Coal Based thermal power plant layout

There are four main circuits in a Coal Based

thermal power plant layout:

(1) Coal and Ash Circuit

(2) Air and Gas Circuit
(3) Feed Water and Steam Circuit
(4) Cooling Water Circuit
1
 The flue gases from the boiler make their way through super-heater,
economizer, air pre-heater and finally get exhausted to the atmosphere from
the chimney.

(a) Superheater: The superheater tubes are hanged at the hottest

part of the boiler. The saturated steam produced in the boiler tubes
is superheated to about 540°C in the superheater. The superheated
high pressure steam is then fed to the steam turbine.
(b) Economizer: An economizer is essentially a feed water heater
which heats the water before supplying to the boiler.
(c) Air pre-heater: The primary air fan takes air from the
atmosphere and it is then warmed in the air pre-heater. Pre-heated
air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of pre-heating
the air is that it improves the coal combustion.
2
How can we Increase the efficiency of the Rankine Cycle?
That is, the average fluid temperature should be as high as possible
during heat addition and as low as possible during heat rejection.
qout
th = 1 −
qin
qin needs to increase or qout decrease in order to increase ƞth

Three ways of to increase the thermal efficiency of the

simple ideal Rankine cycle. These are:
(1) lowering the condenser pressure,
(2) superheating to a higher temperature, and
(3) increasing the boiler pressure
33
Three types of Ideal Rankine cycle
1. The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
or plant
2. The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle or
plant
3. The ideal Cogeneration Rankine cycle
or plant
4
55
 What is a Gas Turbine?
The Gas Turbine is the engine at the heart of
the power plant which supplies power to the
generator shaft.
A gas turbine is a combustion engine that can
convert natural gas or other liquid fuels to
mechanical energy. This energy then drives a
generator that produces electrical energy.
6
As hot combustion gas expands through the
turbine, it spins the rotating blades.
The rotating blades perform a dual function:
they drive the compressor to draw more
pressurized air into the combustion section,
and they spin a generator to produce
electricity.

7
 How the Gas Generator Produces Electricity
To generate electricity, the combustion chamber
heats a mixture of air and fuel at very high
temperatures, causing the turbine blades to spin
while the combustion products passing through the
turbine. The spinning turbine drives a generator
that converts the energy into electricity.
The gas turbine can be used in combination with a
steam turbine—in a combined-cycle power plant-to
create power extremely efficiently.
8
The engine start-up time has been reduced
from 4 h required for a typical steam
propulsion system to less than 2 min for a gas
turbine.
Many modern marine propulsion systems use
gas turbines together with diesel engines
because of the high fuel consumption of
simple-cycle gas-turbine engines.
9
In combined diesel and gas-turbine systems,
diesel is used to provide for efficient low-
power and cruise operation, and gas turbine
is used when high speeds are needed.
In gas-turbine power plants, the ratio of the
compressor work to the turbine work,
called the back work ratio, is very high.

10
A power plant with a high back work ratio
requires a larger turbine to provide the
additional power requirements of the
compressor.
Therefore, the turbines used in gas-turbine
power plants are larger than those used in
steam power plants of the same net power
output. One-half of the turbine work output is
used to drive the compressor.
11
The situation is even worse when the isentropic
efficiencies of the compressor and the turbine are
low.
This is quite in contrast to steam power plants,
where the back work ratio is only a few percent.
This is not surprising, however, since a liquid is
compressed in steam power plants instead of a
gas, and the steady-flow work is proportional to
the specific volume of the working fluid.
12
 Brayton Cycle (1870)
Use in gas trubine engines
◼ Gas turbine cycle
◼ Open vs closed system
model

Close cycle

Open cycle
13
14
Gas turbines usually
operate on an open
cycle, as shown in Fig. 1
Fresh air at ambient
conditions is drawn into
the compressor, where
Fig. 1 Open cycle gas turbine
its temperature and engine
pressure are raised.
The high pressure air proceeds into the combustion
chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant
pressure. 15
The resulting high-
temperature gases then
enter the turbine, where
they expand to the
atmospheric pressure while
producing power.
Fig. 1 Open cycle gas turbine engine

The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are thrown

out (not recirculated), causing the cycle to be
classified as an open cycle.
16
Gas-turbine cycle (close).
Here the compression and
expansion processes remain
the same, but the
combustion process is Fig. 2 Close-cycle gas
turbine engine
replaced by a CPHA process
from an external source, and
the exhaust process is
replaced by a CPHR process
to the ambient air.
17
The ideal cycle that the working fluid
undergoes in this closed loop is the Brayton
cycle, which is made up of four internally
reversible processes:

1-2 Adiabatic and Isentropic

compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat
addition (CPHA)
3-4 Adiabatic and Isentropic
expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat
rejection (CPHR)
18
Brayton Cycle on T-s and P-v diagrams

Four internally reversible

processes
1-2 Adiabatic (Isentropic)
Compression (compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat
addition (CPHA)
3-4 Adiabatic (Isentropic )
expansion (turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat
rejection (CPHR)
19
When the changes in kinetic
and potential energies are
neglected, the energy balance
for a steady-flow process can
be expressed, on a unit–mass
basis, as
∑q = 0
( qin – qout ) + (win – wout ) = 0
Or, ( qin – qout ) = (wout - win) = wnet
20
Therefore, from the specific
energy balance for the
combustion chamber (heat
exchanger-CPHA), heat
transfers to the system,

∑q = 0 Or, qin + h2 - h3 = 0
Or, qin = h3 - h2 = cp T3 - cp T2
Or, qin = cp × (T3 – T2 ) (1)
21
Similarly, specific energy balance
for the (heat exchanger- CPHR),
heat transfers from the working
fluid of the system to the
atmosphere

∑q = 0, Or, qout + h1 - h4 = 0

Or, qout = h4 - h1 = cp T4 - cp T1
Or, qout = cp × (T4 –T1 ) (2)
22
Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle -
plant under the cold-air standard (constant specific heat
capacity at cP )
wnet qin − qout qout
ith = = = 1−
qin qin qin

c p (T4 − T1 ) ( T4 − T1 )
Or, ith = 1− = 1−
c p (T3 − T2 ) (T3 − T2 )
 T4  
T1    − 1
th = 1 −  T1  
Or,  T3  
T2    − 1
 T2   23
  T4  
T1    − 1
  T1  
Or, th = 1 − (3)
 T3  
T2    − 1
 T2  
The pressure ratio of the compressor (Brayton cycle), rp is
defined as,
P2
r =
p
(since P2 = P3 and
P1 P1 = P4 from P-v diagram)
P2 P3
Or, rp = =
P1 P4
24
 Process 1-2: This process is an isentropic. For this
process, from ideal gas equation
P1 v1 P2 v2
=
T1 T2
Or, T2 P1 v1 = T1 P2 v2

T2  P2   v2 
Or, =   (4)
T1  P1   v1  (2)

25
P and V relationship in polytropic process 1-2 is ( k = adiabatic index)
k
 v2  P1
Or, P1 v1 = P2 v2
k k
Or, v  = P
 1 2
1 1
−
 v2   P1  k
1  P2  k

Or, v =P  = 1 =   k=
cp
= =n
 1  2 ( P2 / P1 ) k  P1  cv

1
−
 v2   P2  k

Or, v =P  (5)

 1  1

26
 T2  P2   v2 
We have from Eqn. (4), =   (4)
T1  P1   v1 
1
−
 v2   P2  k

We have from Eqn. (5), v =P  (5)

 1  1
1 1
− 1−
T2  P2   P2  k
 P2  k
From eqn. (4), =   = 
T1  P1   P1   P1 
k −1

T2  P2  k

Or, =  (6)
T1  P1  27
Process 3- 4: This is also an isentropic process. The
relation between T and v in this process is similar to the
relation between T and v in process 1-2:
This process is an isentropic (reversible adiabatic)
process. For this process, the relation between P, T and v
is as follows:
P3 v3 = P4 v4
k k

k
 v3  P4
Or, v  = P
 4 3

28
 1

 v3   P4  k

Or, v  = P  (7)
 4  3
P3 v3 P4 v4
From ideal gas equation, =
T3 T4
P3  T3   v4 
Or, =  
P4  T4   v3 
 T3   P3 / P4 
Or, T  =  v / v 
 4  4 3 

29
  T3   P3   v3 
Or, T  =  P   v  (8)
 4  4  4
1

 v3   P4  k

We have from Eqn., (7) v  = P  (7)

 4  3
Eqn. (8) can be written as –Using Eqn. (7)
1

 T3  P3  P4  k

Or, T  = P   P 
 4 4  3
30
 1

 T3   P3   P4  k
Or,
T  =  P   P 
 4  4  3
1

 T3   P3   1  k
 P3  1
Or,   =     =  
 T4   P4   ( P3 / P4 ) 
1
 P4   P3  k
P 
 1− 1 
 4
 
 T3   P3   k
Or,   =  
 T4   P4 
31
32
  k − 1
 
 T3   P3   k 
But P2 = P3
Or, T  =  P 
 4  4 and P4 = P1
 k − 1
   k − 1
 T3   P2   k 
T2  P2 

 k 


Or, T  =  P  (9) We have, =  (6)

 4  1 T1  P1 
Equations (6) and (9) are identical, RHS are equal

T3 T2 T3 T4
Therefore, = Or, =
T4 T1 T2 T1
33
 T3 T4
We have, =
T2 T1
 T4  
T1    − 1
  T1  
Therefore, th =1 − (3)
 T3  
T2    − 1
 T2  
 T4  
T1    − 1
th =1 −   T1   = 1−
T1
Or,
 T4   T2
T2    − 1
 T1  
34
 T1
Or,  th = 1 − (10)
T2
 k − 1
 
T2  P2   k 
We have, =  (6)
T1  P1 
 k − 1
 
T1  P1   k 

Or, = 
T2  P2 
Therefore, from Eqn. 10  k − 1
 
T1  P1   k 

th =1 − = 1 −  
T2  P2  35
  k − 1
 
 1   k 
Or, th = 1 −   Theoretical efficiency
 ( P2 / P1 )  of Gas cycle

We have pressure P2
ratio of compressor rp =
P1

Pressure ratio, (P2 /P1) = Ratio of outlet and inlet

pressure of compressor

36
 ( k − 1)
1 k

Or, th = 1 −  
 rp 
1
Or, th = 1 − ( k − 1) ( 11)
rp k

Under the cold-air–standard assumptions, the thermal

efficiency of an ideal Brayton Cycle/gas power plant depends
on the pressure ratio rp of the gas turbine and the specific
heat ratio k of the working fluid.

37
Where rp, is the pressure ratio and k is the
specific heat ratio.
The thermal efficiency increases with both of
these parameters, which is also the case for
actual gas turbines.

38
 1
A plot of thermal efficiency th = 1 − ( k − 1)
rp k

versus the pressure ratio is

given in Fig. (for k = 1.4, which
is the specific-heat-ratio value
of air at room temperature).

The thermal efficiency

increases with both of theses
parameters, which is also the
case of the actual turbines.
Fig. Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle as a
function of turbine pressure ratio at k = 1.4

39
The two major application areas of gas-turbine
engines are aircraft propulsion (engine & propeller-a
machine that produces thrust to push an object forward)
and electric power generation. When it is used
for aircraft propulsion, the gas turbine produces
just enough power to drive the compressor and a
small generator to power the auxiliary equipment.
The high-velocity exhaust gases are responsible
for producing the necessary thrust to propel the
aircraft.
40
Gas turbines are also used as stationary
power plants to generate electricity as stand-
alone units or in conjunction with steam
power plants on the high-temperature side.
In these plants, the exhaust gases of the gas
turbine serve as the heat source for the
steam.

41
Fig. Basic component of a turbojet engine
42
 Back work ratio (rbw)
The fraction of the turbine work used to drive the
compressor is called the back work ratio.
The ratio of the input work of the compressor to the
output work of the turbine of the gas turbine power
plant is called as Back work ratio.

Wcom.in
rbw =
Wturb.out

43
44
Pressure ratio is the ratio of final to initial
pressures during a compression process.
Relative pressure Pr is defined as the quantity
exp(s/R) and is a dimensionless quantity that is a
function of temperature only, since s depends on
temperature alone.
Relative pressure is used to relate the ratio of final
to initial pressure in isentropic processes of ideal
gases where variable specific heats are required.
45
 Actual gas power Brayton Cycle
Note: the actual work input to the compressor is
more, and the actual work output from the
turbine is less because of irreversibilities.
The deviation of actual compressor and turbine
behavior from the idealized isentropic behavior
can be accurately accounted for by utilizing the
isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and
compressor.
46
 Actual T-s diagram B C
Ideal T-s diagram of Brayton cycle

States 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the compressor and the
turbine, respectively.
States 2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the ideal standard
Brayton cycle.
47
The deviation of an actual gas-turbine cycle from the
ideal Brayton cycle as a result of irreversibilities.
Reasons: Irreversibilities in turbine and
compressors, pressure drops, heat losses.
We have to consider the Isentropic (adiabatic)
efficiencies of the compressor and turbine,
respectively.
Note - Actual energy input to the compressor is
greater than the energy input in ideal Brayton cycle.
48
Specific energy balance
(SEB) to compressor in
isentropic condition,
wcom.in.s + h1 - h2s = 0
Or, wcom.in.s = h2s - h1
Similarly, SEB to compressor
in actual condition,
wcom.in.a + h1 - h2a = 0
Or, wcom.in.a = h2a - h1 49
So the Isentropic efficiency of the compressor
Energy input to compressor in ideal cycle
Or, C =
Energy input to compressor in actual cycle
w comp .in . s h2 s − h1
Or, C = =
wcomp .in . a h2 a − h1
h2 s − h1
Or, C =
h2 a − h1
Where, s = values for standard ideal cycle and
a = values at actual cycle condition
50
 SEB to turbine in isentropic
condition,
wturb.out.s + h4s - h3 = 0
Or, wturb.out.s = h3 - h4s
Similarly SEB to turbine
in actual condition,
wturb.out.a + h4a - h3 = 0
Or, wturb.out.a = h3 - h4a
51
Note - Actual energy output of turbine is less than
the energy output in ideal Brayton cycle
So the Isentropic (adiabatic) efficiency of the
turbine,

Energy output from turbine in actual cycle

T =
Energy output from turbine in ideal cycle

h3 − h4 a
Or, T =
h3 − h4 s
52
Fig. Ideal Rankine cycle –steam power plant
53
The continued quest
for higher thermal
efficiencies has
resulted in rather
innovative
modifications to
conventional power
plants. Fig. Combined gas-vapor power cycle

The binary vapor cycle is one such modification

54
A more popular
modification involves a
gas power cycle
topping a vapor power
cycle, which is called
the combined gas–
vapor cycle, or just the
combined cycle.
Fig. Combined gas-vapor power cycle

55
The combined cycle of
greatest interest is the
gas turbine (Brayton)
cycle topping a steam
turbine (Rankine) cycle,
which has a higher
thermal efficiency than
either of the cycles
executed individually.

56
Gas-turbine cycles
typically operate at
considerably higher
temperatures than
steam cycles.

The maximum fluid temperature at the turbine inlet

is about 620°C for modern steam power plants, but
over 1425°C for gas-turbine power plants.

57
It is over 1500°C at
the burner exit of
turbojet GP engines.

The use of higher temperatures in gas turbines

is made possible by recent developments in
cooling the turbine blades and coating the
blades with high-temperature-resistant
materials such as ceramics.
58
The gas-turbine power
plants have a greater
potential for higher thermal
efficiencies as of the higher
average temperature at
which heat is supplied to the
turbine.
However, the gas-turbine cycles have one inherent
disadvantage:
59
The gas leaves the gas
turbine at very high
temperatures (usually
above 500°C), which
erases any potential gains
in the thermal efficiency.

The situation can be improved somewhat by using

regeneration (Heat Recovery Steam Generator-
HRSG), but the improvement is limited.
60
 It makes engineering sense to
take advantage of the very
desirable characteristics of
the gas-turbine cycle at high
temperatures and to use the
high temperature exhaust
gases as the energy source
for the bottoming cycle such
as a steam power cycle.
The result is a combined gas–steam cycle as in Fig.
61
In this cycle, energy is
recovered from the exhaust
gases by transferring it to the
steam in a heat exchanger that
serves as the boiler.

In general, more than one gas turbine is needed to

supply sufficient heat to the steam. Also, the
steam cycle may involve regeneration as well as
reheating.
62
Recent developments in
gas-turbine technology
have made the combined
gas–steam cycle
economically very
attractive.

The combined cycle increases the efficiency

without increasing the initial cost greatly.

63
Consequently, many new power plants
operate on combined cycles, and many more
existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are
being converted to combined-cycle power
plants.
Thermal efficiencies well over 40 percent are
reported as a result of conversion.

64
Tohoku (Japan) combined plant 1090-MW (1985)
A 1090-MW Tohoku combined plant that was put
in commercial operation in 1985 in Niigata, Japan,
is reported to operate at a thermal efficiency of 44
percent.
This plant has two 191-MW steam turbines and six
118-MW gas turbines. Hot combustion gases enter
the gas turbines at 1154°C, and steam enters the
steam turbines at 500°C.
65
Steam is cooled in the condenser by
cooling water at an average temperature
of 15°C.
The compressors of GPP have a
pressure ratio of 14, and the mass flow
rate of air through the compressors is
443 kg/s.

66
 Ambarli (Turkey) 1350-MW (1988)
1350-MW combined-cycle power plant built in
Ambarli, Turkey, in 1988 by Siemens of Germany is
the first commercially operating thermal plant in the
world to attain an efficiency level as high as 52.5
percent at design operating conditions.
This plant has six 150-MW gas turbines and three
173-MW steam turbines. Some recent combined-
cycle power plants have achieved efficiencies above
60 percent
67
Fig. Combined gas-vapor power cycle (schematic and T-s diagrams)

68
69
 The ratio of the mass flow rates of the steam and
the combustion gases
ms
y=
mg

From SEB to the gas compressor (GPP)

in an isentropic or ideal condition,
wcom.in.s - h6s + h5 = 0

Or, wcom.in.s = h6s - h5

70
Similarly, from SEB to the gas compressor
in actual condition,
wcom.in.a - h6a + h5 = 0

Or, wcom.in.a = h6a - h5

Compressor isentropic efficiency (gas cycle),
Energy input to the compressor in ideal cycle
C =
Energy input to the compressor in actual cycle

w com.in. s h6 s − h5
Or, C = =
wcom.in. a h6 a − h5
71
From SEB to the turbine (GPP)
in an ideal condition,
wturb.out.s - h7 + h8s = 0
Or, wturb.out.s = h7 - h8s

Similarly, from SEB to the turbine

(GPP) in actual condition,
wturb.out.a - h7 + h8a = 0
Or, wturb.out.a = h7 – h8a
72
Gas turbine isentropic efficiency,
Energy output from the turbine in actual cycle
T =
Energy output from the turbine in ideal cycle

wturb .out . a h7 − h8 a
Or, T = =
wturb .out . s h7 − h8 s

73
The heat balance to heat
exchanger, which is also
acts as boiler for steam
cycle (lower cycle-
considered as ideal one)
g = gas and s = steam
Or, (ms × h2) + (mg × h8) - (mg × h9) - (ms × h3) = 0
Or, ( ms × h3) - (ms × h2) = (mg × h8) - (mg × h9)
74
Or, ms × ( h3 - h2 ) = mg × ( h8 - h9 )

 kJ 
( h8 − h9 )  
Or,
ms
=  kg 
mg  kJ 
( h3 − h2 )  
 kg 
ms
Or, = y
mg
75
76
The total net-work output per kilogram of combustion
gases becomes

Or, wnet.out = wnet.gas.out + ( y × wnet.steam.out )

We have from gas cycle the amount of heat added

process 6-7 (SEB to HE) in actual condition,

qin = h7 – h6a

77
The thermal efficiency of the combined
cycle is determined from

wnet .cgsc
Or, nth .cgsc =
qin .gas . cycle

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 Binary vapour cycles

Fig. 5 The schematic and T-s diagram for a mercury–water binary

vapor cycle are shown in Fig. 5.
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Water has a low critical temperature (374°C, well below
the metallurgical limit) and very high saturation pressures
at high temperatures (16.5 MPa at 350°C).
The result is a power cycle that is actually a combination
of two cycles, one in the high-temperature region and the
other in the low-temperature region (both are vpor cycle).
Such a cycle is called a binary vapor cycle. In binary
vapor cycles, the condenser of the high-temperature
cycle (also called the topping cycle) serves as the boiler
of the low-temperature cycle (also called the bottoming
cycle).
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That is, the heat output of the high-temperature
cycle is used as the heat input to the low-
temperature one.
Some working fluids found suitable for the high-
temperature cycle are mercury, sodium, potassium,
and sodium–potassium mixtures. The schematic
and T-s diagram for a mercury–water binary vapor
cycle are shown in Fig. 5.

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The critical temperature of mercury is 898°C (well above the
current metallurgical limit), and its critical pressure is only about
18 MPa. This makes mercury a very suitable working fluid for the
topping cycle. Mercury is not suitable as the sole working fluid for
the entire cycle, however, since at a condenser temperature of
32°C its saturation pressure is 0.07 Pa. A power plant cannot
operate at this vacuum because of air-leakage problems.

At an acceptable condenser pressure of 7 kPa, the saturation

temperature of mercury is 237°C, which is too high as the
minimum temperature in the cycle.

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Therefore, the use of mercury as a working fluid is
limited to the high-temperature cycles. Other
disadvantages of mercury are its toxicity and high
cost.
The mass flow rate of mercury in binary vapor
cycles is several times that of water because of its
low enthalpy of vaporization.

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The use of mercury–water binary cycles in the United States dates
back to 1928. Several such plants have been built since then in
the New England area, where fuel costs are typically higher. A
small (40-MW) mercury–steam power plant that was in service in
New Hampshire in 1950 had a higher thermal efficiency than most
of the large modern power plants in use at that time.
Studies show that thermal efficiencies of 50 percent or higher are
possible with binary vapor cycles.
However, binary vapor cycles are not economically attractive
because of their high initial cost and the competition offered by
thecombined gas–steam power plants.

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