Table 4, the (Shop) Weld A capacity
T
lOD
Field weld)
to support
to beam
RT
('
Shop weld
tw = .653" d = 20"
1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 8
5.4-8 / Welded-Connection Design
W"dA~ TABLE V
Weld A,'
TABLE VI
195 ~/16 210 % 32 4X3X 7/ 16 .41 .32 .30 227 5/10 245 % 32 4X3X'l'16 .48 .38 .35
156 'A 175 %, 32 4X3X% .33 .26 .24 182 'A 204 5/16 32 4X3X% .39 .30 .28
117 0/" 140 'A 32 4X3X%6 .25 .19 .18 136 %6 163 'A 32 4X3Xo/16 .29 .23 .21
182 o/Hi 195 % 30 4x3X'l'16 .41 .32 .30 212 VI6 227 % 30 4x3X'l'16 .48 .38 .35
146 'A 162 ~/Hi 30 4X3X% .33 .26 .24 170 'A 189 5/16 30 4X3X¥a .39 .30 .28
109 0/" 130 'A 30 4x3xYl6 .25 .19 .18 127 :>;16 151 % 30 4X3X 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
169 0/16 179 % 28 4x3x?ll6 .41 .32 .30 197 5/]6 209 % 28 4x3x 11 16 .48 .38 .35
135 'A 149 S/16 28 4x3x% .33 .26 .24 158 'A 174 0/16 28 4x3x¥a .39 .30 .28
101 %6 120 'A 28 4x3x1'i6 .25 .19 .18 118 3/16 139 'A 28 4x3X 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
156 0/" 164 % 26 4X3x?!16 .41 .32 .30 182 5/16 191 % 26 4X3x'l'16 .48 .38 .35
125 'A 136 !lf16 26 4X3X¥S .33 .26 .24 146 'A 159 0/10 26 4x3x% .39 .30 .28
93.8 0/" 109 'A 26 4x3xo/i6 .25 .19 .18 109 3/16 127 'A 26 4x3X 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
143 5/16 148 'h 24 4x3x?ll6 .41 .32 .30 167 5/16 173 'Is 24 4x3x 1/ 16 .48 .38 .35
115 'A 124 5/16 24 4X3X¥S .33 .26 .24 134 'A 144 V16 24 4x3x¥a .39 .30 .28
86.1 h, 98.8 'A 24 4X3Xo/l6 .25 .19 .18 100 :>;16 115 'A 24 4x3x 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
131 5/16 133 % 22 4x3X'l'16 .41 .32 .30 152 5/lti 155 % 22 4X3X 1/]6 .48 .38 .35
104 'A 110 5/16 22 4X3X% .33 .26 .24 122 'A 129 5/10 22 4x3x% .39 .30 .28
78.4 0/" 88.4 % 22 4x3X'YHi .25 .19 .18 91.4 3/16 103 'A 22 4X3x 5/Hi .29 .23 .21
118 0/16 117 % 20 4x3x'l'16 .41 .32 .30 137 5/16 136 % 20 4X3X 1/ 16 .48 .38 .35
94.2 'A 97.4 0/115 20 4X3X% .33 .26 .24 110 'A 114 5/10 20 4x3x% .39 .30 .28
70.7 0/" 77.9 'A 20 4X3X'Y16 .25 .19 .18 82.4 '/16 90.9 'A 20 4X3x 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
105 0/16 101 % 18 4X3x 7/ 16 .41 .32 .30 122 5/16 118 % 18 4X3X 1116 .48 .38 .35
84.0 'A 84.4 0/115 18 4X3X% .33 .26 .24 98.0 'A 98.4 Sjlo 18 4x3x% .39 .30 .28
63.0 0/" 67.5 'A 18 4X3XO/16 .25 .19 .18 73.5 :'/16 78.7 'A 18 4X3x"'llti .29 .23 .21
92.2 0/16 95.5 % 16 3X3X'l'16 .41 .32 .30 108 5/16 III % 16 3x3x 7/ 16 .48 .38 .35
73.8 'A 79.6 Silt; 16 3X3X% .33 .26 .24 86.1 'A 92.9 5/16 16 3X3X% .39 .30 .28
55.3 0/" 63.6 'A 16 3X3Xo/16 .25 .19 .18 64.6 /16 74.3 'A 16 3x3x'V16 .29 .23 .21
79.6 0/16 79.8 % 14 3x3x 7/ 16 .41 .32 .3Q 92.9 ~/1I5 93.1 % 14 3x3x 7/ 16 .48 .38 .35
63.6 'A 66.5 0/16 14 3x3x% .33 .26 .24 74.3 'A 77.6 5/16 14 3X3X% .39 .30 .28
47.7 0/" 53.2 % 14 3x3Xo/Hi .25 .19 .18 55.7 :>;16 62.1 'A 14 3X3X 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
I
67.1 0/16 64.2 % 12 3X3x 7/ 16 .41 .32 .30 78.3 Vlo 74.9 % 12 3X3X 11 16 .48 .38 .35
53.7 % 53.5 0/1(; 12 3X3X% .33 .26 .24 62.6 'A 62.5 5/16 I 12 3X3x% .39 .30 .28
40.3 42.8 % 12 3X3Xo/Hi .25 .19 .18 , 12 3X3XVI6 .29 .23 .21
:V16 47.0 0/10 50.0 'A
54.9 5/ 16 48.9 % 10 3X3x'iib .41 .32 .30 64.0 0/16 57.1 ji, 10 3x3X'l'16 .48 .38 .35
43.9 'A 40.8 0/" 10 3X3X% .33 .26 .24 51.2 'A 47.6 0/16 10 3x3x% .39 .30 .28
32.9 0/" 32.6 % 10 3X3xo/16 .25 .19 .18 38.4 '/Io 38.0 'A 10 3X3X'V16 .29 .23 .21
48.9 5/H; 41.5 % 9 3X3X'l'16 .41 .32 .30 57.1 5/16 48.4 % 9 3x3x 7/ 16 .48 .38 .35
39.1 'A 34.6 0/16 9 3X3X% .33 .26 .24 45.6 'A 40.4 5/16 9 3X3X% .39 .30 .28
29.3 0/" 27.6 'A 9 3X3X'Y16 .25 .19 .18 34.2 116 32.3 'A 9 3X3xV16 .29 .23 .21
43.0 1'i6 34.3 % 8 3x3X'l'Hi .41 .32 .30 50.2 %, 40.0 % 8 3x3x 7/ 16 .48 .38 .35
34.4 'A 28.6 0/16 8 3x3x¥a .33 .26 .24 40.1 'A 33.4 5/16 8 3x3x% .39 .30 .28
25.8 y" 22.8 'A 8 3X3xo/I6 .25 .19 .18 30.1 3/16 26.7 'A 8 3x3x 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
37.3 0/16 27.4 % 7 3X3X~'i6 .41 .32 .30 43.5 5/16 32.0 % 7 3x3x'l'16 .48 .38 .35
29.8 'A 22.9 !l/16 7 3X3X% .33 .26 .24 34.8 'A 26.7 5/16 7 3x3x J/a .39 .30 .28
22,4 0/" 18.3 'A 7 3X3Xo/I6 .25 .19 .18 26.1 3116 21.3 'A 7 3x3x 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
31.7 0/16 21.0 'Is 6 3x3X'l'16 .41 .32 .30 37.0 5/16 24.5 ¥, 6 3x3x 7/16 .48 .38 .35
25.3 'A 17.5 ~'16 6 3X3X% .33 .26 .24 29.6 'A 20.4 V16 6 3X3x% .39 .30 .28
19.0 h, 14.0 'A 6 3x3xo/16 .25 .19 .18 22.2 3116 16.3 'A 6 3x3x 5/ 16 .29 .23 .21
26.3 0/16 15.1 % 5 3X3X'l'16 .41 .32 .30 30.7 5/16 17.6 % 5 3X3X~/115 .48 .38 .35
21.0 'A 12.6 0/16 5 3x3X¥a .33 .26 .24 24.5 % 14.7 5/16 5 3x3xYa .39 .30 .28
15.8 0/16 10.1 'A 5 3x3x 5/ 16 .25 .19 .18 18.4 3/]6 11.8 'A 5 3x3X 5/16 .29 .23 .21
21.1 5/16 10.0 % 4 3X3X 1/ 16 .41 .32 .30 24.6 5/16 11.6 % 4 3X3x 7/ 16 .48 .38 .35
16.9 'A 8.4 5/16 4 3X3X% .33 .26 .24 19.7 'A 9.7 0/16 4 3X3X% .39 .30 .28
12.7 0/" 6.7 'A 4 3X3xo/I6 .25 .19 .18 14.8 YI6 7.8 'A 4 3x3X116 .29 .23 .21
UWhen a beam web IS less than the rn.ntmom. mulfiply the connection capacity furnished by "When a beam web is less than the rnrrurnu ni, multiply the connection capacity furnished by
welds A by the rauc of the actual ttucknes s to the tabulated minimum ttnckne s s. Thus, It welds A by t he ratio of the actual ttuc koess (0 the tebutatec minimum thrc s ne ss Thus. if
~/Ifi~ weld A, wtth a connection capacity of 54.9 kips and a 10" long angle, is being considered ~(16" weld A, with a connection capacity0150.2 kips and an 8"long angle, is being con stder e d
for a beam 01 web thickness .270", ASTM Al6, the connection capacity must be multiplied for a beam of web thickness lOS". ASrM A36, the conneclton capacity ruu st be multiplied by
by .270/.41, giving 36.l kips. .305/.48, grvmg 31.9 kips.
~When beam material is ASTM A7 or AlB. wllh F r .. 13.0 ksi, minimum web Ihicknessesto develop hShould the thickness of material to which connection angles are welded exceed the limits set
~/lfi", '/4· and 1/,6· welds A are 46", .37" and .28" respectively. by AISC Specilication, Sect 1.17.4. lor weld Slzes apecrt-ed. increase the weld size as
(Should the thickness 01 material to whrch connection angles are welded exceed the limits set required. but not to exceed the angle thickness.
bV AISC Specrbcetron. Sect 1.17.4. for weld sizes sp ecrfie d. Increase the weld size as (For welds on outstanding legs, connection cepecrtv may be urn.te d by the shear capacity of the
required. but not to exceed the angle thickness. supporting members as stipulated by AISC Specrttcanon. Sect. 1 17.5 See exe mptes (d)
'/For welds on outstanding legs, connection capacity may be limited by the shear capacity of the and {e). pages 4-26. 4·27.
supporting member as stipulated by AISC Specttrcauon, Sect. 1.17.5. See exarnntes (d) Note 1: Capacities shown In ttus table apply only when matena! welded IS ASTM A36, A242 or
and (e), pages 111·26,4·27. A441. Use appropriate capactte s from Table V when beam or supporting rneterterrs ASTM
A7 or A373.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-9
~t:~~~:~i
~~'?"'7"~ \
,
I
I
L. .J : Q)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 12-Flat plate used for flexible connection on web of beam.
5.4-10 / Welded-Connection Design
r - - - - - --,
I ,
I ,
: Beam web :
I ,
I
I
I
IL ...JI 0
( 69.5 k )
*1w = tw I
( .526") (13 ksi)
10.2", or use 11" * Actually, transverse fillet welds are about lh stronger than
parallel fillet welds; this can be proved by theory as well as
The leg size of this fillet weld must be equal to the testing. This means for transverse loads, the leg size would be
web thickness, based upon standard allowables, if it is % of the plate thickness, just as in parallel loads. However,
welding codes do not as yet recognize this; and for code work,
to match the allowable strength of this web section in fillet welds for transverse loads would be made equal to the plate
shear as well as tension. thickness.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-11
A
• at the top; this point is marked with an "X" on the
curve. With further cracking of the weld and yielding
in the beam web, the lower flange of the beam con-
tacted the column, point (b), and this resulted in
T
11 "
r-,
18" 'v'F 85# beam
increased stiffness. The moment built up to a maximum
of 1918 in.-kips, and then gradually fell off as the weld
"- W,V continued to tear.
~ ;;-
Notice in this particular example, the web would
have yielded the full length of the weld at design load.
The weld started to crack when the connection
had rotated about .Oll radians; this would correspond
to a horizontal movement of .06" at the top portion of
A
"---
the weld. Compare this small amount of movement with
FIGURE 16 that obtained in the top connecting plate example of
Figure 4 which had the ability to pull out 1.6" before
If there is a gap between the beam and the column, failing.
the leg size of this fillet weld is increased by this This directly welded web connection (Fig. 18)
amount.
The moment-rotation chart, Figure 17, shows the
beam line for this particular beam length and load,
and the actual connection curve taken from test data
at Lehigh University.
In testing this connection, the beam web showed
initial signs of yielding adjacent to the lower ends of
the weld at a moment of 360 in.-kips. At a moment of FIGURE 18
660 in.-kips, point (a), there were indications that the
beam web along the full length of the weld had yielded.
At a moment of 870 in.-kips, both welds cracked slightly
2500 --+
I~
IcP
13
I-
~
I?" ?l6" X 3" reduced It.
"f"~ 1-------
1918 In-kips mox
c..
2000
'0 \0-
18" we J
-¥ 85# beam
",; 1500
c
Q)
--(-t'/I--~
E
o
f\
E 1000
I ~ "I \ I
.002 .004 .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016 .018 .020
End rotation (Oe), radians
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 17
5.4-12 / Welded-Construction Design
A l
!..Am
FIGURE 20
720 in.-kips
R
W16 in.-kips
35.8% FIGURE 21
Field weld
Shop weld
Shop weld
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 22
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-13
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.4-14 / Welded-Connection Design
Web framing angles are commonly shop welded to the supported beam. To facilitate
erection, bolts are used in joining the other member until the web framing angle can
be permanently welded to it. The erection bolts can be left in, or removed if there
is any concern that they will offer restraint. Note the use of box section column, in this
case it being hot rolled square structural tubing.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION ~._5
'--------------
I......··..
U" (12 L)
3E - 3,~~ (1)
where:
Beam
e = movement, in inches
L = length of beam, feet
2 loads @ V3 points
4 loads @ '.4 points
{ Uniformly distributed load
.6 -+---,---r----,-----,.----,-----,,--,--,--..,..----,
5 loads @ 1/6 points
aE
J:J
.5--r---+---1----I---+---Jf---+---+--+----t::;,.~7t""" l 3 loads @ 1,4 points
'0
c"'.4~-_+-__+-__+-_+-----1f_-t_-h~~-+____::;~ 1 load at t
Gl Gl
EJ:
g~ .~; .3
E g-
oc -_ .2 -r ---+---+---1-----;;JiiIf'''--:::;ool'''''---II----+---+--+------I
N 0
.~ -g
I Gl .1 -fc'--_+___::;Of/I'F:7"'~-_+-----1f_-t_-+--+--+_-__j
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Length of simply supported beam (L), feet
(assuming beam to be stressed to C1 = 20,000 at t )
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 2
5.5-1
5.5-2 / Welded-Connection Design
r -
80 , /
70 .;:::- '":::-- II -,0:
-"" 60 I
0;;;
e' 50 7"
-; 40
t...---
~ 30
en 20
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Elongation, % in 2"
FIG. 3 Stress-strain diagram for weld metal and beam plate.
ASTM specifies the following minimum percent of 2. TOP PLATE FOR SIMPLE BEAMS
elongation as measured in an 8" gage length for struc-
tural steels: There is some question as to what value should be
used for the end moment in the design of the top
A7 21% plate for simple beams. Any top plate will offer some
A373 21% restraint, and this will produce some end moment. Le-
A36 20%
high researchers originally suggested assuming simple
beam construction (AISC Type 2) to have an end
A242 18%
restraint of about 20%. On this basis, the end moment
A44J 18% for a uniformly loaded beam would be:
This minimum value of 20% for A36 steel would WL W L
represent a total elongation of 20% X 8" = 1.6" within Me = (.20) 12 = ----eo
the 8" length.
Notice in Figure 2 that a simply supported beam, and this is 13.3% of the beam's resisting moment.
uniformly loaded, with a span of 20 feet would rotate Heath Lawson ("Standard Details for Welded
inward about .106", so that this particular beam would Building Construction", AWS Journal, Oct. 1944, p.
utilize only 7{5 of the capacity of this top plate to yield. 916) suggests designing the top plate (simple beam
Figure 3, a stress-strain diagram, shows that a construction) for an end moment of about 25% of the
mild steel base plate will yield and reach maximum beam's resisting moment. This would correspond to an
elongation before its welds reach this yield point. end restraint of about 37.5%, which approaches the
The test specimen in Figure 4 shows that ample range of "semi-rigid" connections.
plastic elongation results from the steel tensile specimen In Figure 5 the end of the top connecting plate is
necking down and yielding. This is similar to the be- beveled and groove welded directly to the column, the
havior of a top connecting plate which yields plastically groove weld and adjacent plgte being designed to
under load. develop about 25% of the restraining moment of the
~After pUlling~
I 1Y2
i
W (before " " " I
>
.-!-
l
w
- - ---
...,
~
? FIGURE 4
> >
- --\--- -
Reduced cross-sectio n after 1
\ °
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
orlglna~ nec kiIn d own
°
cross-section ~ 9
Top Plates for Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-3
beam using the standard allowable bending stress. The Method J. The wind connections, designed to re-
standard bending stress allowed here would be limited sist the assumed moments, are adequate to resist the
to CT = .60 CTy • (Type 2, simple framing). moments induced by the gravity loading and the wind
Just beyond the groove weld section, the plate is loading at the increased unit stresses allowable, or
reduced in width so that the same load will produce Method 2. The wind connections, if welded and
a localized yield stress (CT r ). The length of this reduced if designed to resist the assumed wind moments, are so
section should be at least 1.2 times its width to assure designed that larger moments induced by the gravity
ductile yielding. loading under the actual condition of restraint will be
This plate is attached to the beam flange by means relieved by deformation of the connection material
of a continuous fillet weld across the end and return- without over-stress in the welds.
ing a sufficient distance on both sides of the plate to AISC Sec. 1.5.6 permits allowable stresses to be
develop the strength of the groove weld at standard increased If.J above the values provided in Sec 1.5.1
allowables: ( steel), and 1.5.3 (welds), when produced by wind or
seismic loading acting alone or in combination with the
A7, A373 Steels; E60 Welds design dead and live loads, on condition that the re-
f = 9600 Cl) lbs/Iinear in. quired section computed on this basis is not less than
... (2) that required for the design dead and live load and
A36, A441 Steels; E70 Weld
impact, if any, computed without the If.J stress increase,
f = 11,200 Cl) lbs/Iinear in. nor less than that required by Sec. 1.7, (repeated load-
ing) if it is applicable. Since we are discussing Type 2
3. TOP PLATE FOR WIND BRACING construction (simple framing) the initial basic allow-
able stress is .60 CTy , not .66 CTy •
Wind moments applied to simple beam connections
present an additional problem. Some means to transfer
these wind moments must be provided in a connection
I Method 1
which is designed to be flexible. Any additional restraint The top plate (Fig. 6) is designed to carry the force
in the connection will increase the end moment result- resulting from the end moment caused by the combin-
ing from the gravity load. AISC Sec 1.2 provides for ation of the gravity and wind moments, and at a If.J
two approximate solutions, referred to hereafter as increase in the standard stress allowable (or CT = .80
Method 1 and Method 2. CTy). This If.J increase may also be applied to. the con-
In tier buildings, designed in general as Type 2 necting welds (AISC Sec. 1.5.3, & 1.5.6). The fillet welds
construction, that is with beam-to-column connections connecting the lower flange of the beam to the seat
(other than wind connections) flexible, the distribution angle must be sufficient to transfer this same load.
of the wind moments between the several joints of the The top plate must have the ability to yield
frame may be made by a recognized empirical method plastically if overloaded (last paragraph of AISC Sec.
provided that either: 1.2).
FIGURE 5
_ M. (gravity)
F
- db
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.5-4 / Welded-Connection Design
At 1Y3 a
M. (gravity)+Mw(wind)
Fillet weld at 1Y3 F =-------:-----
db
standard allowables
FIGURE 6
when loaded with F
In the alternate design of the top plate shown at cally to relieve larger moments induced by gravity
upper right in Figure 6, the reduced section (W) is loading, figuring the connecting welds at standard al-
designed for the force resulting from the end moment lowables. * This is the same method for figuring the
caused by the combination of the gravity and wind connecting welds of top connecting plates for simply
moments at a If.J increase in the standard allowables. supported beams without wind loads. ,
It will reach yield at a 25% increase in load (F). The The reduced section will reach yield stress (U"r )
wider section at the groove weld (1 Y4 W) will reach at a 25% increase in load (F). The wider section at the
Ilf.J U or .80 trr when the reduced section has reached groove weld (1% W) will reach standard allowables
this yield value. (.60 try) at this time.
In case there should be a reversal in wind moment,
I Method 2 I the top plate must be thick enough to safely withstand
any compressive load without buckling.
The top plate (Fig. 7) is designed to carry the force It is recommended that the top plate's thickness
resulting from the wind moment (M w ) using a If.J in- be held to at least Y:!4 of its length (L) between welds.
crease in the standard allowables: This will provide a slenderness ratio (L/r) of 83; and
corresponds to about 80% of the allowable compressive
tr = (1lf.J) .60 u y = .80 Uy. strength for a short column (L/r ratio of 1).
* This weld allowable by AISC is nat clear; AISC simply says
The top plate must be capable of yielding plasti- welds shall not be overstressed when plate is at yield.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Top Plates for Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-5
rst: t
or use a 1%" x o/g" plate
=~ 12Wt 2 V3 Ap = .656 in. 2 > .59 in."
= .289t Connecting Welds at Standard Allowables
slenderness ratio For the groove weld to the column flange, this plate is
L (24 t) widened to I%W, or-
r - (.289 t) width = Ph (1%)
= 83 = 2.9" or use 3.0"
.~ %6"
.. ~ For the fillet welds to the beam flange, use
fillets at an allowable force of-
4. EXAMPLE OF TOP PLATE DESIGN-
WITH WIND MOMEN1"
P': .
1 2WJ ' 12W'1•
•
A 14" WF 38# beam is simply supported and loaded
uniformly with 296 lbsjin. on a 15-ft span. Based on /: 3"
rr,
~
"...,........-.1.
n1%"
--rb
these beam-load conditions, the maximum bending vlV I ,T ~
moment at center is M = 1200 in.-kips. Use A36
.
<,
steel and E70 welds. Wind moment on each end is M w
= 600 in-kips.
A. "~/%" 511/' V
This would be 1%" across the end, and 2W' along (63.8 kips)
the sides. 1~ (22,000 psi >--
= 2.18 in. 2
Applying Method 1 for Additional Wind Moment
or use a 3lh" x %" plate
This connection will now be designed for the additional
wind moment of Mw = 6OOin.-kips, using Method 1. Ap = 2.19 in. 2 > 2.18 in.2 OK
I• 5" • 12W'1•
II
The connecting welds are figured at ~ higher allow-
,-
abIes:
-r For the fillet welds at the beam flange, use :!h"
3Y2"
.J.. " fillets. The standard allowable force is fw = 11,200 Cd
= 11,200 (lh) = 5600 lbs per linear inch.
A
• jK?"'" \ ~"V The length of this weld is--
IF
db ::;: 14.1 2"
Lw =
_
F
11,3 fw
(63.8 kips)
I,--J
J-F - 1~
= 8.54"
(5600)
5" 3Y2"
I• •I• -I y
T
4 =HI"
.L ~\ 1 3Y2"
>%" R.\
A. A.
J I Y2"V
-r
db
F
= 14.12" + Mw 1
I~
J..F T
~mrrrrTTT1mrn-.L
LU..U...........................
-~
T
Wind moment
, , , FIGURE 13
Mw
F = db
FIGURE 11
(600 in.-kips)
reduced section at yield (14.12" )
F
L" = 1% f w (U'7) and fillet weld at
% higher allowable
= 42.5 kips
(2.19 in.2)(36,OOO psi) The reduced section of the plate is designed to
1% (5600) carry this at % higher allowable: -
- 10.55" F
Ap = 1% U'
This would be 3;2" across the end, and 3W' along
the side edges of the plate. (42.5 kips)
1% (22,000)
Applying Method 2 for Additional Wind Moment 1.45 in. 2
4Y2" I 5" or use 3" by ;2" plate
I- -- -I I
.l
I l-L Ap = 1.50 in. 2 > 1.45 in. 2 OK
5" 3"
I
" l-r !1- The plate must now be modified so that larger
ri~"yw,V
moments induced by the gravity loading can be relieved
• by plastic yielding of the top plate, designing the con-
necting welds at standard allowables.
jF The plate is widened at the groove weld to 1% W
= 1% (3) = 5.0".
db = 14.12" For the connecting fillet welds to the beam flange,
~
~F use %" fillets:
f w = 11,200 w
= 11,200 (%)
= 4200 lbs per linear inch
" -, .,
FIGURE 12 The length of this weld is-'-
Temporarily ignoring the gravity load, the top plate T _ F _ (1.5 in.2 ) (36,000 psi)
'-'Vi - fw - (4200)
is designed to carry the wind load, Mw = 600 in.-kip on
each end. = 12.9"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.5-8 / Welded-Connection Design
Beam
10,990 psi
(28,330)
Mw =- 600 in-k
Beam
FIGURE 14
Jt
_r 10,990 psi
(0,""';00
(28,330)
FIGURE 15
L e t K --~_
This would be 3" of weld across the end, and 5" Ub
along each side. Sb - up
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Note that the connection will not yield until a
stress of 36,000 psi is reached.
is then added to the initial wind moment diagram:
(See Figure 16.)
Top Plates for SimDle Beams & Wind I 5.5-9
} M{Beam
13,970 psi
e 1
Connection
FIGURE 16
(36,000)
8750 psi
-M e2
10,240 psi
8010 psi
..... .....
Me - 517.6 in-ki -,
L
......
MeR =- 762.8 in-k
Beam)
9480 psi
......
"" Beam
Connection
(24,430 psi)
"" 13,970 psi
FIGURE 18 { Connection
(36,000 psi)
_ W2 L2 (235.8)( 180)2
Ub at <£: = lh (17,490) = 8750 psi
8 8 These stresses are then added to the previous
= 955 in.-kip moment diagram; Figure 18.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.5-10 / Welded-Connection Design
- Connection
FIGURE 19
(28,330)
990 psi
3660P'i~
'670 psi T ---ITinn~OO p,i ~
-~ Beam Connection
. -13660 psi
T 4650 psi (36,000 psi)
FIGURE 20 990 psi
FIGURE 21
6. SMALL WIND MOMENT The corresponding stress in the top plate is-
Bea m
4650 psi
{ Connection
(36,000 psi)
FIGURE 22
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.5-12 / Welded-Connection Design
and:
FIGURE 24 M, = Up Ap db
(36,000 psi)( 1.5 in.") (14.12")
= 762 in.-kips
Beam Line--Gravity load, uniformly loaded
I (J
p
-
-
2 EupdbL p
I It is necessary to have two points to determine this
beam line on the moment-rotation chart:
Rotation about
mid-heiqht of beam ( a) the end moment (Me) if fully restrained
e
Since (J = d;;""and e E L,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
12=3
W L2 2 Mot
Top Plates for Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-13
Me
U =---s;;-
I,- - - - - L ------..+1·1 (720 in.-kips)
( 54.6")
Be
W L3
= 24El:= 2E1
Me L I 13,200 psi See Figure 26.
I
The stress at centerline of the beam would ~
where L = length of beam in inches
M~
• a Me L U =---s;:-
•• l1e - 2 E I
(480 in.-kips)
( 8(0) ( 180) (54.6")
2( 30 X 106 ) (385.3)
= 8800 psi
6.24 X 10-3 radians
As before K = Ub = .388 so that the stress
Up
Connect ion at yield (Oy)
in the connecting plate would b~
1000 M = 762 in-kips
{
Q. 900 o=.764 X 10- 3 radians _ 13,200 psi
..
:;;
.: 800 up .388
700 Resultant end moment, M. = 720 in-kips
~ 600 = 34,020 psi
C 500
~
E Now the wind load is gradually applied equally to
0 400 both ends until the right-hand connection reaches yield.
E
300 This would occur when the stress in the connecting
"
c:
LU
200 plate is increased from 34,02/J psi to 36,000 psi, or an
100 increase of 1980 psi. This would correspond to a wind
moment of-
t
ea m
Beam } 13,200 psi
13,200 psi
Connection
(34,020 psi)
FIGURE 26
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.5-14 / Welded-Connection Design
M w = 42 in-kips
FIGURE 27
__r'1'T'T'I"fito_
8800 psi
,
'I
I
I
, I
,
~
I
~
Beam
12,430 psi
I
I
eam
Connection ~~~~~~~==:~~----~==:~=~~~- 13,970 psi
(32,040 psi) Connection
(36,000 psi)
FIGURE 28
Beam
20,440 psi
Connection
J
(52,680 psi)
FIGURE 29
Beam
8010 psi }
. ---:-
Connectron
I~
(20,640 psi)
And stress in the beam is- Adding this last wind moment diagram to the
diagram in Figure 28 gives the final diagram, Figure 30.
O"b ( .388) ( 1980)
770 psi See Figure 27. 8. ALTERNATE GRAPH ICAL SOLUTION
Adding this wind moment diagram to the initial This same example can be illustrated in a slightly
gravity moment diagram gives Figure 28. different manner. The right-hand connection and beam
There now is left a wind moment of 600 - 42 = end is on the right of Figure 31; the left-hand connec-
558 in.-kip to be applied to each end, but since the tion and its beam end is on the left.
right-hand connection has reached yield stress, the re- As before, the beam line with gravity load only is
maining moment of 2 x 558 = 1116 in.skip must be constructed for both ends. This beam line represents
added' to the left end of the beam. the moment at the end caused by the gravity load, the
actual value of the moment depends on the effect of
M the connection.
~ A wind moment would be represented by a hori-
_ 1116 in.-kips zontal line through the actual value of the moment. It
54.6 would not be influenced by the connection unless it
exceeds the yield of the connection; then the portion
= 20,440 psi of the wind moment carried would be limited by the
20,440 yield of the connection. Any wind moment superim-
and O"p =~ posed on the gravity load will shift the beam line verti-
cally up or down depending on the sign of the wind
52,680 psi (compression) to be added to the
32,040 psi in tension already in the left-hand moment.
connecting plate By observation, the right-hand connection can be
Ub =- 13,970 psi
( { up = - 36,000 psi
c 6.24 X 10.3
UJ _ 100 _ 100 w
4 5 6 7 8 4 3 2
(l) End rotation (OJ, X 10.3 radians 10.3
>
400 + 320 in-k
~ 500 " - { ub = 6050 psi End rotation (OJ, X 10.3 radians
FIGURE 31
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.5-16 / Welded-Connection Design
increased another 42.0 in.-kip from wind, then it will little more accurate.
reach yield and no further moment can be applied. This same problem was previously worked with a
Since the applied wind moment was 600 in.-kip on reduced wind moment of M w = 200 in.-kip applied to
each end, this will leave a balance of 2 x 600 in.-kip - each end. Figure 32 shows how this can be worked
42 in.-kip = 1156 in.-kip to be carried entirely by the graphically. This is an interesting problem since the
left-hand connection. lower wind moment requires a smaller top plate, with
To do this, the beam line on the left of Figure 31 '13 the cross-sectional area, hence % the strength, and
will be lowered vertically +
1156 in.-kip: see the dotted the gravity load caused the plate to yield plastically
line. This will intersect the connection curve (extended at both ends even before any wind load is applied. This
into the positive moment region) at an end moment is represented by the black dot where the beam line
of Me = 320 in.-kip. (without wind) intersects with the connection curve.
This will correspond to a bending stress in the When the wind moment is added, the right con-
beam end of 6050 psi, and in the connection plate of nection is already at yield and can carry no additional
15,600 psi. In this case, the connection curve had to be moment, therefore the entire wind moment of 2 x 200
extended downward into the positive moment region in.-kip = 400 in-kip must be carried by the left-hand
in order to intersect the new beam line. This indicates connection. Accordingly the beam line is lowered ver-
a + moment and reverses the stress in the plate, now tically a distance of 400 in.-kip; see the dashed line. As
compression, and the bottom of the beam connection is this is lowered, the resulting moment (Me) and rota-
now in tension. tion ((}e) of the connection (black dot) slide down
The previous examination of this problem indicated parallel to the elastic portion of the connection line
a bending stress in the left end of the beam of O'b = until it intersects with this new beam line (white dot).
8010 psi; this examination indicates a stress of O'b = In Figure 33 these final conditions representing the
6050 psi. Why should there be a difference? The previ- beam with gravity load and wind load are represented
ous examination stopped after the first end moment with black dots. If the wind were now removed, the left
due to gravity load was determined and then for sim- beam line moves upward 200 in.-kip and the right
plicity from then on considered the connection as per- beam line moves down 200 in.-kip, the new conditions
fectly rigid, whereas this examination considered the being represented by the white dots. For a complete
elastic properties of the connecting plate all the way reversal of wind, this operation is again repeated and
through the problem. This last approach would be a is represented by the broken lines.
- 1000
- 1000
Q. - 900 .~
~
.~ i- - 900
800 6'~o { Gravity load: no wind - 800 1t
-:. I
i_=: ~~~ ~~. =~~~ '~k;~\
- 700
'7] ' \ ' '10 : radians - 600 :l
~ .~ _ 500 "'-,'IcY ,. - 500 C ~
IV .~
! ~ with wind
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 32
Top Plates for Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-17
- 1000
i
900
800
t
Q) 700 v
.~ 600 ·f
'"
Q .-0
m - 500 0.. g,
:i:: Q)
, c: Left connection Right connection - 400 ~c:-~
c: -
(tension) (tension) - 300 '-,
- 200 ~.
~ ,, - 100::-
c: c:
E' " Ql
E
o + 100 7 8 2 + 100 ~
E
-0
c:_ + 200
" ,---- + 200-0
c: -
W Ql + 300 Connection + 300w ~
.~
' Vi + 400 in compression + 400 :~
o
Q. +'500 + 500 &.
FIGURE 33
@Seismicisolation
and in fabricating costs.
@Seismicisolation
5.5-18 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.~
A
L
y
+] t ~'--+J-----'t
Column flange stiffeners may be
required for joints of high restraint
A
I Butt weld
\Fillet w eld
A'''mol, d,loll
~----
-----
~
-----
----- ,-----J
FIGURE 1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 5.6-1
5.6-2 / Welded-Connection Design
M.. 0.
(actual)
FIGURE 4
Beam line
0 0 0.
(actual) (flexible beam)
and the required cross-sectional area of the top This connection line breaks at the yield point, or
plate is- becomes horizontal at:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
This can also be found by totaling the individual
-t
t ~ tb
}:M(.
L + AJJl1Jhrrrn. }:M (. -.1
~~
.L.U
}:MIffiJJP R}: M.
Simply Supported LIY" Fixed Ends ~~ Beam with desired t
R =
0 R =
100% end restraint (R)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 5 Moment diagrams for different restraints (R).
Top Plates for Semi-Rigid Connections / 5.6-3
w
G Simply supported, with load
8.
M.(~
W
.-. ~)M. 0 Fixed end, loaded beam
8.
M. l
2TT
~8. w 81-
e
G Simply supported, loaded beam
FIGURE 6
! ! ! ' ~-,
t! t t '~:r-'---->
~ ,-----A-----..
t t t t! ! i! till 111I1 11I11 III It
t Tt Tt Tt Tt T
- - - - -
£ ~ ~~~I~
Moment Diagram
--
Simply Supported
Center Moment
M{
Simply Supported
+ ""--L
4
+~
6
+~
6 +~ 20 I
+~L
20
+ ~-!
8
I
End Rotation 8. W L' 5 W L' W L' 7 W L' ~
--t-
W L'
Simply Supported
(R = 0)
16 E I
18E~ 96EI 20 E I
I 144 E I
I
24 E I
[w~-
-- f------- - - - --- t--
End Moment M. W L W L 5 W L W L 7 W L
-8 9 48
- 10 -92 12
Fixed Ends
(R = 100i'o)
BeamMo~
M b at {.
For Given
\
WL
-
8
(2- R)
WL
18 (3 - 2R)
I
~
48
(8 - 5R)
~: ra - ,,, ~~ '" - : '
WL (3 _
24
2R)
Value of R
~ I ---'------
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.6-4 / Welded-Connection Design
values of M, for a given value of R resulting from Here, the beam moment at centerline:
each of the types of loads; see Table 1.
We must now obtain the two points for the beam WL
line with all of its loads (W): the total end moment
= 20 (3 - 2 R)
(Me) when beam ends are fixed and the angle rotation
(24,000) (180) [3 _ 2 (.50)]
( (J,,) when beam ends are simply supported. 20
The fixed moments (Me) from all the loads are
totaled, and the angle rotation ((Je) may be found from = 432 in.-kips
this total fixed end moment (Me):
Thus the total moment on the beam at its centerline is-
Me L
()e =2ET 330 + 432 I (R = 50%)
762 in.-kips
This relationship may be found by determining the
end moment required to rotate the end of a simply
The beam's required section modulus is-
supported beam back to a horizontal position; see Fig-
ure 6a, band c.
It will be easier then, to total the individual end
moments for all of the types of applied loads; this be-
comes the final end moment when treated as a fixed-end (762)
beam, Figure 6d. Use this formula to determine the (20,000)
final end rotation ((Je) of this beam with all of its 38.1 in. 3
applied loads when simply supported, Figure 6e.
A 14JJ WF 30# beam could be used, since it has-
I Problem 1 I
S = 41.8 in." OK
Design a beam of A373 steel and detail the connection
to support a uniformly distributed load of 22 kips (Fig. In order to plot this as a beam line, it is necessary
7) and four concentrated loads of 6 kips each on LIS to know 1) the end rotation ((Je) of the beam under
centers along a 15-ft span (Fig. 8). The beam's design
the total load when simply supported, and 2) the end
will be based on an end restraint of R = 500/0, and the
moment (Me) on the beam under the total load con-
connection's design for R = 750/0.
sidering the beam as having fixed ends.
WI = 22 kips
WL
t!!!!t!t!!!!! Mel =12
i (22,000) (180)
I_ L = 180"---~ 12
330 in.-kips
FIGURE 7
WL
Here, the beam moment at centerline: ----yo
(24,000) ( 180)
Mb l = W24L (3 - 2 R) 10
= 432 in.-kips
(22,000)(180) [3 _ 2 (.50)]
24
Total end moment (R = 100%):
_ 330 in.-kips
W2 24 kips Me = Mel + Me2
330 + 432
t-+----------+----+-----+--t
+
f t 762 in.-kips.
I- L = 180"
FIGURE 8
@Seismicisolation
·1
@Seismicisolation Resulting end rotation of beam, with combined
loads, simply supported (R = 0):
Top Plates for Semi-Rigid Connections / 5.6-5
1400
1300
, ;Connection curve from test data .-
1200
""-fi;\r~ I _~l.----I
=t
1100
''03) I
~ I .>
R = 82%. ~7"+5W~ _
1000 '", •••• • '+"-'. --t---+---+----+ I I
.E 900
n..·..··.... -+-
-,
··'"~, T
SW'
C:
.; 800
--;1 'I' /
1-
~ . Beam line at 'I, I 1 1
:Ya" X 6 34" X 1434" top It
,I
r- ~,J l~~-+-_-+_-+n..I\,........:.--'\-T1-I---1L-+--+---+----j
213
C 1 design load I 1
Q)
700
E
0
E @)~;:: R =
- -, , I
89% "l' ' '-+---1-
)
-0 600 'Il
w
c:
,I '
-,
-,
500 -t-+----/- ,,-+---+-
, .-
400 - t---+----/--+__
r' '-v-/ 14" VoF 30 # beam -
300 ~--+--+R-=-I~y/~~'~~======::::;::::::::iI~==:::j~::::::;;:::=========jl
200 +E'-+---+-design load-f~=-"'+--
Beam line at7 "...... >-'m...., I",J,. .
1-
100
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 9
FIG. 10. Moment Capacity of Top Plate Connection. K,P - INCHEJ UI
10,*0
la, 000 20,000
t
18,000MIIMEIIT ......
MOMENT 16,000
@$) 1+,"'0
16,000 ~
~
a
(cr.2Z,fXJOpal) ",00 ''',000(cr:If,DDO,.I) a..
ID
117,A~73 1Z.,0tHI A3' STEEL a..
I
n
STEEL '.,000 o
WIDTH OF TOP
CONNECTIN6 ~
IMt::: Wta'h 0- I ',000
8,000
~
..
~
ID
n
ci"
7,0tHI ~
6,~
® J;~
6,1OQ g
ID
III
I.
16
DEPTH Of
BEAM
6,1H Ii·
~
"'"I I
4,(100
®
"'~
/I
,
10 ......
........
..... ..... 40
B ~ 30
..... .....
7 ...~
, 6/I'.-.6JI"
............ II{,
\:'
.....
.... 20....... 18
'I"
z,.oo
",/HI
5 I '! 1,1"
10
.1'1:'.... , .....
..... .... ',44.
8'1 .
" 6 <. .... ',.00
....
.. '00
J '00"
900
W L 800
M. = - = 750 ./l / Beam line
12 700
'( ~ Connection curve
600 \
500 '\ Actual values:
M. 400
in-kips M = 410 in-kips
300 e = 2.4 X 10-3 radians
200
100
2 3 4 6 7
O. 2
X 10-3 radians O. = 24W EL I = 5.25 X 10-
3
FIGURE 11
M.(Ir--------
FIGURE 14
w
4 E I 2 E I WL
fixed@)
M. - - - L - O. - - L - Ob - ~
Mb _+
-
2 E I
L O. + ~Ob- WL
L 12
---.18
released;
simply 0 e
J---~ /
®fixed Step 2. Thus with the right end held fixed (O'b =
0), the resulting moment at the right end (b) consisting
supported
of the initial moment and the additional moment due
W l2 2 62 X 10.3 to movement of the left end (a), is-
a
u" = 48 EI = .
where:
FIGURE 12 O. = - 1.6 X 10- 3
Ob = 0
From these two points (M. = 750 in.-kips and O.
= 2.62 X 10- 3 radians), the beam line for the left end Mb-~
-
0
L. + ~
L 0b-~
W L
(a) is drawn, Figure 13. Upon this is superimposed the
connection line, and the point at which it intersects the = -979 in.-kips
beam line represents the actual end moment and end
Now the left end (a) of the beam is held fixed at
rotation after the connection has allowed the beam end
O. = -1.6 x 10- 3 while the right end (b) is released
to move.
and simply supported (M; = 0) and the end rotation
( Ob) determined. See Figure 15.
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 15
979 in-k
Left end held fixed at
® 8 = - 1.6 X 10-3
0
750 in-k Step 4. When the left end (a) is simply supported
593 i n- k -*-J,-<;~ -. Connection
(M, = 0), the end rotation would be ()a = -3.67 X
Increase in Ma
due to movement
curve 10- 3 • Releasing the left end (a) allows it to rotate to
of right end I8bl ()a = -2.25 X 10- 3 •
280 in-k +---_.<l>_..J
when:
- 3.76 X 10-3
()a = -1.6 X 10- 3 and ()b = +2.1 X 10- 3
80
8b
the moment on the left end (a) is found to be Left end ® Right end@
Ma = --593 in.-kips
FIGURE 18
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.6-10 / Welded-Connection Design
+2.3 X 10- 3 on the right end causes the left moment to moment (M.) is applied at the supported end and the
increase to M, = -435 in.-kips. When the left end (a) resulting end rotation ((Je) is found at this same end,
is simply supported (M, = 0), the endrotation would Figure 20.
=
be (Ja -3.76 x 10- 3. Releasing the left end (a) allows
it to rotate to (Ja = -2.40 X 10- 3 • Here:
Step 7. This movement of (Ja from -2.25 x 10,3 to
-2.40 X 10- 3 on the left end causes the right moment 4 E I
to increase to M, = -428 in.-kips. When the right end L
(b) is simply supported (M b = 0), the end rotation
would be (Jb = +3.80 X 10- 3 • Releasing the right end In this particular example:
(b) allows it to rotate to: (Jb = +2.40 X 10- 3 •
Conclusion: The final end conditions resulting Me 4 E I
from this sequential handling of the given connection ----0:- L
and beam loading are- 4(30 x 1()6) (429)
( 180)
Me = -410 in.-kips
= 286 x 1()6
(Je = 2.40 X 10- 3 radians
With the particular scale used in the original con-
Reference to Figure 11 shows that these are the
struction of Figure 19,
same values as obtained when the beam was considered
to be symmetrically loaded with identical conditions I" = 4 X 10- 3 radians
on both ends.
or 1 radian = ¥4 x 10 3
inch
3. BEHAVIOR OF CONNECTIONS STRESSED and I" = 400 in-kips = 400,000 in.-Ibs
ABOVE YIELD
or 1 in-Ib = % x 10- 5 inch
The same method used previously may also be applied
to connections that are stressed above their yield points The slope of this beam line is-
and thus yield plastically. See Figure 19, using same 286 X 1()6(¥4 x 10- 5 )
beam as before. Me 286 1U6 inch-Ibs
----0;= x radians (¥4 x 103)
= 2.86
Connection at yield
or an angle of 70.7°, Figure 21.
Connection curve
750 in-k
FIGURE 19
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 20
(286 X
1430 in.-kips
106)(5 X 10- 8 )
Top Plates for Semi-Rigid Connections / 5.6-11
2 E I
MJ: :- --L- OJ:
Fixed end
Final end moment
Increase in moment
FIGURE 23 ( o n opposite end
simply supported _ ,)
:1 M•
Y '-,..J
Movement of left end ((1.1 ~
1000 1000
Actual conditions:
900 900
M = 430 in-kips
750 in-k
800 (I =
2.6 X 10. 3 radians 800
700 750 in-k
700
600 600
FIGURE 24 500 M b
500
400 Connection Conne=ct:::io:-n---..r--~'.!LJL 400
curve .!:: curve
300 300
<Il
Cl 200
200 <:
.s:
o
100 U
100
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.6-12 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.7
Beam-to-Column
Continuous Connections
5hop FJ"e/d
Weld -~.-r---">W Q /d
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 5.7-1
5.7-2 / Welded-Connection Design
Alternate method of
butt welding top flange
connecting plate to
column flange using
backing bar.
FIGURE 3
placed between the connecting plate and the beam is cut back about 1" and fillet welded to the web con-
flange to ensure a complete-penetration groove weld to necting plate.
the column. This eliminates back gouging and welding Some fabricating shops have jigs so that columns
an overhead pass on the other side. can be elevated into a vertical position. This allows
Reducing Welding Requirements much of the shop welding on the connecting plates to
be made in the downhand position.
It is possible to design the seat stiffener to carry all of
the end reaction, eliminating any vertical welding in the Coyer Plates
field. This reduces the field welding to just downhand When added at ends of beams to carry the extra
groove welding of the beam flanges to the column. negative moment, cover plates must be welded to the
Where good fit-up can be assured, the beam flanges column for continuity; Figure 4.
are beveled from the top side and groove welded in Shop welding the cover plates to the beam, with
the field directly to the column flange. The beam web the lower beam flange and the upper cover plate left
\
,--J'
\ e
L:, \ FIGURE 4
~~ U
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Beam -to-Column Continuo us Connec tions / 5.7-3
;"!~
. '
.
Ill .
I _
I •
,
the size of the original singl e groove weld , which re - " . .,J 'I ~
'.
duces the amount of welding on th e stiffen ers by half.
~====:(IJ
indicat es th at in most cases th e d eciding factor is a
> >
Section of column tested
>
FIGURE 7
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.7-4 / Welded-Connection Design
Beam compression
flange ~
t FIGURE 10
>
Section of column tested
>
1-
FIGURE 9
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 11
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-5
A
"
> ~
"
1.
~ >-
FIGURE 12
> :-
/"
'I "
A A A
:. ~
r:
> ~
>
~ :"\ t"\
- I-'
A A
A A (a) (b)
FIGURE 13
However, it was noted that no weld failures occurred From strain gage readings it was calculated that
until after excessive rotation had taken place. each of the vertical plate stiffeners in the elastic range
The stiffeners here in Figure 15 provide the equi- transmitted only about %6 of the forces corning from
valent of beam flanges to the columns, and the columns the beam flanges and the column web transmitted o/s
become as stiff against rotation as the beams framing of the forces.
to the column. Placing these stiffener plates closer to the column
The stress distribution on the compression flanges web might have improved the distribution. However,
were uniform on the whole, while in the tension areas since the prime purpose of this type of connection is to
the stresses were somewhat higher in the center. afford a convenient four-way connection, the plate
In Figure 16 the column is shown stiffened by a usually needs to be positioned flush with the edge of the
pair of wide-flange Tee sections. As a result the columns column flange. '
are as stiff against rotation as the beams framing into The stress distribution was uniform in both flanges
the columns. at the working load. At 1.5 of the working load, high
Zero
+a
.1
~
~
II :>
~ >
~ .
16" VF
36# beam
r >
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
A A
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-7
:.
> :.
:1
II
II
:. > II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
A A
II
A
FIGURE 15 FIGURE 16
I"®" I
> > >
@ ®
>
> >
., ., I ® I
. v - v
"
I
II
II
I
:. > >
>
II
II
·v v v
"
FIGURE 17 FIGURE 18
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.7-8 / Welded-Connection Design
t
K
t
FIGURE 19
The stiffening of the latter connection is mainly Analysis of this plate by means of yield line theory
dependent on the thickness of the stem of the Tee leads to the ultimate capacity of this plate being- .
stiffener, the Ranges of the column being too far away
to offer much resistance.
The column web is ably assisted in preventing
rotation at the connection by the Ranges of the split- where:
beam Tee stiffeners.
be - ill
q
2
The force carried by the central rigid portion of
h the column in line with the web is-
p @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.1-9
Setting this total force equal to that of the beam's If the thickness of the column web (We) meets
tension flange: the above requirement, column stiffeners are not needed
in line with the compression flanges of the beam.
tr, Af If the actual thickness of the column web (We) is
less than this value, the web must be stiffened in some
manner.
~
wC
~
Ldc~ >
~ t ?
tb
~ r' I~
f
::-
t
T db t
A
:-
>1 >
t'
+
1
>
FIGURE 20
:>
1
>
effective as when in direct line. The stiffener thickness Because the vertical stiffeners (usually Tees) are placed
(t.) found from the above formula should then be at the outer edges of the column flange, they are as-
multiplied by 1.70 to give the actual required value. sumed to be half as effective as though placed near the
column web. It is assumed the concentrated beam flange
7. VER·nCAl STIFFENERS force spreads out into the vertical stiffener in the same
manner as the column web.
Equating the resisting force of the column web and
a pair of vertical Tee stiffeners to the applied force of
T~ the beam flange at yield stress-
I tb
~~ f
"~
T
To prevent buckling of the stiffener-
~I
~
t
II >-
II
I~ I
1
II t. >
- 30
<' 'I
II >
~~ 1- Problem 1
~~
As an example of applying the preceding analysis
---A.---. of the tension region of a connection, we will analyze
a connection which, when tested to failure, performed
FIGURE 22 well; see Figure 23.
I 1 390" 1
II . 1
I 1 :Y16" I
I I , .606 " I
I I I
I---~r_-----__r~..
FIGURE 23
6.992"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-11
TJ = ~ [ Vf3~ + 8 A - f3]
.606"
FIGURE 25
®
100% F
flange, 44% of the force is transferred through the web flanges and the web transmitted %ths."
of the connection even though it is only about half as Of course, the same would not be true in the North-
thick as the stiffener plates. This corresponds well with South beams because they do not extend the full width
the idea that the flange of the column in this region is of the flange of the Tee stiffener. As a result, most of
similar to a two-span beam on three supports with a this force must be transferred into the web or stem of
uniform load; in this case the center reaction is % of the Tee stiffener since any portion of this force reaching
the total load, and the two outer supports each carry the outer edges of the column flange must be trans-
:% (\ of the load. ferred as bending out along the flange of the Tee
The report "Welded Interior Beam-To-Column section.
Connections", AISC 1959, mentions that "from strain
Weld Size: Stiffener Stem to Column Web
gage readings it was calculated that the vertical plate
stiffeners in the elastic range each transmitted only On the basis of these tests at Lehigh University, on
about o/t6ths of the forces coming from the beam connections where the beam flange extends the full
FIGURE 26
~ I
I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
I
I
I ,-
I "
l J.o'''
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-13
t,
f
H
FIGURE 28
----
+--
T\
tb + 5 t,
tb
!f.lF
~,
T db
---. T\
---.
---. t + 5 t,
---. ~'
---.
b 1 YJ F
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.7-14 / Welded-Connection Design
welds could be checked by using the entire length of 5. As a guide, the stiffener should satisfy this
the welds. However, this would represent little addi- condition:
tional force on these welds.
Proportioning th.· Tee Stiffener
The following will be helpful in selecting a Tee stiffener
section for this type of connection, where the beam or an approximation on the conservative side:
flange equals the full width of the stiffener flange:
FIGURE 30
4. The depth of the stiffener (dB)' as measured
through the stem portion, must be sufficient for it to The same items as before are used to proportion
extend from the face of the column web to the outer the Tee stiffener, except in items 1 and 5 where the full
edge of the column flange. value of the beam flange's section area is used instead
of % of this value. These formulas become-
be -
----
2
We
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.1-15
Here:
M 1050 in.-kips
A
• V 20 kips
(1050 in.-kips)
(48.5 in.s )
f-Oy-j 21,600 psi < .60 fry < 22,000 psi OK
A
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The fillet weld on the web of the beam is figured
as in methode[)
%6" If fillet welds are used (next size smaller than
.192"), their length would be-
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-17
. %" I"-
V
or use a 5%" x O/S" plate, the section area of which is-
r 6
",
%"
r(Jy-1 F Ap = 3.44 in." > 2.98 in. 2 OK
f ~
14" VF
T If %" fillet welds are used to connect top plate to
upper flange of beam:
± 30# beam
>1 fw 11,200 (0/8)
A
r ~(Jy~ F
4200 lbs/Iinear inch
L=r,:,
F
(71.5 kips)
FIGURE 34
(4200 lbs/in.)
17"
Here:
or use 5%" of weld across the end, and return 6"
M 1100 in.-kips along each side, for a total weld length of 17%".
V 20 kips The lower flange of the beam is groove butt welded
directly to the column flange; and, since the web fram-
The welding of the flanges and full depth of the ing angle carries the shear reaction, no further work is
web enables the beam to develop its full plastic moment, required on this lower portion of the connection. The
allowing the "compact" beam to be stressed 10% higher seat angle simply serves to provide temporary support
in bending, or u
= .66 U').• This also allows the end for the beam during erection and a backing for the
of the beam, and its welded connection, to be designed flange groove weld.
for 90% of the end moment due to gravity loading. The fillet~d on the web of the beam is figured
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1 and Sec 2.6) as in method \2) .
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.7-18 / Welded-Connection Design
11,200 (%)
14" 'IF 38#
4200 lbs/Iinear inch
M
F=(f
t w (N
R
+ K) = .75 U' y
(AISC Sec 1.10.10) ,.
or:
f--9W'--j
,.
R
N
.75 U'y tw
-K
~
V
CD I
L = 2 fw
[I
'/
wc~ ~~~ f+- t,
(20 kips)
- 2( 11,200) (¥4)
I 1
w, ~
= 3.57"
-
20 kips
2( 11,200) ( 1i6) .
IV
,I
,I
I'
~v , 1-
.
;I"
A(
= 4.76" > 3.57" OK ;;it;;
~v
I
I ?
r:::--- f-0y~
or use welds of 1i6" leg size and 5" long, and of course - -...t
the stiffener must be 5" deep. . 2~
In this case, the lower flange of the beam will not FIGURE 38
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.7-20 / Welded-Connection Design
In this case the connection is made through the On this basis use Tee section cut from an 8" WF
Tee stiffeners of the column. Since the beam flange is 48# beam; see Figure 39.
nearly as wide as the stiffener flange, the central stem
portion of the stiffener is designed for 3;4 of the moment
and each outer edge of the stiffener flange for lf3 of the '. t. = .683""1 ~
moment.
The welding of the upper and lower portions of
Cut ffom an 8"
, ; WF 48 # section
r-'
'1
I
> .56"
3.
be - We
4. d
• > 2
> (8.0) - (.288)
2
> 3.86"
3;4 bb t b
5
D = db + 5 K.
> 3;4(6.733) (.387)
5 = (13.86) + 5 (1YJ. 6 )
= 19.18"
> .39
g = db - 2 tb - 5 K.
(13.86) - 2 (.387) - 5 (1YJ.6)
* w. (t b +5 K.) = 3;4 beam flange area
= 3;4 bb t b 7.77"
w, K. =
0/4 bb t b
5 @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation (19.18)3 - (7.77)3
6500 lbs/linear inch
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-21
-1 fJ- -j r- t,
V
f. = L
1
A
y
~ T \ rtb (20)
::=tb+SK, ( 61.2)
--
-- -.L' t
db
327 Ibs/Hnear inch
=t -r \
=:tb+SK, ~==:j
1 leg size of-
327
force on weld
-
-l'
11,200
.029"
FIGURE 40
F
F
FIGURE 41
F
Tensile Transfer
..
FIGURE 43
F+- F F f--+ F
- Tensile force from beam Range transfers directly as
tension into stiffener and then out as shear into the
column Ranges.
FIGURE 42 Parallel welds to column Ranges must be designed
for this force, unless another stiffener is placed on the
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Tensile force from right-hand beam Range transfers
directly as tension through the right-hand stiffener,
opposite side of the column web to back up this
stiffener.
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-23
Tensile Transfer ing the column must be transferred into the column
flanges as a shear transfer. Assume M 1 > M2 •
F
F, F,
stiffener
FIGURE 46
~ t A
tensile force in the beam flange transferring directly
into the web of the column and into the column stiff-
eners.
.,. F ..1.
w
t 1 F
FIGURE 45
~~ 1tF..
F
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
the stiffeners (b.) and thickness of column web (t w ) .
5.7-24 / Welded-Connection Design
Since:
Aw area of column web over which force is dis-
tributed = d t w
FIGURE 48 A. = area of one stiffener (there is a pair)
w
(web) F w F (
However, this column web section is not limited to
the thickness of the beam flange since there is some
Aw +A 2 A. )
or
"
.. -, Beam flange
a"max
_
-
a"x +a"y
2
+ ~( a"x - 2 a"y )2 +
T xy
2
or
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
I I a"max a"x or a"y
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-25
T
xy ~
+1
(J. =0 +T
+ T. y
- (J -H-----=i~--F----. + (J
FIGURE 51
M
I Problem 3 I F=d
To check beam-to-column connection shown in (9097 in-kips)
Figure 52 (next page) for weld sizes. (23.59/1 )
386 kips
flange force: 24" WF 160# beam
1.135 "
flange force: 21" WF 73# beam
74"
F = 386 kips
t
r-i? F = 162 kips
24" VF
+ .
160# beam 21" VF
d = 20.50"
73# beam
-~
M=(J"S M (J"S
= (22,000 psi) (413.5 In.") (22,000 psi) (150.7 in.")
= 9097 in.-kips 3315 in.-kips
d = 24.72" -
= 23.59"
1.135" @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation d 21.24" -
= 20.50"
.74"
5.7-26 / Welded-Connection Design
24" W
160# beam
I~~----24"----_
3%"
I
I
L..-_ _....... ...J
FIGURE 52
24" W
160# beam
/
/
/ -- --f -------
\
\
tb
/ \
\ f
/
,,
d = tb + 5 tc
... F -
- 386 kips
___1___ t
/
;:. ,, /
/
- - -
I
1----------- \
-
::> / \
/ \
/ \
, /
~
\ /
\ /
\~- - - - - - - - -- I
1\ A
A tc
,..-- ~
I I
I I
:-
I
4-- 4-- 4-- H- : 4-- 4-- 4-- 4-- 70 k FIGURE 53
> L __
f---- __J >
~
4-- 4-- 4-- 4-- 4-- 4-- 4-- 4-- 4 - 246 k
.. --,
~
? >
r -- f----
4-- 4--
:-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
4--
I
I- 14--
I
4-- 4-- 4-- 70
k
I I
I I
'--- '--
A •
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-27
+- +- +- +- +-
386k Normal for ce [transverse)
.r.: 1~ ~ ~ -:...=-
I
-"f- 81 k
1I
I
.,_162 k I
;>
I
+- +-- ~
---i.J
I. -
1- --
I
~ • +-- .f-81 k
162k_~
~ L
1/
... ... <, ...
I I
... . .
@)
386k
A
v
.. A
"
I 386k
70k 246k 70k
~ ~ ~
+- ~1-~ -~ ~
~1 "- ~ !tilll";+ ~=
1"~I+-
~.-
r -l-i- f---81 k
-+
'-III
£" +- ~.
~"
~
~~ II .+
~17
162
~.1-81
l- _ _ _
k
k
- +
/ 1
-
-
=
+-~-- .;
FIGURE 54
F- d
M d = tb +5 tc
( 1.135") +5 (3%")
_ (3315 in.-kips)
( 20.50") 18.64"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Depth of column web through which beam force
is transferred is-
As = (lOV2) ( 1 )
10.5 in."
5.7-28 / Welded-Connection Design
I = Y 3.33 + 2
1.932
j 3.87 kips/in.
3.87
V l) w
11.2
1-----:
··
~- - --
:- = .344" or %"+ if shop weld,
~
_____
I
I
I
...1I
;
L. ____
~I\
but 3%" plate would need W'
6.78 kips/in.
37.28 )
386 ( 37.28 21 + w
6.78
11.2
246 kips
.605" or o/8"~ if shop weld
F. F(Aw :"2 AJ (2" plate needs min. of %" ~ ).
For field weld, use 45° single bevel groove
= 386 (37.~0~ 21) weld.
fr = Vf + f 2 2
~y + ~ ( ~ ) +
t p
= 7.72 kips/in.
7.72
~o + ~(6~0) + 38602
w = 11.2 = 8430 psi OK
= .69"
~ ( ~) +
or %"
T max = 2 T xi
check combined stress in stiffener; case @
= ~ (6~OO) + 3860 2
2
ay = 5100 psi OK
I Problem 41
To check the weld size joining the flange and web of
the built-up welded column in Figures 57 and 58.
D
CD weld on column between floors
r - -- - _ VI a y
I
I
f1 - I n
I
I
( 541' ) ( 84 ) ( 93/4 )
I
L J-----J (16,815)( 2)
1310 lbs/In, longitudinal shear on weld
1310
w
11,200
.10"
FIGURE 56
but because of 3%" plate, use %" ±
fry
70
= I" ( 10%")
k
® weld on column within beam connection
_ V2 a y
f2 I n
= 6660 psi -
8P _ (332 k ) ( 84 ) ( 9%)
XY = I" (2 X 101/2" )
'T ( 16,815) ( 2)
= 3860 psi = 8090 lbs/fn. longitudinal shear on weld
FIGURE 57
_ M _ 4550"k _ k
Fh - h/2 - T (12") - 54
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Moment diagram
of column
SheQi :Jiagram
of column
5.7-30 / Welded-Connection Design
fr vi f + f
2
2
t
2
J 8.09 + 6.63
2 2
10,460 lbsjin.
10,460
w (0)
11,200
.933" or use 1"~
( b) If partial penetration J-groove welds are used,
the required throat is-
10,460
t
15,800
(b)
= .622"
.787"
FIGURE 58 and the root face is-
The transverse force must be added to this. A
2" - 2( .787") = .426" or %"
portion of the beam flange force must be transferred
through this flange-to-web weld within the distance d
10. ADDITIONAL STIFFENING OF WEB
= tb +
5 K. = 18.64"; the remainder of this force is
WITHIN BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTION
transferred directly through the horizontal stiffeners:
~
In cases of unusually high unbalance of applied
Fweb = F (A w
AJ moments to a column, it might be well to check the
resulting shear stresses in the web within the con-
8 k ( (18.64 x 2) )
= 3 6 (18.64 x 2) 2(10lh x 1) + nection. See Figures 59 and 60.
Here the end moments (M 1 and M~) of the beam
= 247 kips due to a combination of the gravity load and wind,
are resisted by the moments (M; and M 4 ) in the
This is a unit force on the weld of-
column. A good example of this occurs in multi-story
buildings having no interior columns.
Fw
ft - 2 d The forces in the beam flanges ( F 1) resulting
from the end moment (M 1 ) , are transferred into the
(247 k )
2( 18.64)
6630 lbsjin.
@Seismicisolation
web of the connection as shear.
@SeismicisolationThere are similar forces in the column flange (F 3
and F 4 ) from the same resisting moment. These forces
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-31
~ ~
£...- £...-
t
~J.b ~ ~d;t~ E~ ~~b3
E dbJ
t
--.. --..
M]
----..
r--
d e- I--de -- - de -
\!:!:J) \& ~
A A A
FIGURE 59
are transferred into the column web within the con- Analysis 01 Required Web Thickness
nection region as shear. The unit shear force applied to the web of the con-
It can be assumed that most of the vertical shear nection is-
force (VI) of the beam web is transferred directly into
the flange of the supporting column and does not enter
the web of the connection.
The horizontal shear force (V 4) of the upper
column will he transferred through the web of the The resulting unit shear stress in the web of the
connection into the lower column if caused by wind; connection is-
orout across the beam to the adjacent column if caused
by gravity load.
~<0 J
Web of
connection
[
~
\!:Y
I<-- de ------'l
FIGURE 60
FIGURE 62
stress at yield (Tr ) may be found by using the Mises Or assuming that a conservative shape factor,
yield criterion:
Mp Z
f 1.12
My - S
1.12 M r and My O"y S
In this application of pure shear, o"x and O"y = 0,
and setting the critical value (O"Cl") equal to yield (O"y), Formula 2 may be reduced to--
we obtain:
1.94 S
O"y = /3 T xy or T
-
--13
O"y
db de
.......................... (4)
I Z = b t (d - t) + T@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
(d - 2t) 21 .....(3 ) The most common solution is to use a pair of
diagonal stiffeners. Their cross-sectional area would
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-33
--Td, W
FIGURE 64
The horizontal shear force resisted by the web is- 11. COPE HOLES
. (6) K = (Tmin
=0
U"max
>
~
P'
FIGURE 65
Plastic design is not used under fatigue loading ing bars were used and the holes were not later filled
conditions, so there should be less concern here about with weld metal.
the need for cope holes and their resulting effect on the In plastic design, cope holes are not required to
connection's strength. Cope holes would probably not provide the weld quality required, although they would
result in any appreciable loss in plastic strength. The make it easier for the welding operator. And, if they
additional moment brought about by allowing the web are used, they won't have a detrimental effect on the
to be stressed to yield strength after the outer fibers strength of the connection if left unfilled.
once reach yield is about 10%, and the cope hole repre- The cope hole helps more for accessibility of the
sents a very small portion of this web section. Hence, groove weld on the lower flange if welded in position.
the reduction in strength caused by the cope hole In most cases this would be an area of negative moment
should be only a small fraction of the 10%. and this weld would be under compression, so this
Along the same line of thought, any minor lack should not be as critical as the tension weld on the
of weld penetration due to this lack of accessibility upper flange.
with no cope hole would not be as critical. If the member could be turned over for shop weld-
In going through the original test reports of welded ing, both flanges could be beveled from the outside and
connections for plastic design, there are many beam-to- cope holes would not be needed; see Figure 67.
column connections or knees in which no cope holes
were used. In the AISC report, "Welded Interior Beam-
To-Column Connections" cope holes were used and a
detail of these shown; see Figure 66. Notice that back- FIGURE 67
FIGURE 66
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation spans. Frequently the splice in the beam is carried out
to the point of contraflexure.
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-35
4:
Z
Beam Beam
-t. -<
I
Column -Girder
(a) ( b)
1. A"
FIGURE 68
FIGURE 69
Figure 68 (a) shows the beam resting on a plate Because of this great length, the weight reduction is
shop welded to the top of the column. In most cases only 8.7%.
fillet welds made in the downhand or flat position will On continuous girders and beams, however, there
be sufficient, since there is usually very little moment is a real advantage in using cover plates since the
which must be transferred from the beam into the increased section produced needs to extend only a very
column. short distance in from each end of the beam, Figure
Figure 68 (b) shows a similar connection made in 70 (d). In the example shown, the total length of cover
the beam and the girder which supports it. plate is just 18.3% of the length of the beam (q. Here
Figures 69 (a) and (b) show this method extended weight reduction in applying cover plates to the contin-
to multi-story construction. In both cases, stiffening uous beam is 29.8%.
plates are shop welded in between the flanges of the Additional weight reduction is achieved in going
beam, in line with the column flanges, so that the com- from the simply supported beam to the continuous
pressive load may be transferred directly from one beam with fixed ends. When considering this in the
column flange to the other. example below, of going from a simply supported
beam to the continuous beam with cover plates, the
13. COVER PLATES FOR CONTINUOUS FRAMING over-all weight reduction in the beam becomes 35.8%.
Cover plates are sometimes used in connection with Constants to Help Calculate Final Moments
rolled beams in order to increase the strength (S) or Charts have been developed by which the designer
stiffness (I) properties of the beam. can readily find constants to use in determining stiffness
Unless minimum weight is a real factor, the use of factors, carry-over factors, and fixed-end moments for
cover plates on simply supported beams might not be beams in which there are abrupt changes in moment
justified in building construction since the savings in of inertia due to welded cover plates.
steel might not offset the additional cost of fabricating Sources include:
and welding the cover plate to the beam. This is be- (1) Bull. 176, R. A. Caughy and R. S. Cebula:
cause the cover plate must extend quite a distance to Iowa Engineering Experiment Sta., Iowa State College,
both sides of the beam centerline. Notice in the exam- Ames, Iowa. 36 charts for beams with cover plates at
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
ple shown for uniform loading, Figure 70 (a), that the
cover plate must extend 70.7% of the beam's length (c).
ends. Also reprinted as Structural Study 1302.150, The
Lincoln Electric Co.
5.7-36 / Welded-Connection Design
(d)
L
Moment diagram
weight = 100.0%
no cover Je s
f=~ (f)
weight = 70.2%
cover R!s increase S by 1
FIGURE 70
Example FIGURE 72
1
~
l:l = 346 in4 . / 12" WF 27# beams
. . J
~ 20' ~ 20'
FIGURE 71
+ 20' ~
Weight of this continuous beam with
(b) cover plates = 1750 Ibs.
M: - I0217'j:
(21,900ps'; M, - 92.77 'Ii,
Weight of equivalent simple beam
(C) 1 (t~600psl)
M:-S2.C4·J(-!i'. YM'-49.57';<
(d
construction = 3480 Ibs.
FIGURE 73
FIGURE 74 (a)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 74 (b) FIGURE 74 (c)
5.7-38 / Welded-Connection Design
~ Field weld
to column
Stiffeners
if t"eQ u ire d --- ~ •
/ ~
, •
I I Shop weld
.f' ';.
I I
I I (
I I
~ !""'
v' \J
+
41 z-o
0:3 +-
If)
V
lo.. o
...c 3
~ +
(j)
o
E: <J) FIGURE 75
26' E o
:> \)
a 41
o +
l0- o :t
a <11 c:
.... lo.. ~ ::>
Q)
FN
~
-0 'CT>
~
o ..c
_L-
20'---~~ .. I
Multi-Story Parking Lot
Shop weld Field bolts Stiffeners
Shop fabricated and welded
I \ I if re ouired
continuous beam with two columns
e .... eded as a single unit --, l~l I • "'-
I
I
;>
-t-
- _/
I •
1IlQL~; ~ ~
~~;
'r I .:' .......
I r
.......
Suspended section
FIGURE 76
,
Typical column joint to develop continuity in both directions. The co lumn is cut off at this point. The main
girder (left to right) has 100% continuity, no joint; column stiffe ners on girde r webs are shop welded .
The cross beams are provided continuity by the use of a welded to p p lat e e xte nd ing rig ht across the
upper girder flange. The column for the floor above is positioned o n top of th is con ne cting pla te, tempo-
rarily held by angles shop-welded to the column web, and then pe rman e ntly field wel ded along the
flanges to the connecting plate.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.7-40 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.8
Beam - to - Girder
Continuous Connections
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 1
5.8-1
5.8-2 / Welded-Connection Design
20k
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
TYPICAL BAY
FIGURE 6
tv10ment diagram
L
Consider the bay, Figure 5, with a dead - live Ms - WI
-6-
load of 200 Ibs/ft2 • On this basis each beam would have
a 20-kip load uniformly distributed; each main girder _ (60k ) (240")
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
would have three concentrated forces of 20 kips applied
at quarter points.
6
= 2400 in.-kips
Beam-to-Girder Continuous Connections / 5.8-3
M Here:
S
(2400 in.-kips)
M
(103.0 in.") F
d
23,300 psi compression
(400 in.-kips)
Since the girder in itself provides very little end (10.08" - .43")
restraint for the intersecting beams which it sup- 41.5 kips
ports, the beams will be designed as simply supported (41.5 k )
even though their flanges are welded to the girder. Use ( 5.762") ( .453" )
a 10" WF 25# beam having S = 26.4 in."
However, if two beams framing on opposite sides = 15,900 psi
of a girder are loaded, their ends will be restrained
These two biaxial stresses, (T x = - 23,300 psi
and their end moments must be considered.
and (T y = + 15,900 psi, will affect the yield properties
of the girder's top flange within the region where the
W 2 = 20 k
beam flange is attached.
r----------"A '-----~\ A plate subjected to uniaxial tensile stress, or stress
l L J.lL L J. J. J. J. J. J. L L L ~ in one direction only, will have a certain critical stress
((Tcr) above which the plate will yield plastically.
In this case, this stress point is referred to as the
yield strength.
.c1fTTTIlTIIIII
~ 'ClllJ~
Moment dIagram
uniaxial stress
W2 L
However, if in addition, there is a compressive
12
stress applied at right angles, this will allow the plate
(2Qk) (240") to yield easier and at a lower load.
12
- 400 in.-kips
(Tcr V (Tx 2
- (Tx (Ty + (Ti +3 T xy
FIGURE 7
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation on the verge of yielding, and the tensile flange of the
beam should be isolated from the biaxial compressive
5.8-4 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 8
+ (6()k)( 24<Y' )
48
+ 300 in.-kips
FIGURE 9
M2
Design the girder as having fixed ends. Use 14" S
WF 43# beam having 8 = 62.7 in." _ (300 in.-kips)
(62.7 In.")
~f
= 4780 psi
~20'-----"'" +WL
16
( 6Ok ) ( 24<Y' )
~
+ 16
[IJJW0~~] + 900 in.-kips
CD Moment diagram
M3
0'"3 = S
5 WI L 5( 6Qk) (24<Y') _ (900 in.-kips)
48
1500 in.-kips
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
48 (62.7 in.")
= 14,350 psi
Beam-to-Girder Continuous Connections / 5.8-5
I
I
L------iF===--t-~""-'-=-:-:..;-:...:-~'-- - - -;-.=.-.=.-.=..-=
_ _---=====:::.......---.J
I· Backing bar extends within this .. I
distance on each side of flange
groove butt weld, and also serves
as run-off tab at outer edge
FIGURE 10
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.8-6 / Welded-Connection Design
I• .1
Backing bar extends within this
distance on each side of Range
groove butt weld, and also serves
as run-off tab at outer edge
FIGURE 11
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 12
Beam-to-Girder Continuous Connections / 5,8-7
---- '1:::=
/
/
---- (
I I
I I
I I
I
- .... ,
---.
)
>
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.8-8 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
thick cover plate and a bottom support plate, wider than the beam
@Seismicisolation
flange. This type of connection eliminates any need for beveling plates
and laying groove welds.
SECTION 5.9
Design of Trusses
1. INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 1
@Seismicisolation
4. Quite a few trusses are made of WF sections
@Seismicisolation
completely: both top and bottom chords as well as FIGURE 4
5.9-1
5.9-2 / Welded-Connection Design
diagonal and vertical members. This allows loads to be same price as other hot-rolled sections. This type of
placed anywhere along the rap and bottom chords be- section has many advantages. It has good resistance
cause of their high bending strength. (With the con- to bending, and has high moment of inertia and section
ventional truss design, loads must be placed only at modulus in both directions. It offers good strength in
points where diagonal or vertical members connect compression because of high radius of gyration in both
to the chord members.) Almost all of the welds are on directions. It is very easy to join by welding to other
the flanges of the top and bottom chords, and since similar sections because of its flat sides. For lighter
these are flat surfaces, there is no difficult fitting of the loads, fillet welds are sufficient. These sections offer
members to make these connections, Figure 4. good torsional resistance; this in tum provides greater
5. Where longer lengths of connecting fillet welds lateral stability under compression, Figure 7.
are required, a simple flat plate may be butt welded
directly to the stem of the horizontal T chord, without
any joint preparation. This weld is then chipped or
ground flush in the area where web members will
connect, Figure 5.
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 6
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
7. It is now possible to obtain hot-rolled square and
rectangular tubular sections in A36 steel at about the FIGURE 8
Design of Trusses / 5.9-3
~------------f-.'
Welded connection
/"
If consider moment
~~
M = - Pe
/~,////
Me -
= Pe If neglect moment
I--l----l ----
T, 2 L2 f
d , P = P = 2 L f
..1...' ---- VL 2
+ 36 e
Q
I-- l ---l f
P =
Ir:=--~:~ Ce)" ( 2d +I L )" +C +I 2 L )" P = (d + 2 L) f
L
TEJ----
d
i.
:
----
P =
(2=-)"
L
( _ I)"
6d L +
f
+ C(d ~ L))"
P = 2(d + L) f
ST 4" 9.2#
2P
L
~
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 10
5.9-4 / Welded-Connection Design
2P
+-11::::=:==¢==:::::!::::::==============r------'
FIGURE 11
out the length of the member and it will remain straight. Here:
However, this moment (Me) is carried by the
connecting welds in addition to their axial load (P).
e y = .94"
This moment is usually neglected in the design of the d 4"
welded connection, because of the difficulty in deter- %6"
mining the length of weld (L) when it is considered. P 53.4 kips
Further, there usually is not much difference in the
actual length of the required weld whether it is con- since:
sidered or not.
f
(a) If the moment (Me) is neglected:
53.4 kips
P = (T AT
(20,000) (2.67) and from this we find L = 8". (This value was found
by plotting several values of L on graph paper and
= 53.4 kips selecting that L value which gave the closest value of
P = 53.4 kips.) This would give a total length of 20"
leg size of fillet weld of %6" ~ weld.
Cd = % tr In this case, the extra work involved in considering
% (.425)
the moment did not pay for the very slight overstress in
the weld when the moment was neglected.
.3185" or %6" ~ If only one member is used, and the plate to
which it is attached is not very rigid, this restraining
total length of weld end moment will not be set up. The member will then
P kips have a moment due to the eccentric load ( M = P e),
LT = in addition to its axial load (P). See Figure 12.
%6 (.9.6) kips/in.
(53.4) axial tensile stress in member
(3)
17.8"
This would be distributed 4" across the end, re- bending stress
turning 6.9" on the sides, or use 7" long on each side. Mc _ P y2
This would give a total length of 18" of %6" ~ weld. (T = -1- -1-
(b )1 f the moment (Me) is considered: Since the distance to the outer tensile fiber (c) and
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
(See Figure 11.)
the distance of the section's center of gravity from the
base line (y) are equal, and since the eccentricity of
Design of Trusses I 5.9-5
-e==:::jt~~~-:a--zZQ-==-------------_-----_-_-_----~;::;S;---~~==:::::::J,......~ p
P +4
M
.-
=P e
_LL.J..L.U..JlJ...LJ..LJ..L..LJ.J.,;LJ..J..L.l..U..LJ...L.JL.L.J...L.w.J..LL.J..L.U..JLJ..J..L.w.J..L.U..JLJ..J..L..LJ..L..LJ...L.Ju..u..L..LJ..L.J.J..J...LJ...L.J",,",,- -*-
Moment diagram
Center of gravity
1. _ .L ~ ~ section [obtoined
y y ±;-----~-~om steel handbook)
FIGURE 12
loading (e) is nearly equal to these, it is assumed for In this particular case, the additional moment due
simplicity that c = e = y. Therefore, the total (maxi- to the eccentrically applied axial load reduces the
mum) stress is- member's allowable load carrying capacity by 40%.
This far exceeds any reduction in the strength of the
welded connection due to this moment. Thus, the con-
I ~ + ~I'·······················
nection will be on the conservative side.
CT = (1) Conclusions:
( a) If the attaching plate is very flexible and
or the maximum axial load (P) for a given allowable offers no restraining action at the end of the member,
stress (CT) is- the full moment (M = P e) must be added to the
member and no moment added to the connection. In
other words, the connection is designed for the transfer
I ~ ~ ~' I··
p (2)
of the axial force only.
( b) If the attaching plate is rigid enough so there
is no end rotation of the member, this moment is not
added to the member, but must be added to the con-
For the ST 4" I 9.2# member used in the previous nection.
example, Figure 10, this additional moment due to Even in this example, if the moment were also
eccentricity of loading would reduce the member's al- figured to be added to the connection, at the reduced
lowable axial tensile force to: load of P = 32 kips, it would not require as much weld
as in the previous case:
CT (20,000)
P Here:
1 y2 _1_ (.94)2+
A+T 2.67 (3.50) d 4"
32 kips e P 32 kips
f 5T 4"9.2#
P +4--C::=::::==-~------~~-::::==::::J--+~
c P
T
4"
..i..
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 13
5.9-6 / Welded-Connection Design
p f P = 2 L2 f
v' L2 +
~(~r (2d ~ Lr
36 e2
+ (, : 2Lr 19,200 (2)2 (%)
9600 (%6) +
v' 22 36 (1) 2
"J(3 X
L.94)2 ( 8+1 L)2 + ( 4+12L )2
= 3040 lbs
Theory would indicate that, in the above samples,
32 kips increasing the eccentricity (e) from W' up to I" would
decrease the strength of the welds by 60%.
From this we find L = 4.4" or = 41/z". (This value
Yet, the actual test results showed:
was found by plotting several values of L on graph
paper and selecting that which gave the closest value (a) f = 11,260 lbs/In.
of P = 32 kips.) This would give a total length of 13" (b) f = 10,280 lbs/In,
of %6" ~ weld.
or that this large increase in eccentricity (e), from %"
This is another case where theory would indicate
to I", only decreased the strength by 8.7%.
a much higher reduction in the carrying capacity of a
The reasons for neglecting this eccentricity in the
connection than actual testing shows. The following
detailing of most connections may be summarized as
lap joints were welded and pulled to failure.
follows:
(a) calculated allowable load: 1. In the usual welded connection, the eccentricity
is not very large, and in these cases the theoretical
2 L2 f reduction in strength due to the additional moment in-
V L2 + 36 e 2 duced by the eccentricity is not very much.
19,200 (2)2 (%) 2. Actual test results indicate a much smaller de-
crease in strength due to this eccentricity than theory
v' 22 + 36 (%)2 would indicate. Also these test pieces were very short;
7500 lbs the usual member would be much longer and, if any-
I-- 2"-----1
2" ------------
~
e 1"
~
p p
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 14
Design of Trusses / 5.9-7
Flange force
A.,
Pw = P AT Web force P
AI
PI = P~ Flange force
FIGURE 15
r --
P ..-
I --
FIGURE 16
I V ---+F .?
--
I -< >-
I
P 1- L- P
I -e;>-
- -
I -e-
FIGURE 17
~~ II
II
~ _11n
, - L -..j
u c::-_-_e:-CO--:.::::::CO- -= c::- .:-!--:
i=---"""
P, = • A,
L J
U
= .270"
r tw
~ AT = 2.67 in 2
l A = 0.99 in
w
2
j{ Web
v
w@_~
l~====-r.:~
__ --.@
__
ia!i!i'iiSS!BIMU\
--_----J+ --+ pw = (J Aw
I
" Flange
T
4" tt
it. I
.l.. 1I......,"""'P'.........t - - - - - - - - - - - - I
I
/
%" V
FIGURE 18
P; tr Aw
'T
(20,000) (.99)
19.8 kips (19.8 kips)
( .270) ( 5%)
This force in the web area (P w = 19.8 kips) must 13,330 psi > 13,000 psi (A373 steel)
be transferred down into the Hange by shear (Vw ), and
out into the connection. This is close enough. However, if it were higher, it
Theoretically, if the section is not to be stressed would indicate that one of the following conditions
above its allowable, this shear transfer (Vw) must take exists:
place within a length bounded by the connecting welds. a. The shear transfer takes place over a greater
If this is true, then this 19.8-kip force in the web, distance and, beyond the welds, must travel this short
transferred as shear through a length of 5Vz" where the distance in the flange as additional tension until the
flange joins the web, causes a shear stress in the section weld is reached. It thus slightly overstresses the section
(a-a) of: (b-b) in tension.
8",#-31 #
). I - 8" ---l/ .433"
%"W. 1
AT = 9.12 in 2
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 19
Design of Trusses / 5.9-9
T
6"
1
FIGURE 20
b. The shear transfer does take place within this The leg size of these parallel welds would be based
5W' length, and slightly overstresses this section (a-a) upon the force on the weld:
in shear.
In most cases the welded connection will provide V
sufficient length (a-a) for the proper transfer of these f = 2 L
forces from one portion of the member to another. (47.5 kips)
2(120/4)
I Problem 1 I 1865 Ibs/in.
actual force
To detail an attachment to the tension member shown w
allowable force
in Figure 19.
If we assume the total axial tensile force (F = (1865)
125 kips) is divided among the two flanges and web of (9600)
the beam by the ratio of their areas to the total area, .194" or use W' (A373 steel; E60 weld)
then the force in the flange which must be transferred
out is- (b) If the doubler plates are 7" wide and are
welded directly to the inside of the flanges of the WF
Ar section, the flange force (Fr = 47.5 kips) will transfer
Fr =F AT
directly through the parallel welds. See Figure 21.
= (125) (.433 x 8) If the leg size of these parallel fillet welds is w =
(9.12) lh", the length of these welds would be-
= 47.5 kips
Fr
L = 2(9600 w)
( a) If the doubler plates are 6" wide, this flange
force (Fr = 47.5 kips) must first transfer into the beam _ (47.5 kips)
web along the length (L) as shear, V = 47.5 kips. - 2(9600)(lh)
This length (L) must be- = 4.95" or use 5"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 21
5.9-10 / Welded-Connection Design
~>
--
v
~
... !-
E
Web of
connection
-~ ~~
FIGURE 23
\J Diagonal compression
on web of connection
due to shear forces from
l j unbalanced moment
V V
® Stiffeners
Stiffeners ~~
FIGURE 24
II
II
II
II
II
II
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
r II
Li- __
II
I I
I I
_-L.J
..
I
Design of Trusses / 5.9-11
Rv ! Rh
II
I I
I I
I I
I I
FIGURE 25 I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I
LJ 1 uI
I
....
~
:-
Stiffeners
-z,
~
. ~
FIGURE 26
v "Y
1 1
other component (here F v). Of course the applied where K = the distance from the outer face of the
force (F) will be reduced also, and under these condi- flange to the web toe of the fillet. This
tions some other portion of this member must transfer value for all rolled sections may be found
it. In this case the web of member A will transfer the in any steel handbook.
balance of the force (F).
tr thickness of the flange of the connecting
Determining Need for Stiffeners member which supplies the compressive
Normally stiffeners would be added to a member in force.
which large concentrated transverse forces are applied.
However, for smaller members with lower forces, Although there was no axial compression applied
these stiffeners are sometimes left off in truss connec~ to the member in this test, on subsequent work involv-
tions. It is difficult to know under what conditions this ing actual beam-to-column connections, axial compres-
might have to be stiffened. sion was simultaneously applied. See Figure 28.
In recent research at Lehigh University on "Welded It was found that an axial compressive stress of
Interior Beam-to-Column Connections", short sections about 1.65 times the working stress (14,500 psi), or
were tested under transverse compression as well as (F = 24,000 psi, had little effect on the strength of the
tension, with and without stiffeners. See Figure 27. connection. At the end of each test with the final loads
It was found that the compressive force applied left on the beams, this axial compressive stress was
over a narrow section (t-) of member's Bange spread increased to twice the working stress or (F = 29,000
out over a wide section of the web by the time the net psi with no indication of trouble in the connection.
web thickness was reached. A conservative value for From this, they concluded that the minimum web
this distance is given as:
(tr + 5K) @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation thickness of the column for which stiffeners are not
required is found from the following:
5.9-12 / Welded-Connection Design
Bar represen ts
connecting flange
FIGURE 29
·v
~[ v' ~2 + 8A - ~ ]
The column Bange can be considered as acting as
two plates, both of type ABeD; see Figure 19. The TJ =
beam Bange is assumed to place a line load on each of
these plates. The effective length of the plates (p) is f3 E.
q
assumed to be 12 t, and the plates are assumed to be
fixed at the ends of this length. The plate is also A=~
assumed to be fixed adjacent to the column web. q
See Figure 29, where: For the wide-Bange columns and beams used in
practical connections, it has been found that Cl varies
m = We + 2(K te )
within the range of 3.5 to 5. A conservative figure
be - m would be---
q = 2
b, - m
h = 2
The force carried by the central rigid portion of the
P = 12 t e column in line with the web is-
Analysis of this plate by means of yield line theory
leads to the ultimate capacity of this plate being-
Setting this total force equal to that of the beam's
tension Bange:
where:
resistance of supporting flange (t.) The vertical component of the web force of member
P = (.80) (Ty t b (.15 bb) + (.180) 7 (Ty t.2 @ transfers directly into the web of member ®
within the distance of d
pull of tension flange (t b ) sin 1>
P 1 = bb t b (Ty
Within the region b-c, these compressive stresses
.'. (.80) (Ty t b (.15 bb) + (.80) 7 t.2
(Ty
in the web of member ®
overlap and would be added.
= bb t b (Tr sin 0::
+
or I t. >
= ~bb t b (sin5.60:: - .12) I (4)
(
F r sin 1>
Si~b 1> + 5K )w
F w sin
(s: 1» w
1>
P
- - - - - - ---"1- __
_ _ 1
FIGURE 30
P = PI sin a
® I
0I
r- .,
® FIGURE 31
w
II
'I
II
'I
,I
,I
II
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Design of Trusses / 5.9-15
€--~-_ Flange
stiffeners
L
K
T
FIGURE 32
(8)
~ ... ... - W
I---,-!Lep +5K-I
.
Sin
~
- IT
• - t,
..1..
K
T
~JY
//
// iIII About 'I
II
/ /
II II
//( II ..., ,-w b FIGURE 33
tb //" I II II
// II II
-, //
///
II
II C
II
II II
II
I II 1
I-~-I
T~
FIGURE 34
1 II
®
II I
II
I
LLy-1" __ylJ
II
T ®
FIGURE 35
~
h
to its full allowable compression, a more efficient con-
nection would probably result if the actual stresses
were computed, using these guides on distribution.
Instead of providing full-strength welds, their size
would then be determined from these computed forces.
These ideas will now be applied to various parts of
a truss connection.
upper flange of ®. No shear force is transferred concentrated force into the web is to be taken, then
thro~ the weld between stiffener and web of mem- the conservative method may be used. Thus, it is as-
ber ® . Only enough weld is required near mid- sumed that the flange force must first be transferred as
section of stiffener to keep it from buckling, Figure 36. shear into the web of the same member before it is
transferred through the connecting weld into member
®. This weld may have to be made larger because
F, of this additional force, Figure 38.
If this flange force (F) is high, a web doubler
plate might have to be used so that these forces can
..;x.:----_+. F, be effectively distributed into the web of @ without
overstressing it.
® Stiffener 1 Problem 2A I
Consider the connection of Figure 39, using A373 steel
and E60 welds.
In this case a portion of the vertical component
of @ is transferred directly into ©. It will be
assumed that the vertical component of the left flange
l
A and the vertical force in the right flange of
C will be transferred around through the web of
B by means of two vertical stiffeners. See Figure 40.
(a) Check the size of the connecting welds on
the flanges of @ .
FIGURE 37
unit force on flange fillet welds
The force (F) from the flange of @ enters the ft =
F
[
stiffener, and is transferred through to the opposite
end. The vertical component ( F v) is taken by the (138 kips)
second stiffener as (F.), and the horizontal component 2( 10)
(F,,) is taken by the upper flange of ®' Figure 37.
6.9 kips/linear inch
In these last two cases, it is assumed that no portion
of the force (F) in the stiffener is transferred into the leg size of flange fillet welds
web of ®. The welding of the stiffener would be
6.9
similar to the previous case, that is Figure 37.
9.6
.72" or use 3J4" (or use a groove weld)
FIGURE 38
leg size of web fillet welds
2.11
@Seismicisolation
If there are no flange stiffeners on member B
@Seismicisolation
and no advantage of the preceeding distribution of the
9.6
.22"
Design of Trusses / 5.9-19
®
300k • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . - 548k
" I
" I
" I
10"\¥' 100#
FIGURE 40
However, the minimum fillet weld to be attached unit force on stiffener-to-web fillet welds
to the 1.063"-thick flange would be Ww = %6". (AISC 97 kips
Sec 1.17.4) f - 4(12.6)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
( d) Check the size of connecting welds to trans-
fer this force (Fv) as shear into the web of B.
11,650 psi < 13,000 psi < .40 U'r OK
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.2)-
5.9-20 / Welded-Connection Desig~
®.
---------~----------------
edges of the upper and lower flanges of
(gl. There is one more item to check; consider
point Q0 in the figure below. It is necessary that the
vertical component of the right flange of® be trans-
ferred into the left flange of ©' and yet its hori-
zontal component be transferred into the lower flange
of ®. I
I
I
I
I ®
FIGURE 41
® has a compressive force of 215 kips on the right Theoretically, the flange of @ can only transmit
end and 118 kips on the left end. This means it will
pick up 215 - 118 = 97 kips from @
an axial force (F) between points.B and 0 . There
would be no problem if these 3 flanges met at a com-
Hence, a force of 248 - 97 = 151 kips is to be
mon point.
transferred into the web of ®
over a distance of 20".
V
T
Aw
(151 kips)
(.660) (20)
11,430 psi < 13,000 psi < .40 (T y OK
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.2)-
of
I
Web of B I
118k I
+---1
FIGURE 42
I. L = 20" -I I
I
QU----------------_.QU 215k I
.. V = 151 k
,.. / I I I
248k / / I I
/ / II
/~f II
I I
/ / I I II
/ / I I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
/
/
/
/
/ I I
I I
II
, I
Design of Trusses / 5.9-21
FIGURE 45
be taken at this point and somehow carried up into the If the shear transfer ( V ) between these two stiff-
lower flange of ®. eners exceeds the allowable of the web of ®,
a
Likewise, in order for the fla~e of ® to take doubler plate may be added to the web; or a plate
the horizontal component (Fh) at \V ' it is necessary may be set out on each side to box in this area.
that the vertical component (F v) also be taken at this
point and carried into the flange of ©.There are
several methods by which this may be done.
(1) This could be accomplished with a vertical
stiffener at G) and a horizontal stiffener at 0 .
These would transfer the components into the web of
© from where they could work their way back
into the flange of ® and the flange of ©. Two
methods of using this are shown in Figure 45.
(2) This also could be accomplished with two
sets of vertical stiffeners; see Figure 46. The left stiff-
ener would transfer the vertical force of the flange of
© up into the web of ® ,where it would work its
way over to the right stiffener through shear (V) . The
right stiffener would transfer the vertical component
(F.) of the flange of ® into the web of ® so that
the horizontal co~onent ( F h) could be transferred
into the flange of ®
left ---,!+--;:::I
.
stiffener F Right
--;tiffener
®
14"W 136#
.....,~- W = .660"
I I
10"Wl00# II
II
II FIGURE 47
-l :_Wb
I I
,I
I I
~® -+
t.-= ~:::: . .-:..-:.;. T-=-=-=-=.-=--.:.-.:. - - --""i--::.-::. =-= =- =.-=..j
/ / I
«I' @ :
x. I
I
FIGURE 48 tc = 1.118" I
I
I
I
I
I
FIGURE 49 _+_+u
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Design of Trusses / 5.9-23
I I
I 1.685"
-+jI+-
II
I I
II
II
FIGURE 50 II
10.345"
.660"
r
® ~
~ 1+- 1
II
1.063" II
-II.-
I 1. 685"
II
II
FIGURE 51 A II A
r
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.9-24 / Welded-Connection Design
I
14"VV: 68#
I
I lO" vv: 54#
:~T
I
"-
43"
I
0- ---,-I / 10" vv: 33#
i @
--+ + 126"
I
I
I
I FIGURE 52
shear
V ( 154 k )
r - - = 5,730 psi
I Problem 3 I A (o/s)(43)
Check the details of this connection, using A373 steel resulting maximum normal stress (See Figure 53.)
and E60 welds.
~-------
(~) ~ ( ~ ) + 57302
section a-a.
± 2
M = F d = (l68 k - 14k )( 10") = 1540 in-kips
10,980 psi
V = 154 kips
The resulting bending stress of IT = 8,000 psi
section modulus of section a-a at the outer fiber is for a horizontal edge. If this edge
S = (o/s ) (43 )2 = 192.5 in." slopes (ep), the resulting fiber stress along this edge
6 may be found from the following:
bending
IT =S
M
=
(1540)
(192.5) = 8,000 psi
IlT~ ~ep-I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation so: = (See Figure 54.)
Design of Trusses / 5.9-25
0=0
¢
~ 7" = 5730 psi /
/---....
-J..
f __ fh _
- cos -J..
" " , <t>.
(J 1 (J = 8000 psi I 'T', \~ ..~ 'T'
0=0
I ....
\ ,",'"" I
\
~
1",' /
'-J.- . /
- (J -++----;-t.L. + (J
"
----- /'
- 7"
FIGURE 53 FIGURE 54
at top edge of gusset plate (c..L.Consider the vertical weld between connection
plate (£) and member @ . The forces applied on
If> = 12 0
cos 12 0
= .977
the left side of this weld are-
a = 8,000
.9772 = 8,390 pSI. ( compression
ion )
(b) Consider the transfer of the vertical compon- M (168 k 14k ) (7.03") 1082-in.-kips
ent (F v) of the truss members and @ through ® -
gusset plate ©
and into the web of column fA') V 154 kips
within the connection length of 43" as shear. :Fr;;m section modulus of weld connection
this vertical component (F v), deduct the portion to be
carried by the right flange of @ . (This does not have 2 d2 432
Sw = -6-- 3 616.3 in."
to enter the web of column @.) This portion carried
by the right flange can be determined by the ratio of bending force on weld
the flange area to the total section area.
The force taken by this flange is- M (1082)
r, = Sw = (616.3 ) 1.76 kips/in.
F - 154 (10.04)(.718)
- (20.00) shear force on weld
= 55.5 kips
f. =
V
A =
(154)
(2)(43) 1.79 kips/in.
w
This leaves 154 - 55.5 = 98.5 kips to pass into
the web (some of which will enter into the left flange). resultant force on weld
The resulting shear stress within this 43" length of f, = Y f b 2 +
f. 2 = Y (1.76)2 + (1.79)2
web is:
= 2.51 kips/in.
(98.5 ) leg size of fillet weld
T
(43) (.418)
(2.51)
5,490 psi < 15,000 psi < .40 U y OK w = (9.6) =. 261" or use
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.~
(d) Flange plates, O/S" by' 4%", are welded onto
This transfer can be made while still keeping the © to extend the flange of ® back a sufficient dis-
flange compressive stress within the uniform stress of- tance. The compressive force in the flange of is- ®
U = (168 kips)
(20.00 in.2)
_ 8400
-
.
pSI
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
F = 200k (10.028) (.618)
( 15.88) =.
78 ° ki
ps
5.9-26 I Welded-Connection Design
On this basis, the stress in each of these flange must be taken by © alone. The cross-sectional area
plates is: of ® is A = 15.88 in 2 •
(78 kips) For the same stress in ©'
this would require
(2") ( o/s") ( 43/4" ) the same cross-sectional area, or 15.88 in.", and a net
width of
13,100 psi OK
W -- 15.88 = 25.4"
The force from an adjacent pair of these plates is o/s
transferred into © as double shear.
There is sufficient width; see Figure 52.
(f) At section c-c halfway along the Hange,.Rlates,
it is assumed that half of the flange force of @ has
been transferred out into ©:
rz, (200k) (10.028) (.618 ~ - 390 ki
r" ( 15.88) -. ps
14" W 68#
A = 20.00 in 2 FIGURE 57
I. = 724.1 in 4
I
I %" X 17"1l
I
r;;'I :""<- Neutrol
r-- ----l
\V
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
I oxrs
15.53"
Design of Trusses / 5.9-27
~ ± ~( ~ y +
M2 (163.5)2
r, -1\ = (3655)
( 30.52)
2380 in." U"max = 7
2
M (163.5)
NA -1: (30.52) 5.36" (7470) + ., 74702 + 7640 2
2 , 2
From this: 12,800 psi
c = (14.06 + 17) (7.03 + 5.36) 18.67" Check the outer edge of this plate © as a
I (2380) column.
S = C = (18.67) 127.5 in."
radius of gyration
Applied Loads r = .289 t = (.289)(%) = .181"
L 15
r= .181 = 83
and the corresponding allowable compressive stress is-
r~J
U" = 14,130 psi> 12,285 psi OK
(AISCSec 1.5.1.3.1)
T
/
T
0.
1
N
----------1- ·1
--------,--
fl'
11----
I' ,
I 248 k 31
II
I' -------- 1
,I
,I
I
i 1----- 1
" 3.87"
1
-j I- FIGURE 59
Weld group
horizontal force
T c
fb =T
_ (248 x 3.87) ( 18 )
( 18,516)
= 933 lbsjin.
vertical shear
gusset plate. The only force transferred through this
connecting weld to the vertical member (14" WF F
f y 1 = Lw
136#) connecting weld to the vertical member (14"
WF 136#) is the 248-kip vertical force acting 3W' (248)
away from the center of gravity of the welded con- (4 x 36)
nection. 172/J Ibsjin.
Treat the weld group as a line: resultant
r, = 2
d(3b 2
6
+d 2
)
fr -/ h? +
(fv f vd + 2
A373 steel
E60 welds
6" \lIP 25#
At =7.37 in 2 4
Aw = 1.83 in2
FIGURE 60
Problem 5
f = L = (36")
2.64 kips/in.
(b) Find the required size of fillet- weld between
weld leg size flanges of @ and plates ®.
The total length of
connecting weld is-
(2.64 k/in.) = .275" or use
w = (9.6 k/in.)
5/
111 6" L = 4(3W') + 2( 12") = 38.0"
r, = 95 k (1.83)
(7.37) =
23 6 ki
. IpS @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
= ~:~ = ill .260" or use %6"
5.9-30 / Welded-Connection Design
---------~~~-~~----------
- - - - --
- --
- --
- --
--- .~
. .- -----
;;h lll---------
® © J~21V:"
VI6"V2W')
4/ I:III~
~,
V
b/ II
.>
6"W 15.5#
At = 4.62 in2
A w = 1.39 in 2 6"W 25#
At = 7.37 in2
© Aw = 1.83 in 2
, l
FIGURE 61
Problem 6
* * *
Check the weld sizes on this truss connection. A373 The solution of some truss connection problems
steel, E60 welds. can be arrived at by an approach often used in connec-
No calculations are required for the flange groove tion with the design of hangers and supports. See Sec-
welds, since they will develop the full strength of tion 6.8, Problem 3.
the flanges.
The force in the web of diagonal member @ is- 8. SECON DARY STRESSES IN TRUSSES
F - 90k (1.39) 27.1 kips So-called "Secondary Stresses" may result from bending
w - (4.62)
moments applied to the various chord members as the
The effective fillet weld size for this web ® is- result of the truss deflecting under load. With the
exception of large bridge trusses, these secondary
w = % tw = %(.240) = .180" or %6" stresses are usually ignored and only the primary or
direct stresses are considered. If these must be deter-
The total length of this weld is- mined, it would be possible to compute the actual
L - (27.1 kips) 15.0" deflection of the truss under load and from this condi-
- (1.8 k/in.) tion to then compute the secondary stresses.
In Crinter's "Modern Steel Structures", Volume 1,
If there is 5" of %6" fillet weld on each side of page 51, he mentions that experiments have shown that
web ® to web @, this leaves 15" - 2 ( 5") = 5" or these secondary stresses ordinarily do not exceed 30%
21jz" on web of @ to each flange of @. of the primary stresses for a given member. If the engi-
The force in the web of member ®
is- neer is concerned about this, he may reduce the working
stress to allow for an assumed secondary stress of about
F - 75k (1.83) 18.6 kips
w - (7.37) 1J3 of the primary stress. This method will of course
require additional steel, but it is easy to use and is
If there is 5" of W' fillet weld on each side of the reasonably safe.
web of @ to the webs of @ and @, this will In order to take full advantage of possible economy
develop: in the design of large important structures, the secon-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
F = 2 X 5"(2.4 k/in.) = 24.0 kips> 18.6 kips, so is OK
dary moments should be calculated and used in the
design with increased working stresses.
Design of Trusses / 5.9-31
Trusses were essential to the all welded framing of the steel and glass Phillis Wheatley
Elementary School in New Orleans. The school was erected off the ground on two
rows of concrete piers, plus exposed steel supporting columns under end trusses of the
cantilevered classroom wings. This provides both open and sheltered play area beneath
the structure.
The roof supporting space frame that tops the Upjohn Co.'s Kalamazoo office building
is of welded angle construction. A system of subassembly jigs facilitated the holding
of alignment during fabrication of the giant frame sections. Nearly all joints are
@Seismicisolation
welded downhand .
@Seismicisolation
5.9-32 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.10
Connections for
Tubular Construction
1. INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
Gusset It
+
@Seismicisolation
Greater stress concentration
@Seismicisolation
in pipe at these points
More uniform stress
distribution in pipe
Connections for Tubular Construction / 5.10-3
Tensile member
Compression
member
FIGURE 6
t
2nd
1st
0.0. = 123,4"
I = v."
FIGURE 7
(a) (c)
this is welded to both of these members. Every effort is test shows this connection to have the highest strength,
made to obtain the best tensile connection; Figure 6. actually slightly higher than the tube itself, which in
This is not quite as important as it first sounds a separate test pulled at an average of 260 kips. Notice
since most of the vertical component in the tension all three of the above tests failed in the tube wall
member is transferred directly into the compression adjacent to the connecting weld.
member through the welds of this overlapping portion
(b) without ever passing through the weld connecting 4. APPLICABLE BRITISH SPECIFICATIONS
the tension member to the main horizontal member (a).
The portion of the weld (a) in the overlapped area The following is taken from Addition No.1 (Nov 1953)
connecting the tension member to the main member to B.S. 449 (1948), British Standards Institution:
is subjected to two forces: tension from the tensile Sealed tubes or sealed box sections, for exposed
member, and compression from the compression mem- structures shall not be thinner than .160"; for non-
ber since it pushes against this overlapped portion of exposed structures this limit is .128", and not less than-
the tensile member. One force offsets the other, so that D outside diameter of pipe
very little of any vertical force must be carried by this t = .10 \f"D
portion of the weld at (a), just the horizontal force t thickness of pipe
into the top member.
Figures 7 and 8 describe a test conducted at the The angle between intersecting pipe shall not be
University of California, "Research on Tubular Con- less than 30°; otherwise the strength of the connection
nections in Structural Work" J. G. Bouwkamp, WRC shall be demonstrated.
#71, Aug. 1961. This test shows the effect that over- A complete penetration groove weld may be used
lapping the intersecting web members has on the regardless of the ratio of the diameters of the inter-
strength of the joint. secting pipes.
It is seen that a more negative eccentricity of the If the ratio of the diameter of the pipes is less than
connection (c) results in more overlapping of the web %, fillet welds may be used.
members and greater stiffness of the main member. If this ratio is % or greater, a combination of fillet
With this great overlapping of the web members, the welds for a portion of the joint and groove welds for
transfer of the vertical component of the diagonal web the remainder may be used.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
member into the vertical web member will occur before
it enters the main horizontal chord member. The above
Pipes connected end to end shall be groove welded.
In a fillet weld or a combination of fillet and groove
5.10-4 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Connections for Tubular Construction / 5.10--5
I Problem 1 I
To design an efficient connection on this tubular truss,
Figure 9.
(a) First check the allowable loads on the various
selected pipe sections against the actual loading.
~
e
48"
6%"
d - --J
FIGURE 10
e
...L
maximum unit force (radial) applied to This represents a worse condition than actually exists.
1" ring section of pipe @
t2
6 Mh 5-
fb = (d + e) (d + 2e) 6
_ (%)2
6(990)
(48 + 4Jh) (48 + 9) 6
--------~-----..~
©
48"
38"
FIGURE 12
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
liner around pipe ( .318) (26.1 k) ( 6")
49.8 in.-kips
5.10-8 / Welded-Connection Design
®
5" Pipe
%" gusset
It
FIGURE 14
t~
M w <: 1.355 t,
S
<: 1.355 (%)
_ (49.8 in.-kips) <: .509"; so we'll use %" ~
(18,000 psi)
= 2.77 in." Since:
W t2 where: w width of F 4 L 9600 w
S - -6- stiffening ring
L F
- 4 x 9600 W
or t=ff -
200k
4 x 9600 (%)
= _f (6) ( 2.77 ) = 13.9" or 14"
~ 10
= 1.29" required, and since 1.29" - %" = An alternate method would be to use 3/B " fillet weld
all the way around the end of the pipe ® :
o
.915", add a I" x 10" plate wrapped around the pipe
at the top and bottom of the connection.
plate
4 L 9600 w = 4 t F! L T
pipe
4 L 9600 w = 4 t, L T
FIGURE 15
w =
13,000 t.
9600 = 1.355 t, @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Connections for Tubular Construction / 5.10-9
The total length of weld would be- do this without any difficulty.
200 k If fillet welds are to be used instead of groove
L welds, this second cut or bevel is only needed at re-
3.6k j in .
entrant corners of the joint or where the angle between
= .5.5.6", or 27.8" on each side of the Sfs" gusset the surfaces of the intersecting pipes is less than 90 0
•
plate.
If the transverse weld is 12" long, this leaves 27.8
- 12 = 1.5.8", or 8" on each side.
of the larger pipe ® intersect along a curve which 11 300° - .8660 + .7500 + .5000
forms the root of the joint. 12 330° - .5000 + .2500 + .1340
Following is a suggested method for making tem- 1 360° 0 0 0
plates which will cover all possible connections at any
angle of intersection, any amount of offset, and any
possible combination of pipe sizes. This template will
TABLE 2-Properties o. Polar Angles
allow the end of the smaller pipe to be cut for proper
fit-up against the surface of the larger pipe. In struc- 16 POSITIONS or (8)
tural work, it is not necessary to cut a hole into the position a sin a sin 2 a l-coS' a
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
provide the required included angle for the groove
weld. A good experienced flame-cutting operator will
16
1
337.5°
360.0°
-
0
.3827 +
0
.1465 +
0
.7061
5.10-10 / Welded-Connection Design
PIPE A PIPE A
'A'-----r--~~----r------7I @
EXAMPLE OF
POINTS D. ETC.
PIPE B PIPE B
FIGURE CL
FIGURE b
+-- /
/
FIGURE 16
Graphical Method of Making Template 4. Through points lP), draw lines parallel to the
References are to views (a), (b), and (c) of Figure 16. axis of the large pipe ® ' extending them into figure
1. Draw a side view of the connection, figure (a). (a) .
Draw an end view of the connection, figure (b). 5. Where these parallel lines of pipe ®
inter-
2. Layoff pipe @ into a given number of equal sect corresponding parallel lines of pipe @ , in figure
sections, for example 16, and number these 1, 2, 3, etc. (a), mark points (E). Number these points in accord-
through to 16. Draw lines through these points parallel ance with the original division of the pipe @ .
to the axis of pipe ®
in both figures. 6. In figure (c), layoff line z-z, equal to the outer
FIGURE 17
~
~
L 1,000 ......
:8
:7
.10
.'$ ~
(II
;4-
SIO~ VIEW :3 a:
,Z l
r;
no
K=-;:
z END VIEW
:::I
:::I
...
(II
n
o'
:::I
.10
POSITION ON
'?
TEMPLATE
ca''":::I
-n
Q .ZO
c;:lD
m
CD
-+---Cl)@@)@
.30
,40
FOR POSITIONS (1) ANIJ @ [ A] =0 ,ooz
.50
3 + 5 ~ 7 B ~ W H a 0 ~ ~ ~ I
@Seismicisolation
RESULTING TEMPLATE FOR PIPE
@Seismicisolation
Connections for Tubular Construction / 5.10-13
A sheet of paper is laid out. A straight line X-X sin 60° .8660
is drawn across the paper, parallel to the long edge and tan 60° = 1.7321
'}/' or 3" from this edge. Starting from the left edge of
the paper, measure off a distance on this line equal to Formula (3)
the outer circumference of the smaller pipe A and
h r2 [A] rl [B]
mark this on the line. This can be done in two ways; = sin cf> + tan cf>
the circumference of the pipe may be figured by know-
3 2
ing the outside diameter of the pipe, or this paper may .8660 [A] + 1.7321 [B]
be wrapped around the outside of the pipe and marked
where this edge of the paper overlaps. = 3.464 [A] + 1.155 [B]
The easiest way to divide this line (which repre-
sents the circumference) into equal segments is to fold
The results are shown below in table form. As a
the left edge of the paper back toward the right until
matter of interest, the values computed by Formula
it lies directly on top of this mark, then fold this flat
(2) are listed on the extreme right and indicate the
upon itself. This divides the circumference into two
reasonable accuracy of the nomograph.
equal parts. Now fold this edge back toward the left
until it lies directly over this fold, and fold down. Do
the same for the similar portion on the bottom. This Values of [A] Values of [BJ Value of h Value of h from
now divides the circumference into four equal parts. position from nomograph from table 2 3.464 [AJ + 1.155[B] formula (2)
be used, divide each of these quarter sections into four 4, 14 .21 .6173
----_._--~-
1.44 1.448
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
f--------- ------
- - - - - ~ _ . - - - - ~- -
this curve; the lower portion of the paper is the tem- 8, 10 .032
. .-
1.9239
f--~--~
_ ...
2.42 2.336
9 0 2.0000 2.31 2.309
plate.
5.10-14 / Welded-Connection Design
®
/I'ISIDE OF
+ PIPE A
FIGURE b'
TOP VIEW
PIPE C
I
I / \
1/ ' _____ -.£IP~8 _ +
PIPE 8
f----· FIGURE a-
FIGURE b
END VIEW
SIDE VIEW
FIGURE 19
o ® ®
@Seismicisolation
l------..L.---L------,----------,----------,-------,-----------,------------------,------------,---------l
@Seismicisolation
0 ® ® 0 ® ® @ ® @ @ ® @ @ 0
z
shipment to the project site. The clip also fun ctions as " Saxe sea t a nd clip lie inside
a spat to help in support of th e beam. This allows the I of tubular box beam , a llowing
joinl to be made withou t any attachments on th e out- " use of simple fill et we ld around
, o utside . Idea l for expose d stee l
side, and produces a pleasing appearance. <,
-,
rr--A.,------ll".-,..., ... ,
\
J
FIGURE 20
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.10-16 / Welded-Connection Design
Space frame roof on the combined warehouse and machine shop in Bethlehem Steel
Co.'s research complex offers an interesting silhouette (at top). Roof frame is formed
by eleven 96'-span welded pipe trusses braced apart by inclined pipe struts and
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
arched structural members. The result is a very rigid structure, although temporary
stiffening with steel channels was required during erection.
Connections for Tubular Construction / 5.10-17
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.10-18 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.11
Rigid-Frame Knees
(Elastic Design)
D
(0) Square corner (b) Square corner with brocket (c) Tapered haunch
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I r I
I~~I----------~
, I
, I
~====~------------~
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 1
5.11-1
5.11-2 / Welded-Connection Design
1300
I
4'"
/
I
IT ~ 32"~
I
',I
-< ~
I I ~
Curved knee~
>C' I
F
q. /' --f' -
1200
/I - -'r___
~ I 22 1'\ -,
I
, ,,\ ...... _ r -
I 16" e--< 'j-
1100
/
/-
'I
"/-f-\ ~-
~
- -- -
1 1 F I
,,t.: ,
I
1000 -- -I
/
, I
900 --1--'
--- l\,+~v'
.~
0.. 600
Q.
C
D
Q)
E 500 -
1/ ~
.....
Lb
0
0/'/
~ 'l Be~m
400 - -
Y; FIGURE 2
300 - -
!J
1/
200
100
I
'/
.0002 .0004 .0006 .0008 .0010 .0012 .0014 .0016 .0018
Unit angular rotation (<1>), radians/in.
It might be thought that the simple square type member, and in some cases it will be less.
of knee connection would naturally be as rigid as the Figure 2 shows moment-rotation curves of various
connecting members, since it is a continuation of the knee connections. * The vertical axis is the' applied
same section. In many cases, this is true. However, moment; the horizontal axis is the resulting rotation
stress causes strain, and the accumulation of strain of the connection. The vertical height of the curve
over a distance results in a movement of some kind: represents the maximum or ultimate strength of the
deflection, angular movement, etc. This means that the connection. The slope of the straight portion of the
sharp comer of this joint increases the stress in this curve represents the stiffness of the connection, with
region by several times. This stress concentration results the more nearly vertical curves being the stiffer. The
in a higher strain and, therefore, greater movement in right-hand extremity of the curve represents the rota-
this local region.
With the square type of knee in which just flange * Figure 2 adapted from "Connections for Welded Continuous
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
stiffeners are added, it is difficult to exceed the stiffness
of the member. In most cases it will just equal the
Portal Frames", Beedle, Topractsoglon, and Johnston; AWS
Journal: Part I July 1951, Part II August 1951, and Part III
November 1952.
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.11-3
H H
Frame under load
Point of inflection;
zero moment
Moment diagram
FIGURE 3
F
v
Portion of knee in
testing machine, subject
Knee with actual to compressive force (F)
forces applied at to duplicate actual
points of reflection; load conditions in frame
no moment applied
at ends ,
'v
F
3. SHEAR IN CONNECTION WEB shear into the connection web within the distance equal
to the depth of the connecting member, the resulting
An axial force (tensile or compressive) can transfer shear stress within this connection web is-
sideways out of one element of a member as shear.
For example, the tensile force from the beam flange
will transfer down through the connection web as shear T = Fdb
tw c
= tw
Fdc!
b
(l)
into the supporting column; Figure 4.
- -
----
a, = F/A,
Initial conditions of y = riG = e Final conditions of
stiffener and web Final conditions of web stiffener
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 5
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.11-5
For small strains (E.) and angles ('Y)- and the compressive stress in the diagonal stiffener is-
sin ('Y) = tan ('Y)
I CT. = 2.5 T sin () cos 0 I.................. (2)
Hence: Now we go back to the Bange force (F) since it
causes this load on the connection region.
and The Bange force of the beam is equal to the shear
force carried by the web plus the horizontal component
of the compressive force carried by the diagonal
but stiffener.
or
1- 2 ~ sin 0 cos () = Some knees are more complex than those described
E. here and analysis must consider factors that are covered
2
CT. CT. could neglect more adequately in Section 2.12, Buckling of Plates.
1 - 2 E +W this last term
or
Since for steel:
I Problem 1
21" w= 62 # beam
ri:;S;===~C=========I--+ required sectional area of stiffeners
db
T
= 20.99"
F = 117.6k A _ F.
8 -
-
Us
(26.4 )
(22.0)
= 1.2 in." (pair)
•
Also required:
b./t. = 17
Hence, use a pair of %" x 3" diagonal stiffeners.
t
an
(J = 20.99 1 480
14.18 = .
y'"3 a'y Z
a'y db de
flange force on the beam V3 (144.1)
(20.99) (14.18)
M
F = db .837"
(2470 ) This exceeds the actual web thickness of t w
(20.99) .451", so stiffening is required.
117.6 kips
required area of diagonal stiffeners
Method 1
Fw = T t w de = (d (.837) - .451)
= (14,500) (.451) (14.18)
= 5.64 in. 2 (pair)
= 92.8 kips
Use a pair of 3!4" x 4" diagonal stiffeners.
This leaves (117.6 - 92.8 =) 14.8 kips to be
carried by the horizontal component of the compressive Checking this size against the requirements:
force on the diagonal stiffener. A. = 2 x 3!4" x 4"
compressive force on stiffener = 6.0 in. 2 > 5.64 in. 2 OK
2 x 4"
~:~~
F. = 14.8 (
= 26.4 kips
)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
<
3!4"
10.7 17 OK
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.11-7
Method 3 Start with a pair of If.!'' x 3" diagonal in direction of the compressive flange force is accom-
stiffeners and, assuming both diagonals contract the plished by means of a diagonal stiffener; Figure 7 (b).
same amount under load, check stresses in web and In the curved haunch, this change in direction of
stiffener. the axial force is uniform along the curved edge of the
flange and results from radial compressive forces in the
shear stress in web web; Figure 7 ( a).
F The force in the inner flange of the knee is greater
T =t w de + 2.5
-----;-------::0-::-----,----:----=---,,-
A. sin () cos" () than the force in the outer flange because it has a
smaller radius of curvature. Usually this inner flange is
117.6
the compression flange; therefore, this is the region to
(.451) (14.18) + 2.5 (3.0) (.829)( .561)2
be checked for stiffening requirements using the follow-
14,080 psi ing formula for radial compressive forces in the web.
Diagonal resisting
compressive force
Radial compressive
forces
f, = Fir
(a) (bl
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 7
5.11-8 / Welded-Connection Design
0" t r b,"
and
-L Inner flange
8 r,
t b ~:ry,'77-r7#'r7"777?7A
3 0" b r2
f -r-:li~~~""'rf 4 r, t r
I-
- - - - - - bf - - - --..
From this relationship, it is seen that in order to
hold the transverse tensile stress (O"t) to a value not
exceeding the axial compressive stress of the Bange (0").
FIG. 8 Cross-section of lower flange and web. the following must be held:
The bending moment along the centerline of the bl < 4 or Ilh (8:
beam Bange due to this radial load will be: r, t -
r 3
Radial compressive
force exerted
by web~
FIGURE 9
Transverse tensile
stress due to bending
of flange
,
I
I I
I I
(b)
tnrrHnn
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.11-9
2.0
Values of f3
/
1.0 iooL
I
Values of a
FIGURE 10
o
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Values af (~f:)
Center of
gravity
Shifted
neutral
cxrs
Inner face
of flange
Stress on
inner flange
(a) (b)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 11
5.11-10 / Welded-Connection Design
I
Here:
»>: -.. , . . --------
I ,
Here:
FIGURE 14
b =a cos 4>
fa
fb
W. R. Osgood" and modified by H. C. Olander." cos 4>
(Ta fa fa
or a
• "Theory of Flexure for Beams with Nonparallel Extreme Fibers" a x 1" (Ta 1"
by W. R. Osgood, ASME Vol. 61, 1939.
•• "Stresses in the Corners of Rigid Frames" by H. O. Olander,
(T.,
r,
ASCE Transactions Paper 2698, 1953. b x 1"
Method af Using a Straight Cross-Section 1
= -fa- x--=-------,-
Dimension of Straight Section cos 4> a cos 4>
The dimensions of a straight section (A-B) of the ___ fa _ X (T x 1"
-=-=-a_~
P'I
I FIGURE 15
a I" u------+-I Point of
I
I inflection
'20.""",:
I
I
r I
FIGURE 16
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.11-12 / Welded-Connection Design
,I
,
I
------~\i
inflection
FIGURE 17
Here:
(Fb = cos:?
(Fa
() (
15)
d r[l-cos (2 ex:)]
Wedge Method 01 Determining Section
p sin (2 ex:) + sin (2 ex:) •...• ( 16)
~he wedge method may be used on any beam section
/whose flanges are not parallel. d r[l-cos (2 ex: )] (17)
A curved section (A-B) is constructed where the n sin (2 ex:) , ••••
tan (2 ex:)
stresses are to be checked. This is normal to both
flanges and has a radius (p) the center of which lies
on the straight flange. See Figure 17. u- nl (18)
The transverse force (P t' ), axial force (P a' ), and
moment (M') acting at the apex (C) ofthe wedge are
found. See Figure 18. P 2 ex: I (19)
P',
P'a
P,
I
I Point of
...1 .. n--~_---m--~
I inflection
1
1
r 1.......
_------u----~~
\!
- - - - - - - - - - -0""l--Center of
curvoture
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 18
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.11-13
transverse force applied to wedge at point C the curved haunch section, as described in following
paragraphs.
Ipt' = P t cos ex: - P a sin ex: I (20)
Moment (M') Applied to Wedge Member
axial force applied to wedge at point C The horizontal bending stresses (0"11) resulting from the
applied moment (M'), Figure 19 (a), may be replaced
Ipa' = P a cos ex: +P t sin ex: I (21) with its two components: radial bending stress (0"1')
and tangential shear stress (T), Figure 19(b). In Figure
moment about point C 19( c) are shown the resulting stresses.
It is seen in taking moments about the apex (C)
IM I
= + Pm + Pail
t (22)
of the wedge that all of the radial bending stresses
pass through this point and cannot contribute to any
moment. The tangential shear stresses along the curved
These applied forces result in various stresses on section (A-B) acting normal to, and at a distance (p)
(a) Resisting horizontal (b) Components of (c) Resisting radial bending stress (0"1')
bending stress bending stress normal to curved section (A-B);
also tangential shear stress (T)
FIGURE 19
(J+~ r® (J'~1TV
(Jh+- J@
~
~~
...
-t
.......
~"
.>
/@
(a) Resisting horizontal (b) Components of these (c) Resisting radial bending
bending stress and two stresses stress (0"1') normal to curved
vertical shear stress
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 20
section (A-B)
5.11-14 / Welded-Connection Design
will produce an equal and opposite moment. The value moment applied to section A-B
of this tangential shear force (V) acting on this curved
section (A-B) may be found from the following: IM = M' + Pt pl· (25)
I V ~'I· (23)
normal stress on inner flange
Transverse Force (P/) Applied to Wedge Member [CTr = +If-+ ¥I ......·......·....· (26)
!f +~I ......·........·..
Figure 20( a).
These two stresses may be completely replaced [CTr = - (27)
with a single component, radial bending stress (CT r);
Figure 20 (b ). The results are shown in Figure 20 ( c ).
Notice that no tangential shear stresses are present.
Problem 2
Axial Force (PD') Applied to Wedge Member
The axial force (PD ' ) applied at the apex of the wedge To check stresses and stiffener requirements on the knee
member, causes radial stresses to occur along the curved connection shown in Figure 22, for the loads indicated.
section (A-B); Figure 21. There are no tangential shear A36 steel and E70 welds are used.
stresses from this force, because they cancel out.
STEP J: Check Lower Curved Flange (Figure 23)
Summary
The effects of all these forces applied to the wedge properties of haunch section (1-1)
member may be summarized as follows: Use reference axis ( y-y) through centerline of
web plate.
shear stress on section A-B
= = M"y
~
'
Plate A y M A"y Iy I.
V= %" x 10" 7.50 +24.500 + 183.75 +4502. -
P
112" x 48.25" 24.125 0 0 0 4681
1" x 10" 10.000 -24.625 -246.25 +6064 -
Toto I 41.625 - 62.50 15.247
~ Tangential
shear
----+ stresses
cancel out
~===::::;::::====±::=:::::J
I
I Point of
I inflection
1" flange
150"
r = 100"
~centerof
curvature
FIGURE 22
1 -.
'1£-----100"
.. '> I
r;============::::jCD-+ F,
___ --J~ = 10&
H= 150
k
FIGURE 23
---:--f--
Neutral
cxrs
- -
-r
r
11
t
i --
1501 "
y 50.0"
"~I5" ~5'
10" X 1"
Haunch section (1 - 1)
M
NA -T
M2
1)- + I, - A ( -62.50)
( -62.50):! ( 41.625)
(15,247) -
15,153 in."
( 41.625)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Cr
-- 1.501
23.125
5.11-16 / Welded-Connection Design
average stress in lower curved flange at (1-1) transverse bending stress in flange
_~+ M Ct <Tt = f3 (Tmax
(Tt - A I
( .70) ( 19,600)
(150 kips) (100" x 100 kips)( 23.125") = 13,760 psi
= (41.625) + (15,153 in.")
= 18,870 psi (compression) These stresses are a little high, so radial stiffeners
will be added between the lower curved flange and
force in flange the web.
Fe = (Tt At
STEP 2: Check Haunch Section lor Bending Stress
( 18,870) ( 10) Using Olander's wedge method and curved section
(A-B) (See Figure 24.)
= 188.7 kips
radial pressure of flange against web Here:
_ Fe sin 18° = .30902
fr -
r cos 18° .95106
(188.7) tan 18° .32492
(100) sin 9° .15643
1.887 kips/in. cos 9° .98769
radial compressive stress in web 18° = .31417 radians
r, dimensions of wedge section (ABC)
(T =-
tw
_ (1887 lbs/in.)
(!h" )
= 3774 psi
and we find-
ex: = .96 f3 = .70 FIGURE 25
Hence:
maximum flange stress
18,870
- .96
= 19,660 psi @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation p~ = 123.5 k
Wedge section (ABC)
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.11-11
1 - - - - - - - - - - 225"----
\ I
\ 18°...... Point of inflection in beam (M = OJ
, 18 0~
\
I
I
./':
0 '-
\
\
I
"o[----u = 100" --j
150" . . 18 ,'I
1-0,
'I.... ' ,\ \ I
180 ".... " \ : 2a = 18°
......... ' \ I
18°
r = 100" .... , ,,\
'\'
I
i . . ,'~'l s Center of
- - - - - - - - - -~ curvature
u = 25"
Point of inflection
in column (M = 0)
,.135" ~:2LT
m = -113"
tI J1
+ 14,456 in-kips d = 5406"
II
II
~e~t~l_ _ ~ t_ y w •
L
oxrs T
_ 1.57"
d = 55.81"
P~ = 123.5 k h
6 3
c " "
FIGURE 24
177.63" (50)
( .32492) - (15.84)
do p2ex:
(177.63) (.31417 radians)
55.81"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation u
138.04"
25"
5.11-18 I Welded-Connection Design
m = u - n
= 25" - 138.04"
= - 113.04"
properties of haunch section (A-B)
Use reference axis (y-y) through centerline of web
Neutral
plate.
oxrs
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
These forces result in the following stresses on the
haunch section (A -B) of the wedge (see Figure 26):
(A-B)
(See Figure 27.)
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.11-19
~ V = lOOk
O+--
H= 150k
Co
I = 28.872"
==p
\12" 4
26'f " I
dh = 54.88"
-y
oxis
27.065"
~
10" x r-
Haunch Section (A-B)
FIGURE 27
%" x 10"
._--
7.50 +26.94 +202.05 +5443.2
..
-
- - ~ - _
---
112" x 53.13" 26.565 0 0 0 +6249 tensile bending and axial stress in outer flange
1" x 10"
- - - - - c--
10.000 -27.065 -270.65 +7325.3 -
cr = - ~
A
+ -M1c.,-
Toto 1 44.065 - 68.60 19,018
M P M c,
NA -1\ cr = - A - - 1 -
-
( 44.065)
1.557"
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation (44.065 ) --( 18,91iT-~
13,800 psi, compression
5.11-20 / Welded-Connection Design
\
\
6 ~ 19,180
5 - 21 400'
\ I
8)- 27,400 \ I
\ \ I
\ I
+ 11,3700 G) - 21 200" \ I
, -, \ \ I
<, ,,\ I
+ 10,550 G) "..... -, \ I
<, "\ \ I
<, <, \ \ I
~ ~ '<,\\1
+ 4430 CD F==~=:::j CD - 7950 +4430CD r==='===1 CD -7950 - - - - - - - -""'-0
[b]
(0)
FIGURE 29
STEP 4: Summary
Figure 29 summarizes the stresses at several sections of
stress normal to axis of curved flange the haunch for hoth the wedge method and the conven-
tional method using straight sections.
a' = cr
cos" 2 ex: The wedge method giVt's results that check close
with experimental results, although it does require
13,800
more time. The conventional method using straight
(.9,s106) ~
sections in which the stress on the inward curved flange
is increased to account for the sloping flange is easier.
However, note that it does give higher values for the
steeper slope.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.12
@Seismicisolation
applied moment (M), the horizontal axis is the result-
@Seismicisolation
ing angle of rotation (cf». Within the elastic limit (B), FIGURE 1
5.12-1
5.12-2 / Welded-Connection Design
no
this beam has served its usefulness, it still will not fail
load
because the two knees are still intact and the frame
@ now becomes a three-hinged arch, the other two hinges
being the original pinned ends.
Further loading of the frame may be continued,
maximum load as in (d), with the knees loading up until they become
for elastic plastic hinges, as in (e). Only when this point is
desiqn reached would the whole frame fail. This condition is
o = 22,000 referred to as mechanism; that is, the structure would
deform appreciably with only the slightest increase
in load.
15t pla siic This entire hinge action takes place in a small
TITTTTTU,.j"'ll.L.I.ll!j= hinge formed portion of the available elongation of the member. In
at center
the lower portion of Figure 3 is a stress-strain curve
r 0 1 showing the amount of movement which may be used
becomes arch
in the plastic range. This may seem large, but it is a
very small portion of the whole curve, as shown in the
M,..j ==fWl..l.Wlbl<m""""""~~TrTm."".r<llill.l.l.l.lll= upper portion of the figure, which is carried out to 25%
@ elongation.
The working load is multiplied by a factor of
safety (1.85) to give the ultimate load. The design of
plastic the structure is based on this ultimate load. In order
hinge to establish a proper factor of safety to use in connection
with the ultimate load, as found in the plastic method
of design, it would be well to consider the loading of
a simply supported beam with a concentrated load
applied at its midpoint. This is shown in Figure 4. The
moment diagrams for this beam are shown for the three
FIGURE 2 loads: the moment M causing a bending stress of 22,000
psi; the moment My causing 36,000 psi or yield point;
and the moment MIl causing a plastic hinge.
plastic moment which causes the beam at point (D) Here, for A36 steel:
to act as a plastic hinge. For a rectangular cross-section,
~
Allowable bending stress = 22,000 psi
the plastic moment (MIl) is 1.5 times the moment at B Yield stress = 36,000 psi = 67% above @
yield point (My). For the standard rolled WF sections,
this plastic moment (MIl) is usually taken as 1.12 times
C Plastic hinge occurs 12% above ®
the moment at yield point (M~.). The multiplier varies
for other sectional configurations.
Redistribution of moments causes other plastic
hinges to form. In Figure 2, a rigid frame with pinned
ends is loaded with a concentrated load at midspan.
The frame with no load is shown in (a). The frame is 10"'/0-1.
loaded in (b) so that its maximum bending stress is strain ~ In/in
22,000 psi, the allowable. Notice from the bending
diagram that the moment at midspan is greater than
the moments at the ends or knees of the frame. The
three marks at midspan show the moment M where s
(T = 22,000 psi, or allowable; My where (J' = 36,000 psi, .,
lj.o
or yield point; and MIl at plastic hinge. Notice at the 8: 4Owr---PIGstIC Rangrz "1I
left knee how much more the moment can be increased ~ 1:~: J y I
before a plastic hinge is formed. ~ 10 ~I I
I
I
I I
In (c) the load has been increased until a plastic ~ 0./ Jt 10-l 0.511/0-2. 1.0"'0- 2 /.5 11/0-2 2.0~/O-l
hinge has been formed at midspan. The knees of the Strain c in/m
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
frame in this example have only reached about half of
this value. Even though, with conventional thinking, FIGURE 3
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-3
~ 1
p
_ Here:
PL
t
------L }
M
4 uS
@--==-=_==/4'Jl,p S
PL
4u
-- --, Jy, ( 55,000) (80 x 12)
('.22.000){I'J6/}OO) I 4(22,000)
"""",""UJJ..U.1.u..u..w.J..U.J.JJ.ll.W.I..lJ,.l..LL!-U..U.J..J..1.Ll.J.J.L.LLJ..LLW-'-L_ ~-.1
600 in."
Moment: Diagram
FIGURE .4 So, use 36" WF 182# beam with S = 621 in."
1 ~?O
stressed to its yield point at the point of maximum
L-80' I,
stress. This would be represented in the figure by the -[2
moment at @.
In conventional design, if the allowable bending
stress is 22,000 psi and the yield point of the (A36)
3MhL
H - 4h' £.. ... 6 Lhl.
. 4f.3(?fH)L
z .,. 6L
b,t
3P
7
16 IrQ
L
steel is assumed to be 36,000 psi, the designer is actu-
3PL
ally using a factor of safety of 1.67. M
_{'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1I1 : - : :
By means of plastic design, the ultimate load is
approximately 12% higher (in the case of a WF beam)
than the load which causes the yield point to be reached. - 7
Therefore, the factor of safety for plastic design on the
same basis would be (1.67) ( 1.12) 1.88. =
Example
.----8-0-' ' - - - - - - - -
( So, use a 30" WF 124# beam with S = 354.6 in."
FIGURE 5
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation moment found. The required section modulus (S) of
the frame is determined from this maximum moment.
5.12-4 / Welded-Connection Design
This is found to be 343 in.", which is 55% of that re- 1. More accurately indicates the true carrying
quired for the single beam. This beam could be made capacity of the structure.
of a 30" WF beam having a weight of 124 lbs/ft, 2. Requires less steel than conventional simple
( c) The plastic design, rigid frame is shown in beam construction and, in most cases, results in a
Figure 7. With this method, the possible plastic hinges saving over the use of conventional elastic design of
are found which could cause a mechanism or the con- rigid frames.
dition whereby the structure beyond a certain stress 3. Requires less design time than does elastic
point would deform appreciably with only the slightest design of rigid framing.
increase in load. These points of plastic hinge, in this 4. Result of years of research and testing of full-
example, are at the midpoint and the two ends, and scale structures.
are assigned the value of M p • An expression is needed 5. Has the backing of the American Institute of
from which this value M, can be found. Steel Construction.
1.85 P L
2P+ L <10
8 Py 70 r = . . (1)
k
1.85 ( 55 ) (80') (AISC formula 20)
8
1017.5 ft-kips or
(P) ( rL)- 2/
23
---.l- 20
zz
Z4-
LIMIT Of (ly,-) FOR
~ ~
IO-+-- 25 2'"
COLUIr1N5 IN CONTINUOUS
FRAMES WHERE 510E SW.4Y
I 2P
~
+ 70r
/.0 I Z7
Z'
3/
JJ
ttl
32
34-
30
~ ~
" <13
p ,,"" <1<1
30
ZOO OR I 70 -/40 P
y
I
/ '
<IS
47
4"
40 48
300
50 ,," " ·50
400
.,-" 5/
.,0 .,-" " 52
500
.,-,," 53
70 600
.,-"- 54
80 700
800 55
90 900 .,-.,-.,-"""" 5"
100 1000
57·
.,-"
///////// ~~I
·.18
.1,
~
2000
ZOO 3000
t f() /D
ii:
/D
"
/
//~5000 "2
n
o
300 ----'F---- .,-
.,- :::II
..- ..- :::II
/D
...n
.,- (j,3
4-00-+-- ..-
.,- " o'
SOOJ
~oo
-..
:::II
III
o
65
800 ",,"" ."
900
1000
" "
R = 4000 K Q
...
III
(j,(j, n'
L
READ -r = 35 C
/D
!!!.
Ia
:::II
tooo 67
.......
@Seismicisolation ...
VI
@Seismicisolation .,8
~
VI
5.12-6 I Welded-Connection Design
Case 2 Case 3
100
M<Mp
when P/Py~0.15
>
I~ ~ B- G (~) ~ 1.0 I 1 0 -- K (~) - J (~r I
when PIP, 0.15
AISC formulo @ AISC formulo @
M.
Mp ~ i.is - r.ie (~) when.!:- < 60 ond
1 r
AISC formulo ® ~ < .15 then
p.
Notes: See Tobles 2-33, 3-33. 2-36 ond 3-36 for volues of B, G. K ond J
TABLE 2-33 (AISC Table 4-33) TABLE 3-33 (AISC Table 5-33)
FOR 33 K~T SPECU'I EO YIELD POINT STF:I':I.
Formula (22)
M
Mi' ...
10
-
r(P)
\ P,. - J
(P)'
P~.
M,: B-G(P)
M, r.
l/r J( J l rr K Ilr J
___ I J J(
.- j --
l/r R I G If B G I r B ,- - - - G
1 434 753 41 1 015 'I .149 81 I 1.824 I - .738
---.- - "" ----- - I"- ~ . _ . _ ~
2 449 ,736 42 1,032 ,133 82 ! 1 8S0 I - 769
16 1 140 1 172 51 3 463 I 720 43 1 046 , ,\16 63 1."77 I - 801
1 164
I 1 271 86 1 ,201 1,616
:~ i ~ ~~~
478 ,703
~~ I :~~g .~~~
17 1,140 1 174 52 1 ,165 1 276 87 1 202 i 1.633 4 ,099S
18 1 HI 1 177 53 1 165 i 1 281 68 1 ,204 1.651 492 i .687 I ,0832 I ::
19
20
1 141 ,
I 142
1 ,179
1 182
,,4
55
1 166
1 ,167
1
1
2S6
292
69
90
1 205
1 206 i
1 669
1.688
:I
7
.506
,520
.671
655
46
47
!I 1.097
1 114
1 0663
,0492
86
87
1.958
1 986
! -- ,900
934
l 8 ,534 640 48 1 131 0318 88 2 014 i - ,969
21 1 .HZ 1 184 56 I 1 168 1 297 91 1 ,207 1 .707
~~ ~gi~
22 1 143 1 187 57 1 169 1 303 92 9 ,546 ,624 49 1 148 ,0143 , -1.004
1 209 1 .726
23 1 143 1 189 58 1 170 1 310 10 562 .609 50 1.166 I - 0036 i -1 041
93 1 210 1 7·16
24 1 144
25
I
1 145
1
1
191
194
59
60
1
1
17\
172
1
1
:lI6
323
94
95
1 211
1 213
1 767
1 788 11 576 ! 594 51 i 1. 183 - 0217 91 2 10\ -1 077
I 12 ,590 ,579 52 I 201 - 0401 92 2 1:)0 -I II;)
26 I 1 .l..f5 1 196 61 1 173 1 330 96 1 ,214 i, 1 810 13 ,604 564 53 I 219 - 0588 93 2 161 -1 15:1
27 1 146 1 196 62 1 174 1 3:17 97 I 215 1 832 14 ,619 549 54 1 2"7 - ,0777 94 2 191 -I 192
i ,
,633 .534 - ,0970 95 '2 :U2
28
29
1. 146
1 147
, 1
1
200
203
6:)
64
I
1 175
1 ,176
1
1
;1·U
352
98
99
1 217
1 ,218
I, 1.8:1.-'
1 ~7P
15 :
I
55 1 256 - I 231
30 1 ,148 1 205 65 1 177 1 360 100 16 647 ,519 56 1. 274 - \17 96 '2 '2il-t -1 272
i 1 .220 1 903
:~
I
661 ,504 57 1 293 - 137 97 "2 2,,6 - I :n:\
I ! j ,675 I ,490 58 1 312 - 157 98 2 :11~ -i ;liJ-t
31 1 .148 1 207 6(j 1 178 1 369 101 1 ,221 1 9:!H
32 1 149 1 209 67 1 179 1 377 102 1 2~:! 1 .9;13 19 i .689: 475 !}9 1.33'2 - 177 99 '2 arlo -1 :ln7
33 1 150 1 212 68 , 20 , 703 ,461 60 1.3,-11 - 19a 100 2. :J.~·1 -1 440
1 180 1 386 10:.\ I :!:!-I 1 979
34 I 150 1 215 69 1 161 1 .:lfHj 104 I :!:! .•)
I 2.006
21 I ,717 ,447
35 1. 151 1 217 70
I
1 182
I 1 ..f06 10:-1 1 'J:!.? - 03"
22 .731 .432
61
62
1 :171
1 :\91
-
-
2:'w
2-11
101
102
2 417
2 451
-1
-I
41'l4
1"'129
36 1 , 152 1 220 71 1 Ift~ 1 ~H; 106 1 220S 061 23 ,746 418 63 1 411 - :?fU 103 2 4R6 -I fJ7.'i
37 1 152 1 222 72 24 760 ,403 64 1 1:)2 - :!B6 104 2 521 -1 6'2L
! 1 IH~ I 42fi 107 1 2;10 090
38 1 153 25 774 389 65 1.1;)'2 - :109 IO!) '2 556 -1 663
1 225 73 I IS6 1 4;17 lOH I :.!:H lUI ,
39 1 154 1 .228 74 I 167 I .-a~ loH 1 2:3:1 14g
I 26 ,789 374 66 I -t7:J - :t12 106 c iJ9'2 - I 71G
40 1 lSi! 1 231 ';'.'i I 18H I -HlO 110 1 231 179 'I
, 27 ,803 :iHO 67 1 49,-1 - :;1)6 107 '2 623 - I 76:;
,818 .345 1O~
~ ~~; :::~~~
ill 28 6R 1 ;110 - :lHO
41 1 1.'i5 1 234 1 1"9 I -t7'1 111 1 2:l(l 211
42 I 1 156 1 .237 77 I l!lO 1 ·1.~;) lI~ 1 ~:\7 24:1 29 832
,847
,331
.316
69
70
I .'):)8
I fino
-
-
-to I
,129
109
110 2741
I
-1 916
43 1 I!i7 1 2-tO 7~ I HI! 1 -t!17 11:1 \ 2:m . '275 30 I'
@Seismicisolation
H:: 35 I 922 242 7:, I (Ii.) - 1"'162 I I.i 2 11:J7 -2 185
@Seismicisolation
46 1 I {I! I '2;-)~ I 1!l'7 \ fjH~ lIB I ~47 ' . .10 I
49 1 16'2 1 :!{l:l ~q I HIS I ;I~l 119 I 2.1tl 1~7 I
~~
,9,17 '227 76 1 (-)99 - ;,90 116 2.978 -2 2,'2
50 1 16:1 I :!(ji ,'-;,-, I '200 I li()U 120 1 2;')0 !)'2;')
I n,r;;J 211 77 \ 72·\ - 6tH 117 :1 020 - 2 300
38 968 HlH 7S 1 74l' - 647 118 :1 062 -2 358
39 98< . ISO 79 1 77:) - ,677 1111 ;j 101 -2417
I 40 1 000 .165 80 1. 799 i - 707 120 3,147 - 2 478
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-7
TABLE 2-36 (AISC Table 4-36) TABLE 3-36 (AISC Table 5-36)
FOR 36 KSI 5PECIYIEU Y1ELU POINT STEEL FOR 36 KSI SPECIFIED YIELD POINT STEEL
'Ir~ r~ Ir
Formula (23)
M. M. M <M.
21 1 140 1 187 I 56 1 167 1 316 91 1. 210 1 799 6 508 670 46 1 122 0516 86 2 050 - 996
22 1 140 1 189 57 1 168 1 323 92 1 211 1 822 7 523 654 47 1 140 0336 87 2 080 -1 034
23 1.141 1 192 58 1 170 1 330 9:\ 1 213 1 846 8 537 638 48 1 158 0154 88 2 111 -1 072
24 1.142 1 194 59 1 171 1.337 94 1 214 1 870 9 552 622 49 I 176 - 0031 89 2 142 -1 112
25 1 142 1 196 60 1 172 1 345 95 1 215 1 895 10 566 607 50 1 195 - 0219 90 2 174 I -1 152
I
i
26 1.143 1.199 61 1 173 1 354 96 1 217 1 921 11 581 591 51 : 1 213 - 0411 91 2 206 -1 193
27 1 143 1 201 62 1 174 1 362 97 1 218 1 947 12 595 576 52 1 232 - 0605 92 2 239 -1 234
28 1.144 1 204 63 1 175 1.371 98 1 220 1 974 13 610 I 561 5:J 1 251 - 0803 93 2 272 -1 277
29 1 145 1 206 64 1 176 1 380 99 1 221 2 002 14 624 546 54 1 271 - 100 94 2 :106 -1 320
30 1 145 1 209 65 1 177 1 390 100 1 223 2 030 15 639 531 55 I 290 - 121 95 2 340 , -1 364
31 1 146 1 211 66 1.178 1 400 101 1. 224 2 059 16 653 516 56 1 310 - 142 96 2 375 I -1 409
32 1 147 1 214 67 1 179 1 410 102 1. 226 2 089 17 668 501 57 1 330 - 163 97 2 410 I, -1 455
33 1.148 1 216 68 1 180 1 421 103 1 227 2 120 18 682 486 58 1 351 - 185 98 2 445 -1 501
34 1.148 1 219 69 1 181 1 432 104 1 229 2 151 19 697 472 59 1 371 - 207 99 2482 -1 549
35 1.149 1. 222 70 1 183 1 444 105 1. 231 2 183 20 711 457 60 1 392 - 229 100 2 518 I, -1 597
,
36 1.150 1 225 71 1 184 1.456 106 1 232 2 216 21 726 442 61 1 413 - 252 101 2 555 -1 646
37 1 151 I 228 72 1 185 1 468 107 1 234 2 249 22 741 428 62 1 435 - 275 102 2 593 -I 696
38 1.151 1 231 73 1.186 1 481 108 1 235 2 283 23 755 413 63 1 456 - 299 103 2 631 -1 747
39 1.152 1 234 74 1 187 1 494 109 1 237 2 318 24 770 398 64 I 478 - 323 104 2 670 -1 799
40 1 153 1 237 75 1 189 1 508 110 1. 239 2 354 25 785 384 65 1 501 - 348 105 2 709 -1 852
41 1.154 1 241 76 1 190 1 522 111 1.240 2 391 26 800 369 66 I 523 - 373 106 2 749 -1 906
42 1 155 1 244 77 1 191 1 537 112 1 242 2 429 27 815 354 67 I 546 - 399 107 2 789 -1 960
43 1 155 1 248 78 1 192 1 552 113 1 244 2 467 28 830 340 68 I 570 - 425 108 2 830 -2 016
44 1 156 1 252 79 1 194 1 568 114 1 245 2 506 29 .845 325 69 1 593 - 452 109 2 871 -2073
45 1 157 1 256 80 1.195 1 584 115 1. 247 2 546 30 .860 310 70 1 617 - 479 110 2914 -2 130
46 1.158 1 260 81 1 196 1 601 116 1 249 2 587 31 876 295 71 1 641 - 507 111 2 956 -2 189
47 1.159 1 265 82 1 197 1 618 117 1 250 2.628 32 .891 280 72 1 666 - 535 112 2 999 -2 248
48 1 160 1.270 83 1.199 1.636 118 1. 252 2.671 33 907 265 73 I 691 - 564 113 3 043 -2 309
49 1.161 1 275 84 1 200 1 654 119 1. 254 2.714 34 .922 249 74 I 716 - .593 114 3 087 -2371
50 1.162 1.280 85 1 201 I 673 120 1.256 2 759 35 .938 234 75 1 742 - 623 115 3 132 -2 433
P 8700
Py ::::: (Ljr)2 ..................... (3)
(AISC fonnula 24) Assuming depth of web .95 d (depth of mem- =
ber ), the shear on web section at ultimate load is-
Shear (AISC Sec. 2.4) v, = t w ( .95 d) cry
Webs of columns, beams, and girders not rein-
forced by a web doubler plate or diagonal stiffeners
.zc:
y3
shall be so proportioned that:
or
.................... (4)
FIGURE 9
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation hinge rotation under ultimate loading, section elements
shall be so proportioned that:
5.12-8 / Welded-Connection Design
1
et
segment is bent in single curvature and nega-
tive when bent in double curvature
~-------<.&.,l
In the usual square frame, plastic hinges would
ultimately form at maximum negative moments at the
comers, and at the maximum positive moment near the
center of the span. However, a tapered haunch may
develop a plastic hinge at the comer and also at the
FIGURE 10
point where the haunch connects to the straight portions
of the rafter or column because of the reduced depth
of the member. These also become points where lateral
b
or
b. ..................... (5) bracing must be provided.
t t.
3. BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF WELDED
1B ~ 32 I······
CONNECTIONS
t -
(6)
Connections are an important part of any steel structure
designed according to plastic design concepts. The
connection must allow the members to reach their full
d w < 70 plastic moments with sufficient strength, adequate ro-
tw - .••.•..•.••..••..••••••..••.•• (7)
tational ability, and proper stiffness. They must be
IfP=O
capable of resisting moments, shear forces, and axial
loads to which they would be subjected by the ultimate
and when beam or girder is subjected to axial force loading. Stiffeners may be required to preserve the
( P) and plastic bending moment (P~.) at ultimate load, flange continuity of interrupted members at their
junction with other members in a continuous frame.
dt
w
< 70 - 100 pP > 43 (8) A basic requirement is that the web of the re-
w y sulting connection must provide adequate resistance
(AISC formula 25) against buckling from (a) Shear-the diagonal com-
pressive force resulting from shear forces applied to
See nomograph, Figure 11, for convenient direct the web from the connecting flanges, which in tum are
reading of d".jt w ratio from values of P and P r- stressed by the end moment of the member, and (b)
Thrust-any concentrated compressive force applied at
Lateral Bracing (AISC Sec. 2.8) the edge of the web from an intersecting flange of a
Plastic hinge locations associated with all but the member, this force resulting from the end moment of
last failure mechanism shall be adequately braced to that member. See Figure 12.
resist lateral and torsional displacement. In addition to meeting the above requirements, the
Laterally unsupported distance (LeI') from such connection should be so designed that it may be
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
braced hinged locations to the nearest adjacent point
on the frame similarly braced shall be-
economically fabricated and welded.
Groove welds and fillet welds shall be proportioned
FIGURE ll-Proportioning Web of Beam or Girder Under Axial Load and Plastic Moment.
(P) , ~;I=jt)
/"4~*=:~
10
(Pr )
1,/"/ 4~~
dw < p 5/
ZO
(00
= 70 - /00 > 43 ,52
tw Py .53
54-
55
zoo
30
AISC FORMULA ~ SE',C 2, ~ 5tO
'300
,.,.,.
57
40 ," 58
400
,. 59
1
50
SOO
,.,.,.
,.,. 60
:=1=
(DOO
700 ,.,.
'800 ,." fiJI
900 ,."
10f)(J /()()D
~ ,.,." (#l
lOtI ,"
,,
,, tw fiJ3
2000 "" ~
III
,.," 1;4- ~
)900 III
Cl.
zoo
, 4000
,,' fiJ5 n
, SOOO o
,
,,
:::J
300
,."
,.,.,."
,. ,to .:::J
III
n
o'
400
EXAMPLE:
-..
:::J
,.,.""
III
SOO ,."
,. P .. IOOOK o
tJOO ,.,.
--I--e7 ."
700
800
,.,.,.,,.,.',.',. Ry .. 4000 K ..
Q
III
:JOO
(000
READ dt",w ~ 45 fJ7j n'
~
III
6B .a'
:::J
<,
2000
...
U'I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
~8i
~
5.12-10 / Welded-Connection Design
, )M':r-,
U ~~
Mp
\
~ A A
Web of. ~
connection
_ connection
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 13
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-11
It--dc ----l
of beam-to-column connections, whether three-way or
four-way, is dealt with.
Analysis and design of a particular connection may
not always be as simple as those illustrated on these
U Mp V =F c
pages. Figure 13 shows some other typical welded
connections.
T xy ==
Diagonal
compression
Hence,
Web of
connection
or
wr
..................... (10)
cr;;-@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation required web thickness in connection area, in.
V _ Fb ( I _ Fe) _ Mp
JI = d - cL, a so - - db de yield strength of steel, psi
FIGURE 16--Thickness of Connection Web to Resisl Shear From Unbalanced Plastic Moment. -
UI
-
W
I
~
I
zo,OOO > 0
Iv.r =
I ~
I
I
I
I
.""------
I
------
w
ab de or ..o'
~
CD
n
~
1,000 W M IN
'J(JO Q
lo,OOO~800
!J,000 700
CD
III
~OOO 500
4lJ 4-
5,OOO~400
....................... ·30
4,000 5
300 -,
........ zo ~
3,000 ........ 7
8
200 ~ ............ g
2,000 ,
8
10 ........
-,
........
10 r
7 ........
s
,
-- --
............
100 5 ........
-- -- -- .8
90
80
+ ........ ........
-- -- -- -- 20 .7
70
flO
........
............
-- -- -- -- ·30
.fI
SO
PROBLEM: A36 STEEL 40 ,5
4Q0
er tV" 62- BEAM INTO 14" IV" 84- COllJMN
Mp • 432 KIP FT
.4
300 de = 14.18"
20 db = 20.99 H
ZOO
READ WIIIN •• 84" .J
10
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
100
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-13
_ k-w
P= co; () [.~: = w ~]
\
~
-.-
cos ()
1 [M ~d
p
b O"~,
- wy3
de JI .
.... (12)
r- Web doubler
plate
where
A A
() = angle of diagonal stiffener with horizon,
FIGURE 17
() = tan -1 (~:)
-
(J
V = wd y
c V3
Diagonal
D J
stiffener
w FIGURE 18
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.12-14 I Welded-Connection Design
cos () = de
d:-
de (w r - w)
................. (13)
> V3( 432 ft-kips x 12) > 0.837"
Y3cos () (20.99") ( 14.18") (36 ksi)
web furnished by the 14" WF 84# column = 0.451"
or effective web to be furnished by stiffeners > 0.386"
I~
d. (w r - w)
This reinforcement may be provided by one of two
................. (14)
V3 possible types of stiffeners as noted below.
or could use {a} Web Doubler Plate
t. = t r
The additional web plate must be sufficient to develop
also in all cases the required web thickness. The welds should be ar-
ranged at the edges so as to transmit the shear forces
I ~< 17 I " " , , " " ' " ,' , (15)
directly to the boundary stiffeners and flanges. Plate
must be .386" thick, or use a YJ. 6" thick plate.
Problem 1
F = 432 X 12
/ 20.99
f ~ = 247.3
k
r:::~ 1
- - - ..., ~
21" v.F 62# F _ 432 X 12 x 25.33
tw = .400" £ - 14.18 20.99
= 441 k I
Pair of diagonal I I
stiffeners 4" X Y16" 20 99
I
F = 432 X 12 :
14.18 I
'\"3-: ' "
,~_ I
= 366k I ' - I
II " \ II
L ~
~14.18,,-J
14" v.F 84#
tw = ,451"
FIGURE 21
A. _
p If b. = 8", then
A.
204 kips 1),-
36 ksi 5.65
= 5.65 in. 2 needed in the stiffener - -8-
or use a pair of %" x 4" stiffeners, A. = 6.0 > 5.65 OK = .707" or use %"
Now solve this portion of the problem by using Or use two plates, %" x 4", for the diagonal stiff-
Formula 3: eners. Check their width-to-thickness ratio:
A. = ....[3" cos (J
(w, - @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
w) =~ = < b.
t, %
10.7 17 OK
5.12-16 / Welded-Connection Design
5. HAUNCHED CONNECTIONS
FIGURE 23
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-17
Plastic design of this 8-acre rubber plant simplified mathematical analysis of the
structure and moment distribution. Two results: a uniform factor of safety and a
saving of 140 tons of structural steel.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.12-18 / Welded-Connection Design
~ Point of inflection
~
FIGURE 24
G)
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
G)
Lower flange
of beam
FIGURE 25
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-19
Thickness 01 Top Flange and Web 01 Haunch Range's thickness. Since this is the tension Range, it will
be same or thinner than the lower (compression) Range.
The thickness of the top Range and the web of the It can be shown that the plastic section modulus (Z)
haunch should be at least equal to the thickness of the of an I section is:
rolled beam to which it connects.
and this must match the force (T) in the lower Range FIGURE 26
of the rolled beam, or:
resisting plastic moment of section
T = CTy b h t h cos f3 must equal T = CTy b, t b
It b = ~I (17)
since
From this, the required depth (d,,) of the haunch The commentary of the AISC specifications sets the
may be found for any value of plastic section modulus following limits for lateral bracing.
(z) . The taper of the haunch may be such that the
The haunch section must be able to develop the resulting bending stress at plastic loading, when com-
plastic moment at any point along its length: puted by using the plastic modulus (Z), is approxi-
mately at yield (O"y) at both ends CD & @. If this is the
IM p = Z O"y l · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ( 22 ) case, then limit the unbraced length (L,,):
rolled beam. The latter finding will also dictate the re-
If the bending stress at one end is approximately
quired section modulus of the straight beam, since its
at yield (O"y), using the plastic modulus (Z), and at
highest moment will occur at section (2-2).
the other end is less than yield (0"x < O"y.) when using
Beedle? points out that if the moment is assumed
the secton modulus (S), limit the unbraced length
to increase linerally from the point of inflection (0) to
(L,,) :
the haunch point (H), and the distance (O-R) from the
point of inflection to the end of the rolled beam is 3 d, I L" ~ (17.5 - 0.40 O"x) b" I (26)
then the critical section will always be along (2-2) if
the angle f3 of the taper is greater than 12°; if this angle
but
is less than 12°, then section (1-1) must also be checked.
Resisting shear
forces in web of
section ABCD
dh
CD = tan (a + y)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 27
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-21
/3 1 + y
I
I
I
I
,I Ii.2 t--"
Fc2
1
= A c2 0 y
FIGURE 28
t
h
> _t_b _
= cos f3
based on compressive forces in inner flange Check lateral stability 01 compression lIange
Section 1-1
FIGURE 30
Point of
inflection
FIGURE 31
~-==
As in the tapered haunch, the plastic section modu-
lus (Z) at any given point (X) is:
CD --- t 0- - -
--- ------
,
\
For any given depth (d x ) , the plastic section modu- ',;., th '
\
lus (Zx) may be increased by increasing the flange I' '.f, I
I
thickness (tit). cf> ,,\
Assuming the web thickness and flange width of r-r- 0
the curved haunch is at least equal to that of the beam,
the required thickness of the lower flange would be:
II
1
FIGURE 34
d x 2 bit _ Z
4 (36) *
~
x
bit - WI'
r 6 bh I (38 )
0
This is based on a 90 knee (outer flanges form a
The AISC Commentary (Sec. 2.7) recommends
right angle), which is the most conservative.
that the thickness of this inner flange of the curved
The radius of curvature may be increased above
haunch should be-
this limit if additional points of support are added to
decrease the critical arc length (C).
I tit ~ (l + m) t I (37)
The unbraced length between points of lateral
support must be held to--
where values for (m) come from the graph, Figure 33.
Ic ~ 6 bit I (39)
.5
~~I-
.4 where
.3 C rc/>
II .2
c/> radian measure
E
.1
If the unbraced length (C) exceeds this limit, the
3 4 5 6 7 thickness of the curved inner flange must be increased
n = aid by-
FIGURE 33
0.1 (~I - 6 ) tit
/
o22.5° - y/4
Fc = A,c ay
F = A a
~~~' 'y
&" &1'
o
/
/
/
/
/ CD
45° - y/2
CD 90° - y
FIGURE 35
without decreasing the original flange thickness (th ) : 2 Ac ITy sin (22.so - 'Y /4)
Diagonal Stiffeners
I As ~ 2 A" S10' (90° 4- 'Y )\ ( 42)
Vw = wh(CD)T y ~
©-;b~,~ -,Y
...... a + Y'
. . ... J \,d
... ,h
... \
® ------'~®
Resisting shear
forces in web of
section ABCD
dh
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 36
CD = -,-ta-n-,('a-+-,----y. ).
5.12-26 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 37
Radial compressive
force exerted
by web.;J
Transverse tensile
stress due to bending
of flange
or ,
I
I I
A • -- A t cos Y (b)
+ y)
cos a: V3tan (a: cos a:
rnj
A. >
~
rAt -.rs3 tan( d
cos y Wh
h
a: + y) J ... ( 43 ) tnrm
where:
At area of top (tension) flange of haunch
A. total area of a pair of diagonal stiffeners
Treating a 1" slice of this flange supported by the or unit load (p) on section:
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
web of the haunch as a cantilever beam and uniformly
loaded with this unit radial force (fr ) , Figure 39: P =
U"y
r
th
Welded Connections for Plastic Design I 5.12-27
.................... (45)
FIGURE 39
Summary of Curyed Haunch Requirements
thickness of outer flange (t ) > t b
web of haunch (Wh) > Wb
M -_ cry
2 r
th(~)2
2 -
_ thickness of curved inner flange (t ) > _tb_
h = cosf3
also (1= m) t +
(based on tensile flange)
A. > cos 'Y
cos ex:
[At _ V3 tan d(ex:
Wh h
+ 'Y)j
]
bh < ~
2
8 r = 4
(based on compressive flange)
or
A. > 2Ac sin ( 90 4- 'Y ) and
Haunch
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 40
5.12-28 / Welded-Connection Design
outer flange thickness (t) does not have to exceed 6. BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS
beam flange (til)' (Multiple Span)
where:
shear resisted by connection web
r 1>
along top portion
radian measure
w de Ty
tIl [1 + 0.1 (~ - 6) J
or increase the width of the curved inner flange to- or
......... (46)
bll > ~
where:
without decreasing the flange thickness.
V 4 = horizontal shear force in the column above
bh <: ~ <: 17 the connection, lbs
tx = bh =
~4
M1 --d,~
F1 -- F2 =
d1 ~
M( 1J
1
1 ~ I )M'
(
~
------..
0M 3
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 41
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-29
~ .-M;\
~ ~
Ed~~ t
~db
i ~ ~d; ~ E~ --.;;:::::;;:
~; 3)
---".
_d e -
---".
_de -- _d-
----,.
e
\& \& ~
M = M 1 = M3 + M"
FIGURE 42
M, and M 2 = moments in beams (1) and (2), Stiffeners arc quite often required on members in line
in-Ibs, with the compression flanges which act against them,
to prevent crippling of the web where the concentrated
d, = depth of column, in.
compressive force is applied.
d, and d 2 = depth of beams (1) and (2) \Vhcre a beam supports a column, or a column
w = thickness of connection web, in. supports a beam, on just one flange, the stiffeners on
its web need only extend just beyond its neutral axis.
If it is assumed that:
1. the column height (h) has a point of inflection
at mid-height,
2. the depth of the larger beam (d 2 ) is 7i [j of the
column height (h), or less,
t.
3. the yield strength of the steel is U" y = 33,000
psi, and
4. the unbalanced moment (M) is expressed in
foot-kips,
this formula will reduce to the following:
19,400 M FIGURE 4 4
...................... (47)
dl> de o ,
...v-
The method of determining the value of M is
The following formulas will indicate when stiffen-
illustrated in Figure 42.
ers are required, and also the necessary size of these
stiffeners:
Web Resisting Thrust 1. \Veh stiffeners arc required adjacent to the beam
tension flange if- .
v tc < 0.4 ~I (48 )
~ ~
- 2. Web stiffeners are required adjacent to the beam
-
~~
':'
-
-
G. ~i (f"illl
V compression flange if-
Iw ~ I (49 )
t i ----+ +--- c Wr
r
where:
FIGURE 43
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation wr =
5.12-30 I Welded-Connection Design
~t t, :>
=
tb +
At5 K -
c
We I
"
(53)
-- r-KC or
t. ~ Wr - We ] ••••••••.••••••••••••• (54)
rt t s r: also
.~
<
J !WC
•
A rt s
~'
t
FIGURE 45
------ de
If horizontal flange plate stiffeners are used, Figure
45, their dimensions are found from the following: I
rt b
t. ~ At - We b:b + 5 Ke ) , ••••••.••.•• ( 50)
II
" i"
:1
f
T
or ... ,I
1
II <
II
~ ~ [ 1 - ~] I
II
t. (51) ~i:
~l:
il/j
also .~ ':i~
where:
FIGURE 46
Af = bb X tb
Wr = required thickness of connection web (See Section 5.7 on Continuous Connections for
We = actual thickness of column web; here actual further explanation.)
The nomograph, Figure 47, may be used to find
thickness of connection web
the distance (t, +
5 K.) over which the concentrated
(See Section 5.7 on Continuous Connections for force from the beam flange spreads out into the column
further explanation.) web. In the case of a built-up column, use the flange
If vertical plate stiffeners are used, Figure 46, they thickness (t,.) and find the distance (tb 5 t e ) from +
should be proportioned to carry the excess of beam the nomograph.
flange force over that which the column web is able This value of (t" +
5 K.) or (t" 5 t-) can then +
to carry. It is assumed the beam flange extends almost be used in finding the required web thickness (wr )
the full width of the column flanges, and that the stif- from the nomograph, Figure 48.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 47-5pread of Flange Thrust Into Column Web.
-I Kcl-
FOR BUILT UP (INCHE3)
COLUMN USE @ .3
4
5
"
-1tc I- (Ke or t c ) "
" " (,;
"
~NCHES) " " 7
FOR ROLLEO COLUMN , ", "
.s -
l " " 8
USE @ ,,, ...... " "
"
9
", 0/0
" ......... ,
/I
" 1.5--+-11
"" ......... "
(tb ) (INCHES) I ....... L ...... "
o/Z
.3 z I 2
--l---i:'~
'3
, h I, 14- ~
---<~f"r";b +5 ~! -, zj (I)
2.5·
z 15 a:
1. '1 l: " Iii
(I)
I:l.
-T----~
I
,
18
19 ..
:::I
(I)
n
o'
.. tb+5 1<c :
I
: -,
!---
I I,'
,
4-
4-
4.5
I
4l
~
'ZO
'Z/
ZZ
:::I
II>
.....
0
j----~, / ."
I
I
.5 I 5 23
24-
..
Q
II>
n'
... I
Z5 C
(I)
(DOTTED LINE) (DASHED LINE) II>
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
READ ·30 ~
...
I
W
&II
FIGURE 48--Thickness of Connection Web To Resist Thrust of Compression Flange. --~
(AffSQ~~HE~ ~clo~
~
<,
I to ~ .40/AI I ~/SKc I
.3 ::I
30
2.3
2.Z I w
r ' t. ...
III
n
o'
::I
2./
ZOO
/.9
..
w,
I
-iter- (tb + SKc) .4
C
III
III
Ii'
::I
20 /.8 Ilf .5
f'
1.7
.... ... 30
.6
I.fJ '= t:I " ...
/05 zo ""
.7
« ",
I
.8
/.4-
-l----- Jr ,I
"
"",
/0
9 ..,
/.J
1.2
....
-.:::
tb +5Kc ! ,, I
..,...
I
,,, ,,,
I
. It
,
10
8 ,,,'
",
., """"
", " .9
1.0
r>; w- =
V3M
db dc
1
O'y
"\ M= SO/k
\ 21" W 68# y'""3(210 ft-kips x 12)
\ beam :>
\ (21.13) ( 13.81 ) (36 ksi)
(~o,.
\
\
d,
M=:J .416"
J
\
\ Conclusions (Fig. 50)
\
• \ (a) This required web thickness would be satisfied if
\
M = 160'k \ the beam were allowed to run through the column.
\J 14" W 48#
This would give a web thickness of .430". OK
(b) If the column were to run continuous through
the beam, as illustrated above, then a lj.{' doubler plate
column would be required in this connection area to make up
the difference in thickness.
I~ ( c) Another choice would be to use a pair of
diagonal stiffeners having the following cross-sectional
area:
FIGURE 49
d. (w r - we)
y3
beam dimensions
(23.18) (.416 - .339)
db 21.13" y3
bb 8.27" 1.03 in. 2
w, .430"
Or use a pair of 3" by 3!s" stiffeners, the area of
.685"
which checks out as-
column dimensions 3!s" (2 x 3" + .339")
db 13.81" 2.38 in. 2 > 1.03 in. 2 OK
.339"
Also, the required thickness is-
8.031"
b.
1%6" t, > 17
I .
4 x"2 In}
tinch Thick
Doubler
I
(c) A pair of 3/1 x JIs" diagonal stiffeners (e) A pair of Tee vertical stiffeners
(d) A pair of 4/1 x '12" horizontal cut from 21" WF 112# or %" plate
flange plate stiffeners Tee section also provides the
necessary additional web material for
this connection.
FIGURE 50
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-35
(8.27" x .685") [ _ (.339") ] This T section could be flame cut from a 12" WF
> ( 8" ) 1 ( .856" ) 112# section, which has a flange thickness of .865"
> .428" (WE; need .517") and a flange width of 13.00" (we
need at least 12.625"). Otherwise, it could be fabri-
but the following is called for- cated from %" thick plate welded together.
> b. Summary
t, - 17
> (2 x 4") There are four possible methods of making this con-
16 nection, Figure 50. Each uses a combination of the
preceding solutions to stiffen the connection web so it
> .47"
may safely transmit the shear forces resulting from the
Hence, use a pair of 4" x %" horizontal plate stiffeners. unbalanced moment as well as to prevent buckling from
the concentrated compressive forces applied by the
( e) Vertical stiffeners, the required thickness of beam.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.12-36 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 5.13
1. ADVANTAGES OF VIERENDEEL TRUSSES the web openings permit savings in space since piping,
conduits, and ducts may be fed through them.
A Vierendeel truss is in effect a rigid frame. It differs Some Vierendeel trusses are fabricated from wide-
from the simple truss (Sect. 5.9), but it also differs in flange beams, as shown at the top in Figure 2. Here
some respects from the usual rigid frame (Sect. 5.11). the top and bottom chord members, as well as the
Although the Vierendeel truss has been used verticals, are standard rolled beams. Additional plates
widely in European bridge design, the relatively high are used to join these members.
cost of riveted construction precluded its early popu- At the center in Figure 2, the vertical rolled sec-
larity in this country. Modem welding processes have tions are extended all the way to the top and bottom
changed the economics and several structures using members. A triangular gusset section or bracket is in-
the welded Vierendeel truss have been built here in sected on each side of the connection. These gussets
recent years. are flame cut from standard rolled sections, usually
Currently the major field for welded Vierendeel having the same flange width as the other members.
trusses is in building design; Figure 1. For example, This is a simpler method and therefore is widely used.
they have been used as roof supports to carry the extra However, it does not result in as smooth stress distribu-
load of a superstructure, as exterior floor-high members tion at points of high bending moment as does a design
for rigid support of heavy masonry walls, and in exterior with curved comers.
wall grid systems for aesthetic value as well as con- Another method of achieving these curved comers
struction advantages. is illustrated at the bottom in Figure 2. Here the truss is
In exterior use, the large panel areas provide ade- flame cut from flat plate with flanges welded to i~
quate window area to be filled in by glass or translu- around the web openings and across top and bottom
cent materials; chord and web members are sometimes edges. Also see Open-Web Expanded Beams, SeC-
faced with masonry. When used as interior members, tion 4.7.
FIGURE 1
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 5.13-1
5.13-2 / Welded-Connection Design
w= beam within the joint has little effect on the final moment
... l- I- f- I- distribution in the frame.
IH- The Vierendeel truss on the other hand is more
.... I-- f-- f- h compact; for example, the lengths of the vertical mem-
W beam bers often are relatively shorter. See Figure 3. The
more massive connections thus occupy a larger portion
of this frame than most others. Any angular movement
of vertical members due to yielding within the connec-
V tion itself will greatly increase the moments in horizon-
V '\ / V
-, -,
" "
/
tal members. There is no method of computing or pre-
dicting how much the connection will yield; therefore,
every effort must be made to provide a connection at
/
'" /
'" I least as rigid as the adjoining members.
It might be thought that the simple square type of
connection would naturally be as rigid as the members,
since it is a continuation of the same section. In many
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Welded Connections for Vierendeel Trusses / 5.13-3
1200 ,I
4>~~
-'J
,I r '''BI",-:
= 22 /"-
I
1 1.-- L r"
~ ~
1100
1 I
11
:- /-f--\
,",""
,\
\I -
'\...... ..........r -- 16" 1--4
-~'.JvJ
F
--- -
1 I
1000 . - --I
I
I
,,
I I
900 --1--'
1 I
Corner with bracket ~
--, "
'"
a.
:..;;;: I {O' F
/,
r
, I
.: 800
~- 1
,/' --z.- - V
1:
:2- 700
I /
.E
"'tl
.!!!
Q. 600 I ~
F
/
tITEv'
a.
~
0
1:
Q)
E 500 -
0
~
400 / / /
1/ t.Be'am
-~VV
V J{
FIGURE 4- 300
200
IJ
100
1/
/
.0002 .0004 .0006 .0008 .0010 .0012 .0014 .0016 .0018
Unit angular rotation (q», radians/in.
Figure 4 shows moment-rotation curves of various have high rotational capacity in addition to exceeding
corner connections. * The vertical axis is the applied the moment capacity of the member, In Vierendeel
moment; the horizontal axis is the resulting rotation of trusses, it is more important that the connection have
the connection. The vertical height of the curve repre- a stiffness equal to or exceeding that of the member,
sents the maximum or ultimate strength moment of the and a high moment capacity in order to safely carry
connection. The slope of the straight portion of the accidental overloads. Here the extra rotational capacity
curve represents the stiffness of the connection, with would not be as important because it is an elastic design
the more nearly vertical curves representing the stiffer rather than a plastic design.
connections. The right-hand extremity of the curve rep-
resents the rotational capacity of the connection. In Figure 4 notice that the square-corner connec-
In plastic design, it is necessary that the connection tion is the most flexible. It falls slightly short of the
beam itself, but does have the greatest rotational capac-
* Figure 1 adapted from "Connections for Welded Continuous ity. The comer with the bracket has greater stiffness
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Portal Frames", Beedle, Topractsoglou and Johnston; AWS Jour-
nal; Part I July 1951, Part II August 1951, and Part III
November 1952.
and higher moment capacity, but less rotational capac-
ity. Tapered haunch knees, not shown here, were found
5.13~ / Welded-Connection Design
>
;. > >
>
--
.--..---..
.-.--....--- ;. >
/ .:> >
J F =~ /
Stiffeners added
/
FIGURE 4
to behave similarly. The curved knees are the most The unbalanced moment about a connection will
rigid, have the highest moment capacity, and have a cause shear forces around the periphery of the connec-
rotational capacity somewhere in between the simple tion web, Figure 6. The vertical shear force and the
square comer and the haunched knee. As the radius of horizontal shear force will result in a diagonal compres-
curvature of this inner flange is increased, the stiffness sive force applied to the connection web. Unless the
and moment capacity increase slightly, with slightly web has sufficient thickness or is reinforced, it may
lower rotational capacity. buckle. According to plastic design (and this may be
used in elastic design), the required thickness of the
4. SQUARE CONNECTIONS joint web must be---
~ I
See Figure 5. These flange forces are distributed as
shear into the web along the full web depth. This will It w d
h
T (1 )
prevent the web from buckling due to the concentrated
flange forces.
...
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 6
Welded Connections for Vierendeel Trusses / 5.13-5
/ /
1/
> > Web
-h V
Web
doubler
doubler
plate -- ~
plate
> >
V ///. "/://///
FIG. 8 Methods of obtaining
web thickness to meet require-
ment of Formula #2. A A A
Diagonal
stiffener
>
-
>
longitudinal
~ I-- stiffener
fillet or groove
> welded
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
1\ A
If the thickness of the connection web should be of Figure 9. Because of the slight yielding of the flange's
less than this required value, AISC in their work on outer edge, there is a non-uniform distribution of flange
Plastic Design (which may also be used in Elastic De- stress (0"). This stress is maximum in line with the web.
sign) recommends adding either (a) a doubler plate In addition there is a transverse tensile bending
to the web to get this required thickness, see Figure 8, stress (O"t) in the curved flange. If this value is too
or (b) a pair of diagonal stiffeners to carry this diagonal high, stiffeners should be welded between this flange
compression, the area of these stiffeners to be sufficient and the web. These keep the flange from bending and
for just the additional requirements. pulling away from the web. These stiffeners usually
It seems reasonable that (c) a pair of longitudinal need not extend all the way between flanges, but may
stiffeners extending through the connection area would be a series of short triangular plates connecting with
be sufficient to resist this web shear. These stiffeners the curved flange,
would be Hat plates standing vertically between flanges In the following formulas, the values of factors ex
of the chord member and welded to the flanges near and f3 come from the graph, Figure 10,·
their outer edges.
longitudinal tensile stress in flange
5. CURVED-KNEE CONNECTIONS
Tensile stress (0"mean) in the inner flange of a curved
knee tends to pull the flange away from the web, and
Iu_. = ~ I'· (3)
to bend the curved flange as shown at the lower right transverse tensile bending stress in flange
radial force
If r ~ 1 (5)
\
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 9
Welded Connections for Vierendeel Trusses / 5.13-7
Values of {3
1.0
FIGURE 10 Values of a
a
2 3 4 5
Values of (~:)
6. SUMMARY OF REQUIREMENTS
du e to deflection of horizontal and vertical memb ers is
Here is a summary of the general requirements for taken into consideration when th e truss is designed.
these Vierendeel truss connections: However, yielding within the conn ection itself is not
1. The bottom chord is in tension and the connec- considered in the design and this could alter th e mo-
tions here must provide continuity of the member for ment distribution of the. truss, th erefor e it is important
this tensile force; the top chord is in compression and that the connection have eq ual or greater stiffness than
the connections here must provide continuity of the the members connecting to it.
member for this compressive force. For these reasons, 5. The web of the connection must be stiffened
i the inside flanges of the horizontal chords should be against buckling due to the high shear stress resulting
made continuous throughout the connection. from the unbalanced moment of th e two horizontal
, 2. There may be some axial tension or compression members connecting at the joint. This difference in
I in the vertical member, but this is usually of a smaller moment is equal to th e moment applied by the vertical
magnitude. member also connected there. This web must either
3. Large moments are applied by the horizontal have sufficient thickness or be reinforced with a doubler
and vertical legs to each connection. plate or some type of stiffeners.
4. A pair of connections, one above the other, tend 6. Flange stiffen ers should be used wh enever th ere
to be restrained from rotation by the vertical member is an abrupt change in dir ection or curvature of th e
which connects them. The rotation of these connections flange.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5.13-8 / Welded-Connection Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 6.1
6.1-1
6.1-2 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
r
(a) Actual Frame (b) Elastic area of analogous column
FIGURE 1
to rotate, and then fixed again. This release causes a corrective moments which must be added to the
new distribution of the moment about this point, and statically determinate moments of the "6ut" frame in
some of this change is carried over into the next order to bring the frame back to its original shape
joint. This procedure is followed for each joint in the and condition before it was "cut".
entire frame, and then the whole process is repeated This is outlined as follows:
over all the joints as often as required until these cor- 1. Determine properties of the elastic area: area,
rections become very small. center of gravity or elastic center, and moments of
This method is outlined as follows: inertia about the two axes (x-x and y-y).
1. Fix the joints from rotation and find the mo- 2. Cut the frame to make it statically determinate.
ments, treating the member as a simple structure. Use moment diagram from applied loads as a load
2. Rcmove the joint restraints one at a time, and ( M/EI) on the elastic area of the analogous column.
balance moments about the joint. This unbalanced 3. Determine axial "stress" and the two bending
moment is then distributed about the joint. "stresses" of the analogous column. These become cor-
3. Some of this distributed moment is then carried rective moments which must be added to the statically
over into the other end of the member. determinate moment of Step 2 to give the final mo-
4. This is repeated until the unbalanced moments ments of the statically indeterminate frame.
become very small. The final moments are then used 4. From these moments, find the redundant forces
to design the structure. at the cut portion of the frame.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
pressive "stress" and the two bending "stresses". These
resulting "stresses" of the analogous column are the
1
EI
1 = 0
00
Design of Rigid Frames I 6.1-3
and the elastic area at this fixed end would be zero. the two pinned ends and these lie at the extreme ends
The elastic area, with its dimensions now known of the section about axis x-x.
Length = L Apply Load to Elastic Area
Height = h The statically indeterminate frame, Figure 2 (a), must
Width = If I
have some portion cut, usually at one of the supports,
so that it becomes statically determinate, Figure 2(b).
Under this condition, the bending moment diagram
is now treated like any other cross-section, and its caused by the applied loads is constructed, Figure
properties determined. 2 ( c). This is then treated as a load (Ma/EI) applied
to the elastic area of the analogous column, Figure
IIn this example of pinned ends: I 3( a).
Just as an eccentrically loaded column has an axial
Area load and tilting moments (M, = P y, and My = P x),
p
~--- b------1t-- a
I~ --i
(2 columns) (beam) (pinned ends)
Elastic Center
The elastic center is found as though it were the center
of gravity of the elastic area.
axis x-x H
cc. = IM
I A
o
axis y-y (b) One support cut to make
frame statically determinate
By observation, it is seen that the y-y axis would
pass through the center of this elastic area because of M, _ P a b
section symmetry. ET - EU
L
Moment of Inerfia
= J!:
3 E (!!
I +~)
I h r,
(c) Mament diagram for the
Since the infinite elastic area at the pin lies along statically determinate frame
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
the elastic axis x-x, it will have no effect upon I x•x •
I y •y = 00, since there is an infinite elastic area at FIGURE 2
6.1-4 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
M) d.rcqrom
(-E 'I treoted os 0 lood .. 0
p
-- --
......
~- /
/
-x
/
./
Y x
so the analogous column has an axial load and tilting Just as the eccentrically loaded column has stresses
moments. Consider the moment diagram divided by at any point equal to the axial compressive stress plus
EI as the load about the two axes (x-x and y-y) the two bending stresses-
through the elastic center:
a- = a-. (axial) ± a-x (bending x_x ) ± a-y (bendingyj )
axial load on analogous column
or a- = ~ -+- M x-x cy -+- My-y Cx
A - I x -x - I y -y
l(pab)
P="2 EhL L so the analogous column has "stresses" at any point
P a b equal to the axial "stress" (a-a) plus the two bending
-2Eh "stresses" (a-~_ & a-x). These are the corresponding cor-
rective moments (M a, M x, & My) which must be ap-
moment about axis x-x on analogous column plied to the statically determinate moments of the
"cut" frame in Figure 2(b) to bring the frame back to
l ( p a b ) Lh
=.2 E h L its original shape and condition, Figure 2( a).
y
I
I
I
I
I
C x = - L/2--t-cx = + L/2
I
I
I
I
Y
FIG. 4 No corrective moment to be added here. FIG. 6 No corrective moment to be added here.
when Cy = +h when Cy = 0
M, = 0 (See Figure 5.)
P a b h) h -------M-j--y-ex-I (3)
( 2 E IL
y-y
Since I y _y = 00
3Pab
My = 0 (See Figure 6.)
3Pab
4hI
l
-- +6L
Ih
~=---- 3Pab
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 7
6.1-6 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
5000#
12,-l-12'~
_ 1 ,=2 15'
48'
_______~~II = 00
FIGURE 8
I
I
I-
I
1
I
I
I
I
I' 48' ~I
I y
FIGURE 9
r
I Problem 1 I Member A y M = Ay' Ix' = Mey' I.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Use a reference axis (x'-x') through the top of
the column.
2856 -
2531 in."
325
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-7
~ --'-- X 26L..-
I '2 101 -
---~l10'
Moment of inertia
of rafter about its
- - T
~~/JA:'?'7',~~.;,
1 x'
1 own center of gravity
1 X 26 J (10') 3
y' = - 7.5'
=
[ G 10
= 216¥J
---l 15'
(one rafter)
19
12
_1_ =0
I =
OJ
1
FIGURE 10
distance from elastic center (x-x) to outer fiber distance from elastic center (y-y) to outer fiber
I~
lor I 24' ~I -1 X 26) (24')3
( 12 24
I~ 12
A = 26 26' (one rafter)
12 = 1 I ~ Moment of inertia
I ~~ of rafter about its
I own center of grovity
k--12'
A = ._15_ = 7.5
1=2
I
I
I
1 15'
_1_=
:
o~f.e----c, = - 24'------;.>I.oE;~,____--c, = + 24'-__
~1
1
'- _1_ = 0
I =", 1=",
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 11
6.1-8 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
A. Cut the right fixed end support at @. The Mx. x (-450,000) (-9.7) + (-390,000) (-.53)
portion of the rafter to the left of the applied load + 4,571,700
becomes a statically determinate cantilever beam.
E. Release the ends of the rafters at @ and 0). M y •y =--t-"--450,000) ( -24) + (-390,000) (-20)
This becomes a statically determinate simply sup-
= + 18,600,000
ported haunched beam.
Method A: Cut the frame at @. With the load correction moment at Q)
applied at 0, the rafter cantilevers out from @. The
end moment at @, M = -60,000 It-lbs, is also applied
to the left column Q)-@. (See Figure 15.)
= ~ + M x . x cy + M)..y Cx
r- o: = ~ + M y . y Cy + M x -x ex
a I y •y i.,
/
Y These "stresses" are the correcting moments, which
Elastic area must be applied to the original moments of the statically
determinate frame to produce the final moments of
the statically indeterminate frame.
FIGURE 12
x_
This total load on the elastic area may be broken
down into 3 loads:
a. Axial load, P
b. Moment, M x . x , about axis x-x
c. Moment, My •y , about axis y-y FIG. 14 Correcting moments
y
/ y
/
/
y
(0) Y
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
(b)
FIGURE 13
(e) y
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-9
,~ooo#
\~
:0
I
_~"" t
Q)c y = + 2.8'1
:
i
XT~i --20;-~: --TC;~'
- 9.7' I
®
I ' - Cut
I.. c. =- 24' .1
I
y
FIGURE 15
_~+ M x - x Cy + M y •y Cx
I e,. 2.2'
24
+ (+ 18,600,(00) (0)
18,624
- A I x -x I
y-y
Cx = -
-
' = + 1550 ft-lbs
_ -840,000 + (+4,571,700) (-2.2) final moment
- 67 2531 M4 = - 1550 ft-lbs
+ (+18,600,000) (-24)
18,624 correction moment at ®
= - 40,480 ft-lbs Cy = - 2.2'
= ~ + M x - x c", M,,_,-
+ '.I Cx
= + 24'
final moment = original moment - correction moment A' r., y _y
Cx
+ 19,460'"
r:
+ 7,570' #
0~
+ 19,640'#)
FIGURE 16
final moment
H
MI
M 6 = + 19,640 ft-lbs 11
7570 ft-Ibs
The final moments of the statically indeterminate 4,191
frame are diagrammed in Figure 16.
1806 lbs
Horizontal Redundant Force
To find the horizontal redundant force (H) at the Vertical Reaction
base of the column, first find the point of inflection (zero
To find the vertical reaction (V) at the base of the
moment) in thc column. Then find the horizontal force
column, take the moments about the base of the oppo-
required at this point to equal the end moment at the
site column and set them equal to zero. (See Figure 18.)
base of the column.
:l M 6 = 0 or
+ MI + VI (48) - 5000(36) - M6 = 0
~ - 19,520'" V I (48 ) = M, - M I + 5000(36)
@~ = 19,640 - 7570 + 180,000
= 192,070
192,070
H~ t 48
h
/' ---.i.. = 4000 lbs
+7,570,r~
FIGURE 17
Method B: Release ends of the rafters at ® and
@, so that the rafter becomes simply supported and
statically indeterminate. (See Figure 19.)
H = 1806 #
\ tV j
~M6 = + 19,640'#
6
FIGURE 18
Mr . r = (+292,500) (+1.13) + (97,500) (+4.47) final moment = original moment - correction moment
+ (390,000) ( +5.3) + (390,000) ( +4.47)
M1 = 0 + 7600
= + 4,576,650 = + 7600 ft-lbs
My _y = (+292,500)(-16) + (97,500)(-8)
+ (390,000) (-6) + (390,000) (+8)
correction moment at ®
= - 4,680,000
= ~ + M x-x c~. + M..
y _y c,
I y _y
I'ex" - 2.2'
- 24'
correction moment at CD A r., -
5000 # M = + 30 000'#
M= + 45,000'::=
+ 4.47'1
I
I
1
I
CD I
y
CD
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 19
6.1-12 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
correction moment at ® V=
= P
A + Mx -x
r.,
C
y
- 19,670 ft-lbs
18,624@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation These items may be found from already-developed
charts, or by use of the column analogy method which
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-13
5000# ,
Y
-r- __
] /
/ x- -;-
~,
I
M. = - 60,000' #
/ tension I
Y compression
I
H=~=5000#~
L M = - 60,000'#
I
x- --T
I
compression I
I
Y
-840,000
67
+ 12,537' # '--../
MI. = + 12,537' #
<:»
MI. = + 12,537' #
IV ~ - I= -
1 t - V = 998.7# ~=998.7#
M"
I y_y
+ 18,600,000
18,624
= - 998.7 # "'--!/
M = + 23,969' # M = - 23,969' #
M] = V c x = (-998.7)( - 24) = + 23,969' #
FIGURE 20
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
6.1-14 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
CD ® ® @ ® ®
M. -60,000 -60,000 0 0 0 0
p
Mre = + 12,537 +12,537 + 12,537 +12,537 +12,537 + 12,537
A
H • y +31,062 + 3,974 - 5,057 -14,008 + 3,974 +31,062
V • x +23,969 +23,969 +11,985 0 -23,969 -23,969
CD
H = 1806# ....... t t....... H = 1806#
M]
"-J
= + 7568'# <:> FIGURE 21
M6 = + 19,630' #
is applicable to any type of beam, Figure 22. Constants to Help Calculate Final Moment~
The cover-plated beam is representative of any
Charts have been developed by which the designer
beam in which there is an abrupt change of section ...
can readily find constants to use in determining stiff-
and of moment of inertia. The other two common con-
ness factors, carry-over factors, and fixed-end moments
ditions in which there is an abrupt change of section
for beams.
are 1) where plate of heavier thickness is used for
Sources include:
the flanges for a short distance at the ends of the
1. Bull. 176, R. A. Caughy and R. S. Cebula; Iowa
beam, and 2) where short lengths of smaller beams are
Engineering Experiment Station, Iowa State College,
used below the regular beams to reinforce them at and
Ames, Iowa. 36 charts for beams with cover plates at
near the points of support.
ends.
Prismatic
:
== ~ ~ Cover-plated beam
~ ~ ~ ~
Tapered beam
~ @Seismicisolation
~ ~
@Seismicisolation
Haunched beam
FIGURE 22
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-15
2. "Moment Distribution," J. M. Cere, 1963; D. 3. The resulting "stresses" at the ends @ and ®
Van Nostrand Co., 378 pages; 29 charts for beams with (j - -
P My.}' c
- . - -t- - . _ . _..
cover plates at ends; 42 charts for tapered beams. - A - l y .)'
4. FINDING FIXED END MOMENTS BY become the correction moments which must be added
COLUMN ANALOGY to the moment of the "Simply-supported" beam to trans-
form it back to the original fixed-end, statically inde-
Referring back to Topic 2, The Column Analogy terminate beam. Since in this case we started out with
Method, the outline of the beam is considered to be zero end moments for the "simply-supported" beam,
the cross-section of a column (or elastic area). See these correction moments then become the fixed end
Figure 23. moments of the final rigid beam:
M r.. at end ®
M r,> at end ®
Stiffness Factor by Column Analogy
-------- L ----
The stiffness factor (K) is a measure of the resistance
Real beam
of the member against end rotation. It may be defined
as the moment necessary to produce a unit end rota-
tion at the same end, while the opposite end is held
fixed:
column).
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
by EI, as the load upon the elastic area (analogous will be helpful to know the loads (P) and distances
(e) at the center of gravity of these areas. See Table 2.
6.1-16 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
at0 at 0
M,._., F
F
-F
e CA CA'
MA "trA"
-A
1
+
MY - J
1,_,
CA.
= -
I
+
I CA
--
Iy _,
UA -
A + 1,-, A
+ 1,-,
A
at® at ®
I M,_, CB
-
I I CACB UB -AF M,-, CB
-
F F CACB
MAB IIUB"
A 1,-, A 17 - 7 1,-, A 1,-,
= I CB M,_,
at® at®
F F CB"
MB IIUB II
-
I
+ 1,-,
1 CB' UB -
A + 1,-,
A
at 0 at 0
1 I F F CACB
@Seismicisolation
-
(ACH UA -
=
@Seismicisolation 1,-,
"u A "
MBA
A J,_, A
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-17
w b'
12 I, (3 0+ b)
Pa = w -
- a'
12 I,
(a + 3 b) 1
e. = ~(a + 4 b
2 a + 3 b )1
1
~( 4 a + b ) 1
I
eb
2 3 a + b
w b
Pb = 12 I,
(6 0' + 6 a b +
p. = w -
- 0'
12 I,
(4 a + 3 b) I
Distance to CG of this load
e. = ~(5a+4b)
2 4a+3b
L = 20 + b @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation w = unit uniform load (Ibs/in.)
6.1-18 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
at @
at@
M x = ~ (L - x) 1
2
A
FIGURE 26
at ®
MB =
~
A
+ 1
I
CB
2
s-s
"axial" load (P)
w a2 From these three vaiues (M A), (MAll) and (M B ) ,
Pa
12 II
(a +3 b) the following may be found:
Pb
w b2
(3a + b) stiffness factor at @
12 12
KA = MA
P r, + r,
moment about elastic axis
stiffness factor at ®
K ll = Mil
P Mc
;
= A ±
--~t--~--
(T
I a b
at A
r, + Pi>
----._----.-
A
at B
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 27
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-19
w
A=
0(0 + 2 h) b'
I, + I,
e.
2 A
b
,Y CB =
I
,,
I
1_- e. --,,-( a
2 a eh = -~(~-~) 1
~2 ~: (30 + h) 1
C:t, ChI ea +
eb are
I ------J considered to be (+)
At0 at G) P. + Ph M y _y CB
Mre = M,. = --~-
A + 1,-,
++ ~
End Moments Resulting from Treating Angular Rotation as a load
1 M. = 1 1n------
I-M-A-
A
~
1,-, ~I Mn ;;:+
1
1,-,
en'
Stiffness Factors
at CD I KB = MB
Carry-Over Factors
A =
2 a
It ++1
La _ b3 b"
12 It
+ 12 It
wo"
P. ~ (4 0+ 3 b)
w b
121; (6 oa + 6 a b + bal
here I M._. = 0
I ~:-. I
J
MA=MR= - 1
A
+--La
4 1._. A 4
Stiffness Factors
at 0 and @ I KA= KR = MA I
Carry-Over Factor.
but will have a slight curve (see Fig. 28, center, solid area of elastic area
line). This curve approaches a straight line as the
a I IB
beam becomes less tapered. Ax I _ I oge~
B A
Although a slight error will be introduced, it will
greatly simplify the analysis if we assume this moment AZ = b I Ie
I loge-I
of inertia distribution to be a straight (dotted) line. e - B B
® ©
I [===========~=J
,./ ..
I.,......-----l---------:j
- __ a
I
I -I
= +
tI=I+IC-!BZ~I
I IA
f
B
a
A X
I.
"fgp..ered beam
• B b (, .
L d:."~.;"l;~.:..~.;.-.-... 1 'c
I i
IA
rt:=X~a _. B
.r-Z~
Moment of inertia
® (])
1 Elastic center
T1 I ®/t ep
IA
L I
0r- c , j 0 I ®j c. ~
~ cA ------*---- Cc - - - - ' - - - - - -
FIGURE 28
distance from e.G. of elastic area A" to axis A-A moment of inertia of elastic area Ax about axis A-A
MAxi
IA-A
Ax
moment of inertia of elastic area Ax about axis y-y momen (M) applied to elastic area about its elastic
center
Using the parallel axis theorem:
IAxl = lAx! + Ax c/ Mxl _ ~[-
IY,y - 2
o, + (L + CA) IAxl
I A-A
I A-A /..
- CA L
IAxl = lAx!
r.: I A-A
and,
p
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-23
L
2 Mz = W
2
[- Z2 + z(L - 2 0) + a(L - all
M=~+~
'2~
t:= x 4 a .. r z ~ Moment diagram
(6) 0 CD
~ ~0 ©
~:~
~"~ ------j0• ~c.~~©
cA Cc
a .1 b
Elastic area
FIGURE 29
1 ec2
Mo = -A +-1-
s-s
lAB = 3.678 X 108 Ie = 5930
stiffness factor at @ b = 100" le2 = 3.5163 x 107
KA = MA h = 2540
stiffness factor at © Then proceed first to find formula elements made
Ko = Me up of these properties:
= 1.3680
carry-over factor, © to @ t, (5930)
Iog, r;- = loge (2540) = loge 2.3346
COA = _ ~:e
= .84780
h - I A = (2540) (646.7)
Problem 2
= 1893.3
For the uniformly-loaded beam shown at top in Figure Ie - In = (5930) - (2540)
30, having fixed ends, find the fixed end moments, stiff- = 3390
ness factor, and carry-over factors. a (100)
At center in Figure 30, the solid curve is the (1893.3 )
actual moment of inertia (I) as it varies along the
length of the beam. The dashed line is the assumed .052813
straight-line variation in moment of inertia along the
two halves of the tapered beam.
)2 2.7892 X 10-3 ( (h -a I A )
The following properties are established:
a = 100" h = 6.4516 X 10
2 ( (h -a I )3 = 1.4731 X 10-4
0
A)
IA
IA2
=
=
646.7
4.1822 X 10 5
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
I = 1.6386 X 10
B3
L = 100"
10
( (h -a I )4 = .77800 X 10-5 A
6.1-24 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
b ( 100 ) a h
(Ie - h) (3390) (h - lA ) loge I A
( (Ie -b)"
In)
.8722 X 10- 3
.072252
b Ie
b
( (Ie - In)
)'J = 2.5728 X 10-;'
A, = (Ie _ h) loge 1;
(.029499) (.84780)
(6) ® © 1"X10"
~:I= L_-=::====~=======-J
~ ~,,:t~
I
: dw - 20"
~l
1 - - 0 - - - - - L = 200" - - - - - - - - - -
I9~ered beam
18 = 2540 in 4
/'·1 Ie = 5930 in 4
I
A
= -.t
-r- I·
6 4
.7_in_
L
-+
. I
1
Moment of inertia
r
Elastic area
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 30
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-25
= 43.038" - 43. 04 2J
MA.I = A.a + MA.I
= 170.28
I A-A IB-B
= (.025008)( 100) + (1.0762)
I = IAxl + IAzl
= 3..5570 Y-Y I s-s I s-s
M A-A = MAxi + MAzl = (110.16) + (170.28)
I A-A I A-A
= (2.8132) + (3.5570) = 280.44
= 6.3902
MA -A
px
.
= W
2
(L MAxiIA-A - IAxl )
IA-A
CA =-~
W
_ (6.3903) = 2" (200 X 2.8132 - 167.93)
- (.097260)
= 65.70" = 197.36 W
Cc = L - CA
= (200) - (65.70) r, = W
2
(L24 A. - IA.IIn-n )
= 134.30"
IAxl ( a ) 3 ((In - I A )( I B - 3 IA )
= ; (2~-=- .025008 _ 67.02 )
I A-A - (La - IA ) 2
= 91.53
~: )
W
+ I A 2 loge
= + 3994 w
at ®
(.7780 x 10- 5 ) F8~3.3 [2 x 6.4516 x 10 6
P My.y CA
- 7(2450) (646.7) + 11(4.1822 X 105 ] Mfe=-A- I y-y
= 4827
STEP 3: Determine Stillness and Carry-Over Factors
M,l
/y-y -
- w
2
l o, +
1 (65.70 2 )
; [- 11,878 + (265.70)167.93 ( .09726) + (280.44)
=- 2113 w
MAe = A -
1 CA Co
----y;:;-
Mz/ _ W [ - Qz + (L - 3 a + CA) I Az/ 1 ( 65.70) ( 134.30)
/y_y - 2 /B-B ( .09726) (280.44)
+ [a(2 L - 3 a) - CA(L - 2 a)]
= - 21.18
MAi~'B +a (L - a)(a - CA) Az J 1 ec 2
Me = -+
A
-1-
s-r
= ;[- 4827 + (-34.30)67.02
+ 10,000( 1.0762) + 343,000(0.25008~
1 (134.302 )
( .09726) + (280.44 )
= 6107 W
= 74.59
My.y = Mx / + M./
stiffness factor at @
= (-
/y-y
2113 w)
/y-y
+
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
(6107 w)
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-27
@ ® © 1" X 10"
---±-I
T
= 11"
I
~14
] "'f---'-
2 ~ 19"
dw
I: a = 120"
L = 200"
b = 80"==j Haunched beam
--:.----:.----..;,....------r'
•
.0010905
~~~:jt~::f..0008068
.0006189
14-------- 130"
Elastic area
I
.L = .0012896 +
I
A
L --------r, .0009332
_
• , .0007039
.0001,481 t l
20" 20" 20" 20" CD[ .0004375
180" --------.-1
193Y3
FIGURE 31
angular areas share the same altitude and since the moment of inertia
division in length (s) is the same, they will have the
same area. Therefore, the center of gravity of the
two triangles lies along their common altitude. (This
graphical method is applicable to any beam with a ( 18.6036)2
non-uniform change in moment of inertia along its (2199.7)
(.21573 )
length).
2199.7 - 1604.2 = 595.5
STEP 1: Determine the Properties of the Elastic Area
595.5
elastic center
M area (A) of section 00f Mx/lx diagram
if w a2
( 18.6036) A = 12 (a + 3 b)
(.21573)
86.23"
w ( 120) 2 (120 +3 x 80)
12
L - CA
557.10 w
(200) - (86.23)
113.77" center of gravity of section 0
®r
M = 4644.5 w
= 4200w
Moment (MJs!.f.g9!:SllI!
~
a = 120" _I M of uniform load
I<
~
~ ; - f@r M = 1800 W
~
U:- g
• I
I
I--- eo = 73%" - I I~x =-1 40" X = 20"
-
x =
60"
x = 73Y3"
y
:. 93.77l
I = 775.46
- 12.90"~
I.
I
I' 53.77
:-+4044"
73.77
11
t' :
II
1
I I = 1824.71
Y
I I = 1420.62
Elastic center I = 1071.54
I = 882.33 Moment of inertia
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 32
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-29
~( a + 4b) 1
2 a +3b (.21573 )
( 120) ( 120 + 4 x 80 ) + 26.35
2 120 + 3 x 80
731f.l"
stiffness factor at ®
other properties of M xlI x diagram
KA = MA = 17.12
I
I I I I I I I
11.000 I I I I 4.700 f-
AC A I Ie
de f- f-
f- f-
~PLj
'-
-
~PL-1 L ~PL~ 35,,-L L-L -
10.000
/
t7'......
.~q
4.600
·V
'J(
1/ -p
9.000 4.500
./
.2)
KA B V- .20
KAB or KBA ./ V i-r
1/ in terms 4.400 V
in terms 8.000 / / VII V
Ell
V- .2.9-
of Ell ~v V- fl
I ~/ /"
of V L .IV /v
L 7.000
1/1/ V-
4..300
VII
.15 VI/ .10
I/
'j f.- V/V V I-
6.000
f.- 4.200 I...'lV f.-
II: ./
-~o ,'lV /1/
./ ;= !jill V
./ ~I- I ~ / p •.~
5.000
~ 1--"- 4.100 ;}y _r--r--
l.d~v I- p·.o5 ~v r--
~ ~v v
~t/- 1-1- I V
4.000 IJ!v I 4.000 ~
IIJ 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 31J 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0
I 2 I 2
r= __
r=--
II I.
Chart 1. Stillness foctors at either end 01 symmetrical beam. Chart 2. Stillness f cctors at small end 01 unsymmetrical beam.
I I 2~
I I ,
I I I kf30
' / .29--
AI Ie f-I-
1-1-
-.6400
AC de t2 'j,.
~-L~~P:j t-t- .35
9.00 1-1- ~L I-pLV
/, ,
-·6200 .15
.35 /, 1....-
Y N/
~- f- t- ~-- 1-- I- 1/
8.00 •30
-.6000 I. I
Y /
KBA r/
V- I/, j r5!
t> .25
;;
in terms V CAB -.5800
7.00 0-- W v
Ell ./
or CBA // "
of rl V
L II .> ~ IJI/
f-
VI /"
-.5600
/ I
6.00 II V V 1/,
// v .~
fli. 1/ p •• ~
/ V- v"- I/J'j / ...---
./ .- -.5400
I/, ./
VI f.-
-.....-r--:
L>
.10 IJI/, v..-
5.00 '-- I VI. /'
j /' ~ I
,0:1/ »: -.5200 vi
f.- p·.05 II
V I
V
~V '-l- I I jV
4.00 ~ ve-
1.0
-.5000 II'
1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6
"
-(ttttj ~
l~
1--1.- ---I-
I- j j j 1-L1-
-.7BOO t-- .35
- I-- __ A I ~B
'
-.7400
~ -L-- ~ ~ Y
.25
'/ V
1/
-.7000 VI/ V
1/ 20
I
I- t-I- -- t-- t-t-
-.6600 I - t- - l - I/ V
t-+
l- I 1/ 1/
rill v ~
lI; V
I-- I-t--
-.6200 - l - I. t> y- -- -.4600 H-+--I--,
y- j
I-- t-'- - ."J V" t--l/ 1/
-
.10
II f-Y
0; t->
1-+-+-
_.5BOO
IL- t-- -
/ I----"
- --- .- t-r- I-- -.4400 4 - -+---- - --- ,
if
J'I /'
/"
-,-- p » 0.5
I 2
r= __
I,
Chart 5. Carry-over factors for unsymmetrical beam from srno!l end to large Chart 6. Carry-over factors for unsvrnme tricc l beam from large end to srnoll
end. end.
r-r-
1--1-1-- r t - t-
I-- f--J
~p
IJ +=P=-
t-jJ.-c
'8 ~.
1--1--1.- 17-'
1--1-- I- 1560 I-
1--1-1-- 1--1-- j - 1-1--
B V
1--1--1-- PL -I t-t- t- 1--1-- PL--! ~PL 20
1--1--1--
-.
L 1--1-- I-- I- - ~- L --~ / vr+-
V V~~
.093 01-- +-1-- -
1520 1- - iT+-
-
I- -
-t-- \7r--lr -t- ·-tt-
--
.0910 I-- - - 1--1-- - - --
10
.1480
/ , ; .25
1---1-- /l II V
./ I / -- .-
05
MA B V .r -f-- - i.- -
Vv:/ /
.0890 M AB 1440 /
in terms 1--- - - ~ 11,1.: / ,
~ --
in terms .~
of PL --- ;F9
/
1/ '" of PL 1- ;k- S;:i<?5
0870 1-1-- -- V »: .1400 II
V I
;:::V' LL
/ -0 .~
/ --
.... v ~
--1_
I--
I~~
p'.35
_0850
V
/
V
V
V
V
V
........1-"
~ 1360
-l-
t-
II!
I.
V
V
v'-
k-t-fLt
I
v: _r--- / I-"
V / I-" I----" P' 3.5 e- V /"
lI; V V vI-" I-
f-f--P- 1/
0830
~~ij
1320 I-- -
IV V j..--f-' 1//VV V
If/ Vv j..--f-' Vjl/v i I
V J.V - --
0810 ~v 1280 i.p:-
1.0 14 1.8 22 26 3.0 10 14 1.8 2 2 26 30
r c
I I I I I I 20V
f-- 1/ / f--r
C· ..d' ,;~~
~ ~"
n~ 4L
f-- f--r--
A =:\ P
f--
f-f-
pg L ".'3-'
.1720 f - - c -
r---r pL-J L
I /f
f-f-
I 2,7, I 1/ 'I
,
.1700
I
.20
.1800
/
1/
.30
I .1680
j
2
i5 .180?
'/
'/
}
~~I
I I .30..., t.U_'5 1/ 1/
Ig I I 1/ II 1/ I (
.15_
~ 17 0 1/ /
'(II 11/ ;~
1660
I/~ 5. 9 .1640
,W 35
176? /
/
I II I .10 W, I 11 J ~I-
MAB
I,
II!
.10
lij
I V 1/
II
v
MAB
II
111/ .10
IJf ,-
in terms
.1620
!
III,
/)30 . I i/
/11
o / /'
in terms
.1600
IJI9 V
lUll .. it
of PL VI II. , A I V .35 of PL 1/
3;_ ~680.
.I5BO II II IV .1560
lUll /
V/,'II .Ij1' p' .10
1/ I,
/1 IJ/ V 'JII - f
I 111/ /05 III V U .05 IV
.1540 VI .{40 1520 I I, II, V 1640
U, Iff VI V v )/
I I p,.o5 rIJ y
I I ........ r h %1
vV IV; 1/
.1500
j
.I63c(:
V
.1480
r, .1600
III vi I v- J, I
I~ II. I
.1460 1560 .1560 .~
.1440
1.0 1.4
~
1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 1.0 1.4 1.8 30
12
r=--
Chart 9. Fi><ed-end maments at left end af symmetricol beam for concentroted Chart 10. Fi><ed-end moments at left end of symmetrical beam for concert-
load at .3 point. trated laod at .4 point.
I
W-
~~
I A 8
I I I I
30/1
.139 0 c-I- c-
t---- .6L-----1 +-
11z5 P P
f-I- l- I-
1/ L- r l - t-r- A B
'II V
f - I - t- t-PL~ ~PL
.1370 .15?0, .1200 t-r-t--:t-
I / .20
r r t-r-
L
1,,1 1/
f/ J .35
1350 I 1/ .1490 1160 A
.15
1/.
~
f - .20
I VI V
f - .35
( /,
/ ~ /' ,/ I
MAB or MBA 10
W 1/ ,/ ~B V
.1330 ',\50/; .1120
in terms I II / ,/
in terms v/ _v
.25
r/ .v /V
of PL I WI/ /' of PL I/- v..---
{'Y §
.1310
,j p' .10
.1080 »<
Jo
II .05 I I--' v 1-'1-"
v ..r ..--- V I
15
I V
.1290
,I
/
/ lY- 70
L>
.1040
~
V
V
..---
-- p·.IO
I
Vi V
II .05
lL
~73~
.1270 .1000 ,/ f--
j f-e-- v. I-' .05
III I vI-' IfL. V
II ....r- J'.L 1-"-
.1250 .1290 .0960 'P:-"---
1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0 1.0 1.4 I.B 2.2 2.4 30
r=-.h
I.
·07&0 .0400,--,---,-------,-----,--,----,------,---,---,-_
I ~.~L----';P I
»-: ~
.01'30
- 'l:= =i. V
.0380
.071 0 -
fcl----- L~ V ,-.!O .0360
V
f..-- I -
.OSlO
V ~ .o34oL,-L-l"""J:::;::~:::::=:r_-t~I-1--~==1
Mal ~~ Mu
Interms .0170 in terms
I~V r-- ~
f0-
of PL of PL
.0.50 .0300
f:.I.---" r-- r--t--
.0830
I~
- -- -- F-- ~ ~ ~~
moo 1 - - - + - - - 1
.0110
.O&IO
LO /.'
t:::::=
I., I.' I.' 2.0 2.2
E;..-
2.4 2.1
-~2.8
'-.1
3.0
.0.601---+---+-----j-
3.0
I
r=_2
I.
Chart 13. Fixed-end moments at left end of symmetrical beam for concen- Chart 14. Fixed-end moments at left end of symmetrical beam for concert-
trated load at .7 point. trated load at .8 point.
.0 1100
.0 '000
, ••~& .0160 +---+--~-+-----i-~+-~+-,.~~
".30 ,.:!)o
.00
MBA
p.,'l.~
p•.'2.0
!----.9L--:L ~ -;--
.001 0 0 -
.00400
1.0 1.2
I I
1.6
i
1.8 2.2
I
2.4
I
t4 2.0 2.6 2.8 3.0
Chart 15. Fixed-end moments at left end of symmetrical beam for concen- Chart 16. Fixed-end moments at large end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
trated load at .9 point. centrated load at.1 point.
.0~6
,.. ,.,0
''''I~-----r-~TTT
.,~
p i ,
~ .
I
A~~j ~': 1 . I
I
.0~3 f-2Lj -
At: :d 8 -» 105 L
MIA p •. \~ MBA
in terms .044 in terms .087 I
p •.\!)
of PL of PL
,_.\0
.041 .081
r- r--t---+ ,_.10
.038
".00
.075
t!
'-.05
I.' I.' I.' 2.0 2.' 2.4 ... ... 3.0 1.6 1.0 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.• 3.0
I I
r =---!.
II
r=t- I
Chart 17. Fixed-end moments at large end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at .2 point.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Chart 18. Fixed-end moments at large end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at .3 point.
6.1-34 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
.200~---r---'---'------'--'--"""'-----'---'----"""'--L1
I
.190
.180
A t-d--~.
~ -~
--- L
---i. '1',
j
MIA
in terms
MIA
.I
70
.160
1- _--+-_-t-j - ~+---+-~ --+,.,'
of PL in terms
of PL
p·.05
.210 210
.2001-----+-----t--i----+-----i-
p•. \!l
.200
190
_.._-
r r
MIA
.1.Of--·-+---+--+--+----j---.~"""""-_+-_=j..._=-+-__1
MIA
t--l
in terms
I p.,\O
,'BO't---+--__1--+--~~...,'7""""-+--_+--\__-_l::..,!.:.::::,
in terms Isoi-T ,.,\0
of PL of PL
.1101--+_--+...,...-~[y=+-::::_I-=+---+-_I--+_-__1
P".oet
170-+- , •.O!!
I
'"0
r =....!.
I,
Chari 21. Fixed-end moments at large end of unsymmetrical beam for con- Chart 22. Fixed-end -moments at lorge end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at .6 point. centrated load at .7 point.
MBA MBA
in terms in terms
of PL of PL
,
I
.081 1-
019 1
i I
10
I.' L4 1.6
I
r=-f I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Chart 23. Fixed-end moments at large end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at .8 point.
Chart 24. Fixe d-end moments at large end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at .9 paint.
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-35
1265
'·.05 '-.05
.1250
'-,/0
.. ·.10
.1235
MAl MAl
'''.Its
interms .. ·.15 in terms p
1220
of PL of PL ~.'Li
Aj =to ..··~o
.0790
11-'20
.1205 ~ -L ---'"':1
.0186 .1190r--+--t--t---+----'r--
1.0 '.0 ... •.. .6 2.B 3.0 1.8 .0 ... 2.' as 2.8 '.0
I 12
r =....!.
I. r =-r.-
Chart 25. Fixed-end moments at small end of unsymmetrical beam for con- Chart 26. Fixed-end moments at small end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at. 1 point. centrated load at .2 point.
."5r--+---+-~:k--"'<i--__j-'''''''_I__oc__+-__j~--+_-__1
MAl
'MAl .132r--+---+--+---''''''''''''..--I-",,",''--_+---j--+_-'''1
in terms
Interms of PL .12.r--+---+--+---+----1~..---l'-~+-____1""'" __:J_-.-::_:1
of PL
.126
.123
Chart 27. fixed-end moments at small end of unsymmetrical beam for con- Chart 28. fixed-end moments at smell end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at .3 point. centrated load at .4 point.
.127~-_,_----,---,----__,_-----r--,-------,---,------,---, .10 a
j
3.~
.0' --
"'
.090 ~
---- - -
I
.II3.I---+---+---"~l>-..,;::-+"""_;:;::--+_-_+--f--+-___1
'-.05
ae 3. "~ -----
.. ~
i
I
I
~
~ t--I---
- 1'·.10
.103 Aj
1--.5L-j
::Jo .070 1---0.
1-.6L=( =10 1'-.20
L 'pL1
- ~ ~L~ ~
",
.099
--r-------rl-l-
- L -
.065
I
r=-!.
II
Chart 29. fixed-end moments at small end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at .5 paint.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Chart 30. fixed-end moments at small end of unsymmetrical beam for con-
centrated load at .6 point.
6.1-36 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
.055
.051
MAS
in terms P-,IO MAS
04T
of PL P
in terms
043 Aj
'----.7L-
'=18
of PL
L _
pL
f- - L - - -
.039 --
.1120,---,-----,-
.1080
I
At v ", ", M:;q8
WI lb. per lin. fl.
"pL~
I
.30
- L " i
OOT ,1040 '1140
.006 ,1000
MA8
in terms MBA
of PL 005 in terms 0.60
,004 At-
.9L
__ -~8
-,P
of wL! .0920 r----t---,M
~pL- I
.oos --+-
.002 .05
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 26 2.• ~O
Iz
r=r , 2.6 2.8 10
Chart 33. Fixed-end moments at small end of unsymmetricoi beam for con- Chart 34. Fixed-end moments at large end of unsymmetrical beam for
centrated load at .9 point. uniform load •
.0840,---,---,----,----,----,,--..,---,----,--..,---,
.05
.0810
MAS
.0900
MAS or MBA in terms
in terms of wLz
~~'-----t--+---+-.10 .0790
of wLz
.0780
.0820 .0770
.05
.0760
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2 .• 3.0 1.0 1.2 2.0 2.2 2.4
Ie I
r =-1..
r=r , I,
load.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Chart 35. Fixed-end moments at either end of symmetricol.beom for uniform Chart 36. Fixed-end moments at small end
uniform load.
of unsymmetrical beam for
SECTION 6 .2
1. BAR JOISTS
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 6.2--1
6.2-2 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
tension
Maximum Slendern ess (L fr] Ratios
0.60 a-),
Top chord interior panels 90
com pression Top chord end panels 120
Other compression members 200
If L/r < Co T ension members 240
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Open-Web Bar Joists / 6.2-3
(1'a = allowable axial unit compressive stress based Chord and web memb ers in compression, com-
upon (Lyr ) for the panel length, center to center of posed of two components separated one from another,
panel points shall have fillers spaced so that the Llr ratio for each
o» allowable bending unit stress, 0.60 (1'y component shall not exceed th e Llr ratio of the whole
(1". = t~;~~~ where (L) is the full panel length,
member; if in tension, the Llr ratio of each component
shall not exceed 240. Fillers may be omitted in chords
center to center of panel points having interior panel lengths not over 24" and in
r x = radius of gyration about the axis of bending webs of joists not over 28" in depth. In all of these
The radius of gyration of the top chord about cases, the least radius of gyration ( r ) is used.
its vertical axis < L/170, where L is the spacing in
inches between lines of bridging. Connection Requirements
Connections shall be designed to carry the design
Minimum Spacing of
Chord Size
lines of Bridging load, but not less than half of the allowable strength
No. 02 to No. 08 incl. 11'
of the member. Butt welded joints shall be designed to
No. 09 to No. 14 incl. 16' carry the full allowable strength of the member.
No. 15 to No. 19 incl. 21' Members connecting into a joint shall have their
centers of gravity meet at a point, otherwise the bend-
The top chord shall be considered to have lateral ing stresses due to eccentricity shall be taken into ac-
support if it is properly attached to the floor or roof count. Eccentricity on either side of the neutral axis
deck at distances not to exceed 36". of the chord members may be neglected if it does not
The vertical shear values to be used in the design exceed the distance between the neutral axis and back
of web members shall be determined from full uniform of the chord. Wh en a single angl e compression member
loading, but shall not be less than 25% of the rated end is attached to the outside of th e stem of a Tee or double
reaction.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation angle chord, th e eccentricity shall be taken into account.
6.2-4 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
@Seismicisolation
Reinforcing bars in concrete columns are field spliced. Simple positioning jig maintains
@Seismicisolation
proper alignment during welding. These large size AISI 4140 alloy steel bars were
welded with low-hydrogen electrodes.
SECTION 6.3
Reinforcing Bars
OIJQi'rrJI]
Single-vee groove
[[BtTIJ]
VB"~
45" to 60"
\'//7 rL-wr Throat
Norrunol size ,
/~
"
Here-vee groove
Double-vee groove
Here-bevel groove
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation or force on weld
f = 9600 w Ibs/lineal in.
6.3-1
6.3-2 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
~~
•
~~~n~~~~~J ;~~~~J[~
~---<">-i*-J_C~=_-J :~~~~J~I-- __-v-~ • Co)
FIGURE 2
@Seismicisolation
Preheat not
@Seismicisolation
required. If
below 10°F,
preheat to 100°F
welding the Engineer
SECTION 6.4
-~-As
Ic. = h - Cp = h - i- A.A.+ dAp I ...... ( 3)
where:
Cp
FIGURE 2 distance from neutral axis of whole section to
outer fiber of plate, in.
where:
distance from neutral axis of whole section to
·w= distance between stiffeners, in. outer fiber of stiffener, in.
d distance between center of gravity of panel
and that of stiffener, in. The panel section may then be treated as a simply
supported beam and designed with sufficient moment
cross-sectional area of plate within distance of inertia (I) to withstand whatever load is applied.
b, in. 2 Use a I" wide strip of this panel, and use uniform load
**A. = cross-sectional area of stiffener, in. 2 of (w) lbs per linear inch; if entire width of panel (b),
t = thickness of panel, in. use uniform pressure of (p) psi.
Figure 3 illustrates the technique of treating a
** I. = moment of inertia of stiffener, in," panel section as a beam under three different condi-
tions. Formulas for finding maximum deflection, bend-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
*If there is any question about the distanc e between stiffeners
becoming too great, Section 2.12 will provide some guidance.
**Data obtained from any steel handbook
ing moment, and vertical shear are given, with p being
the pressure in psi against the panel.
6.4-1
6.4-2 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
1
L
1
L
F
KL
J.- L
C::niform load
~J
P pressore at bottom
&
F .. apo/iad force
11<50%
Condition A Condition B Condition C
5 p b U
.. (4) 0.00652 P b U I (7) F L~ K "3 (1 - K2)31 (10)
384 E 1 E 1
I Llm ax = 27 E 1 v
____
v.., P_~_L_I ]Vm ax = F (1 - K) I (12)
~ L I .... (6 )
(9)
IV max = p
\\
\\ ~5·
// " "
~
corresponding value of c and the maximum moment
(M m a , ) in the following formulas: There /5 no twisting \\\
action on 45' diagonal \ \ ~j
for the panel merrioer since shear \ \ I /' /1
M max Cp
compooent:s cancel out \P a./
1 Only diagonal tens/on and \ I //
compress/on are formed J V
for the stiffener which place member in bending;
~ M max c.
I I @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation (14)
member is very rigid.
FIGURE 4
How to Stiffen a Panel / 6.4-3
75% 3 - 4
66 4 • 6
60 3 - 5
57 4 • 7
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
6.~ / Miscellaneous Structure Design
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 6.5
3. GENERAL
I Problem 1
FIGURE 1
Determine the required plate thickness of the following
tank to hold water, Figure 1.
where:
Since the varying pressure against side walls is
due to the weight of a liquid: H the maximum height of the liquid, in feet
p .4336 H s s the specific gravity of the liquid
.4336( 6)( 1)
2.6 psi
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation It is necessary to consider only the longest side
plate, having the greatest span between supports:
6.5-1
6.5-2 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
120". The top edge is free, the other three are sup- The ratio of plate height to width still being .6,
ported. This is recognized as condition 4D in Table 1. values are estimated from Table 1 to be-
Since the ratio of plate height to width is-
f3 = .102 and /' = .0064
a 72
b = 120 = .6
Since the same maximum stress formula applies-
values are estimated from Table 1 to be-
f3 = .14 and /' = .030
Then the required plate thickness is derived from (.102) (2.6) (120)2
the maximum stress formula: 20,000
(Tmax =
f3p 1>2
- t -2-
.191
t V""J9l
or, assuming an allowable stress of 20,000 psi-
2
.437", or use %6" f£
t2 = f3 P b
(T Checking the deflection of this plate-
(.14) (2.6) (120)2
20,000
.262 (.0064) (2.6) (120)4
t V2l32 (30 X 106 ) (.4375)3
= .512", or use!h" FE. 1.37"
Checking the deflection of this plate- It might be advisable to go back to the W' plate
4 thickness, still using the top edge stiffener, in which
/' p b
6.max = ~ case the bending stress and deflection would be re-
duced to-
(.030)(2.6)(120)4
(30 X 106 ) ( .5) 3 (T max = 15,300 psi and 6.m n x = .92"
4.3"
There is another method of determining the bend-
Since this deflection would be excessive, a stiffen- ing stress and deflection. A description of this follows
ing bar must be added along the top edge of the tank immediately.
to form a rectangular frame, Figure 2. Considering Plate Section as a Beam
Tank with Top Edge Stiffener A narrow section of the tank's side panel (width
m = 1") can be considered as a beam, Figure 3,
using formulas taken from Reference Section 8.1 on
Beam Diagrams.
'-y---J
p
FIGURE 2
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The modified tank now satisfies the condition 5A
on Table 1, because the critical plate is supported
on all four edges. FIGURE 3
Tanks, Bins and Hoppers I 6.5-3
b
a =-
a
At center: At center:
1.24 p ,;' .3125 (2 - a) p b"
(max) U, Ut = - I" (max) Ub
I"
.695 p r4 Ll (.146 - .1 a) p b 4
E t3 (approx) max = E t3
.' (18) Edges fixed; uniform load (28) Edges fixed; uniform load
At center: At center:
.488 p r"
I"
.075 p b" (10 a 2+ 3)
U, Ut = - t" (3 +
2 a" + 3 a 4)
.1705 p r 4 .075 p b' (3 a' + 10)
~m&:l:
E t3 I" (3 + 2 a" + 3 a 4)
.1705 p b4
E t 3 (6 + 4 a" + 6 a 4)
At edge:
3 p ,;' At edge:
(max) u, 1.5 p b' a 2
4 t"
.225 p r'
(Span a) U.
t" (3 + 2 a" + 3 a 4)
u. (max)
I" 1.5 p b"
(Span b) Ub
t" (3 + 2 a" + 3 a 4)
SQUARE PLATE
Table 1 continued
~ECTANGULAR PLATES
b
.. = At center:
a
.054 pbs (1 + 2as _ .. 4)
I'"
(4A) Edges supported; .75 P b"
uniform load f (3 + 4 .. 4)
4
.0284 P b or
.6. mu :
E t3 (1 + 1.056 ..0)
At center:
At midpoint of long edge.s:
p bS (.225 + .382 ..s _ .320 ..3) .5 p bS fJ p bS
f (mox) 0". =
f (1 + .623 ..0)
or -1'"-
.75 p bS fJ p bS
f (1 +
1.61 ..3) or -f- At midpoint of short edges:
.25 p bS
.1422 p b4 'Y P b4 tTl = --1'"--
.6. m &:I:
E t3 (1 +2.21 ..') or = - ~
~
b
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
--------'-
)~ 1.5
fJ .7500
.1422
fJ
or
IT DIU::
- \~
- t"
'Y P b4
.6. mu : =ET L-y-J
p
~ .25 .286 .333 .4 .5 .667 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
b
fJ .024 .031 .041 .056 .080 .116 .16 .26 .32 .35 .37 .38 .38
'Y .00027 .00046 .00083 .0016 .0035 .0083 .022 .042 .056 .063 .067 .069 .070
I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Table 1 continued on facing page
Tanks, Bins and Hoppers / 6.5-5
Table 1 continued
(40) Top edge free, other three edges supported; varying load
fJ p b"
tim all: = -1"'-
~Bottom
p
Since the maximum bending moment here is- Adding Another Stil#ener
Mmax .0642 p h 2 m (with h expressed in inches) When a panel is divided into two parts by a large
stiffener, it becomes a continuous panel, triangularly
.0642 (2.6)(72)2(1) loaded with a rather high negative moment at the
865 in.-lbs stiffener which acts as a support. There is no simple
formula for this; therefore the method of considering
M M 6
0'"max
s - t2 a 1" strip will be used, and of course will result in a
slightly greater stress value than actually exists.
20,800 psi The plate thickness in the tank being considered
can probably be reduced by adding such a stiffener
instead of the 15,300 psi obtained by considering the around the middle of the tank, Figure 4.
entire plate width; and-
.0625 P h 4 m
dmax = E I
_ .0625(2.6)(72)4(1)(12)
(30 X 106 ) (.5)3
= 1.39"
instead of the .92" obtained by considering the entire
plate width.
This method of isolating a 1" strip of the panel
and considering it as a beam will indicate greater
bending stress and deflection than actually exists. The
reason is that the stiffening effect of the surrounding FIGURE 4
panel has been neglected for simplicity.
The previous method of considering the entire The first step is to locate the stiffener at the
(frnp = 0
(Tcp = p
ro'
( rc2
+ r,') .2
- rt
(max at inner surface)
(T rp = P
(max at inner surface)
Uniform internal
pressure in all
directions
rIO )
( ~:. +r:,.) ~
p
( . •
(fcp=p ro• - rl 2
a:'Cp .. ~
t.s (max 01 inner surfcce)
@Seismicisolation
cos C(
@Seismicisolation (f,p = p
The biaxial tensile stresses (<Tmp) and (<Tep) in to be uniformly distributed across the shell thickness
thin-wall containers can be calculated with the basic without serious error occurring in stress calculations.
formulas shown in Table 2, where: However, in a thick-walled container generated by a
figure of revolution the decreasing variance of hoop
t. thickness of shell, in. stress from the inner surface to the outer surface of the
r, mean radius of a circumference of the shell, shell wall must be considered.
in. Table 3 presents formulas for calculating the
stresses in two common thick-walled cylinders. In the
rm mean radius of the meridian of the shell, in.
first condition, the internal pressure parallel to the
p internal pressure, psi structural (longitudinal) axis is balanced by the ex-
ternal force against the moving piston and by the re-
S. THICK-WALLED CONTAINERS sistance of the cylinder's support, and the resultant
longitudinal stress (<Tmp) is zero. In the second con-
In thin-walled containers, the hoop stress is assumed dition, there is a longitudinal stress (<Tmp).
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS lUG-27c and UA-l) SPHERICAL SHELLS (UG-27d and UA-3)
I,
t
(
1-----------'
Thin shell - when I, < '/2 " and p < .385 u. E Thin shell - when I, < .356 " and p < .665 u. E
p r
I, = P "
u, E - .6 p 2(u. E - .1 p)
Thick shell - when I, > 1/2 r and p > .385 U. E Thick shell - when I, > .356 r and p > .665 «, E
'dvrz- 1) t, ,,( n - 1)
where Z
u. E
u. Z -
+
p
p
@Seismicisolation
+
@Seismicisolation where Y
2(u. E p)
2 u. E - p
6.5-8 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
r]
where:
+ (~~
d,
h=
p
2(<T. E - .1 p
K
+[ 2
HEMISPHERICAL HEAD Thin head - when th < .356 r, Thick head - when th> .356 r,
(UG-32f and UA·3) and p < .665 <T. E and p > .665 <T. E
p r.
th = r, ( v--v-- I)
where:
2(<T. E - .1 p)
y 2(<T. E + p)
2 <T. E - p
d
h
tw = twice required
t, thickness of spherical
shell or 1.25 t. and
c = .30 not greater than th
lap weld
r min == 3 tc
integral head
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 6.6
The Design of
Hangers and Supports
6.6-1
6.6-2 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
..-j---r;
F1
F2
P cos
P sin
(J
(J
~e SHELL
L
where (J is the angle between guy cable or support FIGURE 2
attached to the shell and the horizontal.
the flange on each side of the stiffening web is approxi-
mately-
where:
r., = radius of shell curvature, inches
t. = thickness of shell, inches
The value of "e" should be limited to a maximum of
12t•.
FIGURE 1 The radial component (F1) of the force (P) is
applied directly to the shell. It is reasonable to assume
that the radial forces applied to the additional shell
p width (e) would decrease linearly to almost zero at its
outer limits. This assumed distribution of radial forces
(fa) due to the radial component (F1) is sketched in
If these components are applied at some eccen- Figure 2.
tricity (a and b), they will produce moments applied The value of fa is equivalent to the force (lbs)
to the shell section by the hanger and having values: on a 1" wide ring of the shell.
The longitudinal component (F2 ) of the force (P)
because of its eccentricity (a), and the radial compo-
nent (F1) because of its eccentricity (b), combine into
moment M, and apply radial forces to the shell having
Combining these values, observing proper signs, a distribution similar to that of bending forces, i.e.
will give the total moment acting on the shell from maximum at the outer fibers and zero along the neutral
the hanger: axis. The assumed distribution of the radial forces (f b )
due to the action of the applied moment is indicated
in Figure 3.
RADIAL FORCE (16) DISTRIBUTION
A study of stress distribution in the shell can be
resolved into separate analyses of the radial and
moment force distributions. Before analyzing these
forces, however, the engineer should determine how T z-:" SHELL ~' Zxi -c-t xjxf+z'jx/j,df+j)
much shell beyond the hanger is effective in resisting
these forces. t"--~'-HfiNGER or
GA1~
L )~ENrMh
&' _
* "Analysis @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
of Some Thin-Walled Structures", Von Karman,
ASME paper AER-55-19C, Aer Eng, Vol. 5, No.4, 1933.
l
e
FIGURE 3
Design of Hangers and Supports / 6.6-3
NOTE: FO" liNCH IVIDE PINIi lillO/ilL FO/fCES /lIiE f.; WHEN SEcTION
IS 8UIl.T UP A~ /1.l.(JSTPIQT£"O IN PPEYIOI./S SI<ETCHj R40lAL
FORCES liRE F.
4. EFFECT OF ADDING STIFFENING RING T"ESE FORCES RND MOMENTS CRN BE mBI/LlITED FOR
VIlIi/OI/S SI/PPOR T CON'IGI/RA nON S:
Problem 1
-<
FlftlAJII INTIIf/'rAL
section is calculated. The bending stresses are then 0; • (I• • ) (J.) , (; 000 I
FIGURE 6
%N.N/N6
6.6-4 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
Determine the total radial force acting on the shell as Part A: Four hangers are used to support a verti-
a result of the force (P) applied to the hangers. cal 12" stand pipe, Figure 9. Determine the total radial
Part B: With tangential tensile force (T) and force acting on the shell as a result of the force (P)
bending moment (M r ) per I" )Vide ring of this shell applied to the hangers.
resulting from radial forces (f 1 ) applied to the four Part B: With tensile force (T) and bending mo-
hangers, calculate the tensile ((Tet) and bending ((T(.b) ment (M r ) per 1" wide ring of this shell resulting from
stresses at the hangers. radial forces (f1 ) applied at the four hangers, calcu-
late the tensile ((Ted and bending ((Teb) stresses at
f; lfj .. t"
the hangers.
~
FIGURE?
~ ~ FROM TflBL E 1 FROM PfiRT II
FROM TABLE I' ~ FROM PI1RT A
foG = 0.500 ~ = 1,090 ';)/"',RI"'G
Xi • 0..500 ' f , ' i5. 9 'o//If'l, 1711'/6 I'I</f, - 0.500 I ~090 = 545 /b/;'NIi'ING
I= J<;f, =.500 K Z5., ,/3 1¥tIIY,RIN6 AJ"..... on....,N~ 'J'VtJ ' I ' .ss =•.33 Jq IN
AJIIREfI OFN'lNo/ = Nts = I K 1:7 ,j .5((.1N T 545
T ~ ---- 11 ' .33 = 1~50;O"
CTc =A- "t: = CIPI'SI (5.f1f1LL (fiN BE NEGLECTED) aCT'
_T /2--
tlfOMM8LEIW.Kyow ,l1r'Klr,~c ,.IJ6'IO,O'6ll,J?OhV-lB
FHOM TA8LEl/'lE It'NOW'"r' 1r"F, I( 'H~ • Z'io ,,JO -/0(0 IN.-Ib,
SECTION 11I0DVLU5
-
S--: (1")is(~J' =-l...
24
IN J JECTION ,f/OOULUS
-
5 = (r )(.JJ)l : .0/(31IIY J
,.; ---
fft, IOIP - - - M 320 r. C )
THEN ace =y 'fl4- = 2 J 5 4 4 / w THEN OCb ' 5' . .0181 • .5~800p:JIl[X, [SSIVE
~p~
tJ544-0
{;,,"X = 'Z s 4,27cpSI FIGURE 10
a. a.b
STRESSES WITHIN REASON
DESIGN OK
Problem 2
PI'I(}(Jfl61 cz...$IN.
p
~'6,21"',
ts -,.J.J"I.
(~l(I/"TlNG TENS/LrJr~GS5 lit JULL Fila... The effect of the bottom ring will be considered
IIYTE"N"l" PRE,s,slJI'(E
0; , pre • ~. 18"8
since it will apply radial tensile forces to the built-up
-!.!!... tJ .33 . u pSI
". .EJ.. I~O x'-'.ll • 04'
ring and shell section. Using the method of finding
~·Zt• • ~.~
moment of inertia by adding areas (Sect. 2.2), the
,/fOMENT ON JHUL JECTION FfrOhl
FO"CEJ liPPi/ED TO HIQNl5ER properties of this section are as follows:
F, , pco./3' (,00, O· 0 lb.
£ _ F,
----E:.;i""<! ". .J.;..1Z
0
I:
O'a/'
71IK.AN~"SIIEi.1. +- oJ
THEN MOMENT OF INERT/.4 ABOUT NEUTRIIL 11115 WILL 8£
2
I: . ~
---..i:!...- • (dot)(d,l<)
0 ".JQPP :/090X
(J',U)(",.••) J ,_/,KINO
T" ... p
- T
_l Nil .. ~x
hl · 3.282 1.7052_0SJZ- 4-
- If" -. - 1057 .. ~
ToTIiL PIIOIIIL fORCE
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 9
IINO NEUTRflL IlXIS WILL BE
Nli = Cb
M
II
1.705
1.057 z:
.
+I.G IJ m
Design of Hangers and Supports / 6.6-5
The radial force (F) acting on the ring section The hoop stress of (Tell = 1,888 psi in the shell will
and resulting from the vertical force (P) is- be assumed to be reduced when considered to be acting
over the entire cross-section of the built-up ring section:
-
F: F2 a,
d
: '00
.3
Jf5:
/OOO/h
--- F"~---'-
F"
d
----i 1;888 ,<
IIREf! SHELL IN RING 5ECTION
"'REf! OF R/NG 5ECTION
I. (,3 x . .33
Q. 1)886 )C
/.057
FIGURE 11 p. r.
Part C: Recalculation of the tensile ((Ted and
bending ((Tel» stresses at the hangers yields the follow- Combining these stresses in the outer fiber of the
ing results: lower ring, adjacent to the hanger, we find the maxi-
mum shear stress (T max) to be-
FROM Ti1BLE / THE NEW F ar • 0 NorE;,:!';~~~::':,~:s;;,/rfw~~~
K; • 0.500 F= ;'000
aMp' 0 ":o':r~:::~';::;";;NG.
I= K;F: 0500~;'ooo' SOOlb.
~, 0,:. ... 'tt fq:b e ~J'JO ..47J .. 2,690
~ (rorllL FIi'OM TIIBLE2) • 1.057 SQ.!".
q. '4,ISJp'
0;cr -- 47J . 415'.1-0
IfT - SOO
-1.057
-
- ~ 7M.. : ~ '~()701'51
FIfDM lilsLE!WE klvow !fir' Ii;1 Frc : .1.';;' '1,000' e.er « 845 In.-lb. STRESS WITHIN REMON
THEN Q • Mrc. 84S~/.695 2/6.90/,,; fJESIGN o.K.
~ I .532 FIGURE 12
o o
aa,
c e
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
6.6-6 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
~1"
FIGURE 14
section modulus of strip
The analysis of this problem again stems from 1" (.204 )2
Figures 1, 2 and 3 and related text. Here, the gusset S
6
plate acts as a hanger.
Considering the web of the I section as a panel, .0144 in."
the section flanges act as stiffeners and give the entire
tangential force on strip
section a high moment of inertia about its x-x axis.
However, to be conservative assume the width of web f L
Since: M<t = 4
beyond the gusset that is effective in resisting the
bending moment on the web to have a maximum value 4M~ ~_
of 12 times the web thickness. f
L L
fa = d
Fl
+ e
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation .152
521 lbs
Design of Hangers and Supports / 6.6-7
FIGURE 15
Here:
M 0
FIGURE 16
hence:
o
The stiffened web will now have a much greater
Ft
moment of inertia in the direction of tangential force.
d +e Although the gusset plate intersects the web of the I
Ft for a distance of 10", to be conservative only a portion
(IOf+( 3.53) of this (b < t, + 2.) can be considered as resisting
.074 F 1 the moment on the web .
Following the analysis of a stiffened plate as given
Consider a I"-wide strip of the web. As before: in Section 6.6:
S .0144 in."
f L Here:
4 e = 3.53"
79.2 Ibs/1"-wide strip Ap = 2.2216 in. 2 (area of effective stiffened portion
of web)
But:
.01601 in."
f .074 F] 1.5 in.? (area of stiffener section)
79.2 1.125 in.'
.074
1070 lbs
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
d 1.647" (distance, e.G. of stiffener to e.G. of
web)
6.6-8 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
and since
F1 L
M -4-
4M 4crS
L L
4 (15,000) ( 1.438)
(10.91 )
= 7920 lbs allowable tangential force on web
FIGURE 17
F
and since
FIGURE 18
A. d + t
A. +A p 2"
t A. d
h --
2
(1.5)(1.647)
(3.294) - (.147) -
(1.5) + (2.216)
2.483"
I
s= c.
FIGURE 19
(3.570)
(2.483)
1.438 in."
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 7.1
2. STEEL CLASSIFICATIONS
3. CARBON STEELS
ASTM Grades A7, A373, and A36
ASTM A7
Field welding of vertical member to bottom chord of
The first ASTM specification for steel us ed in building Vierendeel truss for 17-story Foundation House in
construction was proposed in 1900, and was adopted Toronto, Canada. Truss is built of high-strength, low-
one year lat er as the "Standard Specification for Ste el all oy steel with 55,000 psi minimum yield strength.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 7.1-1
7.1-2 / Joint Design and Production
for Buildings." When the ASTM adopted a numbering ganese in varying amounts. Carbon may be found in
system for its specification in 1914, "Standard Specifi- these steels in percentages ranging from a low of
cations for Steel for Buildings" was designated as ASTM approximately 0.10 per cent to a maximum of 0.33
A9. The designation "ASTM A7" was given to "Stan- per cent or in some cases, even higher. Manganese
dard Specifications for Steel for Bridges." In 1936 the is generally added to provide increased strength with
ASTM combined A7 and A9 into one specification, less carbon to avoid the harden ability effect of high
ASTM A7, "Standard Specifications for Steel for Bridges carbon in the steel. The manganese also improves hot
and Buildings." rolling characteristics of the steel during production.
This specification was written to provide an eco-
nomical as-rolled steel which would assure specific ASTM A373
minimum strength requirements. The current version With the increased use of welding after World War
requires minimum tensile strength of 60,000 psi and II, it became necessary to limit the carbon and man-
minimum yield point of 33,000 psi. There are no limita- ganese in A7 steel to screen out "high side" heats that
tions on chemistry except the sulphur and phosphorus sometimes presented welding problems.
maxima. The specification also includes a maximum In 1954, ASTM A373, "Structural Steel for Weld-
tensile strength and minimum elongation requirements. ing" was written. This specification limits the carbon
The most economical way to produce a steel of and manganese, in addition to the maxima for phos-
this nature is through the use of carbon and man- phorus and sulphur, to insure good welds using stand-
(1) Based upon basic steelmaking process. (3) Group A comprises the following wide flange beams
(nominal sizes):
(2) When copper steel is specified, the min. 36 x 16~2 30 x 15 21 x 13 10 x 10
copper is 0.20%.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 36 x 12 30 x 10 112 14 x 16
36 x J 5% 27 x 14
33 x 11~2 24 x 14
14 x 14 112
12 x 12
Selection of Structural Steel / 7.1-3
ard high speed welding procedures. However, the was desirable for these steels, and in that year the
limits on carbon and manganese at that time necessi- American Society for Testing Materials wrote A242,
tated a slight reduction in the strength of the steel, "High-Strength Low Alloy Structural Steel", ASTM
and the minimum yield point was placed at 32,000 psi. A242 is primarily a strength specification with specified
The specification further requires that plates over one minimum yield points of:
inch thick be produced fully killed to insure a homog- 50,000 psi for material up to and including 3,4 inch
eneous steel in these heavier thicknesses. thick
With the establishment of A373 by the ASTM as 46,000 psi for material over 3,4 inch thick to 11h
a steel for welded construction, the Bureau of Public inches thick, inclusive
Roads designated this grade to be used for welded 42,000 psi for material over P/z inches thick to 4
bridges. inches thick, inclusive.
The chemical requirements are quite liberal. An
ASTM A36 attempt is made to insure economical welding of these
By 1960 the mapor producers of A7 steel had begun steels by limiting carbon and manganese content. How-
ever, the presence of other elements such as silicon,
to realize the fruits of the modernization and expan-
sion of their facilities after the war. Through improve- copper, chromium, phosphorus, and nickel, which are
ments in quality control and through better heating often added to provide improved strength and cor-
and rolling techniques, they could produce an A7 rosion resistance, may require a special welding pro-
cedure for some of these steels.
type steel to a higher strength level while maintaining
carbon and manganese within the limitations desirable In addition, the specification requires that "these
for economical welding. steels have enhanced corrosion resistance equal to or
greater than carbon steels with copper." Carbon steels
As a result of these improvements, ASTM A36
with copper-or "copper bearing" steels, as they are
"Structural Steel" was proposed, and was adopted in
frequently called-have twice the atmospheric cor-
1960. This specification imposed controls on carbon
rosion resistance of A7 steel. There are, however,
and manganese to insure economical welding and
specified a minimum yield point of 36,000 psi, a 10 certain proprietary grades of A242 having over four
per cent increase over A7. In 1962, A36 was revised times the atmospheric corrosion resistance of A7 steel.
Consequently, in ordering A242 steel, the pro-
to place further limitations on carbon and manganese
and was subsequently accepted by the Bureau of ducer must be consulted to insure that the steel can
be economically welded and has improved corrosion
Public Roads for welded bridges.
In essence, the new A36 specification combines resistance if these properties are desired.
all of the advantages of A373 in a steel which has a
ASTM A440
higher minimum yield point than A7, yet costs no
more than A7 in shapes and costs only slightly more In 1959 ASTM wrote Specification A440, "High-Strength
than A7 in plates. Structural Steel", to provide a more economical high
strength steel than A242 for structures to be riveted or
4. HIGH-STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEELS bolted.
ASTM Grades A242, A440, and A441 The same strength requirements are specified as
for A242. The chemical requirements allow higher
The high-strength grades of steel, ASTM A242, A440, carbon and manganese contents than A242, so that
and A441, have minimum specified yield points varying the required strength can be reached without the
from 42,000 psi to 50,000 psi depending on the thick- addition of more expensive alloying clements. The
ness of the material. specification limits the sulphur and phosphorus, and
requires that the steel be "copper bearing" to improve
ASTM A242 its corrosion resistance over that of A7.
During the 1930's, a number of steel producers began Because of the increased carbon and manganese
offering proprietary grades of high-strength low alloy contents, A440 requires special welding precautions.
steels containing, in addition to carbon and man- It is not recommended for economical welded con-
ganese, such elements as vanadium, chromium, copper, struction.
silicon, and nickel. These steels were offered with
ASTM A447
specified minimum yield points from 42,000 psi to
50,000 psi. In addition, many of these steels provided in 1960 ASTM A441, "High-Strength Low Alloy Struc-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
greatly improved corrosion resistance over ASTM A7.
By 1941 it became. apparent that a specification
tural Manganese Vanadium Steel", was written to pro-
vide an economically weldable high strength steel.
7.1-4 / Joint Design and Production
A441 specifies the same strength requirements as 5. HIGH-STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEELS
A242. The chemical requirements limit carbon and Proprietary Grades
manganese to the same levels as A242, but add 0.02
per cent minimum vanadium to obtain the desired Proprietary grades of high-strength low alloy steels are
strength levels without the need for more expensive available which are similar to the ASTM high-strength
alloy additions. As in the case of A440, the Specification grades but differ in certain respects. These steels have
limits the sulphur and phosphorus, and requires that specified minimum yield points ranging from 45,000
the steel be "copper bearing" to improve its corrosion psi to 65,000 psi. Although these steels are widely
resistance over that of A7. used in manufacturing, they have only recently begun
to be used in the design of buildings and bridges. 1966) preparing a specification for these steels to allow
The first of this group of high-strength steels was their use in welded highway bridges.
commercially produced in 1958. At that time it was The proprietary grades of high-strength steels are
found that minor additions of columbium to plain presently (January 1966) limited in their use in build-
carbon steel produced as-rolled yield points up to ing and bridge construction because of code and
60,000 psi in the thinner gauges in a weldable grade specification requirements. These steels do not as yet
of steel. These "columbium steels", as they were called, have an ASTM designation. However, these steels offer
were produced to specified minimum yield points of the advantage of providing high strength at economical
45,000 psi, 50,000 psi, 55,000 psi, and 60,000 psi in prices in a variety of yield points and they enable
limited thicknesses. designers to obtain the strength they need without the
In 1962 another group of high-strength low alloy necessity of paying for considerably more strength than
steels was introduced commercially which extended required. Furthermore, the chemistry of these steels is
these high strengths to a broad range of thicknesses controlled for economical welding. Consequently, engi-
in plates and shapes. These steels resulted from the neers are taking advantage of the economies to be
discovery that the addition of small amounts of gained in the use of these steels and have used them on
nitrogen combined with vanadium in a carbon-man- a great variety of structures including many buildings
ganese steel produced an increase in strength much and several bridges.
greater than would be expected from the effects of
these two elements individually, while eliminating the 6. HEAT-TREATED CONSTRUCTIONAL
deleterious effects of adding nitrogen alone. ALLOY STEELS
Similar high-strength steels are now available from Proprietary Grades
several producers, in a wide range of shapes and
plates with specified minimum yield points of 45,000, In 1953, the first of the high-strength, heat treated,
50,000,55,000,60,000 and 65,000 psi. (See Table lC). constructional alloy steels was marketed. These are
And the Bureau of Public Roads, in cooperation with low-carbon, quenched and tempered alloy steels with
the steel producers concerned, is currently (January, specified minimum yield points ranging from 90,000
Shapes
45 45,000 65,000 min. .22 1.25 .04 .05 .02 (2)
Plates To 1112" incl.
To %" incl. (3)
Shopes
Over %" (3) .015
50 50,000 70,000 min. .22 1.25 .04 .05 .02 (2)
To %" incl.
Plotes
Over 3/4 " to 1112" incl. .015
Shapes
To ¥a" incl. (3)
Over ¥a" (3) .015
55 55,000 70,000 min. .22 1.25 .04 .05 .02 (2)
To ¥a" incl.
Plates
Over ¥a" to %" incl. .015
Shapes To %" Incl. (3)
60 60,000 75,000 min. .015 .22 1.25 .04 .05 .02 (2)
Plates To ¥a" Incl.
Shapes To ¥a" incl. (3)
65 65,000 80,000 min. .015 .22 1.25 .04 .05 .02 (2)
Plates To 3/8 " incl.
(1) Chemistry of high-strength low olloy steels varies with producers. This Tobie
Is bosed on Bethlehem V Steels as of January, 1964.
(2)
(3)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
When copper steel is specified, the minimum copper is 0.20%.
For shapes, the thickness shown indicates web thickness.
7.1-6 / Joint Design and Production
to 100,000 psi, and ultimate strengths ranging from of these steels in construction occur when unusually
105,000 to 135,000 psi, depending upon thickness. high loads are encountered, particularly in tension
Originally these steels were available only in plates members.
because of difficulties encountered during heat treating Heat-treated constructional alloy steels have the
in maintaining the straightness of shapes. By 1961 ASTM designation of A514-64. Where local codes
many of these difficulties had been overcome, and permit the use of these steels and when loads are of
these steels are now offered in certain structural shapes. sufficient magnitude, and tension loads are encountered
Because of the higher price of these steels, their or lateral buckling is restrained, economies can be
use in building construction has so far been rather gained through the use of the heat-treated construc-
limited. However, they have been used to considerable tional alloy steels.
advantage in several large bridges built in recent years,
and in other types of structures. The major applications
7. BASIS FOR SELECTION A36 is the best buy for construction purposes.
F*=
A242 (6)
Group II 46,000 164 +50 1.44
(7)
Group III (6) 42,000 0.81
45 lover :Ya"
----------------
to 3k' incl. 45,000 130 +16 1.14 1.10
I 60
65
To
Over
To
:Ya" incl.
%" to %"
%" incl.
incl.
60,000
65,000
142
150
152
+28
+36
+38
1.25
1.32
1.33
1.33
1.26
1.36
(1) These figures are for comparative purposes only, (5) See Table IA, Note 3, for definition of Group A.
and are not to be used for pricing purposes. Fig-
ures are based on Bethlehem Steel Company prices, (6) See Table I B, Note 1, for definition of Groups I,
October, 1963. II, and III.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
7.1-8 / Joint Design and Production
ASTM A441 Over %" to 1112" incl. 46,000 144 +24 1.20 1.06
High- Over 11
12" to 4" incl. 42,000 151 +16 1.12 1.04
Strength
Steels Over 4" to 8" incl. 40,000 164 +29 1.21 0.91
To %" incl. 50,000 161 +47 1.41 0.99
A242
(4) Over %" to 1112" incl. 46,000 +41 1.34 0.95
Over 1112" to 4" incl. 42,000 163 +28 1.21 0.96
To Va" incl. 122 +8 1.07 1.17
45 Over Va" to %" incl. 45,000 127 +13 1.12 1.12
Over %" to 1112" incl. 134 +14 1.12 1.12
Proprietary
High-
To %" incl. 125 +11 1.10 1.26
Strength 50 Over %" to %" incl. 50,000 131 +17 1.16 1.20
low
Alloy Over %" to 1112" incl. 139 +19 1.16 1.20
Steels
(5) To %" incl. 132 +18 1.16 1.32
55 55,000
Over %" to %" incl. 138 +24 1.21 1.26
60 To %" incl. 60,000 139 +25 1.22 1.37
65 To Va" incl. 65,000 149 +35 1.31 1.38
(1) These figures are for comparative purposes only, the steel (dollars per ton) compared to the yield
and are not to be used for pricing purposes. Fig- strength per unit price for A36 steel in the same
ures are based on 8ethlehem Steel Company prices, thickness.
October, 1963. (4) 8ased upon 8ethlehem's Mayari R A242 steel,
(2) The ratio of the price of the stee I to the price which has an atmospheric corrosion resistance of
of A36. at least 4 to 6 times that of plain carbon steel.
(3) The yield strength of the steel per unit price of (5) 8ased on Bethlehem V Steels.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Selection of Structu raI Steel / 7.1-9
1. Strength-price values are based on equivalent buy in shapes and a good buy in plates. If we make
thicknesses of material. Use of a high-strength steel our comparison on the basis of strength-to-price ratio,
will usually result in a thinner section than that re- as in Table 3, A36 is found to be a better value than
quired with A36. Since the thinner material may be either A7 or A373 in both shapes and plates.
sold at a lower unit price, actual savings may there-
fore be greater than indicated by comparative strength- High-Strength Steels
price ratios. It is also true that using higher strength,
thinner sections will permit a reduction in weld size Where full advantage can be taken of higher yield
which offsets increased cost of preheat or other special point levels, A441 is a better buy than A36, except for
welding procedures. Group 11* shapes over % inch thick (web thickness)
c. Strength-price values are based on material and for Group 111* shapes.
costs and do not include freight, fabrication, or erection. The A242 steels are not recommended for eco-
nomical design unless high corrosion resistance is a
Carbon Steels major requirement.
Based on price alone, A36 was found to be the best * Refer to note I on Table lB.
A36
ASTM A7
Corban
Steels Other than Group A (2)
A373
Group A (2)
To %" incl.
Group I (3) Over %" to %" incl.
Over %"
A441
ASTM To %" incl.
High- Group 1/ (3)
Over %11
Strength
Steels To %" inc!.
Group 1/1 (3)
Over %"
Group I (3)
A242
V45
Group II (3)
Group III (3)
To %" incl.
Over %" to %"
Over 3,4"
incl.
- •
To 3,18" lncl,
Proprietary
High- V50 Over %" to %" incl.
Strength Over %"
Low
Alloy To %" lncl,
Steels
(4) V55 Over %" to %" inc!.
11
Over 3/4
To 3,18" incl.
V60
Over %" to %" incl.
V65 To 3,18" incl.
A36
To %" incl.
A7 Over %" to 1112" incl.
ASTM Over 1112" to 4" incl.
Carbon
Steels To 112" incl.
Over 112" to %" incl.
A373 Over %" to 1" incl.
Over I" to 1112" incl.
Over 1112" to 4" incl.
To ¥e" incl.
Over ¥e" to %" incl.
A441
ASTM Over %" to 1112" incl.
High-
Over 1112" to 4" incl.
Strength
Steels To %" incl.
A242 Over 3/4" to 1112" incl.
Over 1'12" to 4" incl.
To ¥e" incl.
V45
Over 3/8" to 1'12" incl.
Proprietary
High. To ¥e" incl.
V5D
Strength Over ¥e" to 1V2" incl.
low
Alloy To %" incl.
Steels V55
(2) Over %" to %" Incl.
V6D To %" incl.
V65 To %" incl.
(I)
(2)
@Seismicisolation
The yield strength of the steel per unit price of the steel (dollors per ton) compared
@Seismicisolation
to the yield strength per unit price for A36 steel in the same thickness.
Based on Bethlehem V Steels.
Selection of Structural Steel / 7.1-11
stress and often preclude advantageous use of high- through the use of high-strength steels, savings in
strength steels. fabricating costs can be realized. A common example
For instance, if we consider an unbraced column is in the lower tier columns of multi-story buildings.
length of 11 feet and compare the required column
size of A36 and A44l for loads of lOOk, 4ook, and Proprietary Grades
l60Qk we find savings as given in Table A. Whenever high-strength steels can be used advantage-
ously, serious consideration should be given to one or
TABLE A more of the proprietary steels, if these steels are ac-
ASTM ceptable under the local codes. Proprietary steels often
Load Comparative provide increased economies over A441. For instance,
(Kips) Facton A36 A441
if we compare the same column loads and column
Size 8WF24 8WF24 length (11 feet) as in Table A, we find savings for
lOOt wt. Savings/ft. 0 proprietary steels as given in Table B.
Cost Savings/ft. • -$.22
TABLE B
Proprietary Steels.
Size 12WF79 12WF58
Guaranteed Min. Y.P.Ksi
m wt. Savings/ft. 21
Load
(Kips)
Comparative
Facton
ASTM
A36 50 55
Cost Savings/ft. • +$.74
Size 8WF24 8WF24 8WF24
• Saving of A441 aver A36; (+) indicates a saving (based on prices 400t wt. Savings/ft. 21 26
In effect Oct .• 1963). These values include base price and grade extra
(shown in Table 2B) plus section. and length extras. Cast Savings/ft.** +$.88 +$1.04
Although there is a saving in weight using A44l, Size 14WF287 14WF211 14WF193
the cost saving is variable and often nil. Because of 1600 t wt. Savings/ft. 86 94
the heavy section required for the l600k load, A44l
Cost Savings/ft.** +$1.80 +$2.31
has a minimum specified yield point of only 42,000 psi.
Weight Savings • Based on Bethlehem Steel Company's V50 and V55 Steels
The judicious use of high-strength steels will almost "Saving of grade 50 or 55 over A36; (+l indicates a saving (based
on prices in effect Oct.. 1963. These values include base price and
always result in an overall reduction in weight of the grade extra (shown in Table 2B) plus section and length extras.
structure. Whenever this weight reduction can be trans-
lated into savings in the cost of foundations, supporting Although the minimum specified yield point of
structures, or in handling, transportation, or erection A44l decreases as thickness increases, yield points for
costs, then the high-strength steels can and should be the above proprietary steels are 50,000 and 55,000 psi
used to advantage. respectively for all available thicknesses. As can be
seen in Tables A and B, the effect on cost of maintain-
50vings In Fahrication Costs ing yield point throughout a broad range of thick-
Whenever the need for built-up sections can be avoided nesses is quite evident.
11. SPECIFICATION VS ACTUAL CHEMISTRY the steel, the paramount question is: "What is the
chemical composition and what are the mechanical
The preceding material on the development of the con- properties of the steel that I must work with?"
struction steels and the speci.6cations and merits of Many fabricators and engineers tend to rely on the
these steels should be helpful to the engineer or archi- specification of the steel for the answer to this question.
tect who is searching for the most economical design. But such practice has in many cases led to a welding
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However, to the fabricator, who must determine
the procedure to use for forming, burning or welding
procedure based on the worst combination of chemistry
(as far as welding is concerned) that the specification
7.1-12 / Joint Design and Production
will allow. This practice can result in a more costly quirements of the grade ordered and which it is
welding operation than is necessary. expected will provide the mechanical properties re-
A more realistic answer to the establishment of quired in the finished product.
welding procedure lies in the steel's "pedigree-c-the Each ingot poured from any heat of steel is
mill test report. The mill test report is a certification of identified with the heat number, and this identity
the chemical composition and physical properties of is maintained throughout all subsequent rolling mill
the steel in a specific shipment. operations.
To cite an example, an investigation of the mill The rolling of steel has a definite effect on the
test reports from a certain mill disclosed that the steel mechanical properties of the finished product. Con-
supplied by that mill had a carbon and manganese firming mechanical tests (tensile strength, yield point,
content considerably less than the maximum allowed and per cent elongation) are, therefore, made after
under the specification. In addition, 85 per cent of the the steel has been rolled to final section and cooled.
steel purchased from this mill was less than % inch The mechanical properties of the section and the
thick. The average chemistry for plates up to % inch chemical composition of the heat are recorded on the
thick rolled on this mill compares with the allowable mill test report.
specification chemistry as follows: The mill test report is filed by the mill for its own
record and certified copies are forwarded to the cus-
Grade Carban Manganese tomer, when requested, for his use. The report's dis-
closure of the particular mill order's chemistry is a
A36 Specification
Mill Average
0.25% mox
.20
-
.50% valuable guide to development of the most economical
A441 Specification .22% max. 1.25% and satisfactory welding procedure.
Mill Average .18 1.10 The chemistry of the steel in a structural steel
fabricator's shop can thus be readily determined from
Although the above average figures are for a the mill test report. Furthermore, where necessary the
particular mill, they indicate that the carbon and chemistry of the steel can be anticipated to a reason-
manganese content is usually considerably less than able degree far in advance of shipment by referring
the maximum of the specification and will be in a to previous mill test reports on similar products from
range that will permit significant variations in welding the same mill.
procedures. For greater economy of welding, the structural
steel fabricator or erector can and should base his
12. MILL PROCEDURE
welding procedure on the actual chemistry of the
When a mill receives an order for a particular grade steel he is welding, rather than upon the worst
of steel, production of that item is scheduled to be possible combination of chemistry allowed under
rolled from a heat of steel meeting the chemical re- the specification.
In structural steel design, A36 is generally the most b. When deflection limitations are not a major
versatile and economical of the construction steels. factor in determining section.
However, there are occasions where the judicious use c. When deflections can be reduced through de-
of high-strength steels can result in overall cost and sign features such as continuity or composite design.
weight savings, such as: d. When weight is important.
e. When fabricating costs can be reduced.
f. When architectural considerations limit the beam
Tension Members dimensions.
The high-strength steels can usually be used to
advantage in tension members except when the mem- Columns And Compression Members
bers are relatively small in section or when holes (Le. a. When steel dead load is a major portion of
for bolts or rivets) substantially reduce the net section design load.
of the member. b. When the slenderness ratio (Lyr ) of the mem-
ber is small.
Beams
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a. When steel dead load is a major portion of
c. When weight is important.
d. When fabricating costs can be reduced.
e. When architectural considerations limit the
design load. column dimensions.
SECTION 7.2
Weldabilityand
Welding Procedure
Ordin arily, a correctly design ed joint and properly Most stee ls can be commercially ar c welded , with good
made weld do not require special procedures to pre- results-sound, strong welded joints. The "weldability"
vent cracks during we lding or in service. The need of a metal ref ers to th e relative ease of producing a
for special procedures increases, however, with heavy satisfactory, crack-free, sound joint. A steel is said
plate structural members and is growing with the ex- to be id eally weldable if th e required weld joint can
panding use of ste els ha ving greater amounts of alloy- bc made without difficulty or excessive cost.
ing elemen ts in th eir chemistry. Some steels are more suited to high-speed welding
T his sec tion first provides some insight into the than oth ers. Analysis of th e electrode core wire is
factors th at promote we ld cracking and makes sug- accur ate ly controlled to produce good welds , but sinc e
gestions for we lding procedures to correct or prevent the plate metal becomes part of th e weld , control of
a cracking problem . This section th en will present a th e plate analysis is also important. When higher cur -
compr eh ensive discussion of when to use preh eating rents ar e used to get higher welding sp eeds , more of
to eliminate or pr event cracking. It will also present th e plate metal mixes with th e w eld. If possible, select
a new approach to estab lishing th e preheat and int er - an easily welded steel that do esn't require exp ensive
pass temperature, based on th e heat input of th e weld- electrodes or complicated welding procedures. Table
ing procedure, th e critical cooling rate ( de term ine d by 1 gives a range of carbon stee l analyses for maximum
the chemistry of the steel ), and the joint geometry, weldin g sp eed.
particularly the plate thickness. The commonly used mild steels fall within th e
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7.2-2 / Joint Design and Production
In order to evaluate the weld ability of steels, a welding. The arc is an electrical discharge or spark
limited knowledge of the basic arc welding process sustained in a gap in the electrical circuit. The re-
is advisable. sistance of the air or gas in the gap to the passage of
Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal the current, transforms the electrical energy into
by establishing a metallurgical bond between them. heat at extremely high temperatures. Electrical
Many different welding processes may be used to power consists of amperes and voltage. The amount
produce bonding through the application of pres- of energy available is the product of the amperes
sure and/or through fusion. Arc welding is a fusion and the voltage flowing through the circuit and is
process. The bond between the metals is produced measured in watts and kilowatts. The energy used
by reducing to a molten state the surfaces to be is affected by such variables as the constituents in
joined and then allowing the metal to solidify. electrode coatings, the type of current (AC or DC),
When the molten metal solidifies, union is com- the direction of current flow, and many others.
pleted. In all modern arc welding processes, the arc is
In the arc welding process, the intense heat re- shielded to control the complex arc phenomenon
quired to reduce the metal to a liquid state is pro- and to improve the physical properties of the weld
duced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between deposit. This shielding is accomplished through
the work to be welded and a metal wire or rod various techniques: a chemical coating on the elec-
called the electrode. The arc, which produces a trode wire, inert gases, granular flux compounds,
and metallic salts placed in the core of the elec-
Welding Machine AC or DC trode. Arc shielding varies with the type of arc
Power Source and Controls
(
Electrode Holder J welding process used. In all cases, however, the
shielding is intended: 1) to protect the molten
metal from the air, either with gas, vapor or slag;
r--...L....-'..., Electrode ~.~~;;;::~
2) to add alloying and fluxing ingredients; and 3)
Arc------..... I~ to control the melting of the rod for more effective
use of the arc energy.
Electrode
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Weldability and Welding Procedure / 7.2-3
preferred analysis listed. Sulphur content of these steels TABLE l-Preferred Analysis
is usually below 0.035%, although the specification Of Carbon Steel for Good Weldability
limits permit as much as 0.050%. Steel Exceeding Any One of
Normal
Continued progress is being made in metallurgical Element
Ronge, %
the Following Percentages
Will Probably Require Extra Care
control of steel, as well as in the development of weld-
Carbon C .06· .25 .35
ing processes, electrodes and fluxes. This tends to
Manganese Mn .35· .80 1.40
broaden the range of "weldability" with respect to steel Silicon Si .10 max .30
analysis. Sulphur S .035 max .050
The six basic ASTM -specification construction Phosphorus P .030 max .040
steels usually do not require special precautions or
special procedures.
ables", a special procedure may not be required, or
However, when welding the thicker plates in even
may require only a slight change from standard pro-
these steels the increased rigidity and restraint and
cedures and thereby minimize any increase in welding
the drastic quench effect makes the use of the proper
procedure vitally important. In addition, thick plates cost.
For optimum economy and quality, under either
usually have higher carbon content.
favorable or adverse conditions, the welding procedure
We also have an increase in the use of higher
for joining any type of steel should be based on the
strength low alloy steels and the heat treated very high
steel's actual chemistry rather than the maximum alloy
yield strength steels. These steels have some elements
content allowed by the specification. This is because a
in their chemistry that exceed the ideal analysis, Table
mill's average production normally runs considerably
1, for high speed welding.
under the maximum limits set by the specification.
Frequently pre-planned and proven welding pro-
Usually a Mill Test Report is available which gives
cedures are required to assure the production of crack-
free welds when joining thicker plates or the alloy the specific analysis of any given heat of steel. Once
this information is obtained, a welding procedure can
steels. These procedures usually call for one or all of
be set that will assure the production of crack-free
the following:
1. Proper bead shape and joint configuration. welds at the lowest possible cost.
2. Minimized penetration to prevent dilution of the
weld metal with the alloy elements in the plate.
3. Preheating, controlled interpass temperature and 4. WELD QUALITY
sometimes even controlled heat input from the
welding procedure to retard the cooling rate and The main objective of any welding procedure is to join
reduce shrinkage stresses. the pieces as required with the most efficient weld pos-
sible and at the least possible cost. "As required" means
3. BASE PROCEDURE ON ACTUAL ANALYSIS the weld's size and quality must be consistent with
the service requirements. Excessive precautions to ob-
Published standard production welding procedures tain unnecessary quality, beyond that needed to meet
generally apply to normal welding conditions and the service requirements, serve no practical purpose and
more common, "preferred analysis" mild steels. can be expensive.
When a steers specification analysis falls outside Because it greatly increases cost without any bene-
the preferred analysis, the user often adopts a special fit, inspection should not request the correction of
welding procedure based on the extremes of the ma- slight undercut or minor radiographic defects such as
terial's chemical content "allowed" by the steel's speci- limited scattered porosity and slag inclusions, unless
fication. However, since the chemistry of a specific heat thorough study shows such defects cannot be tolerated
of steel may run far below the top limit of the "allow- because of specific service requirements.
S. WELD CRACKS
1. weld cracks occurring during welding,
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A crack in a weld, however, is never minor and cannot
be condoned. Good design and proper welding pro-
cedure will prevent these cracking problems:
2. cracking in the heat affected zone of the base
metal,
3. welded joints failing in service.
7.2-4 / Joint Design and Production
(a) (b)
FIGURE
Factors that Affect Weld Cracking During Welding Factors that Affect Welded Joints Failing in Service
1. Joint Restraint that causes high stresses in the Welds do not usually "crack" in service but may
weld. "break" because the weld was of insufficient size to
2. Bead Shape of the deposited weld. As the hot fulfill service requirements. Two other factors would be:
weld cools, it tends to shrink. A convex bead has suffi- 1. Notch toughness,* which would affect the
cient material in the throat to satisfy the demands of breaking of welds or plate when subjected to high
the biaxial pull. However, a concave bead may result impact loading at extremely low temperatures.
in high tensile stresses across the weld surface from 2. Fatigue cracking* due to a notch effect from
toe to toe. These stresses frequently are high enough poor joint geometry. This occurs under service con-
to rupture the surface of the weld causing a longitudinal ditions of unusually severe stress reversals.
crack.
An excessively penetrated weld with its depth Items to Control
greater than its width under conditions of high restraint
may cause internal cracks. 1. Bead Shape. Deposit beads having proper bead
Both of these types of cracking are greatly aggra- surface ( i.e. slightly convex) and also having the
vated by high sulphur or phosphorus content in the proper width-to-depth ratio. This is most critical in the
base plate. case of single pass welds or the root pass of a multiple
3. Carbon and Alloy Content of the base metal. pass weld.
The higher the carbon and alloy content of the base 2. Joint Restraint. Design weldments and structure
metal, the greater the possible reduction in ductility to keep restraint problems to a minimum.
of the weld metal through admixture. This contributes 3. Carbon and Alloy Content. Select the correct
appreciably to weld cracking. grade and quality of steel for a given application,
4. Hydrogen Pickup in the weld deposit from the through familiarity with the mill analysis and the cost
electrode coating, moisture in the joint, and contamin- of welding. This will ensure balancing weld cost and
ants on the surface of the base metal. steel price using that steel which will develop the
5. Rapid Cooling Rate which increases the effect lowest possible overall cost. Further, this approach
of items 3 and 4. will usually avoid use of inferior welding quality steels
that have excessively high percentages of those elements
Factors that Affect Cracking in the Heat-Affected that always adversely affect weld quality-sulphur and
Zone phosphorus.
1. High carbon or alloy content which increases Avoid excessive admixture. This can be accom-
hardenability and loss of ductility in the heat-affected plished through procedure changes which reduce pene-
zone. (Underbead cracking does not occur in non- tration (different electrodes, lower currents, changing
hardenable steel.)
2. Hydrogen embrittlement of the fusion zone
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through migration of hydrogen liberated from the
weld metal.
* Neither notch toughness nor fatigue cracking are discussed
here. See Section 2.1, "Properties of Materials," Section 2.8,
"Designing for Impact Loads, and Section 2.9, "Designing for
3 Rate of cooling which controls items 1 and 2. Fatigue Loads."
Weldability and Welding Procedure / 7.2-5
polarity, or improving joint design such as replacing cooling from the critical temperature results in a slightly
a square edge butt weld with a bevel joint.) lower strength.
4. Hydrogen Pickup. Select low-hydrogen welding For the normal thicknesses, the mill has no
materials. difficulty in meeting the minimum yield strength re-
5. Heat Input. Control total heat input. This may quired. However, in extremely thick mill sections, be-
include preheat, welding heat, heating between weld cause of their slower cooling, the carbon or alloy
passes to control interpass temperature and post heat- content might have to be increased slightly in order
ing to control cooling rate. Control of heat input lowers to meet the required yield strength.
the shrinkage stresses and retards the cooling rate Since a weld cools faster on a thick plate than on
helping to prevent excessive hardening in the heat-
affected zone, two primary causes of cracking.
6. TACK WELDS
7. THINNER PLATE
Welds that join thinner plates rarely show a tendency (b) Preset before welding
to crack. The heat input during welding and lack of
mass of the thinner plate create a relatively slow
cooling rate. This, plus the reduced internal stresses
resulting from a good weld throat to plate thickness
ratio and the fact that the thinner plate is less rigid
and can Hex as the weld cools and shrinks, controls
the factors that induce cracking. Cracking is almost
never a factor on thinner plate unless unusually high
in carbon or alloy content.
8. THICK PLATES
In the steel mill, all steel plates and rolled sections
undergo a rather slow rate of cooling after being (c) Weld free to shrink; stress-free
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rolled while red hot. The red hot thick sections, because
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of their greater mass, cool more slowly than thin
sections. For a given carbon and alloy content, slower FIGURE 2
7.2-6 / Joint Design and Production
~.
In addition to improving ductility, preheating
thick plates tends to lower the shrinkage stresses that
develop because of excessive restraint.
Because of its expense, preheating should be
selectively specified, however. For example, fillet welds FIGURE 3
joining a thin web to a thick flange plate may not
require as much preheat as does a butt weld joining 3. Upsetting the edge of the plate with a heavy
two highly restrained thick plates. center punch. This acts similar to the rough flame-cut
On thick plates with large welds, if there is metal- edge.
to-metal contact prior to welding, there is no possibility The plates will usually be tight together after
of plate movement. As the welds cool and contract, the weld has cooled.
all the shrinkage stress must be taken up in the weld,
Figure 2( a). In cases of severe restraint, this may cause Fillet Welds
the weld to crack, especially in the first pass on either The above discussion of metal-to-metal contact and
side of the plate. shrinkage stresses especially applies to fillet welds. A
By allowing a small gap between the plates, the slight gap between plates will help assure crack-free
plates can "move in" slightly as the weld shrinks. fillet welds.
This reduces the transverse stresses in the weld. See Bead shape is another important factor that affects
Figures 2(b) and 2(c). Heavy plates should always fillet weld cracking. Freezing of the molten weld,
have a minimum of 7ll2" gap between them, if possible Figure 3( a), due to the quenching effect of the plates
~6'" commences along the sides of the joint (b) where the
This small gap can be obtained by means of: cold mass of the heavy plate instantly draws the heat
1. Insertion of spacers, made of soft steel wire out of the molten weld metal and progresses uniformly
between the plates. The soft wire will flatten out as inward (c) until the weld is completely solid (d).
the weld shrinks. If copper wire is used, care should Notice that the last material to freeze lies in a plane
be taken that it does not mix with the weld metal. along the centerline of the weld.
2. A deliberately rough flame-cut edge. The small To all external appearances, the concave weld
peaks of the cut edge keep the plates apart, yet can ( a ) in Figure 4 would seem to be larger than the
squash out as the weld shrinks. convex weld (b). However, a check of the cross-
FIGURE 4
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Weldability and Welding Procedure / 1.2-1
section may show the concave weld to have less pene- weld to freely shrink (dotted lines). Then pull the
tration and a smaller throat (t) than first thought; plates back to the original rigid position that they
therefore, the convex weld may actually be stronger would normally be in during and after welding (solid
even though it may have less deposited metal (darker lines). This necessitates a stretching of the weld.
cross-section) .
Designers originally favored the concave fillet weld
because it seemed to offer a smoother path for the flow
of stress. However, experience has shown that single-
pass fillet welds of this shape have a greater tendency
to crack upon cooling, which unfortunately usually
outweighs the effect of improved stress distribution.
FIGURE 6
This is especially true with steels that require special
welding procedures.
When a concave fillet weld cools and shrinks, its In actual practice all of this stretch or yielding
outer face is stressed in tension, Figure 5 ( a ). If a can occur only in the weld, since the plate cannot
surface shrinkage crack should occur, it can usually be move and the weld has the least thickness of the joint.
avoided by changing to a convex fillet (b). Here the Most of this yielding takes place while the weld is hot
and has lower strength and ductility. If, at this time,
the internal stress exceeds the physical properties of
the weld, a crack occurs which is usually down the
centerline of the weld.
Surface in tension Surface not in tension The problem is enhanced by the fact that the
first (or root) bead usually picks up additional carbon
or alloy by admixture with the base metal. The root
bead thus is less ductile than subsequent beads.
A concave bead surface in a groove weld creates
the same tendency for surface cracking as described
(0) Concave weld (b) Convex fillet weld for fillet welds, Figure 7. This tendency is further
increased with lower ductility.
FIGURE 5
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Some idea of the possible locked-in stress and
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plastic flow of the weld may be seen in Figure 6.
Imagine the plate to be cut near the joint, allowing the
narrower slightly convex bead shape, making the com-
pleted weld two or more beads wide, side by side,
Figure 8.
7.2-8 Joint Design and Production
CD ® ®
-:,;.;»?
width of the bead, Figure 9(d).
Although internal cracks are most serious since (c)
they cannot be detected with visual inspection methods,
a few preventive measures can assure their elimination.
Limiting the penetration and the volume of weld metal , >'Wldth
deposited per pass through speed and amperage con- , " 01
trol and using a joint design which sets reasonable - - - - - ' - - - -"
I"\. X 10/\
depth of fusion requirements are both steps in the
right direction.
In all cases, however, the critical factor that helps
, ,"'Y
Depth
01
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control internal cracks is the ratio of weld width to
depth. Experience shows that the weld width to depth
(d)
'\:
fusion
11. UNDERBEAD CRACKING drogen tends to pile up here, going no farther. See
Figure 10.
Underbead cracking is not a problem with the con- Upon further cooling, the heat-affected area trans-
trolled analysis low carbon steels. This problem if it forms back to ferrite with almost no solubility for hy-
occurs is in the heat-affected zone of the base metal. drogen. Any hydrogen present tends to separate out
It can become a factor with thick plate as the carbon between the crystal lattice and builds up pressure. This
or alloy content of the steel increases. As an example, pressure, when combined with shrinkage stresses and
this can occur with the heat treatable very high any hardening effect of the steel's chemistry, may
strength, high carbon low alloy steels like 4140 or cause tiny cracks. Since weld metal is usually of a
6150. The construction alloy steels which have over lower carbon than the base plate, this trouble occurs
100,000 psi tensile strength and are heat treated before mainly just beyond the weld along the austenite-
welding, also can experience underbead cracking in ferrite boundary and is called "underbead cracking"
thick plates. When armour plate was used, underbead See Figure 11. If some of these cracks appear on the
cracking (toe cracks) was a problem. The point is that
the problem is only important on hardenable steels.
Low-hydrogen processes should be used to join
these materials since one cause of underbead crack-
ing is hydrogen embrittlement in the heat-affected ,,
I
zone. Hydrogen in the welding arc, either from the I
I
electrode coating or from wet or dirty plate surfaces, I
will tend to be partially absorbed into the droplets I
Preheating, while not always necessary, is used for one -S8 6.8 - 9.9
of the following reasons: 68 8.6 - J 1.7
1. To reduce shrinkage stresses in the weld and 212 21.6 - 37.8
adjacent base metal; especially important in highly
restrained joints. 5. To increase the notch toughness in the weld
2. To provide a slower rate of cooling through the zone.
critical temperature range (about 1800° F to 1330° F) 6. To lower the transition temperature of the weld
preventing excessive hardening and lowered ductility and adjacent base metal.
in both weld and heat-affected area of the base plate. Normally, not much preheat is required to prevent
3. To provide a slower rate of cooling through underbead cracking. This is held to a minimum when
the 400°F range, allowing more time for any hydrogen low-hydrogen welding materials are used. Higher pre-
that is present to diffuse away from the weld and heat temperature might be required for some other
adjacent plate to avoid underbead cracking. reason, e.g. a highly restrained joint between very
4. To increase the allowable critical rate of cooling thick plates, or a high alloy content.
below which there will be no underbead cracking. Preheating makes other factors less critical, but
Thus, with the welding procedure held constant, a since it invariably increases the cost of welding, it
higher initial plate temperature increases the maximum cannot be indulged in unnecessarily.
safe rate of cooling while slowing down the actual
rate of cooling. This tends to make the heat input
from the welding process less critical. 14. AWS MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS
Cottrell and Bradstreet* show the following critical
cooling rates (Rcr ) for a given steel at 572°F (300°C) The AWS has set up minimum preheat and interpass
using low-hydrogen electrode in order to prevent under- requirements given in Table 2.
bead cracking for various preheats to be: These minimum preheat requirements may need
to be adjusted, according to welding heat input, spe-
cific steel chemistry, the joint geometry, and other
* Cottrell and Bradstreet, "Effect of Preheat on Weldability",
BRITISH WELDING JOURNAL, July 1955, p. 309. factors.
1 Welding shall nat be dane when the ambient temperature is lower than Oaf.
'When the base metal is below the temperature listed for the welding process being used and
the thickness of material being welded, it shall be preheated for bath tack welding and welding
in such manner that the surfaces of the parts an which weld metal is being deposited are at
or above the specified minimum temperature lor a distance equal to the thickness of the part
being welded, but nat less than 3 inches, both laterally and in advance af the welding.
Preheat temperature shall not exceed 400°F. (Interpass temperature is not subject to a maximum
limit.)
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'Using E60XX or E70XX electrodes other than the low-hydrogen types.
'Using E60XX or E70XX low-hydrogen electrodes (EXX1S, ·16, ·18, -28) or Grade SAW-] or SAW-2.
5 Using only E70XX low-hydrogen electrodes (E701S, E7016, E7018, E7028) or Grade SAW-2.
o When the base metal temperature is belaw 32°F, preheat the base metal to at least 72°F.
Weldability and Welding Procedure / 7.2-11
where:
cation uses a single-arc, submerged-arc automatic weld
J Heat input in Joules/in. or watt-sec/in. at 850 amps and a speed of 20 in./min. (for a =¥S" fillet
E Arc voltage in volts weld), with the girder positioned for flat welding. This
I Welding current in amps would provide a heat input of 86,000 joules/in. An
V Arc speed in in.yrnin alternate method positions the girder with its web
vertical so that both welds are made simultaneously in
Since all of the welding heat input at the arc does the horizontal position, and uses two sets of tandem
not enter the plate, the following heat efficiencies are arcs (each set with two welding heads); the heat input
suggested for use with this formula and subsequent from each arc would be 73,600 joules/in.-a total of
formulas, charts or nomographs: 147,000 joules/in. of weld for each fillet. Because of the
75-80% manual welding resulting lower cooling rate, less preheat should be
required once the weld has been started. This may be
90-100% submerged arc welding
a considerable advantage for the comfort of welding
operators, especially when welding inside large box
Most preheat and interpass temperature recom-
mendations are set up for manual welding where there girders.
is a relatively low heat input. For example, a current of 16. COOLING RATE
200 amps and a speed of 6 in.yrnin, would produce a
welding heat input of about 48,000 joules/in. or watt- When a weld is made, the weld and adjacent plate
sec.z'in., assuming an efficiency of 80 percent. Yet, it cool very rapidly. The rate of cooling depends first
might be necessary to weld a 12-gauge sheet to this on the combination of initial plate temperature (To)
plate in the vertical down position with 180 amps and (including effects of preheat or interpass temperature)
a speed of 22 in.ymin. This would reduce the welding and the welding heat input (J), and secondly, on the
heat input to 9800 joules/in. If this were a thick plate, plate's capacity to absorb this heat in terms of plate
it would indicate the need, with this second pro- thickness and joint geometry.
cedure, for more preheat, although existing preheat Figure 12 illustrates the temperatures in the heat-
tables do not recognize the effect of different welding affected zone of the plate as the welding arc passes
heat inputs. by. Under a given set of conditions, the cooling rate
On the other hand, some downward adjustment will vary as represented by the changing slopes of
in preheat from the value listed in the preheat tables both curves.
should be made for standard welding procedures For a particular chemistry, at a given temperature
which provide a much greater welding heat input. level (T 1) there is a critical cooling rate (R er ) which
We are considering here a stable heat-flow condition should not be exceeded in order to avoid underbead
after some welding has progressed. cracking. This temperature level is in the range of
This does not consider the more severe cooling 400°F to 750°F. American investigators tend to use a
conditions at the moment welding commences. Un- higher value such as 750°, while English and Canadian
doubtedly, some initial heat could be supplied to a investigators favor a lower value such as 300°C, or
localized area at the start of the weld on thick plate. 572°F. In this discussion, we have placed this tempera-
The question now becomes how much, if any, pre- ture level (Td at 572°F.
heat is needed for the remaining length of joint. The investigation of cooling rates has been based
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
For example, it is standard practice today to use
submerged-arc automatic welding to build up columns
largely on two extreme conditions, which have been
developed mathematically. * These are:
and girders from heavy plate. One method of fabri- 1. The thin plate, in which the combination of
7.2-12 / Joint Design and Production
heat input and plate size permit assuming the temper- constant, representing K at T 1
ature to be uniform throughout the thickness at any (K 2 = 5.961 for mild steel at 572°F)
point; in other words, heat flows transversely in only
two axes. See Figure 13. p density, Ibs/ft 3
(p = 489.6 Ibs/ft 3 for mild steel)
C specific heat, BTUIlb;aF
(C = .136 BTU/lb;aF for mild steel)
f ..-..-,\\ trtzz;
'!
\ \. I
t actual plate thickness, in.
FIGURE 13 J welding heat input (formula 1)
..... -- -_ ..... /
,
>-
1v I
.>"; Thin It I
formula
I I
~
FIGURE 14
<,
u,
o I I I
V Thick It
thick plate
I formula
IR =
where:
f(T 1 - To)21··· ...... · .... ·· ... (3)
U
Ol
.s
oo +;
/!
.,
,
,,r-
I
Resulting cooling rate
curve for various -
I
,
, 11-
I-
A
plate thicknesses ..--- where:
---t- t = actual thickness of the plate, in.
Ii/'
en
c:
(;
) t me = maximum effective plate for given values of
o (J) and (R)
U
17
I'm. = .4246 {;J
./
Plate thickness (t) --+ (8)
FIGURE 16
T 1 = elevated temperature at which cooling rate
Notice, Figure 16, that the upper half of the is considered (572 0 F)
variable part of this curve is almost a perfect reversal
preheat temperature for given values of (J),
of the lower half, and the lower half belongs to the
(R), and (t), OF
curve for the "thin plate". Therefore, the curved por-
tions will be expressed mathematically as- maximum effective preheat temperature for
To/me
a given value of (J) and (R), of
lower portion
upper portion Formulas (6) and (7) produced the curve shown
in Figure 17. This can be used to determine To the
R = 5.961 (572 J T o)2( - 27.09 t 2 (572 J To) required preheat temperature.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
inclusion of the maximum effective plate thickness
( t me), and the corresponding maximum effective pre-
2. Adjusting the plate thickness (t) to allow for
the extra plate by using Vz of the sum of three
heat (T0/me) for this thickness. thicknesses.
7.2-14 / Joint Design and Production
1.0 -
.9 I I
.7 +_-+---+_I--/----jI/jI=- t~;j~:
T) - To/me.6
T. - To / Upper portion of curve -
.5
1/
.4
.3
.2
.,
., .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 1.2
-.1_
t me
1 Ceq
Mn% + Ni% + Cr%
= C% + -6- 20
Mo%
10 - -----so-
V% Cu%' (10)
- 10 +40
(b)
As a result of recent experiments and studies, it is 19. COOLING RATE AND CARBON
possible to simplify the relationship of all chemical EQUIVALENT
elements in a steel to the occurrence of underbead
cracking. The simplification is expressed in a single Although not too well defined, for a given analysis
formula known as the carbon equivalent. This formula of steel there is a maximum rate at which the weld
expresses the influence of each element relative to that and adjacent plate may be cooled without underbead
of carbon. cracking occurring.
Investigators" have shown a definite relationship
>:< K. Winterton, "Weldability Prediction from Steel Compo-
in the percent of underbead cracking to the carbon sition to Avoid Heat-Affected Zone Cracking", WELDING
equivalent. Figure 19 shows a 1" thick test plate on JOURNAL, June 1961, p. 253-5.
which a single bead was deposited using ¥S" £6010
electrode at 100 amps, 25 v, reversed polarity, at 10
in.jmin. The chart, Figure 20, shows the percentage
of underbead cracking for different carbon equivalents ,'''1
that occurred with this test. A deposit made with low-
hydrogen £6015 electrodes on a specimen of this
thickness did not have underbead cracks. The AWS ft-- kwak--] G-Sow,",
@Seismicisolation
• Stout and Doty, "Weldability of Steels", Welding Research
@Seismicisolation
Council, 1953, p. 150; Williams, Roach, Martin and Voldrich,
'Weldability of Carbon-Manganese Steels", WELDING JOUR-
NAL, July 1949, p. 311-5. FIGURE 19
Weldability and Welding Procedure / 7.2--15
The higher the carbon equivalent, the lower will carbon equivalent-critical cooling rate curve shown
be this critical ( allowable) cooling rate. Thus, the in Figure 21 has been produced to use as a guide in
higher the steel's carbon equivalent, the more im- case the CTS test on the particular steel is not made.
portant becomes the use of low-hydrogen welding and This curve may be expressed by the following formula:
preheating.
Cottrell and Bradstreet* have used a type of Rcl'= C 6.598 I
Reeve Restraint test, called the CTS ( Controlled
Thermal Severity) test. For any given steel, three thick-
I
.
_ 3
eq. 074
-16.26 (ll)
f'
aQ)
..0
225°F _
Q;
1?::> 40 III 1/ Suggested relation between critical cooling rate (R) and
carbon equivalent (Ceq) for low-hydrogen electrodes
Q)
OJ
t.
a
~ 20
/I / <r Ceq R
« II! 1/ ~ o Values from A .40 57.6
1:
o fj / Q) B .45 36.0
o .20 .40 .60 .80 .100 ~ .50+---+---,,~
'3
C .50 19.8
cr .55 10.8
Carbon equivalent, Ceq = C + Mn +~ Q)
c
D
4 4 a E .60 7.7
-eo F .65 3.6
FIGURE 20 u
T 1 - To/me)
( T 1 - To '-- Example 1 Using Nomograph (Fig. 22)
e) Knowing this value (d) and the value of w~tt-sec
Given: J = 20000
, Inch
(T1 - To/me) from item (a), determine the
required preheat temeprature ( To) . R = 25 OF/sec
An easier and faster method for determining the
required preheat uses the nomograph, Figure 22. This t = l.0"
nomograph is actually two nomographs superimposed find preheat temperature (To):
upon each other. The first nomograph (subscript a)
will provide a value for ( T 1 - T 0/me)
1st nomograph
T 1 - To .
The second nomograph (subscript b) will provide the (1) R = 25 OF/sec
required preheat and interpass temperature (To).
A set of eight graphs, Figure 23, will also provide (2a) J = 20,000 w~tt-sec
Inch
this same information.
(3a) Read tme = 2.26"
Example 1 Using Chart (Fig. 17) Use this number as a pivot point
Given:
(4a) t = l.0"
watt-sec 73%
J = 20,000 inch
R = 25 of/sec 2nd nomograph
t = l.0" (1) R = 25 OF/sec
find required preheat temperature (To):
( 2b ) J = 20000 w~tt-sec
, Inch
a) Determine T 1 - T 0/me = ~5~Jl (3b) Read To/me = 282 OF
.------
(25) (20,000) Use this number as a pivot point
5.961
1
289.6°F ( 4b ) 0/<o T T -
_
To/me
To -- 730/<0 (from 1st nomograph)
"It4_0
1
@G ® © ® ®
% 7j - To/mc
lD o T,-To
tm.~"'CH) ........ 100
~
5
5
~
~
'-'
~~
© 4 t(tNCH}
'8
\lj~
T, - To/me .3i
~ ai~ <T7 - -
T,-To
10
~l<j
"l:<::)
~~ /0 .3
------E- 0 To ('F)
.~ 4 <..J
R
o
tz;,
~~
~t:;
"l:~
~~
.....
~;J:
:::Sf.,:
~'
~Cl::
~~ ZO
zi
z
SO
100
150
100
~
© © WATT. SEC)
~~
~iti
~~
To/""
450
(an 30
Ii
.,/
80
.,/
/78
7f.
74
ZOO
J ( 250
lJO
70
eo
INCH ~es J
~~
i!
4-0
SO
/
.>
_-----
_--70-
71
'8 300
50 'ii:g
70._ ~ ... eo -r "
~""" ~~ 400
70
---_ ....... .Z'4 ~
~
7
~~
4<1 JO,OOO
ofD,OOO J ------/:-: i iO
.3.50
30 .,/ 100
J
i 58 ~
:t ~
-~-:..::-- :.:--- ---- ID,OOD
/.,/
I
S6
.54 400 ~
ii:
D
zo !r.
--
.,/ SZ
IO,(}~
3rfb ::;:
.Jil,'" --z SO ~ "<
48 ~
10._
4O,DDD
250 i ~
450 e;
D
:::I
..... a.
,
10 ~=
ft. .... i 44
~
~
,,,-SSS 200 4Z
a
~ ~
,
1
EXAMPLE
150 40
.....
ii:
:::I
100 .38 't lD
5 R • ZS"/s,c J: 10,000 t : liN. ~
~
..
CD
NOMOGRAPH (-------)
IJT
R • 25 'F/S I C
SO
o
CD
2 A1D NOMOGRAPH ( - - )
R • 2S"/SEC
36
34 ~
IU ..
."
o
n
.3 til
3Z a.
@. J • 20,000 WATT-SEC/INCH @ J • 20,000 WIITT- SEC/INCH c:
;;;
@ ~
30
READ t m• • 2.2' IN.
( ~/'IOT _NT) ("'~'T flO''")
READ T,/ ... -- 282''''
<,
@ t • lIN. @ 'ZW ..r..:...!iLma
Tj-ro • 7J :I'
......
@ READ % T, -
'7i -To
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
To",. = 737: @ READ To = 175'F
.r..
......
1.2-18 / Joint Design and Production
FIGURE 23-Estimated Preheat for Given Cooling Rate, Heat Input & Plate Thickness
J = 40,000
150--1--+'....-+--+-~:-......----1---+-----+~
1OOI-:.:~-+--+-~oI--f------1---+~d---+---l----l----=:::;::.-:.....d-'.
50--+--·'I..--+--t--I-......~---+--+--+--t:=-.d-----I--+--~-+-=~-1-~l...,-~k-=~"
10 15 20 25 @Seismicisolation
0-+--t--...30+---+--+--+-----i~--+-_i_-+___It_______+----:::..p.--i-~+----i~4-....j...:~.......,::::~~:Io..fo.O
@Seismicisolation
30 35 40
R (OF/sec)
45 50 55 60 65 10
70
15 20 25 30 35
R (OF/sec)
40 45 50
SECTION 7.3
Joint Design
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
7.3-1
7.3-2 / Joint Design and Production
o b c FIGURE 3
procedure will produce good root fusion and will Spacer strips may be used especially m the case
minimize back gouging. of double-vee joints to prevent bum-through. :he
In Figure 3c a large root opening will result in spacer, Figure 4d, to prevent burn-through, will be
burn-through. Spacer strip may be used, in which case gouged out before welding the second side.
the joint must be back gouged.
Backup strips are commonly used when all weld- Backup Strips
ing must be done from one side, or when the root Backup strip material should conform to the base metal.
opening is excessive. Backup strips, shown in Figure Feather edges of the plate are recommended when
4a, band c, are generally left in place and become an using a backup strip.
integral part of the joint. Short intermittent tack welds should be used to
hold the backup strip in place, and these should pre-
ferably be staggered to reduce any initial restraint of
the joint. They should not be directly opposite one
another, Figure 5.
The backup strip should be in intimate contact
with both plate edges to avoid trapped slag at the
root, Figure 6.
Weld Reinforcement
On a butt joint, a nominal weld reinforcement (approxi-
mately YJ. 6" above Hush) is all that is necessary, Figure
7, left. Additional buildup, Figure 7, right, serves no
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 5
useful purpose, and will increase the weld cost.
Care should be taken to keep both the width and
the height of the reinforcement to a minimum.
Joint Design / 7.3-3
2. EDGE PREPARATION
weld is required. A land is not recommended when
The main purpose of a land, Figure 8, is to provide welding into a backup strip, Figure 10, since a gas
an additional thickness of metal, as opposed to a pocket would be formed.
feather edge, in order to minimize any burn-through Plate edges are beveled to permit accessibility to
tendency. A feather edge preparation is more prone to all parts of the joint and insure good fusion throughout
burn-through than a joint with a land, especially if the the entire weld cross-section. Accessibility can be
gap gets a little too large, Figure 9. gained by compromising between maximum bevel and
A land is not as easily obtained as a feather edge. minimum root opening, Figure II.
A feather edge is generally a matter of one cut with Degree of bevel may be dictated by the importance
a torch, while a land will usually require two cuts or of maintaining proper electrode angle in confined
possibly a torch cut plus machining. quarters, Figure 12. For the joint illustrated, the mini-
A land usually requires back gouging if a 1()()% mum recommended bevel is 45°.
FIGURE 6
~-
- . . 2. ."- Wrong
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Not Recommended
7.3-4 / Joint Design and Production
FIGURE 11
U and J versus Vee Preparations enough to expose sound weld metal, and the contour
J and U preparations are excellent to work with should permit the electrode complete accessibility,
but economically they have little to offer because Figure 15.
preparation requires machining as opposed to simple
torch cutting. Also a J or U groove requires a land,
Figure 13, and thus back gouging.
Back Gouging
To consistently obtain complete fusion when welding
a plate, back gouging is required on virtually all joints
except "vees" with feather edge. This may be done by
any convenient means: grinding, chipping, or arc-air
gouging. The latter method is generally the most
economical and leaves an ideal contour for subsequent Righi Wrong
beads. (45°) (2210)
2
Without back gouging, penetration is incomplete,
Figure 14. Proper back chipping should be deep FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
FIGURE 14
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIGURE 15
Joint Design / 7.3-5
~ 1- 0
.
,: t I··
~.
BUn t .'
{ ,. t
VEE ft"\
j~60.y ~~'1
llCi' ¥ l] B-U2
~ -..,
C-U2
,, . ,
R
I
JiP
'\:60Y
, " B-U3 1,Z
L~~~
Limitations For Joints ii 60. Limitations For Joints
-1 t f a
45 "
R Permlttod WOldlna Potltlonl
All Position, B-U3b l•2
a R Permittod Woldl .. Politio..
45- 'I. All POlltlonl
130' •
20 ,
Flat and Overhead OnlV 130'
20" I
'I
Flot ond O.o,lIood Onl,
Flat and O.or~.ad Onl.
B-L2 1
C-L2' Flat and Overhead Onlv
~£i' "'$?
*~~ ~i~
~ ». ,;Y
,
A" L45" _ "_ ~ s":"~.:.
'i.n
~~TC-L4al
,,' 45-
~
I ~
..
I __ ..... : /,,' ¥fO 4¥ "I l • .!.
:>-
8 '!6. ' , R
BEVEL ~ ~
4 5:....
... B-USbl.2 TC-U5d
45- ,4 . . . . B-U4
Limitations For Joints
R TO'U4 O"-I!i. ::- 1 i I Limitalians For Joints
1.1
~
t - Unlimited I
l ~ _~~: ~ "'Y
J
J. ____
,Ja-U8' [J ag tT6.'
i·
;p
.L ~._~
~.~ 45"
:,'
i
TC-USa l ~ i 8-U9 1• 2 iR i6
, ~-
TC-U91oJ
Limitation. Fa, Joint. Limitation. For Jainla
II ¢ "'.1"•• WlI'.., Potl..... 1 II - IPer.ittld Weld Poli,.l i••
t = Unlimited I, t=Unlimitedl
,....;~
V;I:4 R
r¥r~t .
I-..<
f ~~3=t.,
.~...,.
~. lR
• ~f4--o
t-o
U o 0 •
NOTE: The size of the fillet weld reinforcing groove welds in Tee and corner joints sholl equal t/4 but sholl be 3/B" max.
I. Gouge root before welding second side (Par 505i)
2. Use of this weld preferably limited to bose metal thickness of 5/B" or larger.
° When lower plate is bevelled, first weld root pass this side.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
7.3-6 / Joint Design and Production
Q:~u } { :
-f:fttO)
...r..A io-e ([),
f i ~'
~ fi f
t e =t
B-Pla
I.
ota.!.· + tea t
B-Plb
te=it -+i I- it
B-Plc
min.
te=td
te=t 8-P2
B-P2 C-P2
t>r
o to I
0
te=td-i
,t>-f" ~,c\"""1
~
-r
0
t.= til
8-P8 TC-P8
t>r
r=*
t.= td
8-P6 C-P6
SQUARE
BUTT
w
'1 --; B-L2a-S
,
C-L2b-S
g:p~U2-S
4
VEE
~R
Weld After Weldinv at l.8a.t
One Pa.. an Other Side
t ta' Inch Incl. t==t
Over
~
16
BEVEL ~
Manual Shielded 1l1la.
Arc ar SubmerVed Arc-
Fi lIet Weld Backinv Weld
TC-U5-S
B-U7-S
NOTE: The size of the fillet weld reinforcing groove welds in Tee and corner joints shall equal t/4 but shall be 3/A" max.
I. Gouge root before welding second side (Par 505i)
2. Use of this weld preferably limited to base metal thickness of SIA" or larger.
• When lower plate is bevelled, first weld root pass this side.
is not always dictated solely by the design function. penetration. The amount of weld metal compared to
The choice often directly affects the cost of welding. the conventional fillet weld varies from 75% for a I"
For example, Figure 18 illustrates this influence. plate to 56% for a 4" plate. For plates up to about I1h"
The choice is to be made between 45 0 fillet welds or thickness, the extra cost of beveling the plate and the
some type of T groove joints. probable need to use lower welding current in the
(a) For full-strength welds, the leg of the fillet 45 groove tend to offset the lower cost of weld metal
0
weld must be about 75% of the plate thickness. for this type of joint. But for heavier plate the re-
(b) Full strength may also be obtained by double duction in weld metal is great enough to overcome any
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
beveling the edge of the plate 45 0 and spacing the
plate so the root opening is Ys" to all~w for complete
extra preparation cost.
(c) Full strength may also be obtained by bevel-
7.3-8 / Joint Design and Production
Single <K Double-Vee Single Or' Oouble-Beve I Sinqle Or Double-U Sinqle Or Double - J
Butt Corner Butt Corner
Sinqle -Vee Corner Sinqle Or- Double - Bevel Sinqle - U Comer Sinqle Or Double-J
Tee Tee
NOTES:
• Welded in the flat position.
• If root face is less than 1/4" , there should be at least one manual bead to prevent burnthrough.
• Minimum effective throat = ~where t is thickness of thinner part.
• Plate thickness: single groove joint t ~ %"; double groove joint t 2. 1 1/ 4 " .
• Effective throat = t".
ing the edge of the plate 60° so as to place some of is about 1%" plate. The 60° bevel, partly penetrated
the weld within the plate; a 60° fillet is then placed joint, with 60° fillets appears to be the lowest in cost
on the outside. The minimum depth of bevel and the above 1" in thicknesses. The relative position of these
additional leg of fillet are both equal to 29% of the curves will vary according to the welding and cutting
plate thickness. For all plate thicknesses, the amount costs used.
of weld metal is approximately half that of the con- It would be a good idea for each company to
ventional fillet. This joint has the additional advantage make a similar cost study of the welding in their shop
that almost high welding current may be used as in for guidance of their engineers in quickly selecting the
the making of the fillet weld. most economical weld. Naturally the various costs
All of this is shown in the graph, Figure 18. The (labor, welding, cutting, handling, assembly, etc.) will
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
cross-over point in this chart between the conventional
fillet welds and the 45 ° full penetrated T groove joint
vary with each company.
Joint Delign / 7.3-9
Doubl. U-poow
~
Slnlll. fiUe,
-'o"
e& ,
6~ 1 - .
oo.
poo_.
.
:. c¢?--
i ,"
~l.
~l= i/o .,
06- ,-
I
J
~o
81-..le ..... 0'1 t.1 d. .1... le-be••l Clo ••d ~u .... bu.tt Cloa" ~uar. butt
U (c)
..i~
'd.d.~, .. 'd~
(complete pe"elnltJon; com.r Jol"t, fltte. Jotnt (1/1·111. P"'<;o- Jolft. (complete peae•
lniO"~ ~·~'-d~;
~ ,-" J ' ,
Top aurlaea pad SIn.l.·••• cant. Joint V•• ..,0.. 8inlle U-lI'oo_
1Y2 2 2~/2
Plate thickness, in.
3
ctr ~oG~I
~1
e»p.1I .qua"-poo... d
corner joillt. Oll.t •• Id
'i-
FIGURE 18
C"'~"JOI"' ofJo
8
these welding notations quickly indicate to the designer, " I 1
draftsman, production supervisor, and weldor alike, the o i
exact welding details established for each joint or con- !
...... , ... b ...., t •• joint Doubl••tlU.t, doubl.-] Douhl. ]_pvo", (lull Plu• • •Id
t •• JolAt
nection to satisfy all conditions of material strength and p •• ftnitlon)
*
dt . . . .:.uv.....,;~:: g' ~
service required. Adapting this system of symbols to G
0
1) * 1_'
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
....
FIGURE 19 ~
...
o
•
<,
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY STANDARD WELDING SYMBOLS
..
'-
o
;'
LOCATION
H~~O:R IP:~~:C:':N
fLASm GROOYl
~YC2"~p<i~..Y.'LLj.f¢......v,....,..y
..o
IllRfACING
_ION,PICANCr.
flLUT
_QUARE U ----I CUllf·~~~r~77A-'?~y.ny
CD
~1~IY~I~I>--n-/I~I~I~17'"E-~ ...."" rrr<1>---rr-"'~~ Ii'
'-b.-<I~~I ~ I~I~I ~1~1)---lL>1~1'-.!L..<11~} '"''
"" )---lL/1~~~~
~
DTMU 1101
D
I~ ~ I ,::. I ,: . 1~1~1>--n1~14--<1'*-<1~1 "" .... ~~~~
~
..
NO AI.OW SIDE
OTHER SIDE
SIGNifiCANCE
....""
"" "" ""
""
...."" '--e--<I'--e-< U:1:iT~.:! IlQIIUSn
...."" ...."" ,::. ...."" ...."" ...."" ""
"..
~ ...."" ~~~
D.
."
3
W[LD
ALL
AROUND
frl,-I -
fiELD
Wt:LD
IM£.LT-THIUI
FLU~"
I
CONTOU ..
CONVEX
~ I~ 11--1
II CONCAVE
I BACK OR BACKIIitCI ftLD SYMBOL
,
~r-"",-.lUIl(_(
'~:-.: _no IlIlIOX
SlNGU·V.GM)OW WILDING SYMBOL INDICATINQ
+---_ Y1I L
""Ul Of CIWIH._......../
IIOO1 ;"U(~""'llOll
-,
/*+t~------"""'"
/""
t~
~_f AIlGLI
ROOr PlNIE1'RATION
IIOOl OP'E1I11lG
I"IOJltTlCIO f t l _
:(::::~:HIT::.\rS(O"
"lit wnOI !!!ol"Of
-no w,¥ If USED
"'$TlAofbllClllCUlAII
itlIoJECTlOH WElM
pp.
PROJECTION WUDtNG SYMBOL
2 0 £--[;/meN (OISTAJoC,E
500 6
IETWU" CllfTl") Of
wnos
1 4 1 _ - - - l I u l i l u Of IrI1M
..
D.
c:
n
0'
~
5UIII'AClMG ftLD SYMBOL INDlCATlIitCI IUIU·UP IURfACE OOU""'.....
~c ftL"::.:''''':,,, __
••""""" _ ~.Olll
Of WUOI~su.M W£UMNG SYII8Ol~IIlGHI Of wnDS 01
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SQlJARt:·OROOVt: "'-DING SYMBOl
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FLAIK-SEVl.L..GROOVl!: WELDING SYMIIOL
o. 'I0I'l.
.... ~"M"'~"0"c
< ~[(
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SINour:·V.OROOY( ftLDlNG SYllBOL Sf'OT WELDING SYMIJOI.~Tt" (Dl1tA"'C( lOGl., ""'D CORHEA-fLANGE WIELD SYMBOLS . / '
'M~''''-'·''''r) i ~ _~"',:·:.:?::;\l~~:o~~'~"'
IIUlI.n O' WElM - - - - I S ) ITWUIl C{1I1U'1 Of
,,_,~"'U"'-COH~TOU'
WI.LD-ALL-AAQUNO SYMBOL AnD Wf.LD IYIIIlItOl MnT-THRU SVMl!IOl CONYIEX-COHTOUA SYMBOl.
'_m",oo' SYMBOL
~
m ,",u ".", . ~,
~
rru.15Ii " 1I IOL (USf..' S
~
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INDICATES ,111:( OF _nil mils" SIlIIIQ. <usu'S
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IIIDICA,n'AC[Q'lrfL~~IID1CAtUll[TIOOOO'
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ft'=:~~~::~:!~)}
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I
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TE:f JOl"T
..
I" OhlU 1l0f
or JOI"l
C~~:~~~-~-n:~1
. _ ~
[001[ JOINT
~"'
Ol"UMlE
Of JOIltf
_ -...
CUT11NO ",OCI!IIllI!S IIY Ll!TIl!AS
~ \1M NlIl'PfIb .Y..oL WITH ",oau ......MCI!.. THI! T......
e---WOkl'" ~
~~=~ "'..w
@Seismicisolation
~w
~ Caol_...
,,- .~
1_1'Ce8nl"..
"",,",,-'ion"kl'''lI
4JI:, IIJ,C..au.-ArcCun,"lI
ArcC""''''1
@Seismicisolation
f .. N:.
~ DilI i. . ..~ .........roce-se- ..kl' ..
~
" -.nce-S!d ......... ~ =~g,:::::
'"' S'£:'-=~..,
,~
-.....~--. CopyT'Il"1l 1&188by I""
-
~ ~':.."'~~'.:i~un...
,.
- ..kl...
~
E~
~
,~
M. a..,o.,.,..,. .. l:'.:~kl~:'"""" lX Ilo,......Cun'''lI AMERICAN WELOINO SOCIETY
kl . .
... n FROM AWS STANDARD - A 2.0-68
=~h.. ~ :=-~c~
Dl<y~.o-_ 34.5 fNI 471n SIr . .I, N_ York, N. Y 10011
~
~~..:=.. ~
==Gao:a,~ ". u_-..
Joint Design / 7.3-11
TYPES of WELDS
TYPES of JOI NTS
Single Double
Butt ~ I 10
Fillet
6 ,!>
& }
~ Square {
mf
*CD
(f2 {
t* 1
CD
az + fKJ
Tee
? i- Bevel
Groove
* CD *0
Corner
9 © Vee
Groove r\ZS* 0-
Lap
~CD J
Groove
Edge ® U
Groove
*0
·Same Number Used on AWS Prequalified
Joints, See Figures 16A & B. 17A & B.
FIGURE 21
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 7.4
1. WHEN TO CALCULATE WELD SIZE weld times the effective throat. The effective throat is
defined as the shortest distance from the root of the
Overwelding is one of the major factors of welding diagrammatic weld to the face.
cost. Specifying the correct size of weld is the first According to AWS the leg size of a fillet weld
step in obtaining low-cost welding. This demands a is measured by the largest right triangle which
simple method to figure the proper amount of weld to can be inscribed within the weld, Figure 1.
provide adequate strength for all types of connections. This definition would allow unequal-legged fillet
In strength connections, complete-penetration welds, Figure 1 ( a). Another AWS definition stipulates
groove welds must be made all the way through the the largest isosceles inscribed right triangle and would
plate. Since a groove weld, properly made, has equal limit this to an equal-legged fillet weld, Figure l(b).
or better strength than the plate, there is no need for Unequal-legged fillet welds are sometimes used to
calculating the stress in the weld or attempting to get additional throat area, hence strength, when the
determine its size. However, the size of a partial-pene-
tration groove weld may sometimes be needed. When
welding alloy steels, it is necessary to match the weld- TABLE 1-Minimum Strengths Required of
metal strength to plate strength. This is primarily a Weld Metals and Structural Steels
matter of proper electrode selection and of welding (AWS AS.l & ASTM A233)
procedures. (as-welded condition)
With fillet welds, it is possible to have too small Min. Tensile Strength
Min. Yield Strength
a weld or too large a weld; therefore, it is necessary Material psi
psi
to determine the proper weld size.
.
']
E6010
E6012
50,000 psi
55,000
62,000 psi
67,000
Strength of Welds
~'" E6024 58,000 62,000
Many engineers are not aware of the great reserve 'tl
a;
E6027 50,000 62,000
strength that welds have. Table 1 shows the recognized ~
strength of various weld metals (by electrode desig- E70XX 60,000 72,000
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The AWS has defined the effective throat area of a
fillet weld to be equal to the effective length of the
elongation in 2 inches, min.
reduction in area, min.
22%
40%
7.4-1
7.4-2 / Joint Design and Production
Increased effective
thraat = 1.262 t Increased effective
thraat = 1.262 t
fw
/
/ Added weld
metal
1
/
/
/
//~}
/
~
W
2w
FIGURE 1
vertical leg of the weld cannot be increased. See then swing back into the crater to fill it, and then pro-
Figure 2( a). ceed forward for the remainder of the weld. In this
Where space permits, a more efficient means of manner no crater will be left unfilled.
obtaining the same increase in throat area or strength In practically all cases of intermittent fillet welds,
is to increase both legs to maintain an equal-legged the required length of the weld is marked out on the
fillet weld with a smaller increase in weld metal. See plate and the weldor starts welding at one mark and
Figure 2(b). continues to weld until the rim of the weld crater
passes the other mark. In other words, the crater is
beyond the required length of the intermittent fillet
... <,
\.
~ There may be some cases where the crater is filled
~
~
\.
and included in the weld length. This may be accom-
a <,
... ~
\. plished by filling the crater, or by using a method of
\.
\.
~
welding part way in from one end, breaking the arc
~
, and welding in from the other end, and then over-
lapping in the central portion, thus eliminating any
crater.
T
w
,,
,,
, , ,,
,-, Throat (t) = .707 w
faster cooling rate for the welds.
Table 3 is predicated on the theory that the
required minimum weld size will provide sufficient
welding heat input into the plate to give the desired
I /
'''-- ' '
', slow rate of cooling.
Ll<-- /
~
This is not a complete answer to this problem;
~- W ----~ for example, a plate thicker than 6" would require a
minimum weld size of %", yet in actual practice this
FIGURE .4 would be made in several passes. Each pass would
be equivalent to about a %6" fillet, and have the heat
For an equal-legged fillet weld, the throat is equal input of approximately a %6" weld which may not be
to .707 times the leg size (w): sufficient unless the plates are preheated.
A partial solution to this problem would be the
t = .707 w following: Since the first pass of the joint is the most
critical, it should be made with low-hydrogen electrodes
The allowable force on the fillet weld, 1" long is- and a rather slow travel speed. Resulting superior weld
physicals, weld contour, and maximum heat input pro-
f = .707 W 'T I - (1)
vide a good strong root bead.
f t. f
t iii
I E
Effective
length (le)
---J
- I
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 7 W>5t>1"
T
FIGURE 10
1. If t ~ < 5!s"
then t w = tre
2. If t~ > %"
FIGURE 8 then t w :> 1/2 tli > 5!s"
(AWS Bldg Art 212(a)3, AISC 1.17.6) Spacing and Size of Plug Welds
(A WS Bldg Art 213, AWS Bridge Par 218, AISC
1.17.11)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 11
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-5
s>4d
d > til! + %6" < 214 t w
t It
L < 10 t w
W > t~ + %6" < 214 t w
ST > 4 W
SL > 2 L
r > tt
Partial-penetration groove welds are allowed in the Tension applied transverse to the weld's axis, or
building field. They have many applications; for ex- shear in any direction, has a reduced allowable stress,
ample, field splices of columns, built-up box sections equal to that for the throat of a corresponding fillet
for truss chords, etc. weld.
For the V, J or U grooves made by manual welding, Just as fillet welds have a minimum size for thick
and all joints made by submerged-arc welding, it is plates because of fast cooling and greater restraint, so
assumed the bottom of the joint can be reached easily. partial-penetration groove welds have a minimum effec-
So, the effective throat of the weld (t e ) is equal to the tive throat (t e ) which should be used -
actual throat of the prepared groove (t). See Figure
13. te >
= ~tp6
H a bevel groove is welded manually, it is assumed
that the weldor may not quite reach the bottom of the where:
groove. Therefore, AWS and AISC deduct ¥s" from the
t p = thickness of thinner plate
prepared groove. Here the effective throat (t e ) will
equal the throat of the groove (t) minus ¥s". See 5. TYPES OF WELDS
Figure 13(a).
a. Primary welds transmit the entire load at the
particular point where they are located. H the weld
fails, the member fails. The weld must have the same
property as the member at this point. In brief, the
weld becomes the member at this point.
b. Secondary welds simply hold the parts to-
gether, thus forming the member. In most cases, the
forces on these welds are low.
c. Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to
their axis. In the case of fillet welds, the throat is
stressed only in shear. For an equal-legged fillet, the
maximum shear stress occurs on the 45 0 throat.
d. Transverse welds have forces applied trans-
(0) Single bevel joint (b) Single J joint versely or at right angles to their axis. In the case of
fillet welds, the throat is stressed both in shear and
FIGURE 13
in tension or compression. For an equal-legged fillet
@Seismicisolation
Tension applied parallel to the weld's axis, or com-
@Seismicisolation
pression in any direction, has the same allowable stress
as the plate.
weld, the maximum shear stress occurs on the 67%0
throat, and the maximum normal stress occurs on the
22% 0 throat.
7.4-6 / Joint Design and Production
TABLE 4-Determining Force on Weld definite length and outline. This method has the fol-
lowing advantages:
standard treating 1. It is not necessary to consider throat areas be-
design the weld cause only a line is considered.
formula as a line
2. Properties of the welded connection are easily
Type of Loading stress force
lbs/inZ lbs/in found from a table without knowing weld-leg size.
PRIMARY WELDS 3. Forces are considered on a unit length of weld
transmit entire load at this point
instead of stresses, thus eliminating the knotty prob-
//F tension or 6 • .E f _ ..E.. lem of combining stresses.
10/ ep-- compression A - Aw
4. It is true that the stress distribution within a
Id ve rtical
shear
6 :.:i-
A
f. Y-
Aw
fillet weld is complex, due to eccentricity of the ap-
plied force, shape of the fillet, notch effect of the root,
etc.; however, these same conditions exist in the actual
I~)· bending I1:
M
S
f • M....
SW fillet welds tested and have been recorded as a unit
KJ'T twisting 11 : T C
J
f. TC
Jw
force per unit length of weld.
I T - { torsional
horizontal
shear·
A. • n •• cOIIItdaad vithia waedhn line.
( .. ) .ppU. . to cloa.t!d tubuhr .ection only.
r : T
2it
f. _T_
2A
of the welded connection now becomes just the length
of the weld.
Instead of trying to determine the stress on the
weld (this cannot be done unless the weld size is
known), the problem becomes a much simpler one of
6. SIMPLE TENSILE, COMPRESSIVE OR SHEAR determining the force on the weld.
LOADS ON WELDS
Normally the use of these standard design formulas TABLE S-Properties of Weld Treated as Line
results in a unit stress, psi; however, when the weld is
treated as a line, these formulas result in a force on Out l me of W~ld~d
Be nd mg TWisting
JOint
the weld, lbs per linear inch. b ew rdt h .d"dtpth
(about horlz.ontal a x r e x-x)
/------------
+ dlj
d (3bZ.
--T-
-r
---~r_-------------
r----
needed, width (b) and depth (d). r-b-1 a, _ lbd + di~-dl(lb +~i-
J .1~3 _ dl(btd)l
• 3 3 (b t d)
Jt~t1
Section modulus (Sw) is used for welds subject .II
1II·'b7Zd ---1. top bottom
- - r----
w II ~
--
to bending loads, and polar moment of inertia (Jw) .- .........
for twisting loads. 'Ol' s.,. bd +~ , J'~
W b
Tr
OJ' .-;;'d top bot t om
........... --
of the welded connections. For the unsymmetrical con- s...,4bdt~.4bd2tdl J : d J(4b .. dJ .. ~
~'- -. d 3 6b .. 3d
6(b + d)
nections shown in this table, maximum bending force ""27li+iJ) .L top bottom
..... 6
c---------- 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - -
is at the bottom. ....b ....
_ b 3 .. 3 bdl
If there is more than one force applied to the '-]D s.. ' bd t~ , Jw
+d3
- ------.;--
~--------- j------ -----
weld, these are found and combined. All forces which _.~
---
Plug shear on
and effective Same as for fillet weld
Slot area
* weldable A242
:I: E70 or SAW-2 could be used, but would not increase allowable
A7, A373
:l:E60 or SAW-1
A36 2 1" thick
Complete- tension
Penetration compression A36 > I" thick
:l:E60 low-hydrogen
or SAW-I
Same as Ie.
Groove Welds shear
E70 low-hydrogen
AMI, A242*
or SAW-2
A7, A373
:l:E60 or SAW-I T = 12,400 psi
A36 2 1" thick
or
Fillet shear on :l:E60 low-hydrogen f = 8800 w Iblin
Welds effective A36 > I" thick
or SAW-l
throat
T= 14,700 psi
E70 low-hydrogen
A441, A242* or
or SAW-2
f = 10,400 w Iblin
A7, A373,
Plug shear on :l:E60 or SAW-I
A36 2 I" thick
and effective 12,400 psi
Slot area A36 >1" thick :l:E60 low-hydrogen
A44!, A242* or SAW-I
Base Metal
CD 7500
CD 10,500
0 15,000
u= I -2/3K psi u= 1 -2/3 K psi u=
In Tension 1 - 2/3 K psi
Connected 2 P,
By Fillet 3i< psi
Welds
But nat to exceed ~ P, P, P,
0 (3) 0)
Base Metal P, psi
Compression P,
Connected 7500 10,500 15,000
u= I _ 2/3 K psi U = I - 2/3 K psi U = 1 - 2/3 K psi --K psi
By Fillet 1--
Welds 2
Butt Weld
0 16,000 .
@
17,000
u= _ _ psi
@
18,000
u= _ _
In Tension
U = --8- pSI
K psi P, psi
I- I-~K 1--
10K 10 2
CD @ @
Butt Weld 18,000 18,000 U = 18,000
u=--psi u=--psi
Compression l-K 1- .8K K psi P, psi
1--
2
® @ @
8utt Weld 9,000
T=--
10,000
T= _ _ T= 13,000
In Shear 13,000 psi
1-~ psi
1--
K psi
1--
K psi
2 2 2
Fillet
@
f = 5100w
®f = 7JOOw
@
f=8800 w
Welds 8800 w Ib/in.
1 _ ~ Ib/in. 1 _!. Ib/in. K Ib/in.
w = Leg Size 1--
2 2 2
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Adapted from AWS Bridge Specifications. K = mini max
P. = Allowable unit compressive stress for member.
P, = Allowable unit tensile stress for member.
7.4-10 / Joint Design and Production
T Cb P
ft h = - - fBv = Aw
Jw
(180,000) (5) ( 18,(00)
(385.9) (20)
2340 lbsjin. 900 lbsjin.
(Continued on page 11)
Base Metal
In Tension
(0 CD 0 2 Pc
Connected
u=
7500
psi
10,50\4
u= 1-2/3R psi u=
15,000
psi
3"R psi
By Fillet 1_2/3R 1_2/3R PI psi
Welds
Base Metal
Compression
CD 0 0 Pc
---psi
Connected 7500 10,500 15,000 1- lhR
u= I - 213 R psi u= 1-2/3R psi u= psi
By Fillet 1_2/3R
Welds Pc psi
0 @ @
Butt Weld 16,000 19,000 24,000 . P, psi
In Tension u=---ps; u=---psi U = 1 -112 R pSI
1-.8 R 1 -.7 R
0 @ @
Butt Weld 24,000 24,000 24,000 Pc psi
Compression U = 1=1JR psi u= - - - psi
1- R U = 1 _ V2 R psi
G) @ @
Butt Weld 9000 10,000 . 13,000 13,000 psi
In Shear u= - - - p s i u = - - -lhR
pSI = 1 -112 R psi
1- 112 R l- U
Fillet Welds
<@)
5100 w
e 7100 w
@
8800 w
*
W = leg size f= --1/-
1- 2 R
Ib/in. f = --I/-R Ib/in.
1- 2
f = - - 1 / - Ib/in.
1- 2 R
f= 10,400wlb/in.
f h " 2340
fV- 17SO}
2650
'5. 9 0 0 bUIlt_up columna
aubjecltoh'gh
bending morn",nta
fabrIcated frame"
-I f ? + (it + f ,_)2
tl v s FIG. 16 These flange-to-web welds are stressed
-I (2340)2 + (2650)2 in horizontal shear and the forces on them can
be determined.
3540 lbs /in.
Step 4: NOW FIND REQUIRED LEG SIZE OF tween the flange and web is one exception to this rule.
FILLET WELD CONNECTING THE BRACKET. In order to prevent web buckling, a lower allowable
shear stress is usually used; this results in a thicker
actual force web. The welds are in an area next to the flange where
w
allowable force there is no buckling problem and, therefore, no reduc-
3540 tion in allowable load is used. From a design stand-
11,200 point, these welds may be very small, their actual size
.316 or use %6" ~ sometimes determined by the minimum allowed be-
cause of the thickness of the flange plate, in order
9. HORIZONTAL SHEAR FORCES to assure the proper slow cooling rate of the weld
on the heavier plate.
Any weld joining the flange of a beam to its web is
General Rules
stressed in horizontal shear (Fig. 16). Normally a
designer is accustomed to specifying a certain size Outside of simply holding the flanges and web of a
fillet weld for a given plate thickness (leg size about beam together, or to transmit any unusually high
% of the plate thickness) in order for the weld to have force between the flange and web at right angles to
full plate strength. However, this particular joint be- the member (for example, bearing supports, lifting
Z 3
Simply supported Fixed ends Simply supported
concczntrated loads conceritr at.e d loads uniform load
~ [tV'
A11IIllllJJJIIt
'lllJ
~
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
9 h
Moment Diagrams
7.4-12 I Joint Design and Production
lugs, etc.), the real purpose of the weld between the and web will be the same regardless of end conditions
flange and web is to transmit the horizontal shear of the beam.
forces, and the size of the weld is determined by the To apply these rules, consider the welded frame
value of these shear forces. in Figure 18. The moment diagram for this loaded
It will help in the analysis of a beam if it is frame is shown on the left-hand side. The bending
recognized that the shear diagram is also a picture moment is gradually changing throughout the vertical
of the amount and location of the welding required portion of the frame. The shear diagram shows that this
between the flange and web. results in a small amount of shear in the frame. Using
A study of Figure 17 will show that 1) loads ap- the horizontal shear formula (f = Yay/In), this would
plied transversely to members cause bending mo- require a small amount of welding between the flange
ments; 2) bending moments varying along the length and web. Intermittent welding would probably be
of the beam cause horizontal shear forces; and 3) sufficient. However, at the point where the crane
horizontal shear forces require welds to transmit these bending moment is applied, the moment diagram shows
forces between the flange and web of the beam. a very fast rate of change. Since the shear value is
Notice: 1) Shear forces occur only when the equal to the rate of change in the bending moment, it
bending moment varies along the length. 2) It is quite is very high and more welding is required at this
possible for portions of a beam to have little or no region.
shear-notice the middle portions of beams 1 and 2- Use continuous welding where loads or moments
this is because the bending moment is constant within are applied to a member, even though intermittent
this area. 3) If there should be a difference in shear welding may be used throughout the rest of the fab-
along the length of the beam, the shear forces are ricated frame.
usually greatest at the ends of the beam (see beam
3). This is why stiffeners are sometimes welded con- Finding Weld Size
tinuously at their ends for a distance even though they
are welded intermittently the rest of their length. 4) The horizontal shear forces acting on the weld joining
Fixed ends will shift the moment diagram so that the a flange to web, Figures 19 and 20, may be found
maximum moment is less. What is taken off at the from the following formula:
middle of the beam is added to the ends. Even though
this does happen, the shear diagram remains un-
changed, so that the amount of welding between flange 1 f = W I .. ·· . . . . . . . . . . · . . . . . . · . . . . (5)
MOMENT
where:
COLVMN
DIR5HllkI
f force on weld, lbs/Iin in.
!iIROER V total shear on section at a given position
f F
along beam, lbs
i =;}~ a
y
area of flange held by weld, sq in.
distance between the center of gravity of
flange area and the neutral axis of whole
section, in.
I moment of inertia of whole section, in.4
n number of welds joining flange to web
a)
T
~)
I
S.
rfm~MA
FIG. 20 Examples of welds in y
horizontal shear. ~
The leg size of the required fillet weld (continu- required leg size of weld
ous) is found by dividing this actual unit force (f)
actual force
by the allowable for the type of weld metal used. w-
- allowable force
If intermittent fillet welds are to be used divide
this weld size (continuous) by the actual size used 1720
(intermittent). When expressed as a percentage, this 11,200
will give the length of weld to be used per unit length. = .153"
For convenience, Table 10 has various intermittent
weld lengths and distances between centers for given This would be the minimum leg size of a continu-
percentages of continuous welds. ous fillet weld; however, %" fillet welds are recom-
mended because of the thick 23/4" flange plate (see
o/c calculated leg size (continuous) table). In this particular case, the leg size of the fillet
o = actual leg size used (intermittent) weld need not exceed the web thickness ( thinner
1 1"
24tJ
FIGURE 21
w <
14,500 psi t
2(11,200)
I w ~ 0/3 I
<
- .643 t
_.1
or t
where:
,.46"
11--
V 189,000 lbs
r I
a
36,768 in."
27.5 in. 2
TABLE 10-lntermittent Welds
Length and Spacing.
Continuous Length of intermittent welds and
weld, % distance between centers, in.
y 24.375" 75 3-4
66 4-6
n 2 welds 60 3·5
57 4-7
horizontal shear force on weld 50 2-4 3-6 4-8
44 4-9
fb = i: y
43
40
37
2-5
3-7
3-9
4-10
For this reason the size of intermittent fillet weld that is, intermittent welds having leg size of 3/8 " and
used in design calculations or for determination of length of 4", set on 12" centers. A 3!s" fillet weld usually
length must not exceed % of the web thickness, or here: requires 2 passes, unless the work is positioned. A
2-pass weld requires more inspection to maintain size
% of If.!'' (web) = .333" and weld quality. The shop would like to change this
to a tX6" weld. This single-pass weld is easier to make
The percentage of continuous weld length needed and there is little chance of it being undersize.
for this intermittent weld will be- This change could be made as follows:
_ continuous leg size The present 3!s" ~ is welded in lengths of 4" on
% 12" centers, or 33% of the length of the joint, reducing
intermittent leg size
the leg size down to %6" ~ or % of the previous
( .153") weld. This would require the percentage of length of
( .333") joint to be increased by the ratio 6 / 5 or 33% (%)
46% = 40%.
f Problem 4 1
Determine the leg size of fillet weld for the base of a 30 lbs/sq ft or pressure of p = .208 psi. Use A36 Steel
signal tower, Figure 22, assuming wind pressure of & E70 welds.
40" dia
20" dia
FIGURE 22
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-15
actual force
W - allowable force
1370
- 11,200
_ (20.5)3 - (6%)3
6
1386 in." = .123" but use %6" ~ all around, the mini-
mum fillet weld size for 1" base plate
_ Tr (6%)3
114 in. 3
Problem 5 I
8
Total I w = 1500 in."
To determine amount of flllet weld to attach masonry
Sw Iw plate to beam, using E70 welds. The following con-
= d/2 ditions exist:
1500
- 10.25 P = 10,000#
~ --IA _
= 146 in. 2
*H Ht U. t iUHU u~§
Step 2: FIND THE FORCE INVOLVED.
= 960 in.2 I~
r=-----
b = 120" --------,
.I
Aw = 2 b
= 2(120)
= 240"
bending force on weld
M
Sw
_ (10,000)( 8.5)
(960)
= 88.5 lbsjin. FIGURE 24
rr~~i"
= 94,500 in-Ibs.
r, = 7T
2
d( 1)2 + ~2) = 2
4
7T [(5¥4)2 + (:)2J
of N = 2,000,000 cycles and use Table 8 formula. In
this case, assume a complete reversal of load; hence
= 223.3 in." K = min/max = -1 and:
c = 1,2 y D2 + d 2 = 1,2 y(5¥4)2 + (4)2
_ 5100
= 3.3" f - K
1-
S..
_ Iw (223.3)
_ 2
- c - (3.3)
5100
= 67.6 in. 2 -1+1,2
Aw = 2 7T d = 3400 lbs/in. (allowable force)
=27T(4)
Step 4: NOW REQUIRED LEG SIZE OF FILLET
= 25.2" WELD AROUND HUB CAN BE FOUND.
Step 2: FIND THE VARIOUS FORCES ON WELD, actual force
INSERTING PROPERTIES OF WELD FOUND w
allowable force
ABOVE (use Table 4).
(2040)
bending (3400)
M _ (6300)(8) . = .600" or use 0/8" ~
fb = Sw - ~7~~ = 746Ibs/m.
twisting
Problem 7 I
Tc
ft = r:-
_ (94,500) (2)
(100.5 )
= 1880 lbs/in.
vertical shear
V
f, = A
w
( 63(0)
= (25.2)
= 250 Ibs/in.
r'
{ ~ 451 ~ 1inch of fi lIat wald
b ..~ a.t hub = 3'1
f)25~ f -1880
b
loo("'E----
t Y ,
,
fr = Jf +f +f b
2
t
2
v
2
T-
d = 4"
~
-/ h ~ 1.142" = N.
~ 2.858"
b2
N, = 2(b + d) (300)
(3 + 4)
(3 )2
- 2(3 + 4) = 43 lbs/In,
= .643" bending force on weld (about y-y), due to Ph
d2 M
N" - 2(b + d) fb 2 = Sw
( 4)2
_ (200 X 10)
- 2(3 + 4)
(9.5)
= 1.142"
= 211 lbs/In.
properties of weld treated as a line resultant force on weld at bottom of connection
(b + d)4 - 6 b 2 d 2
Jw 12 (b + d) ,
fVI = l05=/in
+
(3 4)4 - 6(3)2(4)2
12 (3 + 4)
18.3 in."
: ..... .....
.....
.....
148=/1n {
.
!\, f v 2 = 43=/in /
/
/
" ..... \
4 bd + b2 .......... \ / '<
6 I
\" , / I
I
I \ I I
:
I ,
4(3)(4) + 32 I
"
'
\
\ I
, 1
,;
6 ..... \ I
.....
= 9.5 in. 2
,
\
,
I
I
I
/
/
.....
twisting force on weld ~ /
..... II /
..... \1 /
1. Horizontal ..... ~/
FIGURE 26
11. WELDS SUBJECT TO COMBINED STRESS From these formulas for the resulting maximum
shear stress and maximum normal stress, the following
Although the ( 1963 ) AISC Specifications are silent is true:
concerning combined stresses on welds, the previous For a given applied normal stress (CT), the great-
specifications (Sec 12 b) required that welds subject est applied shear stress on the throat of a partial-
to shearing and externally applied tensile or compres- penetration groove weld or Hllet weld (and holding
sive forces shall be so proportioned that the combined the maximum shear stress resulting from these com-
unit stress shall not exceed the unit stress allowed bined stresses within the allowable of T = 13,600 psi
for shear. for E60 welds, or T = 15,800 psi for E70 welds) is-
Very rarely does this have to be checked into. For
simply supported girders, the maximum shear occurs for £60 welds or SAW-l
near the ends and in a region of relatively low bending
stress. For built-up tension or compression members,
the axial tensile or compressive stresses may be rela-
1 ""~ 13,600' -
T a; I.. .. .... ... ... (70)
tively high, but theoretically there is no shear to be
transferred. for £70 welds or SAW-2
In the case of continuous girders, it might be well
to check into the effect of combined stress on the
connecting welds in the region of negative moment, 1 T ""~ 15,800' - a; I (7b)
because this region of high shear transfer also has high
bending stresses. This same formula may be expressed in terms of
Even in this case, there is some question as to allowable unit force (Ibs/Iinear inch) for a fillet weld:
how much a superimposed axial stress actually reduces
the shear-carrying capacity of the weld. Unfortunately for £60 welds or SAW-l
there has been no testing of this. In general, it is felt
that the use of the following combined stress analysis
is conservative and any reduction in the shear-carrying
f "" w ~9600' - f 1 (8a)
capacity of the weld would not be as great as would
be indicated by the following formulas. See Figure 28. for £70 welds or SAW-2
In Figure 28:
T = shear stress to be transferred along throat of
f "" w ~ 11,200' - ~ I (Bb)
weld, psi
CT = normal stress applied parallel to axis of weld, For the same given applied normal stress (IT),
psi the greatest applied shear stress (T) on the throat of a
groove weld or fillet weld (and holding the maximum
From the Mohr's circle of stress in Figure 28: normal stress resulting from these combined stresses
within the allowable of CT = .60 CTy ) is-
CTmax
T ~ -1(.60 CTy)2 - (.60 CTy ) CT I (9)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Determining Weld Size / 7.~21
)
/
Groove weld
Built-up tension
chord in truss
Tension flange to
web of plate or
box girder
o
0,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
1.4-22 / Joint Design and Production
16
I
-r-k I
I I E70 welds l- 11.2w
T = J 15,800 2 - 02
4
r- 11w
f- 10.8w
<,
15
r-, f = wJ 11,200 2 - 02
8
10.6w
-,
I- 10Aw
~
) ' - 10.2w
f- lOw
~
/ - 9.8w
-
--- r-,
<, -, - 9.6w c
- 9Aw '5iQ.
I'"I'"
- 9.2w:';;:
\ - 9.0w ~
~
- 8.8w Q;
J
o
-
lA
8Aw a:
T = 13,600 2 -
02
4
---- '\ \ - 8.2w e
- 8.0w:
o
- f = W)9'600 2 - 02
8
1\ r- 7.8w :g
~
\ ~
\ r- 7.6w 2.
-- 7.4w
r- 7.2w
4:
10 f- 7.0w
\ ~
r- 6.8w
f- 6.6w
9
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
--
24 r-
6.4w
6.2w
6.0w
Applied normol stress (oj porollel to weld, ksi
--
FIG. 29 Relationship of Formulas #8 and #9; see Table 11, page 19.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 7.5
1. COST FACTORS of weld metal required. Very few people realize the
great increase in weld metal and cost that results from
There are several methods which may be used to study a slight increase in weld size.
welding cost, and these depend on the need for such The cross-sectional area of a weld generally varies
a study. For example, is it needed to estimate a new as the square of the weld size. For example, making
job for bidding? Or, it is needed to compare one a %6" leg size fillet weld when a W' weld is desired,
procedure against another? Or, is the chief need one increases the leg by 25% but the area is increased by
of determining the amount of electrode to order? 56%. The amount of reinforcement is difficult to specify
A good method of cost estimating should give the and control; yet the range of its variance can substan-
final cost quickly; yet indicate what portion of the tially affect the amount of weld metal required. A slight
operation is more expensive, i.e, where the welding increase in root opening increases the amount of weld
dollar is really being spent. metal for the entire thickness and length of the weld.
The final cost includes at least these items: a) The resulting percentage increase in weld metal is
labor and overhead for plate preparation, assembling, usually surprising.
welding, cleaning, and sometimes stress-relieving; b)
electrode, flux, and gas; and c) electric power. Computing Weld Weight
Table 1 includes a number of useful formulas for
determining various cost components. Designers or associated personnel frequently have to
Unfortunately there is no one all-inclusive formula compute the weight of weld metal required on a
by which all types of welding jobs may be studied. particular job, as a matter of either cost estimating or
The simplest type of cost estimation is a job that re- determining the amount of material to be ordered for
quires a long, single-pass fillet or groove weld. Next a particular job. Sometimes these computations must be
comes the long, multi-pass weld, where a different pro- based on the size and configuration of the joint. The
cedure may be used for each pass. In both examples, normal procedure to follow in such a case is to com-
it is sufficient to assume a reasonable operating factor pute the cross-sectional area of the joint in square
due to the downtime between electrodes consumed inches and then convert this into pounds per linear foot
and to apply this to the actual arc time. This downtime by multiplying by the factor 3.4. To simplify these
is affected by the weldor, as well as the job. A more computations, Table 2 (weight in lbs/linear ft) has
complicated weld may require a handling time factor. been developed; its use is illustrated in Problem 1.
This handling time is affected more by the job, than Tables 3, 4, and 5 provide precalculated weights
by the welding. for specific joints and read directly in lbs per foot
Three items which are difficult to tie down, yet of joint. Table 6 is a similar table for AWS prequalified
greatly affect the cost of a weld, are these: joints. Tables for the direct reading of weld metal for
1. The amount of filler weld metal required; this partial-penetration groove or fillet welds are included
varies with size of weld, size of root opening or fit up, in Section 3.6, "Fabrication of Built-Up Columns."
amount of reinforcement, included angle of groove, etc. For estimating the weight of manual electrode
2. The operating factor used, i.e. the ratio of actual required, roughly add another 50% to this amount of
arc time to the over-all 'welding time. weld metal.
3. The amount of handling and cleaning time. In order to arrive at the labor cost per foot of
This section includes various tables and nomo- joint, it is necessary to know the speed at which the
graphs which are helpful in making true cost estimates. joint can be welded. This may be found in prepared
No estimating system, however, is satisfactory without data on standard welding procedures, both for manual
the estimator applying his good judgment and per- welding as well as the submerged-arc process. For
ception. special joints for which no information is available, the
deposition rate (Ibs/hr ) may be determined from
2. COST OF WELD METAL tables and charts for given welding currents. The joint
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The cost of welding is directly affected by the amount
speed is then found by dividing this deposition rate
by the amount of weld metal required (Ibs/Iinear ft.).
7.5-1
7.5-2 / Joint Design and Production
ft 5 l!!,- min 60 12
hr = rn m ~ = ft/hr = in/min + 1
Sa
JOINT SPEED ROD MELTED PER FOOT ROD MELTED PER HOUR
ft 60 D lb rod melted 1200 M lb rod melted 6000 M (OF)
hr = -J- ft weld N L",S hr
.z;
N i.,
ROD MILEAGE ROD CONSUMED PER FOOT ROD CONSUMED PER HOUR
APPROXIMATE MELT
OFF RATE E(arc volts) I(welding current) lb rod melted
1000 hr
APPROXIMA TE COST OF
SUBMERGED ARC _.L .0065 I (F+W) + 20 L
AUTOMATIC WELD - ft S
WELD COST
per foot of each pass per lb of deposit
L _ 20 L L_ 5 L
LABOR OVERHEAD
ft - S (OF) lb - 3 D (OF)
--
L= 1200M W L=W
MANUAL ELECTRODE
ft N LmS lb E2
AUTOMATIC
L= 12 m (W+l~ _ .I,<W+RF) L _ W+RF
WIRE & FLUX ft S - E2 lb - E2
GAS L _ 20 G L-~
ft - -S- lb - 3 D
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
TABLE 2-Weight of Weld Metal
(Pounds Per Foot of Joint)
Based on Joint Design
W1
COlY(")l cuacaye
~1! ~~l~l
..!. leg size
"r" VI iDcreased 10'f,
Dimension 'It"~ Dimension 'I'" Dimension Included Angle Values below are for leg size
10% ovenize. comident with
1/lb" 1/8" 3/lb" 1/4" 3/8" 1/2" I /lb" 1/8" 3/16" 1/4" 14· 20· bO' 45· 70·
(1/2 of '10" nannal shop practices.
I/lb" . 021
1/8" , 017 ,053 .080 . lOb .159 .212 .083 .00b5 .0094 .031 .021 .037 .032 .039 .031
3/1 b" · 040 · 080 .119 • 159 .239 • 318 .027 . 188 . 0 141 .OZI .Ob9 .0bO .084 o 07Z .081 .083
1/4" · 053 • lOb .159 .212 · ]18 .4Z5 .035 .ll4 .026 .031 . III .10b .149 . '29 .155 .147
5/1b" .066 · 133 · 199 .2b5 · ]90 .531 .044 .531 .041 .059 .19Z .Ibb .H2 .lOI .24Z .230
3/8" .080 .159 .2]9 .H8 .478 • b37 • OS] · lOb 0150 .059 .084 .27b .H9 .334 .289 .349 .Hl
7/1b" · 091 · 186 .279 .nl .557 .74] .Ob2 .124 .18b I.OZ .080 .115 .37b .32b .456 .394 .415 .451
1/2" · res .212 .318 .425 • b37 .849 .071 .14l .z rz 1.33 .104 • ISO .491 .425 .595 .514 • b20 .589
9/1b" · 119 .ll9 · ]58 .418 .7Ib .955 .080 .159 .ll9 .. 132 .190 . b21 .538 .753 . b51 .785 .145
5/8" .133 .2b5 .398 .531 .796 1.0b .089 .171 .2bb .lbJ .234 .7bb • bi>4 .930 .804 .970 .920
lI/1b" • 14b .292 .438 .584 .876 1.11 .097 .195 .292 .389 .197 .283 .9l7 .804 1.13
3/4" .159 .318 .478 .637 .955 I.Z1 · ill .212 .318 .424 .234 .337 1.11 .956 1.34 1.16 1.40 1. 3Z
l3/1b" · I1l .345 .517 .690 1.04 I. ]8 .114 · Z30 .345 .460 .l75 .396 1.30 1.1l 1.51
.."'
7/8" .18b .371 .557 .743 1.11 1.49 .ll4 .248 .37Z .490 .319 .459 1. SO I. 30 1.8l I. 58 I. 90 I. 80
15/16" .199 .398 .597 ,79b 1.19 1.59 .133 .26b .398 .530 .3b7 .5l7 1.73 I. 50 Z.07
1" .212 .425 .627 .849 1.25 1.10 .14l .282 .418 .5bb .417 .599 1.9b I. 70 2.38 2.0b 2.48 2.n III
I·I/lb'; .ll6 .451 · b77 .902 1.35 1.80 .150 .301 .451 • b02 .411 • 67b z.zz 1.9l 2. b8
~o
1-1/8"
1-3/1b"
1.'/4"
1·5/lb"
1 -3/8"
.239
· Z5Z
.2b5
.279
,29l
.478
.504
.531
· 557
.584
.71b
.75b
.79b
• 83b
.87b
.955
I. 01
I. os
I. II
1.11
1.43
1.51
I. 59
I. b7
1.75
1.91
2.02
l.ll
2.23
l.34
.159
.168
.177
.18b
.195
.318
.33b
.354
.372
: 389
.477
.505
.531
.557
.584
.b37
.erz
.70b
.743
.777
.528
.588
• b51
.718
.789
.758
.845
.93b
1. 03
1.13
Z.48
2.77
3.07
3.38
3.71
l.15
2.40
2. b6
2.93
3.l1
3.02
3.36
3. rz
4.10
4.50
2.60
3. Z 1
3.89
3.14
3.88
4. b9
2.98
J.
4.45
es ..
a
So
Ia
1 .t t u» · 305 · blO .915 1. Zl 1.83 2.44 · Z03 .407 · blO .814 .836 I. Z4 4.0'S 3. 'SI 4.91
~
1 -1/2" .ll8 · b37 .955 I. l7 I. 91 Z. 'S'S .z iz .425 • b3b .849 .938 1.3'S 4.4l 3.82 5.3b 4 ...bZ 5.58 5.30
1 -9/1 b" · 33Z · bb4 .995 I.H I. 99 2. b5 .zz : .442 • bb4 .884 I. 02 1. 4b 4.79 4.1'S 5.81
1-5/8" .345 · b90 l. 04 1. 38 Z.01 2.76 .l30 .4bO .690 .920 1.10 I. 58 5.18 4.49 b.29 5.43 b.55 b.ll
I -1l/1b" · 358 · 716 I. 07 I. 43 Z.15 Z.81 .239 .471 .716 .95b I. 19 I. 71 5.59 4.84 b.80 ii:
1-3/4" .HI .143 I. 11 1. 49 Z. Z3 Z.91 · Z49 .495 .143 .990 I. Z8 1.84 b.OI 5. ZO 7.29 b.29 7.59 1.l1 So
1 -13/16" .385 .7b9 I. 15 1.54 2.31 3.08 · Z51 · 'S13 .110 1.03 I.H 1.97 6.45 5.58 7.81 Ia
1-7/8" .390 .79b 1. 19 1. 59 2.39 3.18 .2b6 .531 .796 1.0b l. 41 Z.IO b.90 5.91 8.3b 1, Z3 8.1.l 8.l8
n
1-15/1b"
2"
· 411
.4Z5
· 8ll
.849
l.l3
1. Z7
1.65
1. 10
l.47
2.55
3.29
3.40
· Z14
.l83
.549
.5bb
.8Z3
.849
1.10
1.13
1. 5b
1.61
z, Z5
Z.40
1.36
1.85
b.38
b.80
8.94
9.5l 8. Z3 9.93 9.43
..lit
<,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
.....
v.
L,
7.5-4 / Joint Design and Production
~ P ~ P
.,
c
30'
t,," ,
/:' = ".. W'
-"
~
~
U
'I." I
+ '''''
~v."
r\'~
V l+ J()"
1 t 'I." I
+ '""
+ J()"
+ ""
I
.s
CL
IOJl"d gauging required
5/8 .456 .364 .544 .452 2.53 1.96 1.33 1.11 .427
3/4 .811 .649 .735 .626 3.02 2.40 1.71 1.43 .616
7/8 1.26 1.01 1.01 .830 3.54 2.86 2.14 1.79 .901
1 1.82 1.46 1.33 1.06 4.07 3.3-4 2.61 2.19 1.09
1 1/8 2.48 1.99 1.62 1.30 4.63 3.84 3.13 2.64 1.39
1 1/4 3.24 2.60 1.93 1.56 5.19 4.35 3.70 3.12 1.71
1 3/8 4.11 3.28 2.26 1.83 5.80 4.89 4.30 3.63 2.07
1 1/2 5.07 4.06 2.62 2.13 6.41 5.45 4.96 4.19 2.46
15/8 6.14 4.91 3.01 2.45 7.06 6.02 5.66 4.78 2.89
1 3/4 7.30 5.84 3.41 2.79 7.72 6.62 6.40 5.41 3.35
2 9.94 7.94 4.29 3.52 9.11 7.85 8.03 6.79 4.38
21/8 11.4 9.12 4.75 3.91 9.85 8.51 8.91 7.54 4.94
21/4 13.0 10.4 5.25 4.32 10.6 9.18 9.83 8.32 5.54
23/8 14.7 11.7 5.77 4.75 11.4 9.87 10.8 9.14 6.18
21/2 16.4 13.1 6.31 5.20 12.2 10.6 11.8 10.0 6.85
25/8 18.3 14.7 6.88 5.67 13.0 11.4 12.9 10.9 7.55
23/4 20.3 16.2 7.46 6.16 13.8 12.1 14.0 11.8 8.28
3 24.6 19.6 8.71 7.20 15.5 13.6 16.3 13.8 9.85
~
5/8 .854 .501 1.45 1.39 1.52 1.09 1.15
3/4 1.15 .805 1.95 1.79 1.89 1.45 1.49
7/8 1.48 1.18 2.50 2.22 2.29 1.99 1.85
1 1.86 1.63 3.13 2.70 2.72 2.30 2.23
1 1/8 2.28 2.14 3.83 3.22 3.17 2.79 2.63
1 1/4 2.74 2.73 4.59 3.76 3.55 3.31 3.06
13/8 3.24 3.39 5.42 4.26 4.15 3.88 3.52
1 1/2 3.78 4.12 6.31 4.99 4.67 4.49 3.99
15/8 4.36 4.92 7.28 5.56 5.22 5.14 4.49
13/4 4.99 5.80 8.32 6.36 5.80 5.83 5.02
2 6.35 7.76 10.6 7.90 7.02 7.33 6.14
21/8 7.10 8.85 11.8 8.73 7.67 8.05 6.74
21/4 7.88 9.99 12.1 9.58 8.33 9.00 7.35
23/8 8.73 11.3 14.5 10.5 9.04 9.91 8.00
21/2 9.60 12.5 15.9 11.4 9.66 10.9 8.66
25/8 10.5 13.9 17.5 12.4 10.5 11.8 9.35
23/4
3
11 .5
13.5 @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
15.3
18.4
I
19.0
22.4
13.4
15.6
11.3
12.9
12.8
15.0
10.1
11.6
Eltimating Welding COlt / 7.5-5
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7.5-6 / Joint Design and Production
400 .5 ..,.---.4
.05 .04
.04- .03
.03
.02
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation .02
Estimating Welding Cost / 7.5-7
FIGURE 3
I Problem 2 I
There are no established procedures for this joint.
* * * *
3. OPERATING FACTOR
countered in obtaining this value, it is necessary to
The selection of a proper operating factor (OF) is establish an approximately true value rather than to
difficult, and yet affects the final cost more than any simply ignore it or assume it to be 100%. Consider
other single item. Even though some difficulty is en- the following:
METHOD A METHOD B
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Since one might question the practice of assum-
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ing the same operating factor for various electrodes
and procedures, consider the following example.
present E-6012 electrode on a certain job with the iron
powder E-6024 electrode. The following is his cost
study:
Estimating Welding Cost / 7.5-9
~'is" leg fillet. 30# rod/ft '¥Is" leg fillet. 30# rod/ft
But this analysis reveals the following: The arc It might appear at first that simply substituting
time for the E-6012 electrode per rod is 2.06 minutes; the E-6024 electrode into the holder would decrease
using a 50% operating factor, this represents a down- the downtime; i.e, the operator can lift up his helmet
time of 2.06 minutes per rod. This downtime between faster, knock off the slag faster, pick up and insert
electrodes includes time to lift up the helmet, clean the next electrode faster, etc. Of course this is not true.
the slag off the weld, insert a new electrode into the A more accurate method would be to use a fixed
holder, etc. On the same basis the arc time for the downtime, adjusting the operating factor accordingly.
E-6024 electrode would be 1.57 minutes per rod; and Re-examine this cost study, using an average downtime
using the same operating factor of 50%, this means a between electrodes of 2.06 minutes:
downtime of only 1.57 minutes per rod.
20L _ ~ _ 20 L _ (20)(6) _
S (OF) - (9)(50%) - 26. 7 ~/ft S (OF) - (13)(43.5%) - 21. 2~/ft
Total 26.7 + 4.9 = 31. 6 ~/ft Total 21.2 + 5.1 = 26. 3 ~/ft
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or a total saving in labor and rod cost of 16. 8% by using
the E-6024 electrode.
7.5-10 / Joint Design and Production
Notice that the decreased arc time with the E-6024 study of the job, which we are trying to avoid.
results in a slightly lower operating factor, 43.5% in- The nomograph, Figure 6, may be used to quickly
stead of 500/0, although the joint does cost less. read the labor and overhead cost per foot of weld.
One might further suggest using a downtime per 4. COST PER HOUR
electrode and a handling time per foot of weld. These
figures, if available, would give a more true picture As a matter of interest, consider the cost per hour for
of the welding cost, but it would mean making a time these two procedures:
It can be expected then that the cost per hour for the total lengths of each type and size of weld on the
making the same size weld will increase slightly with job.
faster procedures. Obviously the increase equals the 3. Time the actual weld or job.
difference in cost of electrode consumed. Of course Most welding procedures are based on good weld-
the number of units turned out per hour is greater, ing conditions. These assume a weldable steel, clean
so the unit cost is less. smooth edge preparation, proper fit-up, proper position
of plates for welding, sufficient accessibility so the
5. ES1"IMATING ACTUAL WELDING TIME welding operator can easily observe the weld and place
the electrode in the proper position, and welds suffi-
After the length and size of the various welds have ciently long so the length of crater is not a factor in
been determined, there are three ways to estimate the determining weld strength. Under these standard con-
actual welding time: ditions, the weld should have acceptable appearance.
1. Convert these values into weight of weld metal Failure to provide these conditions requires a sub-
per linear foot, and total for the entire job. Determine stantial reduction in welding current and Immediately
the deposition rate from the given welding current, increases cost.
and from this find the arc time. This method is espe- It is impossible to put a qualitative value on these
cially useful when there is no standard welding data factors, therefore the designer or engineer must learn
for the particular joint. to anticipate such problems and, by observation or con-
2. If standard welding data is available in tables, sulting with shop personnel or other engineers who have
giving the arc travel speeds for various types and sizes actual welding experience, modify his estimate accord-
of welds, in terms of inches per minute, apply this to ingly.
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FIG. 6-Welding Cost Estimator
(Does Not Include Cost of Filler Metal)
@
Cost per foot
of weld ®
(j)
Labor and • JJo~
8~
Speed of
overhead
7e
6 29
joint
5~
..t/hr. In. ft.
-I/~
® 4~
min, Ihr.
1'0 Operai.inq
3U
2 ---+-,0
Z!!!
factor
-+/0"/0 '!/29
90
'2 2E 8U
70
60
4 -+-20
zox 50
"3 AO
#"4!!2·
I
------
40,.._-----
30'.
S6%
60,"0
70 %
---------- 40
30
-..-
0
~t30
--- - - ---
8 40
"'5~ BO%
90~
SO
'G'!E
.{oo'ljo
~
10¢ /0
/2 60 ..
m
'"
§.
~7~
18
00
Problrzm: Find cost of ~M fil/~t weld
7
~
5
4-
/4
lfi>
70
80
..
a
:i"
'9- (j)Laborandovezrh(lod iJSoOfXZrhour
s 11:1
:---
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation ......
&II
I
.....
ill
...
W
I
.........
c
II
~.
:::I
_ _ _ _ _. +- _ _ .. ..
!.
..> .. -
•
CD.. ..
a
"
.!li " ".! ~ "
.!-g~ " ".! ~ ">-~,,
.! ';;;! .! ~ "
~-gg " ".!-g0.!
" ",X ';;;!l:O . t ".! ~ "
.!-g~" :::I
a.
"e==_CD-E
0 "e·~ "e=_CD-E
D "e ~
==.- "e ~ XCI
==- ..! "e ~ "e 0 -e "e -E
0 "e ~ ..! "e ~
:=.-
"e= ...
D-E
."
Pit
ae
Thickness I cD>
:::J ii: 0
c=o
:':'-
:::J <l( ...
co>
:::J ii: 0
c=o
:::J <l( ...
co
:::J a
.::'-
DC
~ in
c=S
:::J <l( ...
::_lD
cD>
:::J ii: 0
=_CD.::=-)(OJ
co>
:::J ii: 0
co
:::J a
OC
~ in
c=o
:::J <l( ...
cD>
:::J ii: 0 3a.
30· 45° 20· 45° 60· 45° 30· ZOO 45" 45~ 30° .
n
c
cr
:::I
I I
3/4 0 .90 1.40
I 1.27
I 1.35 I 1.70 I 1.60 I 1.60 I 1.80 I 1.52 1.87 1.65
I" 1.78 2.32 I 1.96 I 2.23 I 2.83 I 2.57 I 2.41 I 2.50 I 2.47 I 2.97 I 2.51
11k ' 2.40 3.65 I 2.60 I 3.32 I 4.27 I 3.67 I 3.35 I 3.30 I 3.70 I 4.35 I 3.45
1112" I 3.54 I 4.99 I 3.37 I 4.60 I 5.98 I 5.03 I 4.35 I 4.18 I 5.17 I 5.93 I 4.55
2 1/4" 7.20 10.80 I 6.23 I 9.35 I 12.90 I 10.23 I 8.15 I 7.32 I 11.10 I 12.20 I 8.60
2 112" I 8.74 I 13.27 I 7.34 I 11. 71 I 15.81 I 12.37 I 9.67 I 8.50 I 13.57 I 14.79 I 10.22
* All Positions
A.W.S. Highway and R.R. Bridge 1956-Prequalified Joints 9-5-57
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 7.6
1. LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF Vessels, Section 8. Here the same allowable is used
CONNECTION from minus 20°F all the way up to 650°F. The ASME
code body recognizes the fact that the strength of steel
In the modification or repair of buildings, it may be rises slightly upon heating and does not start to drop
necessary to weld to the existing steel framework. off until a temperature of 600°F or 700°F is reached.
When welding and riveting are combined on the In welding to an existing structure, the amount of
same strength joint, the riveted portion of the joint material actually heated momentarily above 700° would
may slip or yield slightly, thus throwing the entire be a very small spot right at the welding arc. Figure
load eventually on the weld. Normally, on new con- 1 shows the temperature rise in a plate while making
struction where welding and riveting are combined, the a 'VI 6" fillet weld in the vertical-up position. This in-
joint would be figured on the basis of the weld taking dicates that in using a ~)6" E6010 electrode, the
the entire load. Since 1930, most of the old riveted temperature on the back side of the %" thick plate
railroad trestles have been reinforced by welding be- opposite the weld was held below 600°F. Figure 2
cause of the newer and heavier locomotives. shows the same weld using a %2" E6010 electrode.
Riveted connections can be reinforced with plates, Here the temperature on the back side of the l/2" thick
with holes to fit over the rivets. The plate is welded plate was held below 650°F. Also see Figure 3.
to the existing connection with fillet welds all around its The very tiny area of the member heated above
edge, and is plug welded to the plate at each rivet hole. this temperature does not represent a sizable percent-
This technique, however, requires a considerable age of the entire cross-section of the stress carrying
amount of out-of-position welding with small electrodes. member. This has been the opinion of many fabricators
and erectors who have been welding on existing struc-
2. EFFECT OF WELDING HEAT ON tures for several years.
MEMBER'S STRENGTH All welds will, however, shrink. This creates a
shrinkage force which, if welds are not placed sym-
Frequently, a question arises as to the effect of welding metrically about the member, will result in some dis-
on the strength of an existing structure already under tortion of that member. This could occur in welding
a stress. Actually the strength of steel does not drop off to an existing member if most of the welding is done
upon heating, until a temperature of about 650°F is on one side. For example, if all of the welding is done
reached, This is brought out in the table of allowable on the bottom flange of a beam, the unsymmetrical
strengths of materials in the ASME Unfired Pressure welding will tend to distort the beam upward in the
~.
1-------34 - - - - -1 1 - - - - - 3 ' ' - . '-------t
FIGURE 1 @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation FIGURE 2
7.6-1
7.6-2 / Joint Design and Production
Approximate distance of 650'f isotherm from weld parts or for strengthening, it is desirable to relieve the
z0 I I I member of dead load stresses, or to pre-stress the
l:J Welding procedora _ material to be added. If neither is practical, the new
/60 amperes 25 volts material to be added shall be proportioned for a unit
I.B
stress equal to the allowable unit stress in the original
1.7
,~
member minus the dead load unit stress in the original
~ I~ -
member.
\:J
~ 1.5 -
'S
.~ 1/1-
\ - I Problem 1
~
I
c:
.!2
1.3
2\ \
\
50~
f
(@\ I'C"!'-'
a(c
spaad
-
-
To reinforce an existing member to withstand an addi-
tional live load of 20,000 lbs, The existing section has a
~ I.
\ (0 rrfl
isott't a 1--(.... - cross-sectional area of 10.0 in.", with an allowable work-
~
I \ \ ing stress of (T =
18,000 psi. The original design loads-
'
1.0 -
~~
~ dead (DL), live (LL), and impact (I )-gave the fol-
I:l
....
.9
r\\ \
\ \ lowing:
~ .8
-,
.... .7
~\\ \ DL force
LL + I force
100,000 Ibs -i- 10.0 in." =
80,000 Ibs -:- 10.0 in" =
10,000 psi
8,000 psi
o
~
\\\ ~.~ 'iT- DL + LL + I force 180,000 Ibs 18,000 psi
~ ~ r--.... .
.6
.., .5 \\:
ond 18,000 psi ;2; 18,000 psi OK
.s
~ .4
.3
"~~- .....
~
~/n
.. The member must now be increased in section for
an additional 20,000 lbs of live load (LL):
.2
Allowable stress in original member = 18,000 psi
Dead load stress in original member = 10,000 psi
.1
To be used in new steel to be added 8,000 psi
e .,
t.: I" , ..
"/,t. f fVzf'1/. 1!Y4 20,000 Ibs
plata thickness (t) inches = 2.5 in" = orea of new steel to be added
8,000 Ibs
FIG. 3 A guide to establishing proper welding
procedures for minimum heat input.
Check this as follows:
In making alterations to structures, existing rivets it involves vertical and overhead positions or painted
may be utilized for carrying stresses resulting from or dirty material. Material should be cleaned as thor-
dead loads and welding shall be provided to carry all oughly as possible before welding. If the material is
additional stress. However, if the framing is shored unusually thick, a low-hydrogen electrode should be
during repairs and the member to be reinforced is used, and it would be well to check for any preheat
thus relieved of stress, the welding shall carry the which might be recommended. See the following topic,
entire stress. Temperature for Welding.
When making a repair on a structure it is necessary
AISC Requirements to know the type of steel it is made of. It may be
AISC Sec 1.15.10: Rivets and Bolts in Combination possible to get a mill report from the steel mill which
with Welds. In new work, rivets, bolts or high strength furnished the steel. Sometimes on very old structures
bolts used in bearing type connections shall not be this information cannot be obtained. If this is an im-
considered as sharing the stress in combination with portant structure, it would be a good idea to get test
welds. Welds, if used, shall be provided to carry the drillings and have them analyzed.
entire stress in the connection. High strength bolts An experienced weldor will sometimes weld a
installed in accordance with the provisions of Sec 1.16.1 small piece of mild steel to the structure and then
as friction-type connections prior to welding may be knock it off with a hammer. If the weld cracks out of
considered as sharing the stress with the welds. In the base metal, taking some of it with the weld, this
making welded alterations to structures, existing rivets indicates that the steel is hardenable and the heat-
and properly tightened high strength bolts may be affected zone adjacent to the weld has been hardened.
utilized for carrying stresses resulting from existing If the weld itself cracks, this indicates higher carbon
dead loads, and the welding need be adequate only or alloy in the steel which has been picked up in the
to carryall additional stress. molten weld and become hard during cooling. In both
cases, preheating and low hydrogen electrodes should
AASHO Requirements be used. If the mild steel bar bends down without the
weld breaking, this indicates good weldable ductile
AASHO 1.12.7: The unit working stresses used in steel.
determining the load-carrying capacity of each member
of a structure shall take into account the type of
material from which the member is made. The unit
working stress assumed for the inventory rating shall
not exceed 0.545% of the yield point and for the
operating rating shall not exceed 0.82 of the yield
point.
Where information concerning the specification
under which the metal was supplied is not available,
it will be assumed that the yield point does not exceed
30,000 psi for all bridges built a.ter 1905.
Bridges built previous to 1905 shall be checked to
see that the material is not of a fibrous nature. If it is
fibrous or of doubtful character, the yield point will be
assumed to be equal to that of wrought iron which
shall be taken as 26,000 psi.
In the absence of definite information, it shall be
assumed that the yield point of wrought iron is 26,000
psi, and the unit working stress shall be taken as 14,000
psi.
4. GENERAL
All structural work for a major addition to the
Proposed repairs and methods should be considered Jordan-Marsh Department Store in Boston was
and approved by a qualified engineer. Welding on a completed without interruption of business. The
job of this type should be of the best quality and concrete wall was penetrated and new steel
adequately inspected. An E60l0 type of electrode welded successfully to vintage steel under load
would normally be recommended for this welding, if -without removal of the load.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
7.6-4 I Joint Design and Production
There is little chance that the structure to be re- metal which is wet, exposed to ice, snow, or rain, nor
paired is made of wrought iron, which was used in when the weldors are exposed to inclement conditions,
structures prior to 1900. Wrought iron contains slag including high wind, unless the work and the weldors
rolled into it as tiny slag inclusions or laminations, and are properly protected.
is low in carbon. The slag pockets might bother the In general, the AISC and AWS specifications on
welding operator a little, but this should be no real minimum temperature for welding are a good guide
problem. Some engineers recommend that extra effort to follow. See Table 1. The following thoughts might
be made to fuse or penetrate well into the wrought iron supplement them in producing better welds at these
surface, especially if the attached member is going to cold temperatures.
pull at right angles to the wrought iron member; other- Welding on plates at cold temperatures results in
wise, they reason, the surface might pull out because of a very fast rate of cooling for the weld metal and ad-
the laminations directly below the surface. jacent base metals. With thicker sections of mild steel,
It is also possible for the sulphur content of A7, A373, and A36, this exceptionally fast rate of cool-
wrought iron to be excessive, and it should be checked. ing traps hydrogen in the weld metal. This reduces
Keep in mind that any chemical analysis for sulphur ductility and impact strength of the weld and may
represents the average value in the drillings of steel cause cracking, especially of the root bead or first
taken for analysis. It is possible in wrought iron to pass. This type of weld cracking has been shown to
have the sulphur segregated into small areas of high occur almost entirely in the temperature range below
concentrations. The low-hydrogen electrodes (EXX15, 400°F.
EXX16 and EXX18) should be used where sulphur With a preheat or interpass temperature of 200°F,
might be a problem. this cracking does not occur, even with the organic
The AISC published in 1953 a complete listing of type of mild steel electrodes. This is because the
steel and wrought iron beams and columns that were higher temperature results in a slower cooling rate, and
rolled between 1873 and 1952 in the United States. more time for this entrapped hydrogen to escape.
Low-hydrogen electrodes greatly reduce the source
5. TEMPERATURE FOR WELDING of hydrogen and, therefore, the cracking problem. This
weld metal has greater impact strength and a lower
The AWS Building and Bridge codes require that transition temperature. In general, the use of low-
welding shall not be done when the ambient tempera- hydrogen electrodes will lower any preheat requirement
ture is lower than OaF. When the base metal temp- by approximately 300° F.
erature is below 32°F, preheat the base metal to at The fastest cooling rate occurs with so-called "arc
least 70°F, and maintain this temperature during strikes", when at the start of a weld the electrode is
welding. scratched along the surface of the plate without any
Under both codes, no welding is to be done on metal being deposited. This can be damaging and
Welding Process
Thickneu of Shielded Metal-Arc Welding with
Thickest Part at Low-Hydrogen Electrodes
Point of Welding, Shielded Metal-Arc Welding with or
in inches Other than Low-Hydrogen Electrodes Submerged Arc Welding
ASTM A36 3, A7 3••, A373 8 ASTM A36", A7··", A373", A441"
To %, Incl. None' None'
Over % to III?" Incl. ISO°F 70°F
Over I ~ to 2.1f2, Incl. 22SoF IS0°F
Over 212 300°F 22SoF
1 Welding sholl not be done when the ambient temperature is lower than 0° F.
• When the bose metal is below the temperature listed for the welding process being used and the
thickness of material being welded, it sholl be preheoted for all welding (including tack welding) in
such manner that the surfaces of the ports on which weld metal is being deposited are at or above the
specified minimum temperature for a distance equal to the thickness of the port being welded, but not
less than 3 in., both laterally and in advance of the welding.
Preheat temperature sholl not exceed 400°F. (Interpass temperature is not subject to a maximum limit.)
3 Using E60XX or E70XX electrodes other than the low-hydrogen types.
@Seismicisolation
• See limitations on use of ASTM A7 steel in Par. 10S(b).
@Seismicisolation
" Using low-hydrogen electrodes (E701S, E70!6, E7018, E7028) or Grode SAW-! or SAW-2.
• Using only low-hydrogen electrodes (E701S, E7016, E7018, E7028) or Grode SAW-2.
, When the bose metal temperature is below 32°F, preheot the bose metal to at least 70°F.
Welding on Existing Structures / 7.6-5
A weld 9" long made at a temperature of 70°F Weld side (1) complete. So far this should be
has about the same cooling rate as the same weld 3" rather unrestrained. A few tack welds on the opposite
long at a preheat of 300°F. Welds of larger cross- side might crack; if so, they should be realigned and
section have greater heat input per inch of weld. High rewelded. Weld side (2) complete. It might be argued
welding current and slow travel speeds slow down the that this is free to shrink because the opposite side (3)
rate of cooling and decrease the cracking problem. is unwelded. However there is some restraint offered
Perhaps the greatest difficulty in cold temperature by the weld along side (1). Now side (3) directly
welding is the discomfort of the welding operator. It opposite side (2) is welded; this will start to lock-up
becomes more awkward to move around the weld be- now. Then weld side (4) opposite side (1). If either
cause of the extra clothing required. The welding lens weld (3) or (4) should crack, it should be gouged out
continually becomes frosted or fogged from the breath to sound metal and rewelded. Finally, the four comers
of the operator. The helmet must be removed and the ( 5) are completed.
lens wiped. Another suggestion is to estimated the amount of
transverse shrinkage and to open up the joint initially
6. WELDING OF INSERT PLATES by this amount, by driving in several hardened steel
drift pins. The joint is then welded, full throat, up to
For thick plates, a double V or U joint would reduce these pins. The pins are then removed, and the joint
the amount of weld metal and therefore transverse completed.
shrinkage. The balanced weld would preclude any
angular distortion.
t
mine transverse shrinkage:
. weld area
transverse sh rmkage (a) = 10% t h'IC kness
= 10% average width of weld
(b) Double Vee
area of weld
FIGURE 5
( %6") (.62") = .1162
The use of round comers will tend to reduce any lh (.62") ( .30" ) .0930
notch effect at the comers of the welded insert. lh (.90")(.30") .1350
Sometimes the plate to be inserted is pre-dished, 2f.J (1.0")( .10") .0667
providing a little excess material in the plate to offset 04109 in. 2
the transverse shrinkage. However, longitudinal shrink-
age stresses will build up around the periphery of the (All )
plate, because the edge welded lies in a Hat plane and .10 ('fl ~ %")
ll
In production of large plate girders, flange is commonly tack welded to the web. Then, with the
girder web held at a 45 0 angle, the web-to-f1ange weld can be efficiently made using a self-
propelled submerged-arc welding unit. This 1/2" fillet is here being made in two passes. Flange is
4" thick, web %". Improvements in equipment and technique are currently permitting many Y2"
fillets to be made in a single pass.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 7.7
Control of
Shrinkage and Distortion
1. WELDING FACTORS THAT CAUSE ment of material from a straightforward analysis of
MOVEMENT heat is difficult.
Restraint from external clamping, internal restraint
In making a weld, the heating and cooling cycle always due to mass, and the stillness of the steel plate itself
causes shrinkage in both base metal and weld metal, also must be considered. All these factors have a defi-
and shrinkage forces tend to cause a degree of distor- nite influence on the degree of movement.
tion. Designers and engineers must anticipate and Finally it is necessary to consider the factor of
provide control of this shrinkage to achieve the full time as it affects the rapidly changing conditions. The
economies of arc-welded steel construction. Suggested period of time during which a specific condition is
solutions for correction or elimination are based on in effect controls the importance of that condition.
both theoretical analysis and the practical experience These variable conditions are further influenced
of fabricating shops. by the welding process itself. Different welding pro-
cedures, type and size of electrode, welding current,
',. speed of travel, joint design, preheating and cooling
.
I
,,(~V
) inlin....... ------ rates-all these bear significantly on the problem.
It is obvious that distortion cannot be analyzed
~~
/0"
~ &~
to
/0"
~&tY JS.....
~
/
7
.~,
/O"f-----
'''''-.,.0;
/ ~~ 0 25
Ill'
fIt>O
I ~q",~"'t:',;.
- I
~
,/
/'
~..o ~c-:
000 10 Angular di5tortion of fillet MZld
o...?~ . I Longdudma.1 shnnkag~ of w~/d
DOO
lIDO
~; ~ J---: '
\)........ --+-19<
~L-
"<, /D' transverse .shrmka9~ of f'tIIZlrf A"9ufar distortion of butt wclcl
<,
1$'lID
14 ", I"-
lID/)
7.7-1
7.7-2 / Joint Design and Production
by viewing each one of these factors separately. A been criticized for making undersize welds, makes
solution based on correcting the combined effect is real sure that these welds are still larger. The result-
the only practicable approach. a %" fillet has become a 1J2" weld. These men usually
do not realize that weld metal increases as the square
2. EVIDENCES AND CAUSE OF DISTORTION of the leg size. The apparently harmless %" increase
in the leg size has increased the amount of weld metal
When distortion occurs, it appears as a shortening of deposited, the weld shrinkage and the weld cost by
the weld area. This generally can be cataloged as 4 times.
longitudinal shrinkage and transverse shrinkage, Figure
2. Further, if transverse shrinkage is not uniform 4. CONTROL OF WELD SHRINKAGE
throughout the thickness of the weld, angular distortion
will result. When longitudinal shrinkage acts in a direc- One technique used to control weld shrinkage involyes
tion that is not along the neutral axis of the member, prebending the member or presetting the joint before
the result is bowing or cambering (also shown in welding. In this way the net effect of weld shrinkage
Fig. 2). pulls the member or connection back into proper align-
Distortion results when a condition of non-uniform ment (Fig. 4).
expansion and contraction is created. Distortion can Whenever possible, welding should be balanced
be anticipated by evaluating the following factors: around the neutral axis of the member. This makes the
1. The weld along with some adjacent metal con- moment arm, d, equal to zero. Even though a shrink-
tracts on cooling, producing a shrinkage force, F. age force, F, does exist, the shrinkage moment (d X F)
2. The shrinkage force acts about the neutral axis becomes zero (Fig. 5).
of a member. The distance between the center of Frequently the neutral axis of the member is below
gravity of the weld area and this neutral axis represents
the moment arm, d. btlfonz welding aft.r wlllding
3. The moment of inertia of the section, I, resists
this contraction. The I of a section also resists straight-
ening, should it be necessary.
110tunp25 ,.It J
z~
"Imin.
..
thicl< pJt1tA.~
~ r;: :)0)0~1!2~1:»
matic welding process, the deep penetration character-
istic of this process further lowers the center of gravity
of the weld deposit and reduces the moment arm, '::::-.. I" 2" .r ... ~. Ii" __ 8'
(e) "'__ _ __ -
thereby reducing the shrinkage moment.
~oo: :g:~ ~~. :~::Z ;:::cc zss»: ("fM 4iz6 w«lrI)
Manua.J wetd
SUbmrzrgrzd-Arc
A,-doma.tic weld
The effect of welding current and arc speed on
adjacent base metal is illustrated in Figure 7. Approxi-
FIG. 6 Deep-penetration welding processes mately the same weld size was produced with proce-
and procedures ploces the weld closer to the dures (a) and (c). The important difference lies in
neutral axis, reducing moment arm and net the fact that the higher-speed welding technique pro-
effect of shrinkage forces.
duced a slightly narrower isotherm, measuring outward
from the edge of the molten pool. The width of this
Adjacent Base Metal isotherm of 300°F can be used to indicate the amount
Shrinkage of weld metal alone is not sufficient to of adjacent metal shrinkage along with the weld, and
account for the amount of shrinkage sometimes actu- therefore distortion; this helps to explain why in general
ally encountered. The heat of welding causes the metal faster welding speeds result in less distortion. This
just adjacent to the weld deposit to expand. However, slight difference is also evident in a comparison of the
this metal is restrained by the relatively cooler sections quantity of welding heat applied to the plate.
of the remainder of the plate. Almost all the volume
expansion must take place in thickness. On cooling, For (a),
this heated section undergoes volume contraction,
building up shrinkage stresses in the longitudinal and EI60 (25 v)( 170 amp)( 60)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
transverse direction, and this adjacent base metal tends
to shrink along with the weld metal.
V 3" /min
= 85,000 Joules/linear in. of weld
7.7-4 / Joint Design and Production
,",
~ area of weld
~ I....r-.I .....""--'I
jL:------l-----l-,--...l--~_~_____L_
,/0 .zo ,40 .40 (W/)(I") - .125
~ ·"cctiona.! area. of weld (.squa.rr. ;nch~s)
transverse contract/on -ccostant: plat. thkkna.ss;":f 2 ( lh)( W/ )( .58" ) _ .29
24 columns
TlfJ"
L
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@Seismicisolation
1.1-6 / Joint Design and Production
manual
act val
calculat~d
LF0:r--~-~~-~~~~~~
I"t:>::::.:
r ",.r actual.4 • ~.
L~-
f ' ~ ~ calcvlat~d--j.4'./70'
2o
11'~ FIG. 12 Warpage varies
, s:
IAJ'~ actua.l .4. !it.
J'
1-1----- !J{~~-----, ma noal
! directly with flange width
~~~1r~actua.l
calculatrzd LI .050
and weld size, and in-
IAJ. ,,' .4 «, 0.9'
Li" 16• ~ ~---j versely with plate thlck-
j caJcu/atad.4 ·.O!J8
,r~
'''''ofIi I" automa. tic
ness.
; - aetval.4- d2
ca lcula i ed A» ,0032 actual .4''/2"
catcuta t e d A •.141D'
a = 0.02 W
t 2
w1. 3 @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation I
I:i.
moment of inertia of the member, in."
resulting vertical movement, in.
Control of Shrinkage and Distortion / 7.7-7
L
.OOSA.dL
I
- -.
~
.. - -L"ZS" -
actoa / A../r ~:::.5
carco/ated Ll· .108"
co lev/a.. ted t1 ... /0 I
d » ", lB.9m
I· I. .333m 4
T '-
_ _-.,-_ _
FIG. 13 Actual measured
distortion corresponds well J.. ~"
w· 'i"
with calculated distortion, -'- - - - -
N4
-
~ d
I·
» /005",
8.75:n~
using the formula given. - -L.57 y...•
j=~~:=:J L,;
5" --I ,/0
d·-/.OOSm
I· 8,75 In"
Measurement of actual distortion verifies the for- left, and allows both welds to be made at the same time
mula for theoretical calculation of distortion, Figure 10. (since they are both in the flat position). The equal
In some instances when equal welds are positioned moment arms in this situation should result in no
symmetrically around neutral axis of a member, a sweep of the beam. In both cases the welds will
certain amount of distortion still occurs even though produce some camber but this is usually desirable.
the magnitudes of the shrinkage moments are equal Many long slender members are made by welding
and opposite. It is believed some plastic flow or upset together two light-gage formed sections. Waiting until
occurs in the compressive area next to the weld area the first weld has cooled before making the second
after the first weld is made. Because of this upset, the y IY
initial distortion, from the first weld, is not quite offset I I
[1..---1
during walding, top @Q)
temaeratur« expands - center bONS up
distribution· (ross
-Hetion
@@
]
shortly a. t t er walding- 0@
sti II bowad up ,slightly
(b)
members are illustrated in Figure 17: (a) deviation 9. PEENING AND FLAME SHRINKING
between centerline of web and centerline of flange,
(b) camber or sweep of columns; (c) at left, tilt of Peening is used occasionally to control distortion. Since
flange, and at right, warpage of flange, (d) deviation the weld area contracts, peening, if properly applied,
of camber of girders; ( e) sweep of girders; (f) tends to expand it. However, this expansion occurs
deviation from flatness of girder web. only near the surface.
Upsetting or expansion of the weld metal by
8. PROPER ALIGNMENT OF PLATES peening is most effective at higher temperatures where
the yield strength of the metal is rather low. Unfortu-
Various methods have been used for pulling plate nately, most of the distortion occurs later at the lower
edges into alignment and maintaining this alignment temperatures after the yield strength has been restored
during welding. The most widely used technique (Fig. to its higher value. For this reason, peening does not
18) calls for welding small clips to the edge of one accomplish the desired results. An additional disad-
plate. Driving a steel wedge between each clip and the vantage of peening is that it work-hardens the surface
second plate brings both edges into alignment. Weld- of the metal and uses up some of the available ductility.
ing the clips on one side only, simplifies removal. Flame shrinking or flame straightening is another
In the top part of Figure 19, pressure is applied method of correcting distortion, through localized heat-
by steel wedges whereas, in the bottom part of this ing with a torch. The heat causes the metal in this area
figure, pressure is applied by tightening the strong- to expand, and this expansion is restrained in all direc-
backs with bolts previously welded to the plate. tions by the surrounding cooler metal. As a result, this
yoklZ
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation For heavier pla.tes. this pressore ma.y be a.ppliad by means
of bolts t~mporar"ly wetded to thtZ plate. The stron!lback
/05 thlZn pullfzd tightly against thqplatlZ.
7.7-10 / Joint Design and Production
area of the metal expands abnormally through its the welds that are farther away smaller.
thickness and upon cooling tends to become shorter in 2. If the welding is not symmetrical, this result
all directions. The section so treated will become is achieved by:
shorter and stressed in tension with each successive a. Prebending the member.
application of heat. b. Supporting the member in the middle and
The bending of a member by welding and its letting the ends sag, and for the opposite effect, by
straightening by flame shrinking is analogous to the supporting the member at the ends and letting the
case of a stool which will tilt to one side when the middle sag.
legs on one side are shortened but will again become c. Breaking the member into sub-assemblies so
erect when the opposite legs are also shortened the that each part is welded about its own neutral axis.
same amount. Deflection is directly proportional to the shrinkage
moment of the welds (weld area times its distance
10. SUMMARY AND CHECK LIST from the neutral axis of the member) and inversely
proportional to the moment of inertia of the member.
Transverse distortion Although a high moment of inertia for the member is
1. Depends on restraint. desired to resist bending, it also makes the member
2. Is equal to about 10% of the average width of more difficult to straighten, once it has become dis-
the weld area. torted. Flame shrinking may be applied to the longer
3. Increases with the weld area for the same plate side if welding has bent the member.
thickness. Assembly procedures that help control distortion:
4. Increases with the root opening and the in- 1. Clamp the member in position and hold during
cluded angle. welding.
5. Is directly proportional to the welding heat 2. Preset the joint to offset expected contraction.
input per inch, that is, Joules per inch. 3. Prebend the member to offset expected dis-
Angular distortion can be reduced by: tortion.
1. Use of a double bevel, V, J, or U for butt joints. 4. Before welding, clamp two similar members
2. Alternating welds from side to side. back to back with some prebending.
3. Beveling the web of a T-joint; this will reduce 5. If stress-relieving is required, weld two similar
the moment ann of the weld and reduce the angular members back to back and keep fastened until after
movement. stress relief.
4. Use of the smallest leg size for fillet welds, 6. Use strong-backs.
since the distortion varies approximately with the 7. Use jigs and fixtures to maintain proper fit-up
1.3 power of the leg size of such a weld. and alignment during welding.
5. Use of thicker flanges; distortion varies ap- 8. Make allowances for contraction when a joint
proximately inversely with the square of the flange is assembled.
thickness. 9. Arrange the erection, fitting, and welding se-
quence so that parts will have freedom to move in
Bending of long members by longitudinal welds can one or more directions as long as possible.
be partially controlled by: 10. Use subassemblies and complete the welding
1. Balancing welds about the neutral axis of the in each before final assembly and welding together.
member. 11. If possible break the member into proper
a. Making welds of the same size at the same sections, so that the welding of each section is balanced
distance on the opposite side of the neutral axis of about its own neutral axis.
the member. 12. Weld the more flexible sections together first,
b. For welds of different sizes-if at different so that they can be easily straightened before final
distances from the neutral axis of the member-making assembly.
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SECTION 7.8
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation 7.8-1
7.8-2 / Joint Design and Production
Detailed inspection substantiated the present tection inside. It is felt that after the initial minor
assumption that condensation in hollow steel sections corrosion resulting from entrapped moist air, little
is very slight. Inaccessible or difficult-to-reach sections further advance will be experienced, and even under
should always be welded airtight. Any manholes should the most adverse conditions could not detract from the
be closed with rubber gaskets. With these precautions, strength of the section.
corrosion protection of inner parts becomes unnecessary.
Wherever possible, large, accessible hollow weld- • From a structural engineer at Eindhoven,
ments should be made as airtight as is practical. Closure Netherlands, representing an American international
does not lead to any observable tendency for water construction company:
condensation and resulting corrosion. If sections are to "All modem fabricators make completely closed
be ventilated, adequate numbers of openings should be sections. There are a few which have taken some pre-
provided on the front and side walls to allow for some cautions for corrosion protection, probably at the insist-
circulation of air. Openings in the floor are not very ence of the customer. One has used a normal type of
suitable for ventilation, particularly when sidewalls manhole in large girders, for inspection purposes. The
have no openings. Under this condition humidity could girders were not painted on the inside.
be higher. "Another company is using this construction in
If water pipes have to pass through hollow sections, columns. Near the bottom of the column is a hole
there should be an opening in the hollow member to about 314" diameter, drilled and then closed with a plug.
allow water to escape in case the pipe should later The hole is used in two ways. First, before the column
develop a leak. This opening, however, can be provided is shipped, pressure is applied to the inside to deter-
with a type of relief or check valve which will auto- mine whether welds are airtight. If they are, the plug
matically open when required and later reseal. Areas is replaced, the column erected and then inspected
in the vicinity of any of these openings should be after a few years by removing the plug, to see if any
particularly well protected. The pipe system itself water has collected. Until now, there has never been
should be insulated to avoid possible condensation. any water found inside the columns.
Experience has shown that if any condensation "E.D.F. in Ffrance has in use a large number of
does occur in the interior of sealed sections, the upper long welded steel columns closed at both ends, with
cover plate is the most vulnerable area. no access holes.
In contrast to the outside coatings, a simpler "It is bad practice to completely close columns
corrosion protection can be applied to the inside sur- filled with concrete. Holes should be punched or drilled
faces. Areas subject to frequent use, such as manhole to avoid the possibility of explosion in case of fire.
openings or in some cases the bottom side of a cover Water in the concrete may vaporize under heat, caus-
plate, should be given additional protective coating. ing tremendous pressure on the inside if no escape hole
A recent type of corrosion protection for the is present."
interior of hollow sections is zinc powder paints. They
have two important properties: First, they are largely • From a London structural engineering director,
unaffected by the welding heat; and, secondly, they active with one of the largest companies in the field
do not influence the quality of the weld metal. there:
"This 'bogey' of internal corrosion in hollow sec-
• Several of the new multi-span German bridges tions is constantly cropping up... In general, in order
across the Rhine make use of welded orthotropic to be absolutely certain of the absence of internal
(orthagonal anisotropic) plate decks, with savings in corrosion, it is always preferable to insure that the
dead weight of steel as high as 50% over conventional structure is sealed completely."
bridges. In this section, floor beams and longitudinal
ribs are shop welded to the top deck plate, the latter • The paper, L'ENERGIA ELETTRICA (Italy),
thus serving as a common top flange. July, 1953, discusses the mechanics by which water can
Many times torsionally rigid ribs are used, either enter an imperfectly sealed structure-condensation,
U-shaped or trapezoidal, forming a closed box section breathing resulting from heating and cooling, capillary
with the top deck plate. Thickness seldom exceeds infiltration, etc.
%6", and occasionally is as little as %6". The box- A passage from this research study is worth quot-
shaped ribs are either butt welded to the webs of the ing for its basic information.
floor beams at each intersection, or pass through them "To produce internal corrosion, one essential con-
and are attached with fillet welds. dition must be fulfilled, i.e., an aperture of appreciable
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Orthotropic plate decks naturally have many sealed
sections. They are not given any special corrosion pro-
size in order that water and oxygen can be present in
sufficient quantity and a lack of either will delay cor-
Painting and Corrosion / 7.8-3
rosion. In the case of a closed tube, chemical equi- "If, however, sealed members are used, then some
librium between water, oxygen and rust is reached as provision should be made for frequent checking of the
soon as a practically imperceptible layer of oxide has seal by testing the tightness of the box under air
been formed. pressure."
"Tests we have made indicated that corrosion was
unlikely to occur through holes having direct access • From the general secretary of the American
to the atmosphere, provided they were shielded from Welding Society:
actual films of water. The test, of course, refers to "For many years elevated storage tanks in this
structures under ordinary atmospheric conditions where country have been supported by towers consisting of
no artificial agency was tending to draw air into the closed tubular members. Companies in the structural
structure. field have had extensive experience in the use of such
"We would prefer that a hollow welded section closed sections in which normally the internal surface
be airtight, and if this is done there is no need to dry receives no special treatment. Some of these have been
the air before sealing unless, of course, a slight initial sealed sections and some not sealed. Service generally
corrosion must be avoided." has been entirely satisfactory in both cases. Where the
section has been sealed, no effort has been made to dry
• From the chief structural engineer of an eastern the contained air before sealing."
structural fabricator and erector:
"On light structures such as schools, we have
observed many designs which use tubular sections.
Some are filled with concrete and many are not. Some
require sealing and others do not. Apparently no con-
cern is shown in regard to the rusting of the unsealed
sections.
"If tubular sections are used and moisture is apt
to accumulate, provision should be made to drain them.
To seal fully tubular sections does not appear a
feasible proposition."
• From a partner in a New York city consulting stiffener was not painted on the inside.
engineering firm:
"Closed box sections should be sealed, but if pos- 3. PAINTING OVER WELDS
sible should be covered with a protective interior paint
beforehand. The use of higher alloy steels, such as There may be an occasional problem with paint dis-
weldable A242, adds a measure of protection at low coloring, flaking, or blistering over welds or in an
additional cost, and the added strength may offset immediate adjacent area. There are several possible
the extra cost. reasons for this. Dust, smoke film, iron-oxide film,
"I have seen no general applications in this country. grease and similar materials on the surface of the weld
However, some of the older bridges using the old and immediate adjacent area prevent the paint from
Phoenix shapes (arc form with ends bent up at right coming in contact with the surface of the steel and
angles) have been sealed and have stood up well. properly bonding to it. These materials form a barrier
"The subject of interior corrosion is very important, between the paint and the steel surface. A surface that
not only for columns but also for large closed box has been burnished very smooth with a power wire
girders which at some future time may become popular brush might also prevent proper bonding.
in this country." Elements in the fumes of welding, when deposited
in the slag as a film on the steel surface, may combine
• From the manager of technical research for a
with moisture in the air to produce an alkaline solution
Canadian bridge company:
that reacts with paint. This may cause discoloring
"One of our erection engineers who has worked
and blistering. This problem increases with increas-
on bridge erection in England, India and other coun-
ing humidity.
tries states that bridge box chords, either welded or
Submerged-arc welds are relatively free of paint
riveted, are often sealed to avoid air movements. This
problems because the slag is nearly always removed
sealing is accomplished by gasketing the manway open-
and the process leaves no film of smoke or iron oxide
ings into the chords. When this is done, painting on
on the adjacent plate.
the inside can be a single coat or can be eliminated
Cleaning is the obvious first step. Removing slag,
entirely. Sealing of box sections to avoid rusting on
spatter, smoke film, iron-oxide film, and other similar
the inside is increasing in popularity.
materials, helps eliminate both causes of problems.
"It is presumed that where welding is continuous
First, it provides a clean surface to which the paint
to seal any box section completely, rusting will be
can bond. Secondly, it removes from weld deposits
inconsequential, being limited by the amount of air
most of the chemicals that might react with a paint. In
present when sealed."
most cases, cleaning will eliminate paint problems, but
• The chief engineer of the same company's don't burnish the surface with a power brush.
Vancouver, B.G, plant adds: If discoloration or blistering prevails after normal
"The practice of hermetically sealing structural cleaning, two additional steps will help. First, a wash
members to avoid inside painting and corrosion origi- in a mild acid solution, such as boric acid, followed
nated in Europe when closed welded sections were by a good rinse with clear water will neutralize the
introduced. No type of closure short of hermetic sealing alkaline solution so that it won't affect the paint. Sec-
is dependable. In such structures, no manholes were ondly, a more alkaline-resistant paint may be substi-
provided and no paint was applied on the inside." tuted. Paints with a vinyl, epoxy or chlorinated rubber
"Completely logical" is how this engineer describes base are the best.
the practice of hermetically sealing closed welded Just wiping the surface with a shop rag will remove
members. much of the film and improve paint bonding. Painting
with a brush instead of a sprayer helps the paint get
• The Port Mann arch bridge in British Columbia under the film and make a better bond to the surface.
uses an orthotropic deck. The longitudinal stiffeners Painting the affected area as quickly as possible after
are V-shaped and when continuously welded to the welding will prevent the chemicals in the deposited
deck, form a closed tubular section. The ends of the film from picking up much moisture. Therefore less
stiffeners have openings for field bolting. At a distance alkaline solution will be formed to attack the paint.
of 15" from each end of each stiffener, diaphragms are Two coats, including an alkaline-resistant primer put
continuously welded inside to seal off the remaining on as soon as practical, is usually better than a
length from the outside. This sealed portion of the single coat.
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SECTION 7.9
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any weld which will continue indefinitely to do the
@Seismicisolation
job for which it was intended." The problem with this
definition is that we do not have any thoroughly satis-
per se. Everyone involved in the preparation and
production of a welded connection or joint should at
least visually inspect his own work to make sure that
7.9-1
7.9-2 / Joint Design and Production
it has been done properly and in a manner consistent when the bead is concluded. Bad bead contour, poor
with the established standards of quality. This goes wash-in at the edges or uneven edges are all indications
for people who prepare plate edges, assembly men, of poor fusion at the moment, or that it will occur on
weld tackers, welding operators, weldors' helpers, and subsequent beads.
everyone whose efforts can in any way affect the There are many symptoms of trouble which the
quality of the welds. weldor can spot. This is the time to correct the con-
dition either by gouging out the questionable portion
5. RECOGNIZE SMALL DEFECTS AND and/or changing the procedure. The wrong attitude at
CORRECT THEM a time like this is to assume, as some weldors are in-
clined to, that "the defect can be 'burned out' on the
Perhaps the most common weld rejections occur as next pass." This is a game of Russian Roulette that
a result of radiographic inspection. This method has the invariably pays off only in weld rejects.
ability to expose lack of fusion and/or slag inclusions
that would not be apparent to visual final inspection
techniques. 6. "PREQUALIFIED JOI NTS"
With very few exceptions, a good, conscientious
weldor can tell by visual inspection whether or not The term "prequalified joints" has led to some mis-
he is getting good fusion, Figure 1. This includes what understanding and, in a sense, it is a misnomer. It is
he sees as he makes the bead as well as what he sees certainly a mistake to think that just because pre-
qualified joints have been used the final results will
be completely satisfactory.
J8 I I The AWS Code for Welding in Building Construc-
)6 t - - - - - f - DEPOSITION RATES tion ( AWS D1.0-66) and AWS Specifications for
/lfANIIAL ELECTROO£5 v.r. Welded Highway and Railway Bridges (AWS D2.0-66)
'EIrIJ-AIJTOMATIC
do not suggest that it is that simple. They say that
these joints are to be "welded in accordance with
~u
Sections 3 and 4," and then they may be considered
Wu +- - - - - t - - - . SEMI-,AIITOMATlC- "prequalified." A careful study of Sections 3 and 4
~ ro J» ELECTRON reveals 12 pages of good sound advice, recommenda-
tions, restrictions, etc., all aimed in the direction of
producing good welds.
If joints are prepared as "prequalified joints" and
I~
IIII U all of the requirements of Sections 3 and 4 have been
10
I~ met, it would appear to be nearly impossible to pro-
8 duce welds which would not pass final inspection. Also,
MANUAL
WELDrN6
it should be understood that prequalified joints have
2 I~I
O'-----+----+----+----+---4---+---
been put in the code and are recommended only be-
cause past experience has demonstrated that these
100 2DO sao 400 soo
AMPERES
600
joints are capable of producing good weld quality when
they are used together with good welding procedures.
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FIG. 2 Correct application of the various semi-auto-
matic welding processes can tremendously increase
The establishment of prequalified joints, however,
does not preclude the fact that other joint designs can
deposition rate and lower costs. lead to equally satisfactory results. The progressive-
Weld Quality and Inspection / 7.9-3
minded fabricator or constructor who wishes to use 4. Personnel (qualified personnel should be as-
other joint preparations and has valid reasons should signed to the job).
be encouraged to do so. 5. Prove it (pretest procedures and preparations
The code allows adoption of alternate joint designs. to prove needed weld quality will result with their use).
It also logically requires special tests be performed to
prove the acceptability of welds made with the alter-
Process Selection
nate design. In most cases, these special tests, although
admittedly time consuming, are worth completing to The first and most important step is selecting the best
permit the application of a progressive procedure that welding process for the job. This is a very challenging
leads to improved performance or cost reduction. decision to make, especially if the job is suited to semi-
automatic welding where there are so many different
7. GOOD COMMUNICATIONS ARE NEEDED choices. And yet, in this area lies the greatest oppor-
tunity for improvement, Figure 2. Since manual weld-
With the broad latitude that welding offers to the ing is inherently slow and expensive and subject to the
designer, it is only natural that bridges and buildings human element, it is becoming a matter of economic
take on a "one of a kind" nature. These connection survival to convert whenever possible to a semi-auto-
variations present a challenge which welding is quite matic process, Figure 3.
capable of meeting. But not without good communica- The entire industry is involved in this transition,
tions between all interested parties. but the progress is relatively slow. This is due in part
Communicating is most important early in the to the natural reluctance to accept new methods. It
game, especially while welding procedures are being is also true that each of the newer processes has its
worked out. This is the time for design vs. production own peculiarities, advantages and limitations, and all
discussions to bring up and solve questionable issues introduce some problems affecting weldor training,
before they become points of major disagreement. joint preparation and welding procedures.
8. FIVE P'S OF GOOD STRUCTURAL WELDING The semi-automatic processes (exclusive of sub-
merged-arc) do not enjoy the "prequalified" status of
There are five areas which require close attention to manual and submerged-arc welding. This should not,
assure good weld quality: however, prevent their use, since the AWS Code and
1. Process selection ( welding process must be Specifications state, "other welding processes and pro-
right for the job). cedures may be used, provided the contractor qualifies
2. Preparation (joint preparation must be com- them in accordance with the requirements of Article
patible with the process being used). 502."
3. Procedures (detailed procedures are essential Selection of a semi-automatic process may also
to assure uniform results). require joint qualification since appropriate joint prepa-
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
FIG. 3 This cost comparison of manual and semi-automatic welding methods
demonstrates the important role process selection plays in the control of weld costs.
1.9-4 / Joint Design and Production
ration may not be the same as "prequalified manual" being used will all influence the bevel and root spacing.
or "prequalified submerged-arc joints." All of these factors have been taken into consideration
Where conditions permit, the use of full-automatic in the prequalified joints.
welding provides even greater economy and control of The joints detailed in the appendix of the code
weld quality. book indicate a nominal dimension for bevel and
root spacing. Since the joint design (bevel angle
Preparation root spacing) must provide access of the arc to the
Acceptable butt joint preparations are nothing more base of the joint, it is important to understand that
than a compromise between the included angle of the dimensions of the root opening and groove angle
bevel and the root spacing dimension. A large included of the joints are minimum values. (All of this and
angle will permit a smaller root spacing; conversely, a more is covered in the nne print of the specification.)
small included angle requires a larger root spacing. Also see Section 7.3 on Joint Design.
The type of joint, the welding position, and the process Not only must the root spacing and bevel be
I. •
~ max. FIG. 4 The code book
places specific limits on
electrode size for specific
joint designs and weld
Flat ••or more Flat positions.
Fillet 6roovc
4" max. fmax.
"~ma)C. or
3."
~6ma)(.
"'-_---J'-'l...-_ _--' ~~*
Horizontal verticat
Find Groovq
~; max. or
s~; H- ~~·max.
~~'ma.x.
-JJ; *
0
5/,3; * GroovfZ
FIG. 5 Mock-up welds, such as shown here, provide a first-hand check of welding
procedures before they reach the production floor. They can later be used as
workmanship samples.
treat ed as minimum dimen sion s, but th e electrode size A pro cedure prop erl y developed unde r these con-
mu st be compatib le with th e comb ina tion being used. ditions would include:
Her e again, the AWS Code and AWS Specification 1. Id entificat ion of th e join t.
specifies maximum permissibl e elec trode sizes which 2. JOint dim en sion det ails and tolera nces.
ma y be used under ce rta in conditions Figure 4. 3. Id entification of th e weld ing process.
Th e first inspecti on ac tion conside red vitally im- 4. Type and size of elec tro de.
port ant is to check th e joint prep eration before weld-
ing. Make sure that th e joint preparation corresp onds
to th e joint det ails as specified on th e procedure. Be
sure th at th e joint has been properl y assembled and
correct fit-lip and root spacing ob taine d .
Procedures
TC-U4
Th e important weld ed connec tions of any structure
deserv e a well planned , thoroughly investigated and
comp lete ly d et ailed welding procedure.
Reliabl e weld ing procedures are best obtain ed
throu gh first-hand expe rience . In th e structur al field ,
it is often help ful to pr oduce a full sca le mo ck-up of
the actua l joint pri or to its release to th e production
Hoor. If possibl e, use th e id entical stee l, same typ e,
che mistr y, sizes an d sha pes th at will b e used on th e
job , Fi gure 5 contain s examples of "moc k-up" we lds. WELDING PROCEDURE:
Electrode :
Current :
5. Type of flux, gas, etc. (as required). for destructive testing and positive evidence that the
6. Current and voltage (with changes as required adopted procedure can produce the required results.
for different passes). And perhaps most important of all, it gives all weldors
7. Preheat and interpass temperature. one "proved procedure" so that the job is no longer
8. Pass sequence (show sketch if necessary). subject to the multiple choice of several weldors.
9. Type of inspection required.
10. Any comments or information that will help Personnel
the weldor, such as special techniques, electrode angles, In the case of manual welding, it is true that the weld
weld bead placement, etc., Figure 6. quality cannot be any better than the skill of the
This method of establishing the welding procedure weldor. This skill should be evaluated before the man
takes time. It, nevertheless, is an almost foolproof ap- is permitted to do any actual welding.
proach to guaranteeing weld quality since it provides The simple and relatively inexpensive device for
firsthand experience, workmanship samples, samples doing this is the AWS weldor qualification test, Figur,
FLAT POSITION
HORIZONTAL
POSITION
Qulltlu f.r tI., lid lIo,hOl•• 1
,.,itl.., O"U'ln for fl., ••• 1Io,IIOItai ,osl'loll
VERTICAL POSITION
dP~
aulltll' fa, fl." IIorll....I,
lid u,tlcal posl'lolS Qulltlll tor fl., II. 10rtlcal posltlolS
OVERHEAD POSITION
Ounflu for fI,t, IIorIlOlI.I,
. . . .",II.. d ,osltloll
;fiELD
anuuos for n., II. ".r•••• ,osltl ..,
WHO
L ' /
bLf-/= = =I=I=f== = t'-:2 ;
•
-,~
t-
"flll OWEDFOR
ALL CUTS If-
~ F;,.,I====f=l=i(9'7'===f' ~
SPECIMEN
PREPARATION
~ ~'" ''sPECIMeN .r R. MAX.
'OISC~RO
Pretest It
Once a welding procedure has been establishe d,
nobody should be more eage r to prove it than the
contractor, and nobody is in a better position to do
so. Mock-up sample welds made under typical condi-
tions can be subjected to all kinds of destructive and
nondestructive tests, Figure 8. Many of these tests
would b e completely impractical or even impossible
as a final inspection requirement. Testing at this stage
is relatively inexpensive, and the latitude is much
broader than would b e permitted or desired as final
inspection . Maximum testing at this time gives assur-
ance that final inspection can be held to a minimum.
9. PREVENTIVE INSPECTION
FIG. 8 Sample welds, such as those shown, made
under typical conditions should be made and sub- In summary, it should be universally recognized that
jected to the various types of destructive and non- inspection after welding, whil e often essential, is some-
destructive tests needed to establish the degree of what too late. Any excessive weld cracks, undercuts,
quality required for the job. With this approach, undersize welds, poor fusion or other defects detected
many tests can be applied that might be impractical that late will be exp ensive to corr ect. All parties con-
or impossible to use during final inspection. cerned should insist on good welding, supervision, con-
scientious qualified weldors, and a thorough system of
7. This test is usually adequate. But in a great many preventive inspection.
instances, it is questionable whether this simple test Preventive inspection, in which everyone con-
establishes the ability of the weldor to do the actual cerned should share responsibility, involves a syst ematic
job and proves that he can make the welds on th e observation of w elding practices and adherence to
job that will satisfy final inspection requirements. specifications before, during, and after welding in order
For example, if the weldor will b e required to to visually d et ect and stop any occurrences that may
make vertical butt welds on %" thick plate and final result in substandard welds. The check list that follow s
inspection calls for radiographic inspection ( Section will aid in developing this pattern of operation.
409 of the Bridge Specifications), will the AWS weldor
qualification test prove the weldor can produce these
welds in a satisfactory manner? Obviously, it will not
because radiographic inspection is not normally called
for in the AWS weldor qualification test. The test
becomes more meaningful if radiographic inspection is
added to the normal testing requirements.
The contractor is in the best position to evaluate
the actual skill required for the job as opposed to the
skill required to pass an AWS weldor qualification test.
When the actual job demands more of the man than
he would otherwise be able to demonstrate on a stand-
ard weldor qualification test, the contractor for his own
protection is justified in requiring more realistic tests.
Most semi-automatic processes present some prob-
lems relative to weldor training. If, however, the
process has been properly selected for the job and
correct welding procedures have been worked out,
weldor training should not pose a difficult problem.
With competent instruction, this can be handled as a
joint weldor-training, weldor-qualification program . FIG. 9 This "mock-up" beam-to-column connection
The question of properly qualified personnel also was made with scrap ends, prepared and assembled
involves people other than weldors, and attention to specifications then welded to work out procedure
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
should be given to their training also. details.
7.9-8 / Joint Design and Production
(1) Proper I neluded Angle \Vith a backing bar, the root opening is increased
to allow proper fusion into the backing bar, since it
.00 will not be back gouged; also there is no burn-through.
\Vith a spacer bar, it serves as a backing bar but
must be back gouged before welding on the back side
to ensure sound fusion.
The included angle must be sufficient to allow electrode (3) Proper Root Face
to reach root of joint, and to ensure fusion to side walls .00
on multiple passes. In general, the greater this angle .~----,
, ,
the more weld metal will be required.
.00
Opening (Fit-Up) O oJ..
:t
,
\ ...
J
-r
-.1
I
DO
Without a backing bar, there is a possibility of burning
root pass to provide a sound joint. This fusion of root
and back passes can be checked after welding, if the
joint runs out to an exposed edge of the plate and onto
run-off bars.
The above items, included angle (1) and of plate, there is a range in the combination of
root opening ( 2), go hand in hand to ensure included angle and root opening that will result
clearance for the electrode to enter the joint in a minimum amount of weld metal consistent
sufficiently for proper fusion at the root, and yet with the required weld quality.
not require excessive weld metal.
In general, as the included angle is decreased
to reduce the amount of weld metal, the root must
be opened up to maintain proper fusion of weld
@Seismicisolation
metal at the joint root. For any given thickness
@Seismicisolation
Weld Quality and Inspection / 7.9-9'
(a) No problem for next pass to (b) Nat enough roam left between
(6) Proper Type and Size of Electrode fuse properly into side of joint side of joint and last possi will
ond weld not fuse properly; moy trop slag
0.0
Electrodes must suit the metal being joined, the The sequencing of passes should be such that no u*-
welding position, the function of the weld, the plate fused portion results, nor distortion.
thickness, the size of the joint, etc. Where stand-
ard procedures specify the electrodes, periodic checks (12) Proper Trayel Speed
should be made to ensure their use. 0.0
@Seismicisolation
Each pass should fuse properly into any backing plate,
@Seismicisolation
preceding pass, or adjacent plate metal. No unfilled or
unfused pockets should be left between weld beads.
If travel speed is increased, good fusion will result
because the molten weld metal and slag will be forced
backward, with the arc digging into the plate.
7.9-10 / Joint Design and Production
fere. This will help en- On intermittent fillet welds, unfilled craters should
sure good fusion. normally be no problem because:
I
1. The additional strength obtained by filling the
Spend enough
~lstPass~ crater would not be needed in this low-stressed joint,
~-
I I time at middle
:~ of weld so extra Keep shelf tilted
.;" upward so slog
<-
for which intermittent fillet welds are sufficient.
2. Any notch effect of an unfilled crater should be
:~ weld metal here
-
If..-.£.I will roll away no worse than the notch presented by the start end of
'~' will keep shelf the fillet weld; shown below. No matter what is done
'/ -I
: _ : tilted upward
to the crater, it will still represent the termination of
"
Weaving Cross-section Front view the weld, in other words an unwelded portion meeting
technique of weld of weld a welded portion.
~ 2nd pass
Hold rod momen-
tary at sides; Keep shelf tilted
: I will build up ( upward so slog
, ~ : weld to full
'--,
,:;:::::::: , size and will will roll awa~y_1111
3rd pass
: ~ : provide proper
Building crater up to
; ~ : weld shope
Weaving
technique
Cross-section
of weld
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Front view
of weld
Notch effect of
crater is no worse
than that at start
of weld
fuII throot does not
reduce its notch
effect at end of weld
Weld Quality and Inspection / 7.9-11
(76) Absence of Excess;ye Undercut Double undercut of Cover Ir. of rolled beam
plate girder web
0 •• would represent an
appreciable loss in
web thickness; use Undercut along
'"";00 he" \ cover plate would
not represent any
(a) appreciable loss
in area; would
not be harmful
-
Q If a force must be transferred transverse to the'
(a) The digging effect of the arc melts a portion of axis of the undercut, which may then act as a notch
the base plate. or stress riser.
Undercut
Slight
reinforcement
,-J
, ,
'. \ '
, ,,
, I
.
action along lower undercut fillets measures
I ----- ---; \
thraat
• ---_....-\
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
SECTION 8.1
Angle of slope, (J
clockwise rotation (- ), counter-clockwise rotation ( +)
On the next page is a visual index to the various beam diagrams and formulas, As indi-
cated, these are keyed by number to the type of beam and by capital letter to the type of load.
For some conditions, influence curves are included to illustrate the effect of an important
variable. These are keyed to the basic beam diagram and are positioned as close as practical to
the diagram. @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
8.1-1
8.1-2 / Reference Design Formulas
w w
~ ~J
Type of
mrm
LOAD
Concentrated force
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJ
Uniform load
entire span
Uniform load
partial span
Varying load 0 0
Couple
Type of
BEAM
® ® © ® CD
CD p
lAo ..
~ crarml~
~
Mo
Cantilever 100
anTI (~
f~
1B 1C
~ 1E
~
\ .J/
free
fixed
lAb
~ lOb
0
,i p
~ I~
f~
2A 2B
k
guided
fixed
CD ( t M
3Aa t 3Da~ 3Ea (L.,
Simply supported
*
p
It rrmn
~
3Ab
t, f.J! 3B ~"111""~ 3C
f t 3DbA 3Eb
/t 3ACtp pt
3Ad~ 3DC~
M2~
1
supported 3Ec (M
f t
0 4Aa ?1 t ~ 4Ba ~ 11111111111 ~ Mo
~
" fixed
} 4Ab~ P I ~
4AC(~) 4Bb <[II! I1II !II rj)
4C~ 4D~ 4E
~ ~~
t t
CD
SAa~ SDa~
(~ SB~
Mo
t, SC ;rrrrn.{ SE c: ~
supported
fixed SAb~ SDb~
f
CD
6Aah 6Ba~ 6ca~
t r 6Ab~
Single span
with overhang
6Bb
~ 6Cb~
0 7Aat4--,.
7B~ 7D~
For other multi-span
r-rl" load conditions, see
7Ab~
@Seismicisolation discussion under (f)
Continuous
two span @Seismicisolation
See adjacent to @
Q
8
p
Beam fixed at one end only (cantilever)
Concentrated load at free end v..:::J
p
Beam fixed at one end only (cantilever)
Concentrated load at any point
~b .~R
J, 01. z o~R R=V=P I-x~L 01' At support, Mmax
R=V=P
=P b
L 01 At support, Mmax =P L ~ load, When x > a
,
I
load
--
I
I -- : M. = P(x - a)
I
I
I
,
,
M. = Px I
:
,
: At free end, Pb 2
:, = -6EI
~
: I1max ( 3 L - b)
i At free end, I1max =PL3
-- II '1 ,
V
3EI
!l1IIIIIIIIIIII V At load, Pb3
11 = -
, 'T shear IT
P
,
I shear
- -, I & = --(2L3 - 3L2x + x 3) ,: -- , 3EI
6EI , ,I
,
,
I
I
I
When x <a Pb
= -(3L
2
,
,
I
I P Z2
=-(3L-z)
,
,
,
I
I
11.
6EI
- 3x - b)
: I I
6EI
I
:
,
I
I
I
'i..
I
II '.L
I
T moment
moment T
~ ==:J
R = V = wL I· At support, Mm.. =wbe
~L/R ~' '-,
e
V. = wx <b wx
=-- 2
.~
When x M.
2
At support, Mm.. = W L2
,,
I
,
I
load,:
- ,
':' I
2
2
t,-oJ l When x >b Mx =-
wb
2
(b - 2 x)
I M.= wx : 1£2gg :
UI1IlIIll'..1....
.
I I
I
1111 " 111111 V
2 I I wb
At free end, 11m.. = ~8e3 - 24e2L _ b 3)
: :1.
I
48EI
- :T
shear
At free end t 11m u w
=L4
-- I I
- , BEl ~V <b lD
a
,, When x
,: shear 'T
I
, :I
11. = ~(x4 - 4L3X + 3L4) l 11. = ~[8OO3 - 24002 (L - x) + 2b3x - "'II
I
24EI , I
o
b4-2 x4]
I I I
48EI
:1. I
I
,
I
I
I
>b !i'
~Mmo.
When x
,' '.L
, •
T moment
I
-=nmnIllill]]]i I
M __
11. = ~[8e3 - 24e2(L - x) - (2 x - b)3]
48EI <,
T
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
At free end,
moment
8 = +~(b2 + 12 e 2 )
24EI
-
!It
L,
s Beam fixed at one end only (cantilever)
Varying load increasing uniformly from free end to support 8 Beam fixed at one end only (cantilever)
Varying load increasing uniformly from support to free end
-l.
!lit
<,
W=pL
~~:!iI"II-:t~ ~"'~"":00. ~
2
R=V=W ~
R=V=W ;-
V. = wE.. V. = 2 W X (L _ .!) ;
:I
u LI 2 n
:I
I
load
-
"I
' :
I
-- I
:.l
I 2WL
•o
I '
At support, Mma. = WL II I At support, Mmax = - -
I
I '.l
'
3
~V 3
=
ti°
I " " ""IIlllIIIIIi
shear ,:T
V M Wx
.= -
3 LI
3
I
:
:~T
~-
shear I
I
Wxl
Mx = - ( x - 3L)
3LI
:I
cr
I I
,,
I
I
At free end, !:J.m•• = WL3
I
I
I
I
I
I At free end,
11 WL3
!:J.mu = 60 E I
i
c:
15EI
I
,,_ W
I
,
II '.l
I
,
W
D
•
~.l__ ~M
u. _
60EILI (
X -
&
5L4x + 4L&)
M_.
!:J.. = [L4(l5x - 11L) - x4(5L - x)]
WLI
6= + WLI At free end, 6= + --
T moment
At free end,
12EI
~-T
4EI
~. :"--'""7""""---~ R
o
R=V=O R=V=P
M g uided tp
M. =Mo PL
(E--'--!l
• load ·"
I
At free end, MoLl 1= "l load:r'/· At both ends, Mm•• = -
2
!:J.max= 2EI
- x)
-- I
: : I
'.1... M. = p(~
~V:T
I
Mo (L _ X)I
~------...;:V !:J.x=2EI PL3
shear •I shear
__ , At guided end, !:J.ma. = 12 E I
MoL
At free end, 6 = -""""IT I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
P (L- X)I (L + 2x)
I I !:J.. = 12 E I
' ,
u
' I
.i~ll2=t
M"",. (JJnnn".,... 0CCZ4111JllllII M_.
T moment T
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
e Beam fixed at one end and free but guided at the other end
Uniform load over entire span e Beam supported at both ends
Concentrated load at any point
gUided_R
~
I=
,
-l x
L
load
I I;/ At support,
R=V=wL
V. = wx
Mmu = WL2
E Q~
R,X-l~:R2
I loa I
Max whena<b RI = VI = Pb
L
I 3 '
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I MI = WL2 ! I I I
'.L Max when a >b R2 = V2 = Pa
At guided end,
-v: 111111111111111111111_ V,
, I I
: 1...1... 6 L
~V M. = ~(L2 - 3x2 )
6
T] ,hoc, [T At load, Mm.. =Pab
L
:T I ,
l':~I
: shear I I
I
I
-- 1
I
WL4
At guided end, I1mu = 24 E I Whenx<a M. = Pbx
I I 1 L
l~
:if
: 1
-l .4227L
W(L2 _ X 2)2
I I
M, I
11.= 24EI
T M ma x
moment
T At x =J 2; L
b
2
11m•• =~ /(L2 - b '3
e
2
Beam supported at both ends when a >b
3EILV~ 3 )
Concentrated load at mid-span
p At load, 11 =P a
b
2 2
3EIL
I--LI2±LI2~ RI = R2 = V = P 12 .. = __
Pbx (L2 _ b 2
Whenx<a u. 2)
REx~ L JR At load,
PL
Mmu = -
4
6F.IL - x
: f2gg : Whena<b
..
ut. =__
Pa (3L2 - 4a 2)
M. =Px 48EI
+~
Whenx<L/2
T
~
!.L V
.r-
At load,
2
I1mu _ P L3
- 48EI At ends,
81 = - ~(2aL
6EI + "L-
a
3
3a 2)
all
I
: ~:I = +~(
3
I
I I ax -_ 48Px 82 6EI a L -I:"
a ) :J
1 , Whenx<L/2 E I (3 L2 - 4 x2)
l' I
I
I,
, ""
o
Mma~
I I
:
I
At end, 81 = _ PL2
16EI = - 82
iI:
.....1... 1 I i'
~
•
<,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation -
!D
J,.
Q
V
Beam supported at both ends
Two equal concentrated loads, equally spaced from ends
o Beam supported at both ends
Uniform load partially distributed over span
-
!D
I
01
<,
,.,
,F! bJ
I :
1
I l
lJwl. :
R When x < a
At center,
R=V=P
Mmax = Pa
M. = Px
dmax = ~(3 L2 - 4a 2 )
"~
:
~a~b+-c-1
:
.r"
~ad
-: I
Maxwhena< c
..
dr
/D
::I
n
/D
---1. I = RI
V~::1-
I 24E I V. - W (x - a) C
-.1 I
I
I
I but x < (a + b) /D
III
lAo
f: : V
When x < a
Px
d. = -(3La - 3a 2 - x2)
6EI
v'~ :1 RI
f I-a+ ~-j""Q:IIIIIIIIIIIIII!fV;- At x = a +-w Mm ax = RI (a + :~) ::I
~T
:
'
U - '
i Whenx>(a+b) M, = R2 (L - x)
moment
moment
When a = c
wb
8 Beam supported at both ends
Two unequal concentrated loads, unequally spaced from ends
R=V=-
2
2 S
vx=w(a+%-x)
~
' I
I I Max when Rs-c.Ps M2 = R2 b 384EI
:M,
~
I: When x <a M, = RI X
,M,II 'l-
I
When x> a
r moment but x < (L - b) M, = RI X - PI (x - a)
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
G Beam supported at both ends
Uniform load over entire span
wL
s Beam supported at both ends
Varying load, increasing uniformly to one end
-.L
.J",mll~i
R=V=wL
.~.
2
II
I
load
_I '
I
V, = w (~ - x) ·,F I
l
~
lood'
1
oooco:tl1Q(jJ:~
I II
Mmsx =--
V~~LI
8
v,
i:mil! iii 11!Jn>. V,
~: V wx W=PL
:I shear :T M, =-(L - x)
2 f!--.S744L---...j
I shear
'T
;
2
I
I I I I
, I 5 W L4 I I
RI = VI = W
f~':: t :~'
At center, ~m., = - - -
, I 384 E I 3
Mm~)( I
' ,
I
R2 = V2(max) = % W
...1: : ~,=~(L3 _ 2Lx 2 + x 3)
24EI
M,,:o,
-.1.:
' II
W Wx 2
V,=----
moment 3 L2
At ends, 0- WL3 moment
- 24EI
At x = LlV3 = .5744 L
2WL
Mma, = .17> = .1283 W L
M, = W X (L2 _ x2)
3 L2
r-L12 .1. L/2---j W At x = LVI - V8/15 = .5193 L
~
RI = R2 = V = -
2 WL3
~ma, = .01304 -
W EI
When x < Ll2 V, = - ( U - 4x 2 )
2 L2
I
: load : ~,= 180EIL2
Wx (3 4
x -lOL2 x2 + 7L4)
I 1
= WL
~~
At center, Mm.,
11- 6
At center, ~ol = 5 W L3
t~v = W x (!_2 x
2 m
When x < LI2 M, ) 384E I tD
a
:T 2 3U
=_
i
: shear 01 7W L2 :I
I
,I ~m., = W L3
( 180E I
At center,
..
."
o
-f.' .
. J~
60EI At end"
Mm~x
..1: ."''''''',,''
moment
~,= Wx 2
480EILZ (5U - 4x )Z
0=5WLZ
02 = + 8 WL2
180E I
:I
c
.a
<,
At ends,
96E I
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation Also see formulas on page 8 ...
!D
.La
BEAM FORMULAS APPLIED TO SIDE OF TANK, BIN OR HOPPER
...
~
s
<,
8 G :;IIllI
III
it
R, -j PI t- R, i;
:::I
n
III
g
mO::
:::I
."
Ii o
ic
Q
1/1
b
RI = phm R2 _ phm h2 m
6
- -3-= Vmilx M4. = - - (pi + ps) • Maximum bending moment is least when
16
5h4 m
a = .57h
Mmax _ p h- m
- 9V3 = .0642 p h" m <lll = - - (pi + pa) • b = .43 h
768E I
M, _ pxm mh
+ 2 ps) Mmax = .0147 P h 2 m
- """'6"h (h 2 - x2 ) Vmax = - - (pi
6 (negative moment at middle support, 2)
<l4. = 5 p h" m (. These values are within 98%
768E I of maxirnum.) RI = + .030phm
R2 = + .320 P h m
<lx= pxm (3x 4 -10h2x2 + 7h4) Rs = + .150phm
360Elh
p lr' m
<lmax = .00652-- Vm ax = + .188phm
EI (at middle support, 2)
(at x = .5193 h)
Influenoe Lines
Effect of location of middle support (2) upon reactions (R) and moments (M)
+.6
+.5
'E
Ql
E
o
.....o .§.
~ +.4
~
.....o
o
> '"
Ql
~
o
>
+.2
+ .1
-.04
@Seismicisolation
Position (0) of middle support R2
@Seismicisolation
......
ea
!D
Beam supported at both ends Beam supported at both ends I
Moment applied at one end Moment applied at any point
o
Mo Mo
Mo When a > b Ri = _ Mo = V R2=-
RI = R2 = V = -
Cl,".-I
I- L !R2 Mmax = Mo
L
At x = a,
L
: -:1
: load :
Mx = Mo + RIX = Mo (1 - t) I
L
(1 -i)
I
IL
I
I
Atx = a,
Mo U
I Mmax = Mo
~v
When x = .422 L I
(+)
dmax = .0642--
J: c
~ EI
yMI"TTITT'11ml
I I"TTIITT'IIml
m m
I I"TTIITT'IImil1I I'TTII""II1I 1"';- When x <a Mx=_Max Ii
ca·::I
dx = Mo (3x 2 _~ _ 2LX)
I - I
L
1
I
I
I t shear
1
I
.......1.. 1
I I
I
1 AtRl, (J!
6EI
= - MoL
--
L
Whenx>a Mx = Mo(l - ~) .a
."
o
MmJITrTlTTlTn_-- : 3EI c
~ l.. Whenx<a ;r
lit
~
max +
(12 =MoL + Mox (L2 ~ 3b2 _ x2)
"f moment
At R2,
6EI M mo x -
Whenx > a
dx =
6EIL
. ...1...-
A _
L.1x_
Mo(L - x) (3a2 - 2L x+x 2)
6EIL
At x=
J U
3
3b2
if a > .4226 L,
.'
I I
I I dx = - - ( 3 L - 4x)
48E I
M
mo x
~
Allllll~ : At x =~ L = .28867 L,
~llli
I
6
MtIIIIJJY
_i],~Io~"L 1 ~ MoU
dmax =
1--- 124.71 E I
@Seismicisolation
4 moment
~IIIIII1-
:M U
6x = x(L -x)[Md2L _ x) + M2(L + x)] , a
6EIL -l;
M, iI'iI"» """'-" I II " " " "'Ell
T Max when a = % L, then
M,
moment t ..L M2 = 4PL
27
moment
=T
82 = + - - (MI + 2 M2) 2 P a 3 b2
6E I max 6 At x _ 2 aL 6max=-----
e ro e -3a+b 3 E I (3 a + b)2
IfM I an dM 2 are 0 f oPPOSIte SIgns, x
..
the .bo~e fonnulaa hold; just use ~~' (when a> b and greatest
when a = L/2)
actual SIgn of moment x--l J 3 3
At load, 6 = Pa b
R, L-l 3 E I L3
At point of contraflexure, ' load ;
M.~,.roand ~I Whenx<a
Pb 2 x 2
6x = - - (3aL - 3ax - bx)
6EIL3
II:lIlI
CD
a
MIL :I
x=----
M2 - MI ,,
,,
I
shear ,,
I
,
I
At center, 6oL. = P L3 (3 K _ 4 K3)
48EI ..:I""
o
-l
I
I
M,L
, -M 2·M,
l-
I
I
T
(where K = aiL and
a < L/2) .a-
M, <,
,,
t
!t @Seismicisolation
moment
@Seismicisolation
.L
---
!D
I
8.1-12 / Reference Design Formulas
Influence Lines
Effect of position of force (F) upon moments Ma, MI' M2 and upon ~max
+.15
.! .!
I M=K.Pl I
/
V r-, r-, I I
+.10 K2Pl3 I-
V '\ dmax=--
Ki
EI
+.05 V
lot
.... V 1\ 'E
41
E
0
..§.
/"
'"/
0
... ...
41
~
0
r-i'. ~I
0 ....lot0
'I
"0
> / .001 '"
41
:>
\ ~
-0
>
-.05 .002
\ 1\\IT - M2
~Vtlmo,
- 9;
M,
1/ .003
i\d max \~ I I J )
-.10 .004
Ml~ I~ ~I If- M2
.005
-.15
<, J V i'~ ./
o .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Position (a) of applied force F
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Q Beam supported and partially restrained at both ends t:::::\ Beam supported and partially restrained at both ends
~ Concentrated load at any point ~ A portion of a continuous beam
C
ed
M Uniform load over entire span
Me wL M,
,
-load ,:
I
R'L~ I
R,
vof """"""I""'''~ +, ~ ~
I load
I
Here a> b R. Pb + M, _ M, V, Vf
~""T
shear :1 L L
.-1..."IIIII"'"lJ'b.
: V,
(Use actual signs of moments)
,, .i
-- I
I
R2 = P a + Ml - M2 = V2 .
I I
L L shear
:l x~M,-M, +LI2 -- :
V I = M2 - Ml + w L
--I I-
i I ~ I:Mp ""T
Whenx<a Mx = -x (Pb + M2 - Mi) + M:
L 1
I
wL I
L 2
Ml - M2 wL
-.
I
M, M
-.i' At load, M p = La (P b + M2 - Mi) + M.
-l: j Ii g:: ""'111' 1'111111"'" "" Ii V2=
L
+2-
M,
moment
Mx = WX (L - x)
- (L - x)+ Ml - - + M2- x
When x<a ~x = ~{Pb3_(L-X) [Ml(2L-X)+(Pb+M2)(L+X)]}
6EIL
f moment 2 L L
~
R = V = wL wU Mi + M2 (M2 - MI)2
2 M max =-- + + '------'-
~L/R
1+)
8 2 2wU
(~
R
: load:
v; = w - x) To find value of x for a given value of Mx:
j f--LI2~LI2-i At ends, wU
Mmax = - -
x 2 - x [ 2 (M2 - MI) + L] +-
2 (M x - M 1) _
- 0
VITIrnrnrrnr.
1:
:l.
""4llIllllll] V At center, wU
M4.=--
12
a
~
wL
b
~___
-----------
w
c m
:T 24 and x = - b ± Vb2 - 4ac 8
shear
w 2a
a
M, =-(6Lx - L2 - 6x2)
12
WL4
.
"1'1
o
a
At center, II:
~max = 384 E I a
2
•
w x (L _ X)2
~x = 24 E I <,
moment
@Seismicisolation ....
!D
@Seismicisolation I
W
t:;2\
V
Beam fixed at both ends
Uniform load partially distributed over span
clload
o Beam fixed at both ends
Moment applied at any point
6 Moab
--
!:D
~
I
F~·~~~~=i
........
M(~M2
R, I x~
6Moab ;Ill'
R2 = + L3
',~ .~',
ID
..
I')R,L
I
,
ir
;;
load : MI = - Mo
L2b (L _ 3a) :::I
n
: ID
~
:
, I
,
j : -load I
v,~
I
I
:1 V
I I M2 = - Mo
L2a (2 L _ 3 a) .
C
ID
IA'
11 R, I'QJIIIIIIIIIIIIIII v, :r: shear ' When x < a Mo l6abx + b (L _ 3a) ]
:::I
I-a+w-l
I
:
shear'
--
~T
:
RI = VI = -
wb
4L3
[4e 2 (L + 2d) - b 2 (c - a)]
I
I
I
-- I
I
I
M, = - L2 L
."'"
o
a
r , When x > a Mea (6b _ 6bx _ 2L + 3a) c
lM, ' .
I
I
R2 = V2 = w b - RI I Mx=V L D
!: I
I 'I
11
'tm~o,+:1-
M, M
MI = wb ~b2[L + 3(c _ a)]- 24e 2d} 1 T
M2 At x = a (left side),
24UI
Mmax = Mma' Mo
f ' M2 = RI L - w b e + MI moment
(-l 1+) -
At x = - 2 MI L(L - 3 a)
Mma' (+) = MI + RI(a +:J
RI 3a
When x <a M, = MI + Ri x M, b (L - 3 a)3
When x js a
ifa> L/3
A
Urn ax I+I = + ----'-----'-
54 E I a 2
M, = MI + Rix - ~ (x - a)2
but x < (a + b) 2 Atx = Ll3b ~max (_I = _ M.. a (2 L - 3 a)3
1 ifa<2L13 54 E I b 2
When x <a ~x =- (3MIX2 + RIX3)
6EI
When x < a ~, = _ Mo b x (L _ 3 a+ 2 Lax)
2
When x o a 1 2BIU
~x = - - [12Mlx 2 + 4RIX3 - W (x - a)4]
but x < (a + b) 24EI
When x> a ~x = Moa (L - X)2 (3 a _ 2 L + 2 b _ 2 b x)
2EIU L
e Influence Lines
Effect of position of moment (Mo) upon Ml, M2. M+ and M-
+ 1.0
+.9
\
\ /
+.8 ~\
\
\
I M=KM o
I
/
I
\
\
\
+.7 f---~ 'I
\
~
M I-I inverted
A ~M2
1:
+.6 \
\\ . / K MI+1
+.5
+.4
I'.. ----L,'~
,
.....
'r I' , +-----,
:'\
~.
Mmoxl-l
d
1/ ,.
/ "yrte
~t~
+.3 -'
/'
/ ~~
+.2 /
TMI+1
7
"
+.1
~ 0 / /
'0
'"
QI
::>
\ / / J
1
o -.1
>
\
-.2 1\ / /
"'Jj /
L-M 2
/
-.3
<; ...- ,..
-.4 / /
MIt ij-MI-l
-.5 /' <,
<,
II ./'
-.6
_lFMI-1 M.(EOTb
-.7
-.8 II ~"}~ -
-.9 f M,lDl>.~
f
1
M ~ "'t1llOQ[J M, -
-1.0
7 mo~ent l I I diorom
o @Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
Position (a) of moment Mo
.8 .9 1.0
e Influence Line for Maximum Deflection --
!lO
I
0.
<,
O
; )" &
:::I
n
E
lD
+.004 o
.
II)
0
o
:i
.
"'1'1
-.002
.a
-.004 I "I I~ " ~ ~
/
" I I ~
-.006 \.. I ~
~
"
"I 1-/
...
:>o!
0
~
~ -.008
2
o
>
-.010
,,
-.012 I I' ,, r,
,
-.014 I I ,~ ~ ~ ~---i I, I ,I I
-.016
"
Influence line for " .......
I ~" I ~ ~
when
Ii
0= .2324L
_ .01615 MoL2
max deflection limo. for ~ . max-
a given position (a) of M o EI
at x = .4342L
o .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Position (a) of moment M o
8 Beam fixed at one end and supported at the other end
Concentrated load at mid-span 8 Beam fixed at one end and supported at the other end
Concentrated load at any point
P b=J
p
r- =t- l 12,
l 12
r-"--r-=-
R''Lx-l _~R, RI = VI = 5 P
R'Ex~
R,
16
L-4----l -I
: load : I L load
_ _ (
R2 = V2 max = 11 P
-1' I ,
l~i:1.
I 16
V, hmmmnmn :L At fixed end, Mmax = 3PL
Pb 2
RI = VI = -
2 L3
(a + 2 L)
~~ V, 16 V, V,
:
I shear
-, : 32 I
'
I
, At load, MI = RI a
J
J~ ~M:1-
I I Whenx<L/2
Mx =5Px
--
I I
i When x <a M, = Ri x
~t When x > a Mx = RI X - P (x - a)
moment
At x = L~ = .4472 L, 2
At x = L L2 + a
PL3 PL3 3 L2 - a 2
~max = 48EI v'5 = .009317 EI
Pa (L2 _ a 2)3
~max = ---'- when
7PL3 3EI (3L2 _ a2)2 a < .414 L
At load ~ =--
, 768 E I
~x
Whenx<a (II
= 12EIL3 2a
a
:J
~x = ~ (L - X)2 (3L 2x - a2x _ 2L)
Whenx>a 12EIL3
..
"'1'1
o
:J
c
ii"
•
<,
@Seismicisolation ......
!»
@Seismicisolation I
.....
e Beam fixed at one end and supported at the other end
Uniform load over entire span
RI = VI =-8-
3 \\' L @ Beam fixed at one end and supported at the other end
Uniform load partially distributed over span
--
!»
I
Cllt
~
<,
R2 R2 = V2 = 5wL
RI~I' 8
II' C
='
;-
L load I
Vx = RI
- WX I I:/.R 2 ;;
I _I
WL2 R, ::I
I I
Mmax =-8- -----ar.-: n
-.1: :L III
IJnnn",., """'lIlIllIllIIT 9 I
load:
I
C
.
III
-.l~ ~L
V,
·I--~L-l
V, At X = 3/8 L, MI = - WL2
Ii"
128
I ~_ I VI~ wb ::I
.*,~ ~.,
x
RI = R2 = V = 3 Mo When x < a ~x = --[4Rdx
24EI
2- 3L2) + wb(b 2 + 12e2)]
2L
L When x > a 1
I
: load
I
:
/'
MI = Mo butx< (a + b)
~x =--
24EI
[4RIX(x 2-3L2)+wbx(b2+12e2)-w(x-a)4]
I ~ I
~
M2 = 1/2 Mo
When x > (a + b) ~x =1- [3Mmax(L-x)2+R2(L-x)3]
Mo but x< L
Mx =-(2 L - 3x) 6EI
~~ 2L
:I shear :T At X = L/3, ~max = Mo L2
I I I 27EI
...L 1 1
~~LT
Mo'X
A
Ux =- - (L -
4EIL
X)2
M2
moment
. At supported end,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
8 = _ Mo L
4EI
6) Single span, simply supported beam, with overhang
8 Single span, simply supported beam, with overhang
a
Concentrated load at any point between supports Concentrated load at outer end
p p
I-a--+----b-----J r-X-j
Rlfx~ p R, t l aJ
v,_
1
:
I l
l'llllllllllllllilidi
I
I
load
shear
I I
i
IT
I
R,
max ) Pb
RI = VI when = -
( a<b
ma x )
R2 = V 2 when
L
= LPa
I
I
I
I
:
load
-
R,
mmm
shear
I
I
I
I..L
I
V, RI = VI =
P
Pa
L
I -- ( a>b R2 = VI + V2 = - (L + a)
I I L
: :l At load, Mmax=~
Pab
V2 = P
~r
I I
At R2, Mmax = Pa
:r'mox Pbx
When x<a Mx =---r:- Pax
Between supports.M, = - -
moment L
At x = J
a (a + 2 b)
For overhang, MXI = P (a - xr)
..3
"'1'1
o
c
.
ii'
<,
......
!D
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation I
00
...
6) Single span, simply supported beam, with overhang
Uniform load over entire beam
w (L + o]
s Single span beam, overhanging at both ends
Uniform load over entire beam
w(2a + L)
~
L
o
<,
"~ I
I load
_ _ R,
~}~IIIII~II-W
I R R
:ll'
11)
~
ill
1.: RI = VI = ~ (L2 _ a 2)
I
I
load ~
n
11)
V, Lll1L1illI:l::t:.........::z::ITTTTTmnTl'Tf'l..LJ..U:l~ 2L l-~ g
T: R2 = V2 + V3 = .:!!...... (L + a)2
V, I
11)
."
\G"
2L ~
shear
V2 = wa ..""
o
~
V3=~(U+a2) c
'£!!!I I !! ! !! ' !! ! I I I II lJ'>
.,' iii i i j iii i U,,;:
:-.l 2L
.aCiQl.tJJllilllllV"'"""'"I1'"""I\.~
(rlil.lill>'"
,1- R = VI + V2 = w(a + L/2)
D
."
2
At X ="21 ( L - La )
2
For overhang, MXI = wXI
2
MI = ....:!!..- (U - a 2 ) 2
8U M = wa 2
At support,
2
At R2, M2 = wa 2
2 w
Between supports.M, =-(Lx - x2 - a 2)
wx 2
Between supports, M, = - (U - a 2 - xL)
2L w
At center, Mol= - (L2 - 4 a 2)
W 8
For overhang, MXI = - (a - xI)2
2
At ends, .:l = ~ (L3-6a 2L_3a3)
wx 24EI
Between supports, .:lx = - - (L4-2 U x 2 + Lx 3 - 2 a 2 U + 2 a 2 x2)
24 ElL WL2
At center, .:lol = - - (5U-24a 2)
.:lxl = WXI (4a2 L _ L3 + 6a 2xI -4 a XI 2 + X1 3) 384EI
For overhang,
24 E I When a = .207 X total length
or a = .354 L
At free end, .:l = ~ (3 a 3 + 4 a 2 L - L3)
24 E I M = Mol= WL2
When a = .414 L, MI = M2 = .08579 w U 16
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
s Single span, simple supported beam, with overhang
Uniform load over entire span
wL
s Single span, simply supported beam, with overhang
Uniform load on overhang
wa
~
= V = wL
,~
R
2 2
L..j
w(i - x) R,~ L ~:.J RI = VI =wa
2L
I I
,
I
-
load IR
I
v; =
: load R, : L wa
R2 = VI + V2 =-(2L+ a)
..i..' I Mmax = WL2 1 ~. 2L
i-
At center, II I V
It:IDnnnnnr- ~
V
I
V
IT shear
8
wx
Mx =-(L - x)
'r
V:- !llIllllillilillllllllllllllliI :
For overhang,
V2 = wa
Vxl = w(a - xi)
, -- I 2 I shear I
I --- I wa 2
I I At R2, Mmax = - -
t--LI2-t--LI2~ L At center,
5wL4
6.max = - -
384EI
I
I
:
I
2
:~
~Mmox
I
I
I
I I wa 2x
Between supports, Mx =- -
6.x = wx (V-2Lx2+X3) I I..i... 2L
24EI
moment T 6.xI = WL3 XI
M ma x
For overhang,
W
MXI =-(a - XI)2
m-o-m"e'-nt--r 2
24EI
wa 2 L2
Atx=L/V3,"
At free end,
WXI
For overhang, 6..1 = - - (4a 2L+6a2xI- 4axI 2+XI 3)
24EI
IIll'
III
a
:I
..:I
."
o
c
.a
<,
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation --
!D
~
8.1-22 / Reference Design Formulas
p
concentrated load
1 4 - - - - - L1 ------11----- L2 ----~
;'
-,
Moment diagram
The above moment diagram may be considered as made up of two parts: the
positive moment due to the applied loads, and the negative moment due to
the restraining end moments over the supports.
r-
a2
i
~1-A2
------t T-----
, M:J
- - - - - - -=.L _.lJ.lliilll-lJ.Willll1JjJ.J.J.W-lt
M
.u.u..w..u..JJ..U.LLLillJWJJJJl..W
..J:: - --
where:
MI, M2, and M3 are the end moments at the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd supports.
LI and L2 are the lengths of the 1st and 2nd span.
1I and 12 are the moments of inertia of the 1st and 2nd span.
A: and Asare the areas under the positive moment diagrams of the 1st
and 2nd span.
a i and as are the distance of the centroids of the areas of the positive
moment diagrams to the 1st and 3rd outer supports.
may be found.@Seismicisolation
By writing this equation for each successive pair of spans, all of the moments
@Seismicisolation
Beam Formulas / 8.1-23
w uniform load p
... concentrated load
t
M
f M
f
l- n .1
--.1
I. L ·1 L .1
Area Area
A = 213ML A =1/2ML
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
8 Two span, continuous beam
Concentrated load at center of
one span only
@ Two span, continuous beam
Concentrated load at any point of
one span only
e Two span, continuous beam
Uniform load over one span only
-
!»
~
....
<,
p p wL
~
t-- L12:r-L12 --i
"ro~ ~" -..
:Ill'
t --OfR
flI
R
'I
I
L :t."""---L
R,
load
I
I
)
I
I
R,
l
load
I
R,
I
L
R,
l
load
J"
I
I
flI
flI
~
n
-1:
I - I II - I flI
I I
....i.. 1 :1
r
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
V,
...L.
shear
- I
I
I
I
:
1+7/16 L...j
I
I
I
..
o"'"
Ii
c:
.:~ : :~'
lrI~'
D
M~ I x
M~: '"
. i ) " " Ii" i Ii Ii Iii iii i Ii iii []]JIIiiiii""1 :
M,
M,
,- moment
moment r- moment
13 Pb 7
RI = VI = - P RI = VI = - [4L2- a(L+a)] RI = VI = -wL
32 4L3 16
11 Pa 5
R2 = V2 + V3 = - P R2 = V2 + V3 = - [2L2+b(L+a)] R2 = V2 + V3 = - w L
16 2L3 8
3 Pab 1
R3 = V3 = - P R3 = V3 =--(L + a) R3 = V3 = -wL
32 4L3 16
9
19
V2 =-P V2 = Pa [4L2 - b(L + a)] V2 =- wL
32 4 L3 16
13 49
At load, Mma. =-PL At load, Mma. = P a b [4 L2 _ a (L + a)] Atx = 7/16L, Mma. = -
512
WL2
64 4 L3
3 WL2
At R2, M2 =-PL
32
At R2, M2 = -Pab
- ( L + a)
4 L2
At R2, MI=--
16
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation See pages 8 and 9 for beam-load condition 7D
SECTION 8.2
8~1---_ __0'
Member
At support,
T=T
(J = TL
E.R
Torsional diagram
O ~.7
2
•
r,
Q, /Q,r. Q, rI"
t
l
r¥"Po,
I fJ'
uniform torque in-Ibs
'~
-I
in
At support, T = tL
tV
(J=--
2E.R
'r
T
L LJ"l.LU..L.L.I.J..1.LI.U.U..u...u.J.JI.I..I..J.LI,.u...u.J.JI..I..l.IJ:I:_
0~. ,_
0
l
f2Lj .1
Section a:
Section b:
T. = TI b
L
Tb = TI a
L
(JI = TI a b
LE.R
Ta
1 rrlm1m
I 1I I ITT
I I"TTIITT
I I ""I
II'T'Im
I 1I ITT
I ITT
I 1"T'TI11[ ..1 TL
T UIIIIIIIIIIIIII Tb When a = b = L/2 (Jol= - -
4E.R
t
Section a: T. = TI (b + c) + T2 C
L
(Jz = To c
. T2C - TI a
Section b: Tb =- - - -
L
E.R
When a = b = c = L/3
Section c: T, = _ TI a + T2 (a + b) . TI = Tz = T/2
L
and (JI = (J2 = ~
6E.R
T. = TI (b + c + d) + T2 (c + d) + Ta d
L (JI = T. a
Tb = - TI a + T2 (c + d) + Ta d E.R
L (Jz = Tb b + T. a
T, = - TI a - Tz (a + b) + Ta d . E.R
L
(Ja = Td d
Td = - TI a - Tz (a + b) - Ta (a + b + c) E.R
L
0~!TrrrlrrmY'~ tL
T.uppor, = -
T
.r l • ,
2
tV
Support (Jol = - -
BE,R
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
8.2-1
8.2-2 / Reference Design Formulas
- -- .0020
.020
- ._- .0019
.019
.0018
.018
Plan view
.0017
.017
\ /
r r
\"7
.016 .0016
.015 .0015
.014 .0014
E
oQl
E .013 .0013 .o
cQl
.o "~Ql
"~Ql
.012 .0012 ~
.....au
~
u
a A B
.....a 6 .00000483 .000001 £
L-
16 .00090558 .000031 4
C 20 .00176678 .000 076 9 .0010 §:
I-
.010 .....
24 .00304890 .000 1597 VI
Ql
~
28 .00483390 .0002958 'i
C'" 32 .00720246 .000 504 1 .0009 L-
.009
E 36
40
.010 233 79
.01400552
.0008063 ..2
~
L- .0012244 Cl
.....a 44 .01859341 .001 7932
.0008
c
o
« .008 45 .01987678 .001 961 7 L-
.....a
.....a
lD
VI
Ql
.....
a
~ .007 .0007 VI
o Ql
> ~
. a L o
.006 SIn-= - .0006 >
2 2r
.002 .0002
.001 .0001
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
5 10 15 20 25 30
Angle (a), degrees
35 40 45
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation