Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311

www.fuelfirst.com

Development of advanced technology for biomass combustion—CFD

as an essential tool
T.F. Dixon*, A.P. Mann, F. Plaza, W.N. Gilfillan
Sugar Research Institute, Box 5611, Mackay MC 4741, Australia
Received 13 November 2003; received in revised form 7 September 2004; accepted 14 September 2004
Available online 18 November 2004

Abstract
Major advances have been made in the development of bagasse combustion technologies and understanding the many processes involved
in bagasse combustion and steam generation. CFD modeling has come to form an integral and critical part of this progression. The experience
with CFD in the sugar industry through Sugar Research Institute has encompassed the full range of applications from fundamental code
development, through the generation and commercialization of new ideas and technologies, to the resolution of practical plant problems. The
paper summarises the numerous applications where SRI has achieved successful results utilizing CFD. It is demonstrated that the full benefits
of CFD in the delivery of commercial outcomes, for new technologies and the solution of operating plant problems, are achieved through the
close interaction between the code development and validation via full scale plant simulation. This two-way interaction enhances the code
fundamentals by focusing on practical issues and similarly increases the confidence in the capabilities and accuracy of the CFD predictions,
to an extent that justifies firm engineering decisions on commercial plant based solely on the characteristics predicted by the code.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Biomass combustion; CFD; Bagasse; Steam generation technology

1. Introduction combustion and boiler applications has embraced the full

The sugar industry in Australia has an evolving and
developmental culture that strives to advance its wide range
of technologies in order to remain internationally competi-
tive. In recent years particular emphasis has been directed to
the areas of bagasse (biomass) combustion and steam
generation, and more recently gasification, as these
processes command by far the single largest investment in
capital plant for sugar manufacture. The operating and
maintenance costs associated with steam generation also
demand attention to increase performance and profitability.
Sugar Research Institute has maintained for over 15
years an integrated program of research and development,
full-scale plant demonstration and commercial proving of a
range of plant improvements and advanced combustion
technologies. It has emerged that a critical component of
this development sequence has been the application of CFD
modeling. SRI’s involvement with CFD specifically for
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: t.dixon@cieam.com (T.F. Dixon).
0016-2361/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2004.09.024
range of activities from fundamental research into com-
ponents processes and CFD code development, through to
commercial engineering design and problem solving on
operational plant. The CFD code has undergone a sequence
of progressive enhancement as the focus of application has
shifted. CFD modeling has established itself as a critical tool
for the development of new ideas and advanced technol-
ogies. It has been SRI’s experience that CFD modeling is
capable of predicting qualitative information (trends), and
in many cases quantitative information, to within sufficient
accuracy to justify engineering design changes on commer-
cial boiler plant.
The focus of this presentation is the applications aspects
of CFD modeling for combustion and steam generation
technology in the sugar industry. The modeled systems that
are described are highly complex and thus model ‘vali-
validation’ is typically in the form of agreement with
qualitative, historical knowledge obtained from plant
operators and supervisory personnel. Where available,
comparisons with quantitative plant data are included and
used extensively. Overall, the modeling has been shown to
1304 T.F. Dixon et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311

have good agreement with qualitative trends and acceptable simulation. Information about particle impacts with indi-
agreement with quantitative data. vidual tubes (particle velocity, particle concentration and
impact angle) can be predicted and erosion rates estimated
using the empirical tube wear correlation.
2. Basis of CFD model Enhancement of the code is in progress for Conditional
Moment Closure (CMC) modeling of CO and NOx
SRI’s workhorse for CFD modeling in the combustion generation and dispersion/reaction specifically for bagasse
and boiler fields is the FURNACE code originally combustion.
developed for pulverized coal fired boilers at the University
of Sydney [1]. Use is also made of the CFX code for specific
applications where an unstructured grid configuration is
3. Model applications
required for adequate problem representation.
FURNACE is a three dimensional, structured grid CFD
In this section a range of CFD modeling applications are
code that can predict the standard gas and particle flow
presented. Depending on the particular design of the boiler
patterns, combustion and radiation in utility and industrial
under investigation, the modeling grid is assembled with
boilers firing a range of fuels. The code also has time
appropriate porous regions relevant to the problem. Fig. 1
stepping capability. The code has been modified over a
shows a typical grid configuration for a bagasse fired boiler
number of years to model the flow and combustion
incorporating a single stage superheater, asymmetrical
processes in bagasse fired boilers [2–4]. Details of a more
multiple pass convection tube bank and large gas transfer
recent version of the FURNACE code are described
duct to the vertical airheater/economiser passage.
elsewhere [5,6]. Some comments are pertinent. The
standard k-3 turbulence model is used for all simulations.
Lagrangian particle tracking is used to predict the motion of 3.1. Tube erosion
particles (bagasse and ash) through the boiler. Turbulent
dispersion of the particles is modelled using the technique of Bagasse fired boilers have convection bank tube
Gosman and Ioannides [14]. The code has been modified to configurations that can be susceptible to excessive tube
take into account the shape and aerodynamic behaviour of erosion. The tendency of these designs to erode is
bagasse particles. Bagasse combustion is modelled as a accentuated by the gas flow dynamics that differentially
four-stage process: particle heat-up, particle drying, devo- concentrate the ash particle streams and alter the angle of
latilisation and char burnout. impact onto tubes into directions that further increase
Several novel features of the code have been developed erosion rates. FURNACE simulations of the more intract-
in recent years. These include the dynamic simulation of the able problems typically use a dual particle size distribution
pile burning characteristics of bagasse that has deposited out consisting of representative ‘large’ size/variable density
of suspension on the boiler grate [5,7], gas turbine exhaust particles for bagasse and ‘small’ dense particles for the ash
injection in combined cycle configuration (unpublished fraction. It has been found in practice that specific tube
work), the simulation of tube erosion processes in individual erosion areas can be differentiated according to the different
tubes of heat transfer tube bundles including the incorpor- ash particle size fractions that occur in the gas circuit.
ation of porous regions [4,8], and the accurate simulation of
global convective heat transfer within tube bundles,
incorporating empirical correlations [9], for the prediction
of heat transfer coefficients within porous regions that are
used to represent the flow through tube bundles [6]. This
takes into account the pressure and temperature drop and
flow area restriction caused by the presence of the tube
banks. For tube erosion work, sub-grid modeling capability
has been added to the FURNACE code. This overcomes the
computer processing and storage limitations that prevent
detailed modeling of the flow patterns around individual
tubes. To use this approach, a FURNACE simulation of the
whole boiler is performed but with the inlet conditions
(particle velocity, particle size, etc.) to a user defined local
region within the boiler recorded by the model. These inlet
conditions are then used in a subsequent FURNACE
simulation of the flow patterns in this local region. As the Fig. 1. Side elevation view of the flow grid used to model the Union Saint
physical size of the local region is small, a much finer grid Aubin boiler (Mauritius) showing the positions of the superheater and
resolution (with improved accuracy) can be used for this convection bank porous regions.
 T.F. Dixon et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311 1305

Fig. 2. Flow simulations for the as-constructed design. (a) Gas velocity; (b) particle trajectory.

Figs. 2 and 3 show a typical CFD erosion application in a
tube bank for an Australian boiler. Gas velocity contours (a)
and trajectories for several particle fractions (b) are shown
for the as-constructed design (Fig. 2) and the modified
design (Fig. 3).
Both the geometry of the tube rows in the bank and the
configuration of flow deflection baffles have been manipu-
lated to arrive at a reasonable resolution of the problem. It
has been found that satisfactory improvements in boiler
tube erosion performance can be deduced by visual
assessment alone of the predicted flow and trajectory
patterns. Particular attention is given to particle concen-
tration effects, altered angles of impact and gas velocity
distributions. Only in difficult flow conditions is use made
of the FURNACE capability to simulate gas and particle
flows and calculate erosion rates at specific locations on
individual tubes [8]. For several boilers, second stage baffle
adjustments have been undertaken to refine flow patterns
based on observed changes in erosion patterns. These
adjustments usually involve only relatively small changes to
a baffle geometry or size to achieve the required erosion
reduction. A summary of several tube erosion investigations
can be found in [11].
3.2. Convection bank heat transfer
A difficulty that has emerged with tube erosion
simulations has been the conflict between reduced erosion
and reduced convective heat transfer. It is rare that
improvements in both processes can be achieved simul-
taneously. In most cases the heat transfer of a tube bank will
be decreased (less degree of crossflow) in order to achieve
improved flow conditions that reduce tube erosion. It has
been necessary to include in FURNACE the simulation of
global convective heat transfer across tube bundles. This
approach has been taken to reduce computational effort
rather than to attempt the simulation of heat transfer to each
individual tube in the bundle. Standard correlations for
relevant correction factors for heat transfer to tube bundles
have been incorporated [9]. These are applied in a
framework that utilizes the predictive capability of FUR-
NACE to specify the point values of gas velocity and
orientation throughout the porous region that defines the
tube bundle.
The global convective heat transfer in the tube bundle is
matched to measured data by the use of a matching
coefficient or scaling factor that is applied throughout

Fig. 3. Flow simulations for the modified design. (a) Gas velocity; (b) particle trajectory.
1306 T.F. Dixon et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311

Table 1 3.3. Airheater corrosion

Measured and predicted convection bank gas exit temperatures (8C) for
several boilers before and after convection bank modifications
Airheater tube corrosion has existed as a major
Convection bank Measured con- Predicted con- Scaling maintenance cost for many years on most boilers. Research
arrangement vection bank vection bank factor [13] has demonstrated that the problem has its origin in gas
gas exit tem- gas exit tem-
perature (8C) perature (8C)
and air flow distribution patterns and occurs while a boiler is
operating. Measurements of airheater tube temperatures
Saint Aubin original 362 363 0.98
have shown that wall temperatures close to 60 8C, less than
Saint Aubin modified 398 396
Kalamia #1 original 440 440 1.32 the dew point temperature, can occur in airheaters where the
Kalamia #1 modified 532 516 mean gas exit temperature was greater than 260 8C.
Fairymead #7 original 461 461 1.18 Negligible corrosion occurs during the start-up phase,
Fairymead 7 modified 454 454 which has been the traditional explanation for the problem.
Kalamia #5 original 271 272 1.35
It has been determined that the uniformity of the gas flow
Kalamia #5 modified 313 312
distribution at the airheater inlet is critical for preventing
dew point condensation inside some airheater tubes. This is
coupled with the matching air flow distribution, which can
the whole porous region. The matched coefficient is then act to accentuate the gas flow deficiencies. Global modeling
used unaltered in all subsequent simulations. Table 1 shows of airheater performance has shown that the overall
the results of heat transfer simulations for several bagasse heat transfer of a tubular airheater (exit gas temperature)
fired boilers. In all cases the convection tube bundles and/or can be improved (gas temperature reduced) in the order of
the flow baffles have been manipulated to reduce tube 15–20 8C by appropriate correction of the gas and air flow
erosion. The tabulated gas temperatures are representative non-uniformities. This is demonstrated in Fig. 4 which
values that are the ‘mean’ values for the exit of the tube shows the gas flow distributions at the airheater inlet before
bundle but are in reality point measurements. The scaling (a) and after (b) the installation of flow baffles.
factor for each boiler has been selected to provide an ‘exact’ The partial segregation of the ash particle stream in the
gas transfer duct provides an opportunity for extraction of
match between the measured and predicted gas tempera-
some particles prior to the airheater/economiser to reduce
tures for the original convection bank arrangement. The
downstream erosion effects. Fig. 5 shows one such
same factor is then applied for simulations of the modified
configuration being developed. The concentration of
tube bundles.
particles towards the rear of the gas duct allows extraction
Two points are significant. Ideally the matching factors
into an ash sluice for removal.
should be close to 1.0. That factors have been found to
depart (in some cases) significantly from 1 is an indication
3.4. Secondary air injection for furnace flame manipulation
that (i) the global simulation technique for heat transfer
across tube bundles is approximate, and (ii) the neglected
All biomass fired furnaces have secondary air or overfire
radiation heat transfer can be masking predictive
air injection primarily for CO removal. The secondary air jet
deficiencies for the convective heat transfer. Note that curtains also serve to interact with the main flame column
included within the ‘convection’ match is the radiant heat generated by the bagasse injection spreaders to maneuver the
transfer that also occurs within the tube bundle. Radiation is flame pattern, increase fuel–air mixing and reduce unburnt
not modeled specifically within the tube arrays. However, it fuel particle carryover from the furnace. In combination with
has been observed that for boilers where the scaling factor the swirl spreader development (Section 3.6) a novel
departs more from unity, these units have more ‘abnormal’ secondary air injection configuration is being investigated
flow patterns through the tube banks (less clearly defined as a means of substantially increasing the bagasse firing
cross flow segments). Second, the use of the global scaling density within the furnace space. Fig. 6 shows one of the
factor does produce very accurate predictions of the overall several variants of the upper furnace secondary air injection
heat transfer variations in a tube bank after internal flow that has been investigated to date. Both simulations have
modifications have been implemented. Predicted tempera- swirl spreader firing.
ture differences of less than 5 8C are considered to be an The conventional secondary air and spreader flow pattern
excellent result. generates a predominant upflow column positioned towards
The simulations show that in most cases the thermal the rear-centre of the furnace. There may be a low strength
performance of the convection bank has been downgraded recirculation flow adjacent to the furnace front wall. The
(increased gas exit temperature after modification). How- trajectory of the fuel particles through the furnace space,
ever, downstream heat extraction plant (airheater and which ultimately determines the residence time for burnout,
economiser) mostly recovers the ‘lost’ energy such that is generally vertically upward with a small flow deflection
the overall thermal efficiency of the boiler is not altered around the nose at the furnace exit ahead of the superheater
significantly. section. With the advanced secondary air pattern (b), the flow
 T.F. Dixon et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311 1307

Fig. 4. Gas flow distribution patterns at an airheater inlet before (a) and after (b) modifications.

recirculation within the furnace is deliberately enhanced. the tip of the furnace exit baffle, centrifuging the larger
This is intended to achieve three objectives; (i) stabilize and partially burnt fuel particles into the recirculation flow
anchor the main flow column in the rear 25% of the furnace adjacent to the front wall, and (iii) establish the large, high
adjacent to the rear wall; (ii) accelerate the gas flow around strength recirculation flow adjacent to the front wall.

Fig. 5. Particle concentration distribution (kg/m3)—segregation and removal of ash particles from the gas stream. (a) Original design; (b) particle extraction.

Fig. 6. Advanced secondary air injection for furnace uprating. (a) Conventional configuration; (b) new configuration.
1308 T.F. Dixon et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311
This flow serves a dual purpose of returning the separated
unburnt particles to the main flame zone and supplying
higher temperature gases to the entrainment flow of the
bagasse spreaders to increase the particle drying rate and
improve ignition stability.
3.5. Secondary air distribution for CO minimisation
Carbon monoxide (and NOx) emissions are emerging as
pollutants of concern for boiler design and operations in the
Australian sugar industry. Recent investigations with
FURNACE have been directed to quantifying the gener-
ation and removal characteristics of carbon monoxide and
how these can be manipulated by the use of secondary air or
overfire air injection. The code modifications associated
with this work are a companion to the CMC development
mentioned earlier. The CO modeling has been focused on
the mean residual levels of CO that are ejected from a
furnace and the distribution of CO in the upper furnace
region in the area where urea injection for NOx control is
typically implemented.
Incorporation of the CO dynamics in the FURNACE
code has been implemented by assigning a fraction of the
off-gas produced during both devolatilization and char
burnout to be CO. The ‘CO fraction’ factor has been
selected by comparing the predicted value of the mean CO
concentration at the boiler convection bank exit plane with
operating plant measurements. Typical CO fraction values
of 0.1 have been used in the simulations. Ideally the
segment of the code incorporating the ‘CO factor’ should be
developed separately based on well controlled laboratory
scale experiments. However, the authors are not aware of
any published data on mean CO concentrations in the off-
gas from bagasse devolatilization and char burnout
experiments of any type on which to base this validation.
In the absence of suitable laboratory scale data, full scale
plant measurements are the only means available to
calibrate the model. It is emphasised that global code
Fig. 7. Predicted contours for a particular overfire air configuration on a bagasse fired boiler. (a) Upper furnace velocity (m/s); (b) furnace carbon monoxide
(ppm).
validation against operating plant data (where available) is
always undertaken by the authors as a rigorous procedure to
ensure realism and commercial accuracy of the model
predictions. This is especially the case for simulations
involving previously untried plant configurations. The
reaction between CO and O2 to form CO2 was approximated
by a modified version of the eddy break up model [10]. This
modified version takes into account the kinetic limitations
of the CO oxidation reaction at low temperatures and the
mixing limitations of the reaction at higher temperatures.
The modified eddy break up model helps represent the
behaviour of ‘parcels’ of CO that are much smaller than the
computational cell size used in three dimensional models of
full scale boilers.
Investigations have focused on examination of the
number, location, size, orientation, injection velocities and
mass flows of the overfire air system on a boiler design. The
assessment of the success of a particular overfire air
configuration is based on the visual evaluation of the flow
and mixing patterns of the overfire air jets with the bulk
furnace gases, the manipulation of the main flame column
up through the furnace, the variations in the CO contours
within the furnace and the mean concentration of CO
present in the boiler discharge flue gas. Fig. 7 shows a
typical result for a CO investigation. The ‘CO fraction’
factor used in these simulations was 0.1. The flow velocity
contours for a vertical cross-section through the upper
furnace are shown as well as the companion CO
concentration contours for the whole furnace. The four
rows of overfire air nozzles of varying size and injection
velocity are evident (two rows each on the front and rear
furnace walls). The CO contours show high levels of CO in
the devolatilization and ignition region in the lower section
of the furnace (O12,000 ppm) consistent with in-furnace
flame zone measurements. The CO is oxidized rapidly
within the main flame zone and a residual column of low
concentration CO flows up the centre of the furnace where
the flame column is positioned. The overfire air jets act in
 T.F. Dixon et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311
Fig. 8. Simulation of grate combustion instability on a bagasse fired
boiler—comparison of measured and predicted flue gas oxygen variations
for boiler operating at high load (C measurements; K predictions).
the upper half of the furnace region. It is the manipulation of
this residual CO stream that is the focus of the overfire air jet
variations. For comparison, the mean CO concentration at
the superheater zone exit (start of dark blue region) was
131 ppm with the optimized overfire air configuration and
427 ppm when firing with zero overfire air injection.
3.6. Ignition stability and swirl burner technology
Recent designs of boilers installed in several Australian
sugar mills have experienced a combustion instability that is
manifest as a periodic oscillation of the combustion rate of
bagasse deposited on the grate at the bottom of the furnace.
The cause of the instability appears to be excessive energy
extraction from the bagasse ignition region above the grate
resulting from water cooling of the grate structure. The
instability is observed as oscillations of the quantity of
bagasse deposited combined with matching variations of
flame luminosity, furnace pressure, flue gas oxygen and
carbon monoxide concentrations and steam pressure. The
magnitude of the instability can be such that physical
damage to the boiler structure occurs (failure of airheater
Fig. 9. Schematic of advanced combustion technologies for bagasse firing. (a) SRI swirl burner; (b) advanced swirl spreader.
1309
walls, air duct separation, expansion joint fracture) and
boiler safety is compromised.
The FURNACE code has been modified by the modeling
of the bagasse deposition and burning process on the grate,
including particle segregation, deposition on the grate
surface, moisture removal from the accumulated pile and
surface combustion. The code is able to simulate the
oscillation dynamics with sufficient accuracy to explore the
boiler design and operating factors that impact the process
[7]. Fig. 8 shows the simulation of one such instability
sequence and the comparison with measured oxygen data on
the boiler.
An area of continuing CFD enhancement is the
application to the ignition stability issues of the high
intensity swirl burner technology developed by SRI [12].
Fig. 9(a) shows a schematic of the swirl burner developed
for bagasse firing. CFD was not used during the develop-
ment sequence for the swirl burner technology but is needed
to refine the burner design. However, the burner exhibits
interesting stability behaviour that requires further investi-
gation and is well suited to CFD exploration. The
technology allows the variation of the moisture content of
the fuel such that the burner flame can become unstable and
exhibit partial detachment. Under these conditions the
combustion intensity within and surrounding the central
recirculation zone progressively decreases, flame luminos-
ity reduces and the near flame field becomes visibly
transparent with weak flame pockets attempting to remain
alight. There is no sudden extinction of the flame. Due to the
proximity of adjacent flames, if the swirl burner flame does
become fully extinguished and the bagasse moisture content
is then reduced, reignition occurs via a reversal of the
process just described. It is necessary that a more complete
understanding of the ignition dynamics of the swirl burner is
gained so that appropriate design and operating parameters
can be determined. It is considered that the conditions of
particle drying and ignition in the near burner field will
1310 T.F. Dixon et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311
Fig. 10. Predicted furnace temperature characteristics for two settings of the swirl spreaders. (a) Zero swirl level; (b) swirl numberw1.0.
provide an interesting challenge when the CFD modelling is
undertaken.
3.7. Advanced swirl spreader technology
Development is progressing at SRI for an advanced swirl
spreader device for enhanced bagasse combustion. The
swirl spreader (Fig. 9(b)) is designed to replace the current
technology linear pneumatic fuel spreader. The enhanced
mixing and lateral spreading of the fuel generated by the
swirl action provides opportunities for boiler design
refinements that could result in significant capital cost
reductions for boiler plant. Two of the significant boiler
design factors associated with the swirl spreaders (compared
to conventional technology) are a 50% reduction in the
number of spreader units required for a given firing
capacity, and increased drying and burning rates leading
to increased bagasse firing rates within a given furnace
volume. The swirl spreader technology has been developed
to the stage of large scale application on an operating boiler.
CFD has been used to optimize the internal aero-
dynamics of the spreader design and to resolve erosion
problems due to unwanted particle recirculation in a critical
area. It is also being used to examine the integration of the
swirl spreader technology with the boiler furnace. A process
of simulation matching of the observed flame characteristics
of the swirl spreaders has been completed for measurements
on the test boiler at Proserpine mill. Exploration of the
design consequences of swirl spreader integration in a
furnace is in progress. Fig. 10 shows the modeling of four
swirl spreaders in a large furnace (330,000 kg/h steam
output), demonstrating the sensitivity of the flame pattern to
changes in the swirl intensity. The swirl intensity for the two
predictions is (a) zero and (b) swirl numberw1.0. Increasing
the swirl level draws the flame column progressively closer
to the front wall of the furnace.
CFD is a critical element in the full development
sequence for the swirl spreader technology. It is being
applied to quantify the full operating envelope of the
spreaders that includes not only parameters specific to
the device itself but also the interactive effects that derive
from spreader integration with the host furnace. The
modeling also forms an integral stage of the engineering
design of the advanced boiler configuration of which the
swirl spreaders are a significant component.
4. Conclusions
Major advances have been made in the development of
bagasse combustion technologies and understanding of the
many processes involved in bagasse combustion and steam
generation over 20 years. CFD modeling has come to form an
integral and critical part of this progression. The experience
with CFD in the sugar industry through SRI has encompassed
the full range of applications from fundamental code
development, through the generation and commercialization
of new ideas and technologies, to the resolution of practical
plant problems. The paper has summarized many of these
applications where SRI has achieved successful results. It has
been illustrative for SRI that the full benefits of CFD in the
delivery of commercial outcomes, be it in new technologies
or the solution of operating plant problems, have emerged
through the close interaction between the code development
and the validation via full scale plant simulation. It is
fundamental to the applicability of CFD that regular and
routine validation with full scale plant data is undertaken.
The two-way interaction between development and appli-
cation enhances the code fundamentals by focusing on
practical issues and the need to resolve these effectively. In
some cases the physical size of the problem areas that are
being investigated, within a commercial plant environment,
can be very small. Similarly the confidence in the capabilities
and ‘truth’ of the CFD predictions at the commercial scale is
enhanced, to the extent that firm engineering decisions are
made based solely on the characteristics predicted by the
code. SRI now regularly applies CFD modeling to a
wide variety of flow and combustion related areas as
routine a routine investigation by and design tool.
This notwithstanding, it has been surprising to SRI that
 T.F. Dixon et al. / Fuel 84 (2005) 1303–1311
there remains a continuing suspicion of the capabilities and
value of CFD modeling to plant design and process
understanding in the sugar industry by both plant operators
and equipment vendors.
Acknowledgements
Funding for the advanced swirl spreader and secondary
air technologies was provided in part by the Australian
Greenhouse Office (through RECP) and the Sugar Research
and Development Corporation. Thermal Energy Systems
are acknowledged for permission to publish the CO
modeling predictions.
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