Lecture Guide

Module 5

Introduction to Embryology
● Human development is a continuous process that begins when an oocyte (ovum) from a
female is fertilized by a sperm (spermatozoon) from a male.
● Cell division, cell migration, programmed cell death (apoptosis), differentiation, growth,
and cell rearrangement transform the fertilized oocyte, a highly specialized, totipotent
cell, a zygote, into a multicellular human being.
● Most changes occur during the embryonic and fetal periods; however, important
changes also occur during later periods of development.
● The field of study which includes investigations of the molecular, cellular, and structural
factors contributing to the formation of an organism is called embryology.
● It is a branch of science that is related to the formation, growth, and development of an
embryo.
● It mostly deals with the prenatal stage of development beginning from the formation of
gametes, fertilization, the formation of a zygote, development of embryo and fetus to
the birth of a new individual.

HISTORY
Early scientists and philosophers were aware of sperm as soon as the microscope was invented.
However, there have been competing theories in early embryology.
THEORY OF EPIGENESIS
● Aristotle first proposed the correct mechanism for the development of an embryo,
without having a microscope to observe his theory.
● He suggested that animals form through the process of epigenesis, in which a
single cell divides and differentiates into the many tissues and organs of an animal.
THEORY OF PREFORMATION
● The theory of preformation gained much traction before the invention of microscopes
and more advanced imaging techniques.
● This idea suggested that the embryo was contained, small but fully formed, inside the
sperm.
● The theory also suggested women were simply vessels to carry the growing child, and
that girls came from the left testicle, while boys came from the right.
THE DISCOVERY OF OVUM
● It wasn’t until 1827 that clear evidence was obtained that female mammals also
produce a sex cell, the ovum.
● The discovery of a female sex cell directly contradicted many aspects of the
preformation theory and led to wider acceptance of the epigenesis theory.
THE GERM LAYER THEORY
 ● Karl Ernst von Baer, discoverer of the ovum, and Heinz Christian Pander then proposed
the germ layer theory.
● It postulates that a single cell becomes separate layers of cells as the early organism
divides. These germ layers then give rise to the rest of the organism by growing and
folding into organs, vessels, and other complex tissues and the cells within
differentiating accordingly.

FIELDS OF EMBRYOLOGY
● Descriptive embryology: This field of embryology associated with the morphological
description of different embryonic stages in the ontogenetic development of individuals
of different species.
● Comparative embryology: the study of how anatomy changes during the development
of different organisms.
● Evolutionary embryology: the study of how changes in development may cause
evolutionary changes and of how an organism’s ancestry may constrain the types of
changes that are possible.
● Experimental embryology: It involves all those studies that attempt to understand the
various fundamental mechanism in the development of different animals, like
fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, embryonic induction, determination, and
differentiation.
● Behavioral embryology: the study of the early development of the nervous system and
behavior with a view toward understanding how the formative periods of neural and
behavioral development affect later stages of neurobehavioral ontogeny.
● Chemical embryology: The branch of embryology includes all those studies which
employ various biochemical, biophysical and physiological techniques for understanding
embryological events at a molecular level.
● Teratology: Teratology is the division of embryology and pathology that deals with
abnormal development (birth defects). This branch of embryology is concerned with
various genetic and/or environmental factors that disturb normal development and
produce birth defects.

SIGNIFICANCE
Embryology is the basis for understanding the intimate relation between structures in different
organ systems, such as the nervous system and muscle, and is primordial for understanding
disorders of development that in the human may present as one of the congenital myopathies.
● Bridges the gap between prenatal development and obstetrics, perinatal medicine, pediatrics,
and clinical anatomy
● Develops knowledge concerning the beginnings of life and the changes occurring during
prenatal development
● Builds an understanding of the causes of variations in human structure
● Illuminates clinically oriented anatomy and explains how normal and abnormal relations
develop
● Provide knowledge essential for creating health care strategies for better reproductive
outcomes
 ● A better understanding of embryology results in new techniques for prenatal diagnoses and
treatments, therapeutic procedures to circumvent problems with infertility, and mechanisms to
prevent birth defects, the leading cause of infant mortality.
● Supports the research and application of stem cells for the treatment of certain chronic diseases

HUMAN EMBRYOLOGY
In human embryogenesis, the first two weeks of development is called pre-embryonic period. It
starts with fertilization, the fusion of the egg and sperm. It could also be considered as the beginning of
life also known as pregnancy.

Fertilization
Fertilization, pictured in Figure1a is the process in which gametes (an egg and sperm) fuse to
form a zygote. The egg and sperm each contain one set of chromosomes. To ensure that the
offspring has only one complete diploid set of chromosomes, only one sperm must fuse with
one egg. In mammals, the egg is protected by a layer of extracellular matrix consisting mainly of
glycoproteins called the zona pellucida. When a sperm binds to the zona pellucida, a series of
biochemical events, called the acrosomal reactions, take place. In placental mammals, the
acrosome contains digestive enzymes that initiate the degradation of the glycoprotein matrix
protecting the egg and allowing the sperm plasma membrane to fuse with the egg plasma
membrane, as illustrated in Figure 1b. The fusion of these two membranes creates an opening
through which the sperm nucleus is transferred into the ovum. The nuclear membranes of the
egg and sperm break down and the two haploid genomes condense to form a diploid genome.

Figure 1: (a)
Fertilization is the process in which sperm and egg fuse to form a zygote. (b) Acrosomal
reactions help the sperm degrade the glycoprotein matrix protecting the egg and allow the
sperm to transfer its nucleus. (credit: (b) modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal; scale-
bar data from Matt Russell)
To ensure that no more than one sperm fertilizes the egg, once the acrosomal reactions take
place at one location of the egg membrane, the egg releases proteins in other locations to
prevent other sperm from fusing with the egg. If this mechanism fails, multiple sperm can fuse
with the egg, resulting in polyspermy. The resulting embryo is not genetically viable and dies
within a few days.
Cleavage and Blastula Stage

The development of multi-cellular organisms begins from a single-celled zygote, which

undergoes rapid cell division to form the blastula. The rapid, multiple rounds of cell division are
termed cleavage. Cleavage is illustrated in (Figure 2a). After the cleavage has produced over
100 cells, the embryo is called a blastula. The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells (the
blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity (the blastocoel). Mammals at this
stage form a structure called the blastocyst, characterized by an inner cell mass that is distinct
from the surrounding blastula, shown in Figure 2b. During cleavage, the cells divide without an
increase in mass; that is, one large single-celled zygote divides into multiple smaller cells. Each
cell within the blastula is called a blastomere.
  

ab

Figure 2: (a) During cleavage, the zygote rapidly divides into multiple cells without increasing in
size. (b) The cells rearrange themselves to form a hollow ball with a fluid-filled or yolk-filled
cavity called the blastula. (credit a: modification of work by Gray’s Anatomy; credit b:
modification of work by Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation)

Cleavage can take place in two ways: holoblastic (total) cleavage or meroblastic (partial)

cleavage. The type of cleavage depends on the amount of yolk in the eggs. In placental
mammals (including humans) where nourishment is provided by the mother’s body, the eggs
have a very small amount of yolk and undergo holoblastic cleavage. Other species, such as
birds, with a lot of yolk in the egg to nourish the embryo during development, undergo
meroblastic cleavage.
In mammals, the blastula forms the blastocyst in the next stage of development. Here the cells
in the blastula arrange themselves in two layers: the inner cell mass, and an outer layer called
the trophoblast. The inner cell mass is also known as the embryoblast and this mass of cells will
go on to form the embryo. At this stage of development, illustrated in Figure 3, the inner cell
mass consists of embryonic stem cells that will differentiate into the different cell types needed
by the organism. The trophoblast will contribute to the placenta and nourish the embryo.

Figure 3:
The rearrangement of the cells in the mammalian blastula to two layers—the inner cell mass
and the trophoblast—results in the formation of the blastocyst.

Defining the Embryonic Stage

After a blastocyst implants in the uterus around the end of the first week after fertilization, its
internal cell mass, which was called the embryoblast, is now known as the embryo. The
embryonic stage lasts through the eighth week following fertilization, after which the embryo is
called a fetus. The embryonic stage is short, lasting only about seven weeks in total, but
developments that occur during this stage bring about enormous changes in the embryo.
During the embryonic stage, the embryo becomes not only bigger but also much more complex.
The figure below shows early- and late-stage embryos for comparison. It is no exaggeration to
say that the embryonic stage lays the necessary groundwork for all of the remaining stages of
life.
 Figure 23.3.
223.3.2: An eight to nine-week-old embryo (CC BY-SA 3.0 by Anatomist90 via Wikimedia.org)
Embryonic Development
Starting in the second week after fertilization, the embryo starts to develop distinct cell layers,
form the nervous system, make blood cells, and form many organs. By the end of the
embryonic stage, most organs have started to form, although they will continue to develop and
grow in the next stage (that of the fetus). As the embryo undergoes all of these changes, its
cells continuously undergo mitosis, allowing the embryo to grow in size, as well as complexity.
Figure 23.3.323.3.3. The first few weeks of embryogenesis in humans. During the second week
after fertilization, a two-layered embryonic disc forms from the cells of the embryoblast. y the
end of the second week after fertilization, the two-layered embryonic disc has formed a third
cell layer by the migration of epiblast cells at the primitive streak. (public domain by Zephyris
via Wikimedia.org)
Formation of the Embryonic Disc

At about day 9 after fertilization, the embryoblast differentiates into two groups of cells, called
the epiblast and the hypoblast (Figure 23.3.323.3.3). Epiblast cells form a mass close to one end
of the trophoblast, and hypoblast cells form a lower cell layer. By day 12, the epiblast cells have
migrated away from the trophoblast to form a cavity called the amniotic cavity. The migration
of epiblast cells also pushes the hypoblast downward. These cell movements result in what is
called an embryonic disc. As you can see in the day 12 image in the figure, the embryonic
disc consists of two layers of cells, so it is called a bilaminar (two-layered) disc.

Gastrulation
Late in the second week after fertilization, the bilaminar embryonic disc develops a third cell
layer in a process called gastrulation. Gastrulation begins with the formation of the primitive
streak, which is a linear band of cells down the middle of the embryo that forms by the
migration of epiblast cells. The formation of the primitive streak establishes bilateral symmetry
and gives the embryo a head-to-tail and front-to-back orientation.
Cells from the epiblast move into the primitive streak and undergo a transition to stem cells,
which can differentiate into a variety of different types of cells. As the epiblast cells keep
moving and transitioning, they form a new layer of cells, which is called the mesoderm. This
layer lies between the outer layer of epiblast cells — now called the ectoderm — and the inner
layer of hypoblast cells, now called the endoderm. These three cell layers are referred to as the
germ layers of the embryo, and they form three overlapping flat discs.
Each of the three germ layers of the embryo will eventually give rise to different cells, tissues,
and organs that make up the entire organism, which is illustrated in the figure below. For
example, the inner layer (the endoderm) will eventually form cells of many internal glands and
organs, including the lungs, intestines, thyroid, pancreas, and bladder. The middle layer (the
mesoderm) will form cells of the heart, blood, bones, muscles, and kidneys. The outer layer (the
ectoderm) will form cells of the epidermis, nervous system, eyes, inner ears, and many
connective tissues.
 Figure 23.3.
423.3.4: This diagram shows some of the cell types that will develop from each of the three
embryonic germ layers: the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. (CC BY 3.0 by OpenStax
via Wikimedia.org)
The final phase of gastrulation is the formation of the primitive gut that will eventually develop
into the gastrointestinal tract. A tiny hole, called a blastopore, develops in one side of the
embryo. The blastopore deepens and becomes the anus. The blastopore continues to tunnel
through the embryo to the other side, where it forms an opening that will become the mouth.
With a functioning digestive tube, gastrulation is now complete.
Neurulation

Figure 23.3.523.3.5: This
diagram illustrates the process of neurulation, in which embryonic structures form that will
eventually become the nervous system. (public domain by NikNaks via Wikimedia.org)
Following gastrulation, the next major development in the embryo is neurulation, which occurs
during weeks three and four after fertilization. This is a process in which the embryo develops
structures that will eventually become the nervous system. Neurulation is illustrated in the
figure below. It begins when a structure of differentiated cells called a neural plate forms from
the ectoderm opposite the primitive streak. Two neural plate borders separate the neural plate
from the rest of the ectoderm. The neural plate then starts to fold inward until its borders
converge, forming what is now called the neural crest. The cells of the neural crest will later
differentiate and form most of the peripheral nervous system. The convergence of the neural
plate borders also results in the neural plate forming a tube, called the neural tube. Most of
the neural tube will eventually become the spinal cord. The neural tube also develops a bulge
at one end, which will later become the brain.
Organogenesis
In addition to neurulation, gastrulation is followed by organogenesis, when organs develop
within the newly formed germ layers. Most organs start to develop during the third to eighth
weeks following fertilization. They will continue to develop and grow during the following fetal
period.
The heart is the first functional organ to develop in the embryo. As shown in the figure below,
primitive blood vessels start to develop in the mesoderm during the third week after
fertilization. A couple of days later, the heart starts to form in the mesoderm when two
endocardial tubes grow. The tubes migrate toward each other and fuse to form a single
primitive heart tube. By about day 21 or 22, the tubular heart starts to beat and pump blood,
even as it continues to develop. By day 23, the primitive heart has formed five distinct regions.
These regions will develop into the chambers of the heart and the septa (walls) that separate
them by the end of the eighth week after fertilization.

Figure 23.3.
623.3.6: The heart starts to develop during the third week after fertilization and continues to
develop and grow throughout the remainder of the embryonic stage. (CC BY 3.0 by OpenStax
via Wikimedia.org).
Other Developments in the Embryo
Several other major developments that occur during the embryonic stage are summarized
chronologically below, starting with the fifth week after fertilization.
Week Five
By week five after fertilization, the embryo measures about 4 mm (0.16 in.) in length and has
begun to curve into a C shape. During this week, the following developments take place:
● Grooves called pharyngeal arches form. These will develop into the face and neck.
● The inner ears begin to form.
● Arm buds are visible.
● The liver, pancreas, spleen, and gallbladder start to form.
Week Six
By week six after fertilization, the embryo measures about 8 mm (0.31 in.) in length. During the
sixth week, some of the developments that occur include:
● The eyes and nose start to develop.
● Leg buds form and the hands form as flat paddles at the ends of the arms.
● The precursors of the kidneys begin to form.
● The stomach starts to develop.
Week Seven
By week seven, the embryo measures about 13 mm (0.51 in.) in length. During this week, some
of the developments that take place include:
● The lungs begin to form.
● The arms and legs have lengthened, and the hands and feet have started to develop
digits.
● The lymphatic system starts to develop.
● The primary prenatal development of the sex organs begins.
Week Eight
By week eight — which is the final week of the embryonic stage — the embryo measures about
20 mm (0.79 in.) in length. During this week, some of the developments that occur include:
● Nipples and hair follicles begin to develop.
● External ears start to form.
● The face takes on a human appearance.
● Fetal heartbeat and limb movements can be detected by ultrasound.
● All essential organs have at least started to form.
Genetic and Environmental Risks to Embryonic Development
The embryonic stage is a critical period of development. Events that occur in the embryo lay the
foundation for virtually all of the body’s different cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Genetic defects or harmful environmental exposures during this stage are likely to have
devastating effects on the developing organism. They may cause the embryo to die and be
spontaneously aborted (also called a miscarriage). If the embryo survives and goes on to
develop and grow as a fetus, it is likely to have birth defects.
Environmental exposures are known to have adverse effects on the embryo include:
 ● Alcohol consumption by the mother: Exposure of the embryo to alcohol from the
mother’s blood can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Children born with this
disorder may have cognitive deficits, developmental delays, behavioral issues, and
distinctive facial features.
● Infection in the mother by rubella virus: In adults, rubella (German measles) is a
relatively mild disease, but if the virus passes from an infected mother to her embryo, it
may have severe consequences. The virus may cause fetal death, or result in a diversity
of birth defects, such as heart defects, microcephaly (abnormally small head), vision and
hearing problems, cognitive deficits, growth problems, and liver and spleen damage.
● Radiation from diagnostic X-rays or radiation therapy in the mother: Radiation may
damage DNA and cause mutations in embryonic germ cells. When mutations occur at
such an early stage of development, they are passed on to daughter cells in many
tissues and organs, which is likely to have severe impacts on the offspring.
● Nutritional deficiencies in the mother: A maternal diet lacking certain nutrients may
cause birth defects. The birth defect called spina bifida is caused by a lack of folate when
the nervous system is first forming, which happens early in the embryonic stage. In this
disorder, the neural tube does not close completely and may lead to paralysis below the
affected region of the spinal cord.
Extraembryonic Structures
Several structures form simultaneously with the embryo. These structures help the embryo
grow and develop. These extraembryonic structures include the placenta, chorion, yolk sac, and
amnion.
Placenta
The placenta is a temporary organ that provides a connection between a developing embryo
(and later the fetus) and the mother. It serves as a conduit from the maternal organism to the
offspring for the transfer of nutrients, oxygen, antibodies, hormones, and other needed
substances. It also passes waste products (such as urea and carbon dioxide) from the offspring
to the mother’s blood for excretion from the body of the mother.
 Figure 23.3.
723.3.7: The placenta is a lifeline that develops between the embryo and mother. It allows the
transfer of substances between them. The amniotic cavity is surrounded by a membrane called
the amnion, which forms as a sac around the developing embryo. The yolk sac nourishes the
early embryo, and the chorion develops into the fetal portion of the placenta. (CC BY 3.0 by
OpenStax via Wikimedia.org)
The placenta starts to develop after the blastocyst has implanted in the uterine lining. The
placenta consists of both maternal and fetal tissues. The maternal portion of the placenta
develops from the endometrial tissues lining the uterus. The fetal portion develops from the
trophoblast, which forms a fetal membrane called the chorion (described below). Finger-like
villi from the chorion penetrate the endometrium. The villi begin to branch and develop blood
vessels from the embryo.

As shown in Figure 23.3.723.3.7, maternal blood flows into the spaces between the chorionic
villi, allowing the exchange of substances between the fetal blood and the maternal blood
without the two sources of blood actually intermixing. The embryo is joined to the fetal portion
of the placenta by a narrow connecting stalk. This stalk develops into the umbilical cord, which
contains two arteries and a vein. Blood from the fetus enters the placenta through the umbilical
arteries, exchanges gases and other substances with the mother’s blood, and travels back to
the fetus through the umbilical vein.

Chorion, Yolk Sac, and Amnion

Besides the placenta, the chorion, yolk sac, and amnion also form around or near the
developing embryo in the uterus. Their early development in the bilaminar embryonic disc is
illustrated in Figure 23.3.723.3.7.
● Chorion: The chorion is a membrane formed by extraembryonic mesoderm and
trophoblast. The chorion undergoes rapid proliferation and forms the chorionic villi.
These villi invade the uterine lining and help form the fetal portion of the placenta.
● Yolk Sac: The yolk sac (or sack) is a membranous sac attached to the embryo and
formed by cells of the hypoblast. The yolk sac provides nourishment to the early
embryo. After the tubular heart forms and starts pumping blood during the third week
after fertilization, the blood circulates through the yolk sac, where it absorbs nutrients
before returning to the embryo. By the end of the embryonic stage, the yolk sac will
have been incorporated into the primitive gut, and the embryo will obtain its nutrients
from the mother’s blood via the placenta.
● Amnion: The amnion is a membrane that forms from extraembryonic mesoderm and
ectoderm. It creates a sac, called the amniotic sac, around the embryo. By about the
fourth or fifth week of embryonic development, amniotic fluid begins to accumulate
within the amniotic sac. This fluid allows free movements of the fetus during the later
stages of pregnancy and also helps cushion the fetus from potential injury

Fig. 8- HUMAN EMBRYONIC STAGES

Summary
● The embryonic stage of human development lasts from the time of implantation of the
blastocyst in the uterus (around the end of the first week after fertilization) until the end
of the eighth week after fertilization. Besides an increase in size, some of the changes
that occur in the embryo include the formation of three cell layers, development of the
nervous system, and an initial formation of most organs.
● During the second week after fertilization, the embryoblast differentiates into two
groups of cells, called the epiblast and the hypoblast. Cell migration results in the
formation of a two-layered (bilaminar) embryonic disc.
● By the end of the second week after fertilization, gastrulation occurs. In this process, the
two-layered embryonic disc develops a third cell layer and a primitive gut. The three cell
layers are germ layers that will give rise to different cells throughout the body. The
endoderm (inner layer) will eventually develop into cells of most internal glands and
organs, the mesoderm (middle layer) will develop into cells of organs (such as the
bones, muscles, and heart), and the ectoderm (outer layer) will later develop into skin
cells and nervous cells.
● Neurulation begins in the third week after fertilization. In this process, which takes
about two weeks, the embryo forms structures that will eventually become the nervous
system. A structure called the neural tube forms that will later develop into the spinal
cord and brain, and a structure called the neural crest forms that will later develop into
peripheral nerves.
● Organogenesis, or the formation of organs, also begins during the third week after
fertilization. It continues through the end of the embryonic stage, by which time most
organs have at least started to develop. The heart is the first functional organ to develop
in the embryo. The heart starts to beat and pump blood by the end of the third week,
but it continues to develop for several more weeks.
● Other developments that occur in the embryo during the fifth through eighth weeks
after fertilization include limb and digit formation; formation of ears, eyes, and other
facial features; and the main prenatal development of the sex organs.
● The embryonic stage is a critical period of development. Genetic defects or harmful
environmental exposures (such as alcohol or radiation) during this stage are likely to
have devastating effects.
● Several extraembryonic structures form at the same time as the embryo, helping the
embryo to grow and develop. These structures include the placenta, chorion, yolk sac,
and amnion.
o The placenta is a temporary organ consisting of both fetal and maternal tissues that
provides a connection between the embryo’s and mother’s blood for the exchange of
substances.
o The chorion is a membrane that helps form the fetal portion of the placenta.
o The yolk sac provides nourishment to the early embryo until the placenta develops.
 o The amnion is a membrane that forms a fluid-filled sac around the embryo and helps
protect it.

FROG EMBRYOLOGY

THE EGG

Figure
14.2.1 Frog Egg
The frog egg is a huge cell; its volume is over 1.6 million times larger than a normal frog cell.
During embryonic development, the egg will be converted into a tadpole containing millions of
cells but containing the same amount of organic matter.
● The upper hemisphere of the egg — the animal pole — is dark.
● The lower hemisphere — the vegetal pole — is light.
● When deposited in the water and ready for fertilization, the haploid egg is at metaphase
of meiosis II.
Fertilization

Figure 14.2.2 Frog

Zygote
Entrance of the sperm initiates a sequence of events:
● Meiosis II is completed.
● The cytoplasm of the egg rotates about 30 degrees relative to the poles.
● In some amphibians (including Xenopus), this is revealed by the appearance of a light-
colored band, the gray crescent.
 ● The gray crescent forms opposite the point where the sperm entered.
● It foretells the future pattern of the animal: its dorsal (D) and ventral (V) surfaces; its
anterior (A) and posterior (P); its left and right sides.
● The haploid sperm and egg nuclei fuse to form the diploid zygote nucleus.
Cleavage
The zygote nucleus undergoes a series of mitoses, with the resulting daughter nuclei becoming
partitioned off, by cytokinesis, in separate, and ever-smaller, cells. The first cleavage occurs
shortly after the zygote nucleus forms. A furrow appears that runs longitudinally through the
poles of the egg, passing through the point at which the sperm entered and bisecting the gray
crescent. This divides the egg into two halves forming the 2-cell stage. The second
cleavage forms the 4-cell stage. The cleavage furrow again runs through the poles but at right
angles to the first furrow. The furrow in the third cleavage runs horizontally but in a plane
closer to the animal than to the vegetal pole. It produces the 8-cell stage.

Figure 14.2.3
Various stages of cleavage in a frog zygote
The next few cleavages also proceed in synchrony, producing a 16-cell and then a 32-cell
embryo. However, as cleavage continues, the cells in the animal pole begin dividing more
rapidly than those in the vegetal pole and thus become smaller and more numerous. By the
next day, continued cleavage has produced a hollow ball of thousands of cells called
the blastula. A fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel, forms within it.

Figure 14.2.4
Frog Blastula
During this entire process there has been no growth of the embryo. In fact, because the cells of
the blastula are so small, the blastula looks just like the original egg to the unaided eye. Not
until the blastula contains some 4,000 cells is there any transcription of zygote genes. All of the
activities up to now have been run by gene products (mRNA and proteins) deposited by the
mother when she formed the egg.
Gastrulation
The start of gastrulation is marked by the pushing inward ("invagination") of cells in the region
of the embryo once occupied by the middle of the gray crescent.

Figure 14.2.5 Frog

gastrula
This produces an opening (the blastopore) that will be the future anus. a cluster of cells that
develops into the Spemann organizer (named after one of the German embryologists who
discovered its remarkable inductive properties).
As gastrulation continues, three distinct "germ layers" are formed:
● ectoderm
● mesoderm
● endoderm
Each of these will have special roles to play in building the complete animal. Some are listed in
the table.
Germ-layer origin of various body tissues
ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM
Skin Notochord Gut
Spinal cord Bones Lungs
Brain Muscles Urinary bladder
Nerve cells Blood and blood vessels Liver and pancreas
Mucous glands Heart Thyroid gland
Sense receptors Sex organs thymus
 Figure 14.2.6.
Frog neural folds

The Spemann organizer (mostly mesoderm) will develop into the notochord, which is the
precursor of the backbone and induce the ectoderm lying above it to begin to form neural
tissue instead of skin. This ectoderm grows up into two longitudinal folds, forming the neural
folds stage. In time the lips of the folds fuse to form the neural tube. The neural tube
eventually develops into the brain and spinal cord.
Differentiation
Although the various layers of cells in the frog gastrula have definite and different fates in store
for them, these are not readily apparent in their structure. Only by probing for different
patterns of gene expression (e.g., looking for tissue-specific proteins) can their differences be
detected. In due course, however, the cells of the embryo take on the specialized structures
and functions that they have in the tadpole, forming neurons, blood cells, muscle
cells, epithelial cells, etc., etc.
Growth
At the time the tadpole hatches, it is a fully-formed organism. However, it has no more organic
matter in it than the original frog egg had. Once able to feed, however, the tadpole can grow. It
gains additional molecules with which it can increase the number of cells that make up its
various tissues.
SUMMARY OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG
Figure 14.2.7. The embryogenesis of the frog

References:

Evangelista, E.V. et al. 2013. Worktext in General Zoology. C and E Publishing Inc.
Payawal, Ruthela, Alvarez Lourdes et al. First ed. 2013 Biological Science A Practical
Approach. Rajah Publishing House
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book
%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/23%3A_Human_Growth_and_Developme
nt/23.3%3A_Embryonic_Stage
suggested you tube topics: human and frog embryology, fertilization, gastrulation,
neurolation