Physics of Bipolar Transistors

The bipolar transistor was invented in 1945 by

Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen at Bell Laboratories,
subsequently replacing vacuum tubes in electronic
systems and paving the way for integrated circuits.
The bipolar transistor can be viewed as a voltage-dependent current source

𝐼" = 𝐾𝑉" 𝑉" = 𝑉&'

𝑉()* = −𝑅- 𝐼"
𝑉()* = −𝐾𝑅- 𝑉&'
If KRL > 1, then the circuit amplifies the input. The negative sign
indicates that the output is an “inverted” replica of the input circuit

𝑉()*
𝐴/ = = −𝐾𝑅-
𝑉&'
Ejercicio. Consider the circuit shown in the figure, where the voltage-controlled current source
exhibits an “internal” resistance of rin. Determine the voltage gain of the circuit.
Ejercicio. Consider the circuit shown in the figure, where the voltage-controlled current source
exhibits an “internal” resistance of rin. Determine the voltage gain of the circuit.

Since V1 is equal to Vin regardless of the value of rin, the voltage gain
remains unchanged. This point proves useful in our analyses later.

𝑉()*
𝐴/ = = −𝐾𝑅-
𝑉&'
Structure of Bipolar Transistor
The three terminals are called the “base,” the “emitter,” and the “collector.” As explained later, the emitter
“emits” charge carriers and the collector “collects” them while the base controls the number of carriers that
make this journey.

if the base is more positive than the emitter,

VBE > 0, then this junction is forward-biased
Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode

the base-emitter junction is forward-biased (VBE > 0)

the base-collector junction is reverse-biased (VBC < 0)
Under these conditions, we say the device is biased in the
“forward active region” or simply in the “active mode.”
Determine the current IX in Fig. if Q1 and Q2 are identical and operate in the active mode and V1 = V2.
Determine the current IX in Fig. if Q1 and Q2 are identical and operate in the active mode and V1 = V2.
In the circuit of Fig. Q1 and Q2 are identical and operate in the active mode.
Determine V1 – V2 such that IC1 = 10 IC2.
In the circuit of Fig. Q1 and Q2 are identical and operate in the active mode.
Determine V1 – V2 such that IC1 = 10 IC2.
Determine the output voltage in Fig. if IS = 5 * 10-16 A.
Determine the output voltage in Fig. if IS = 5 * 10-16 A.

5"6
750 𝑚𝑉
𝐼0 = 5 ∗ 10 𝐴 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 1.69 𝑚𝐴
26 𝑚𝑉

𝑉@A = 𝐼0 𝑅- = 1.69 𝑚𝐴 1 𝑘Ω = 1.69 𝑉

𝑉()* = 3 𝑉 − 𝑉@A = 3 𝑉 − 1.69 𝑉 = 1.31 𝑉

The collector current as a function of the collector-emitter voltage exhibe a constant value for VCE > V1.
Recall that VCE > V1 is necessary to ensure the collector-base junction remains reverse biased.
Base and Emitter Currents

Bipolar transistor must satisfy Kirchoff’s current law.

where 𝛽 is called the “current gain” of the transistor because it shows how much the base current is
“amplified.” Depending on the device structure, the 𝛽 of npn transistors typically ranges from 50 to 200.
Applying LCK to the transistor BJT

𝐼O = 𝐼0 + 𝐼P

1
𝐼O = 𝐼0 1+
𝛽

𝛽
𝐼0 = 𝐼O
(𝛽 + 1)

𝛽
=𝛼
(𝛽 + 1)

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝛽 = 100 → 𝛼 ≈ 1 → 𝐼0 ≈ 𝐼O
Large-Signal Model
Consider the circuit shown in figure where IS;Q1 = 5 *10-17 A and VBE = 800 mV. 𝛽 = 100

(a) Determine the transistor terminal currents and

voltages and verify that the device indeed operates in the
active mode. (b) Determine the maximum value of RC
that permits operation in the active mode.
Consider the circuit shown in figure where IS;Q1 = 5 *10-17 A and VBE = 800 mV. 𝛽 = 100

(a) Determine the transistor terminal currents and

voltages and verify that the device indeed operates in the
active mode.

VB = 800 mV; VE = 0 V; VC = 1.424 V

Since the collector voltage is more positive than the base

voltage, this junction is reverse-biased and the transistor
operates in the active mode.
Consider the circuit shown in figure where IS;Q1 = 5 *10-17 A and VBE = 800 mV. 𝛽 = 100

(b) Determine the maximum value of RC that permits

operation in the active mode.

𝑉Q + 𝑉@R = 𝑉00

𝐼0 𝑅0 = 𝑉00 − 𝑉Q

𝑉00 − 𝑉Q 2 𝑉 − 0.8 𝑉
𝑅0 = =
𝐼0 0.001153

𝑅0 = 1041 Ω
𝑅0 = 1041 Ω
Ejercicio. In the previous example, what is the minimum allowable value of VCC for
transistor operation in the active mode?
Ejercicio. In the previous example, what is the minimum allowable value of VCC for
transistor operation in the active mode?

𝐼0 = 1.153 𝑚𝐴

𝑉Q + 𝑉@R = 𝑉00 𝑉U = 800 𝑚𝑉

𝑉@R = 𝐼0 ∗ 𝑅0 = 580 𝑚𝑉

𝑉00VWX = 𝑉@R + 𝑉Q = 580 𝑚𝑉 + 800 𝑚𝑉 = 1.38 𝑉

Concept of Transconductance
The derivation of gm suggests that the transconductance is fundamentally a function of the collector
current rather than the base current. For example, if Ic remains constant but β varies, then gm does not
change but IB does. For this reason, the collector bias current plays a central role in the analysis and
design, with the base current viewed as secondary, often undesirable effect.
Small-Signal Model

𝐼O = 𝐼0 + 𝐼P
 ∆𝐼0
∆𝐼0 = 𝑔] ∆𝑉PO 𝑔] = ∆𝑉PO = 𝑣[
∆𝑉PO
Consider the circuit shown in Fig., where v1 represents the signal generated by a microphone, IS = 3 * 10-16 A,
𝛽 = 100, and Q1 operates in the active mode. (a) If v1 = 0, determine the small-signal parameters of Q1. (b) If
the microphone generates a 1-mV signal, how much change is observed in the collector and base currents?
Consider the circuit shown in Fig., where v1 represents the signal generated by a microphone, IS = 3 * 10-16 A, 𝛽 = 100,
and Q1 operates in the active mode. (a) If v1 = 0, determine the small-signal parameters of Q1. (b) If the microphone
generates a 1-mV signal, how much change is observed in the collector and base currents?

𝑉PO
𝐼0 = 𝐼^ exp = 6.92 𝑚𝐴 ∆𝐼0 = 𝑔] ∆𝑉PO = 𝑔] 𝑣[ = 𝑔] 𝑣"
𝑉b

𝑔] =
𝐼0 6.92 𝑚𝐴
= = 0.266 (1/Ω)
∆𝐼0 = 0.266 1/Ω 1 𝑚𝑉 = 0.266 𝑚𝐴
𝑉b 26 𝑚𝑉
𝑣" 1 𝑚𝑉
𝛽 100 ∆𝐼P = = = 2.66 𝜇𝐴
𝑟[ = =
𝑔] 0.266 (1/Ω)
= 376 Ω 𝑟[ 376 Ω
The circuit of previous Fig. is modified as shown in Fig. below, where resistor RC converts the collector
current to a voltage. (a) Verify that the transistor operates in the active mode. (b) Determine the output
signal level if the microphone produces a 1 mV signal.
The circuit of previous Fig. is modified as shown in Fig. below, where resistor RC converts the collector
current to a voltage. (a) Verify that the transistor operates in the active mode. (b) Determine the output
signal level if the microphone produces a 1-mV signal.

𝑉@R = 𝐼0 𝑅0 = 6.92 mA 100Ω = 0.692 V

𝑉()* = 𝑉00 − 𝐼0 𝑅0 = 1.8 V − 0.692 V = 1.108 V

Since the collector voltage (with respect to ground)

is more positive than the base voltage, the device
operates in the active mode.

As seen in the previous example, a 1 mV microphone signal leads to a 0.266 mA

change in IC. Upon flowing through RC, this change yields a change of 0.266 mA * 100
Ω = 26.7 mV in Vout. The circuit therefore amplifies the input by a factor of 26.7.
Early Effect
Suppose we raise RC to 200 Ω and VCC to 3.6 V.

The voltage drop across RC now increases to 6.92 mA * 200 Ω =

1.384 V, leading to a collector voltage of 3.6 V – 1.384 V = 2.216 V
and guaranteeing operation in the active mode.

If VCC is not doubled, then Vout = 1.8 V – 1.384 V = 0.416 V and

the transistor is not in the forward active region

Since RC is doubled, the voltage gain must also double, reaching a value of 53.2

= (0.266 1/ Ω)(200 Ω)= 53.2

53.2

Does this mean that, if RC à ∞, then the gain also grows indefinitely?

The “Early effect” translates to a nonideality in the device that can

limit the gain of amplifiers.
Large-signal model including Early effect Small-signal model including Early effect
A transistor is biased at a collector current of 1 mA. Determine the small-signal model if 𝛽 = 100 and VA = 15 V.

=1/26 (1/ Ω)

=(26)(100) Ω = 2600 Ω

=15 V /1 mA = 15 k Ω
Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode