A DESCRIPTIVE – COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SOME PREDICTORS

AFFECTING TEENAGE PREGNANCY AND ITS PRONENESS

LEVEL TO THE SELECTED ADOLESCENTS

A Thesis Proposal
Submitted to the Faculty of
Department of Social Sciences and Humanities
Cavite State University
Imus, Cavite

In partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Bachelor of Science in Psychology

JANELLE C. DIONISIO
CASSANDRA MARIEL F. MATUNDAN
May 2017
 INTRODUCTION

Adolescence is defined as the development phase in the human life cycle that is

situated between childhood and adulthood. Adolescence is characterized by rapid

physical growth and development, with notable emotional and social changes (Gouws,

Kruger, & Burger, 2008 cited by Mushwana, Monareng, Richter & Muller, 2015). A

great challenge in this stage of development is that new feelings emerge, friends assume

greater importance, and interest in the opposite sex increases (Gouws et al., 2008 and

Shaffer and Kipp, 2007 cited by Mushwana et al., 2015). Adolescence is a critical period

for the development of healthy behaviors and lifestyles (Newman, Harrison, Dashiff &

Davies, 2008). It can be a time of both disorientation and discovery. The transitional

period can bring up different issues. They face tough choices regarding school-work,

decision making, sexuality and their social life (Schunk & Meece, 2005).

Adolescents engage in more reckless, risky, and thrill-seeking behaviors than their

younger and older peers (Tymula, Belmaker, Roy, Ruderman, Manson, Glimcher &

Levy, 2012). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identified sexual

behaviors as one of the six identified risk behaviors. This kind of behavior can contribute

to unintended pregnancy (Newman et al., 2008). Adolescent pregnancy brings change to

the lives of young girls and in most instances negative social consequences such as

dropping out of school and interrupted education. Adolescent pregnancies contribute to

many health problems as girls enter into motherhood before they are physical and

psychosocially ready (Godding, 2008 and Richter & Mlambo, 2005).

 Adolescence is a period of development often marked by experimentation and

engagement in new activities. Many adolescents engage in risky behaviors, including

early sexual initiation, multiple sex partners, and alcohol use (Kao & Carter, 2013). Their

risk sexual behavior may be resulted to unwanted pregnancy. Now, this is one of the

problems that the Philippines need to face. Compared to its neighbors in Association of

South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Philippines ranks third highest in teenage

pregnancy, next to Lao PDR and Timor Leste, based on 2000-2005 United Nations

comparative data. Only the Philippines have an increasing teenage pregnancy rate in the

ASEAN countries, from 1995-2000 to 2000-2005 (Natividad, 2012).

One of the predictors of early sexual intercourse is lack of attentive and nurturing

parents (Bradley, 2015). Parenting style is one of the top predictors of early Childbearing.

The permissive parenting style may contribute to other risky or impulsive behaviors such

as alcohol abuse (Bahr & Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior, especially among

female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, & Bryant, 2002). Another predictor of

teenage pregnancy is absence of father. Adolescents who live without their father are

more likely to engage in greater and earlier sexual activity (Ellis, Bates, Dodge,

Fergusson, Horwood, Pettit & Woodward, 2003 cited by Allen & Daly, 2007). Greater

exposure to father absence was strongly associated with elevated risk for early sexual

activity and adolescent pregnancy (Elis et al., 2003). Low religiosity can be a predictor

too. Individuals who identify with a religious group tend to have stronger proscriptions

regarding aspects of sexuality including pornography (Sherkat & Ellison, 1997) that may

influence group norms regarding teen pregnancy (Mollborn, Domingue, Boardman,

2011). Poor self-concept is also associated with earlier onset of sexual activity for both

male and female teens. Social psychological variables can also be identified as risk

factors contributing to teenage pregnancy. For instance, youth with low self-esteem may

be more sexually active than youth with higher self-esteem; they often seek sexual

partners as a means to make them feel better. Consequently, they have a greater chance of

becoming pregnant (Shepard, Carpenter & Kemp, 2002). Television, films and other

forms of media have removed a lot of the mystery surrounding sex by increasingly

explicit portrayal of sexual acts, which can provide a model of sexual behavior

(Slowinski, 2001).

In line with this, the researchers decided to conduct a Descriptive – Comparative

Study about teenage pregnancy. This research will give awareness to the readers on some

of the predictors affecting teenage pregnancy that can also give an idea on how to prevent

this kind of problem.

Statement of the Problem

The research in general attempts to know the predictors of teenage pregnancy and

proneness level of selected adolescent pregnant and not pregnant.

Specifically, it aimed to examine the following questions:

1. What are the predictors of Teenage Pregnancy?

2. What is the proneness level of Adolescent pregnant and not pregnant?

 3. Is there a significance difference between the proneness level of pregnant and not

pregnant adolescents?

Hypothesis

In the light of these data presented, the researchers come up with this null

hypothesis:

1. There is no significance difference between the proneness level of pregnant and

not pregnant adolescents?

Objective of the Study

The general objectives of the study are to know the predictors of Teenage

Pregnancy and to determine the proneness level of pregnant and not pregnant

adolescents.

Specifically, the study aimed to:

1. To know the predictors of Teenage Pregnancy;

2. To determine the proneness level of Adolescent pregnant and not pregnant;

3. To determine if there is no significance difference between the proneness level of

pregnant and not pregnant adolescents.

Theoretical Framework

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

The theoretical framework used in this study was social cognitive theory. Bandura

(1977) stated that behavior is learned through a process by observing the environment. In

Bandura‟s (1977) illustration of human behavior, personal factors, environmental factors,

and behaviors all have a direct impact on each other. According to social cognitive

theory, people learn not only from their own personal experiences, but also from the

experiences of other individuals and the consequences associated with them. Quality of

health is both an individual and a societal matter. In order to diminish the rates of

adolescent pregnancy, it is essential to address the variables that impact adolescents‟

perspectives on sex. Social cognitive theory can be valuable when applied to public

health efforts to decrease adolescent pregnancy.

Bandura studied the period of adolescence and the life span into adulthood related to

behavior modeling. Bandura believed that youth do not inherit tendencies but learn and

imitate the behavior of others. The Social learning Theory gives insight of youth behavior

and the significance of social involvement. Individuals learn by observational learning,

the connection between environment-person-behavior, understanding acquired behavior

as complex, and through self-efficacy (Miller, 2002). Observation and reinforcement

allows youth to learn aggressive play, sharing, peer interaction, sex-typed behaviors, and

independence. Three types of environments that influence behavior are imposed

environments such as schools that mandate attendance but leave flexibility for
acceptance; selected environments such academic courses or peer groups that students

actually experience; and created environments such as sharing or hostility that students

construct through positive or negative behavior (Miller, 2002).

Conceptual Framework

PREGNANT

PREDICTORS PRONENESS
OF TEENAGE TO TEENAGE
PREGNANCY PREGNANCY

NOT
PREGNANT

Figure 1. A Descriptive-Comparative study of Some Predictors affecting Teenage

Pregnancy and its Proneness level to the Selected Adolescents

The diagram shows that the aim of the study is to know some predictors of

teenage pregnancy and proneness level of Pregnant and not pregnant adolescents.

The researchers revealed that Teenage pregnancy is one of the problems in the

Philippines wherein it is the highest teenage pregnancy rates in the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). In line with this, Adolescent girls who give birth

each year have a much higher risk of dying from maternal causes compared to women in

their 20s and 30s (WHO, 2008).

 Adolescents engage in more reckless, risky, and thrill-seeking behaviors than their

younger and older peers (Tymula, Belmaker, Roy, Ruderman, Manson, Glimcher &

Levy, 2012). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identified sexual

behaviors as one of the six identified risk behaviors. This kind of behavior can contribute

to unintended pregnancy (Newman et al., 2008). It is a period of development often

marked by experimentation and engagement in new activities. Many adolescents engage

in risky behaviors, including early sexual initiation, multiple sex partners, and alcohol use

(Kao et al., 2013).

Through this study that will be conducted, the researches will know some of the

predictors of Teenage pregnancy and the proneness level of selected pregnant and not

pregnant Adolescents.

Significance of the Study

The researchers will know the predictors of Teenage Pregnancy and the proneness

level of pregnant and not pregnant Adolescents. The result of this study may be beneficial

to the following:

Adolescents. As adolescents who encounter different challenges on self-identity, peer

groups and risk taking behaviour. This study may help the adolescents gain their

knowledge about teenage pregnancy and its predictors in able to awaken their mind and

avoid engaging in early pregnancy and how it may contribute to their selves.
Parents. As a parent who have child that is in Adolescent stage who do not understand

their child‟s thinking, emotions and needs. This study may able to give them idea of some

predictors affecting teenage pregnancy for them to avoid their child to engage on early

child bearing; basically through encouragement and right nurture.

Counselors and Academe. The information that will provide in the study can be use as a

basis in formulating an intervention program or policy which can educate the parents

about teenage; likewise help to improve the welfare and awareness of Adolescents.

Future Researcher. This study may be able to open opportunities for them to study

teenage pregnancy on Philippine setting and how it affects the Filipinos adolescents

nowadays. This will also be a reference for those who want to study the predictors of

teenage pregnancy. The future researcher can also adapt data for this study to implement

an intervention for adolescents and also to administer the tests to other adolescents to

determine the external effectiveness.

Readers. This study may give information about teenage pregnancy and its predictors for

them to be more aware and avoid early child bearing for their selves.

Scope and Limitations

The study was conducted to determine some of the predictors of teenage

pregnancy and its proneness level to the selected adolescents pregnant and not pregnant.

The study focused on identifying some of the predictors through face to face interview in

12 participants who got pregnant in adolescence period. The predictors identified will be

based on the qualitative part of the study but it does not mean that the researchers are

putting aside the other predictors. The result of the face to face interview will be used as a
reference to make an instrument entitled as Cassnelle Teenage Pregnancy Proneness

Level Scale (CTPPLS) which will be developed by the researchers and will be validated

by three experts. The said instrument will be used to measure the proneness level of the

participants in terms of the identified predictors. The participants that will be compared

are selected adolescents pregnant and not pregnant. By comparing the two groups, the

researchers will be able to determine the difference of their proneness level and to know

if that is really one of the predictors of teenage pregnancy.

The instrument that will be developed is for female adolescents individual, thus, it

is not applicable for the use of other age. The research will use snowball sampling

technique since the target population is inaccessible or hard to find. Participants are

adolescents with ages ranging from 12 to 18 years old. Adolescence is a period of

development often marked by experimentation and engagement in new activities. Many

adolescents engage in risky behaviors, including early sexual initiation, multiple sex

partners, and alcohol use (Kao & Carter, 2013). The researchers choose 30 participants

for adolescent pregnant and not pregnant who are purposively selected.

The researchers focused on some predictors affecting teenage pregnancy based on

the results of face to face interview. Therefore, other predictors that will not be

mentioned in the study were not covered.

Definition of Terms

For better understanding of terms used in the study, the researchers defined them

as following:

Teenage Pregnancy. Pregnancy in human females ages 12-18 years old and

become pregnant from sexual intercourse.

Pregnant. A girl who got pregnant during adolescence period (Qualitative); an

adolescent who got pregnant (Quantitative).

Not Pregnant. An adolescent who does not get pregnant.

Predictors. Information that supports a probabilistic estimate of future events

Absence of Father. A father who is not directly involved in his child such as

working in abroad or a father who is characterized by great or excessive freedom of

behavior.

Perceived Low Religiosity. A person who does not frequently engage in any

spiritual act.

Parental influence. A parents control, monitor, presence, supervise,

communication, guidance and parenting style in his children.

Mass media. A collective communication outlets or tools that are used to store

and deliver information or data.

Low self-esteem. Troubled by failure and tend to exaggerate events as being

negative. Rosenberg, & Owen (2001).

 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter contains literature taken from the books, thesis from the library and

dissertations from internet that are related to Teenage Pregnancy are presented based on

the previous findings of other researchers.

Teenage Pregnancy

Western Context

Teenage pregnancy refers to pregnancy occurs in young girls, mostly in the range

of age 13 to 17 years old. According to Jackie (2012) low self-esteem is among the

causes of teenage pregnancy. Children who are not shown love and affection from

parents will seek it out with their peer group. Many adolescents report feeling pressured

by their peers to have sex before they are married.

Globally, 15 million women under the age of 20 give birth, representing up to

one-fifth of all births and 529, 000 women die due to pregnancy and childbirth related

complications every year (Dev Raj, Rabi, Amudha, Van Teijlingen & Chapman, 2010).

Teenage pregnancy is a major concern to world communities with the US being at the top

with almost 1,000,000 teenage pregnancies each year (Williams, 2010). The United

States has the highest pregnancy and births among adolescents (Coley & Lansdale, 1998)

cited in Chang (2012). According to the Inter-Press Service (2011), the global rate for

teenage pregnancy for the year 2011 was 52, 9 pregnancies per 1,000 female adolescents.
In, 2000 the total number of teenage pregnancies in the United States was 821, 81 (84

pregnancies per 1000 people), as compared to Canada whose total rate of teenage

pregnancies in 2000 was 38,600 (38 pregnancies per 1000 people) (Chang, 2012).

Teenage pregnancy has different effects on their personal lives because

Adolescents do not usually plan to get pregnant when they engage in sexual behavior.

Teenage pregnancies that are unplanned may lead to impulsive decision-making (Wirkus

& Maxwell, 2012). Their inability to see future consequences for their behavior as well as

psychological immaturity puts them at risk (Mokwena, 2003). The shock of an unwanted

pregnancy can be emotionally traumatic for the young teenage mother-to-be and in

situations where there is no emotional support, some teenagers may experience increased

anxiety and frustration, while others may develop depression, emotionally reject the

existence of an unborn baby, become alienated from life, break communication with

family and friends, and may eventually commit suicide (Bezuidenhout, 2009). In line

with this, it could also lead to incomplete education, unemployment and other numerous

emotional traumas (Melissa, 2012).

According to World Health Organization (2008), Adolescent girls who give birth

each year have a much higher risk of dying from maternal causes compared to women in

their 20s and 30s these risks increase greatly as maternal age decreases, with adolescents

under 16 facing four times the risk of maternal death as women over 20. Moreover,

babies born to adolescents also face a significantly higher risk of death compared to

babies born to older women.

Filipino Context

The Philippines is a top Christian country in Asia with a total of 93.3 million or

93% of the total population (International Religious Freedom, 2012). Despite of this fact,

the Philippines is still facing one of the social issues in country which is Teenage

Pregnancy. According to United Nations Population Fund (2008), With a 70-percent rise

noted in a span of 10 years from 1999 to 2009, the Philippines has one of the highest

teenage pregnancy rates in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

According to World Health Organization (2012), the survey reveals that one in

five young adult Filipino women age 18 to 24 years had initiated their sexual activity

before age 18. Some of them would have had their first intimate sexual act before

marriage. Early pregnancy and motherhood varies by education, wealth quintile, and

region. It is more common among young adult women age 15 to 24 with less education

than among those with higher education (44 percent for women with elementary

education versus 21 percent for women with college education).

 Source: National Demographic and Health Survey 2013
Figure. 2 Shows Age at First Sexual Intercourse

The table shows that among women ages 25-49, the percentage having their first

sexual intercourse increases sharply from age 15 to age 18. In fact, the percentage who

had their first sexual intercourse by age 20 is almost double that found at age 18.

Age at first sexual intercourse is another indicator of the beginning of a woman‟s

exposure to the risk of childbearing. In the survey, women were asked how old they were

when they had their first sexual intercourse.

Predictors of Teenage Pregnancy

Parent Influence

One of the most important relationships people form over the course of life

among many other relationships is the relationship between a child and a parent. Parents

play an integral part in the total development of the child (Chala, 2014). It has been said

that parents are the „architects‟ or the „conductors‟ of a child‟s development. Parental

control and monitoring were generally found to be related to decreased probability of

sexual intercourse among teenagers. Parental rules, monitoring and presence were related

to decreased and more responsible sexual activity (Anemaw, 2009 cited by Chala, 2014).

Those adolescents who were closely supervised by their parents had a lower amount of

sexual risk taking than those adolescents who had low amounts of parental monitoring or

supervision (Newman et al., 2008).

Studies show that parents who have good communication, openness with their

children and increased maternal education is associated with later sexual activities in

adolescents (Anteghini, Fonseca, Ireland & Blum 2001 cited by Shrestha, 2012). Studies

have found parent monitoring and adolescent sexual activity to have a complex

relationship. Low levels of parent monitoring are associated with a variety of risky

behaviors, including unprotected sex, drug use, and drug trafficking (Li, Stanton, &

Feigelman, 2000 cited by Frankel, 2012). Parenting practices have profound effects on

adolescent development. Good parenting can optimize an adolescent‟s potential, whereas

suboptimal parenting may contribute to youth participation in high-risk behaviors

(DeVore & Ginsburg, 2005). One of the predictors of early sexual intercourse is lack of
attentive and nurturing parents (Bradley, 2015). Teen girls are more likely to get pregnant

if they have limited or no guidance from their parents. The permissive parenting style

may also contribute to other risky or impulsive behaviors such as alcohol abuse (Bahr &

Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior, especially among female children (Donenberg,

Wilson, Emerson, & Bryant, 2002).

Low Self-esteem

Poor self-concept is associated with earlier onset of sexual activity for both male

and female teens. Social psychological variables can also be identified as risk factors

contributing to teenage pregnancy. For instance, youth with low self-esteem may be more

sexually active than youth with higher self-esteem; they often seek sexual partners as a

means to make them feel better. Consequently, they have a greater chance of becoming

pregnant (Shepard et al., 2002). Low self-esteem can lead to early sexual intercourse,

both without protection and with risky partners (Ethier o.fl., 2006). Women with high

self-esteem were more likely to use protection. The present study examines the

association between self-esteem, risky sexual behavior, self image and teenage

pregnancy. It is hypothesized that 1) Risky sexual behavior leads to a higher risk of

adolescent pregnancy, 2) low self image leads to a higher risk of adolescent pregnancy

and 3) low self-esteem leads to a higher risk of adolescent pregnancy (Guðmundsdóttir,

2015). According to Jackie, (2012) low self-esteem is among the causes of teenage

pregnancy. Children who are not shown love and affection from parents will seek it out

with their peer group. Many adolescents report feeling pressured by their peers to have

sex before they are married (cited by Ogori et al., 2013). Youths whose parents exhibit
love, responsiveness, and involvement tend to have higher levels of self-esteem and

internal self-control. Parental love, responsiveness, involvement and non coercive,

democratic discipline had a strong association with adolescent psychosocial development

as measured in global self-esteem, feelings of internal control and ability, and

susceptibility to negative peer pressure (The Heritage Foundation, 2016). Youths who

have higher self-esteem are less likely to engage in risky behavior.

Mass Media

One factor that likely contributes to teenage sexual activity is how sex is

portrayed in popular media. The media is portraying sex in a degrading manner, and the

media makes it appear as if this is something that everybody does. Popular media

glorifies teen sex and makes it seem like the norm, and it lacks any information about

safe sex practice (Hust, Brown, & L‟Engle, 2008). Television shows and movies are

based around sex, but contraceptive use rarely seems to be discussed (Hust, Brown, &

L‟Engle, 2008). Television shows featuring pregnant teenagers are also becoming

popular, and really seem to promote this lifestyle (Hust, Brown, & L‟Engle, 2008).

According to Somers & Surmann (2005), the media has impacted adolescents sexual

attitudes in a way where the majority of the interactions have been men seeing women as

sex objects, sex as defining aspect of masculinity, or sex as a competition. Somers and

Surmann (2005), have documented that sexual media exposure may lead to early sexual

debut among adolescents. Media is intertwined in the lives of adolescents today.

 The amount of time adolescents spend with other types of media and technology

continues to grow. As technology progresses, adolescents are able to use their cell

phones, tablets, and handheld video game players for connection to the internet and the

media (Harris, 2011). Media plays an important role in the lives of adolescents, providing

them with opportunity for education. Media content is increasingly permeated with

violence and sexual references that can be highly influential as adolescents continue the

developmental process (Harris, 2011). Media is one way that adolescents receive

information about sex and it may have harmful effects. One-third to one-half of the

television shows teens commonly watch contains verbal references to sexual issues

(Somers & Tynan, 2006).

It is vital that adolescents are aware of these sexual images, especially the

negative portrayals of women. Most of our learning is observational, modeling, or

imitation. With that being said, adolescents are watching these television shows that may

motivate them to become more sexually active (Somers & Tynan, 2006). Somers and

Tynan (2006) found that the exposure to sexual dialogue and sexual content on television

was related to adolescents‟ sexual outcomes. Those adolescents who were more exposed

to television of a sexual nature were more sexually active and with a greater number of

partners (Somers & Tynan, 2006). Consistent media exposure may influence the ways

that adolescents develop their self-identity and how they deal with the developmental

tasks of adolescence (Somers & Tynan, 2006). A study by Somers and Tynan (2006)

looked at the frequency of sexual intercourse, number of sexual partners, age of first
sexual intercourse, and the frequency of the use of contraception in a variety of television

shows and movies (Coppens, 2014).

Absence of Father

Many studies have identified the absence of the biological father from the home

as a major risk factor for both early sexual activities and teenage pregnancy. According to

Ellis (2013), father absence occurs, the earlier daughters tend to initiate sexual activity

and become pregnant. A father‟s positive involvement (as measured by the amount and

type of contact) is related to children having fewer behavioural problems (Amato &

Rivera, 1999; Howard et al., 2006).

Adolescents who live without their father are more likely to engage in greater and

earlier sexual activity, are more likely to become pregnant as a teenager (Ellis, 2003).

This elevated risk was not explained by familial, ecological, or personal disadvantages

associated with father absence and there was stronger and more consistent evidence of

the effects of father absence on early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy than on other

behavioural or mental health problems or academic achievement. In addition, Studies

have found that father absence is correlated with a variety of risky sexual behaviors that

increase the adolescent‟s risk of teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases

(Donahue et al., 2010; Ellis et al., 2003; O‟Donnell, O‟Donnell, & Stueve, 2001; Quinlin,

2003; Vukovic & Bjegovi, 2007). On the other hand, having a close, positive father child

relationship predicts a reduced risk of engagement in multiple, first time risky behaviors.

In addition, when fathers have a positive relationship with their children, the negative
effect of having a father with an authoritarian or permissive parenting style on increased

risk of engaging in delinquent activity and substance use is reduced (Bronte-Tinkew,

Moore, & Carrano, 2006).

Following the logic of the preceding paragraph, it is not surprising that

adolescents with absent fathers are significantly more likely to experience or contribute to

a teen pregnancy (Ellis et al. 2003; Hogan & Kitagawa, 1985; & Quinlan, 2003).

Perceived Low Religiosity

Religious beliefs were among the most common factors cited by teens as their

reason for remaining sexually abstinent, second only to fear (e.g., fear of an unwanted

pregnancy, a sexually transmitted disease, or parental discipline). The level of overall

religious practice in a community also influences the sexual behavior of its youth: The

greater the level of religious practice, the lower the level of teen sexual activity (Fagan,

2016).

In a 2002 review of the academic literature on the effects of Religion, 97 percent

of the studies reported significant correlations between increased religious involvement

and a lower likelihood of promiscuous sexual behaviours. The authors found that

individuals with higher levels of religious commitment and those who regularly attended

religious services were generally much less likely to engage in premarital sex or

extramarital affairs or to have multiple sexual partners. (Fagan, 2016).

 In line with this, Sinha, Cnaan and Gelles (2007) studies indicate indicates that

youth perceive religion as important, are active in religious worship and activities, and

further shows that perceived importance of religion as well as participation in religious

activities are associated with decreased risk behaviors. Looking at ten risk behaviors,

religiosity variables were consistently associated with reduced risk behaviors in the areas

of: smoking, alcohol use, truancy, sexual activity, marijuana use and depression.

The literature suggests that religiosity likely delays the onset of sexual intercourse

and may reduce sexual activity thereafter (Wilcox, 2001).

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

The theoretical framework used in this study was social cognitive theory. Bandura

(1977) stated that behavior is learned through a process by observing the environment. In

Bandura‟s (1977) illustration of human behavior, personal factors, environmental factors,

and behaviors all have a direct impact on each other. According to social cognitive

theory, people learn not only from their own personal experiences, but also from the

experiences of other individuals and the consequences associated with them. Quality of

health is both an individual and a societal matter. In order to diminish the rates of

adolescent pregnancy, it is essential to address the variables that impact adolescents‟

perspectives on sex. Social cognitive theory can be valuable when applied to public

health efforts to decrease adolescent pregnancy.

 Bandura studied the period of adolescence and the life span into adulthood related

to behavior modeling. Bandura believed that youth do not inherit tendencies but learn and

imitate the behavior of others. The Social learning Theory gives insight of youth behavior

and the significance of social involvement. Individuals learn by observational learning,

the connection between environment-person-behavior, understanding acquired behavior

as complex, and through self-efficacy (Miller, 2002). Observation and reinforcement

allows youth to learn aggressive play, sharing, peer interaction, sex-typed behaviors, and

independence. Three types of environments that influence behavior are imposed

environments such as schools that mandate attendance but leave flexibility for

acceptance; selected environments such academic courses or peer groups that students

actually experience; and created environments such as sharing or hostility that students

construct through positive or negative behavior (Miller, 2002).

Albert Bandura‟s (1977) social learning theory developed in order to unify

behavioral theories in explanations of human behavior (p. vi). According to Bandura

(1977), human behavior is learned and enhanced through reactions and perceptions to

individual experiences (p. vi). More specifically, Bandura (1977) cites the human

reciprocal interactions in which individuals are neither powerless to outside forces nor are

they in total control of their self-development (p. vii). This reciprocal relationship is

continuous, and codependent; i.e. human beings have a reciprocal interaction with their

environment just as the environment has a reciprocal interaction with human beings

(Bandura, 1977). He describes human behavior as, “…continuous reciprocal interaction

between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants” (p. vii). Given the
reciprocal relationship, behaviors are determined by socially learned behaviors. Basically,

learned behaviors, according to Bandura (1977), are based on observation of such

behaviors. Learning such behaviors is not necessarily derived from the most flamboyant

or outrageous behavioral demonstrations. Instead, Bandura (1977) explains that social

learning occurs casually through every day observations (p. 39). Therefore, social

learning theory attempts to explain socially learned behaviors through observations of

individually perceived behaviors as well as internal connections applied to such forces by

the observer.

Adolescents

Different studies show that Adolescence is the beginning of long and critical

period in personality development. It is a period in which sexual thoughts, feelings and

behaviors present throughout life often accentuated. Adolescents engage in a wide range

of risky behaviors that their older peers shun, and at an enormous cost. Adolescents

engage in more reckless, risky, and thrill seeking behaviors than their younger and older

peers (Tymula et al., 2012). Taking risks is fairly common in adolescence. Yet, risky

behaviors can be associated with serious, long-term, and – in some cases – life-

threatening consequences. This is especially the case when adolescents engage in more

than one harmful behavior (Terzian, Andrews & Moore, 2011).

Adolescence is an exciting and dynamic period for young people. As adolescents

are faced with changes in their bodies and cognitive development they are constantly

renegotiating their relationships with family, friends, school, and community. Ideally,
their view of the world expands, and a new orientation to their future as productive

independent adults emerges. As they navigate the critical tasks o self-identity

development and graduated autonomy adolescents are at risk for the development of

harmful behaviors (DeVore & Ginsburg, 2005). Sexual exploration is a normal and

typically healthy part of adolescent development. However, certain behaviors increase the

likelihood of unwanted outcomes such as pregnancy. Risk taking is common and

expected in adolescence. Across the lifespan, adolescence is the time of greatest risk

taking (Chick & Reyna, 2012 cited by Schantz, 2012). While understanding or even over-

estimating the likelihood that an action will result in harm, adolescents may place higher

value on the benefits that might come from taking a particular risk. Adolescents are more

responsive to the rewards of risk (such as peer approval), may be less sensitive to feeling

the ill effects of substance use (such as hangovers), and are still developing the capacities

for judgment and self-control (Institute of Medicine [IOM] & National Research Council

[NRC], 2011 cited by Schantz, 2012).

 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter the methods, procedure and arrangement of the data gathered will

be presented. The presentation includes the following: Research Design, the research

participants, the sampling technique used, the research locale, the data gathering

procedure, the instrumentation and the statistical treatment and tool used in the analysis

and interpretation of data.

Research Design

Qualitative

Face to face Interview

Qualitative research is an inquiry in which researchers collect data in face-to-face

situations by interacting with selected persons in their settings, describing and analyzing

people, individual and collective social actions, beliefs, thoughts, and perceptions

(McMillan & Schumacher, 2006). Qualitative research involves an interpretive and

naturalistic approach which means that “qualitative researchers study things in their

natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the

meanings people bring to them” (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000).

The research approach that will be use in this study is qualitative because the

study wants to know some predictors of teenage pregnancy coming from selected

Adolescents who are early engage in conceiving a child. The researcher utilize face to
face interview as a research method which involves asking questions and getting answers

from participants with structured questions that will ensure that the questions being

presented are exactly same order with other participants. Interview involves asking

questions and getting answers from participants.

Quantitative

Comparative Research Design

Quantitative research involves the collection of data so that information can be

quantified and subjected to statistical treatment in order to support “alternate knowledge

claims” (Creswell, 2003).

Comparative research design aims to make comparisons across different cultures

and examines the patterns of similarities and differences. The researcher will utilize this

as a research method to compare the Teenage Pregnancy Proneness level of selected

adolescent pregnant and not pregnant.

Research Participants

The participants for the face to face interview are those women who got pregnant

during the adolescence period. The researchers will have 12 participants for the

qualitative part of the study. Baker and Edwards (2012) suggest that researchers should

shoot for a sample of 12. This number gives them the experience of planning and

structuring interviews, conducting and partially transcribing these, and generating quotes
fort heir papers. More than this number seems to be impractical within their customary

time constraints.

For the comparative part of the study, the researchers will have 30 participants

each for adolescents pregnant and not pregnant. The participants‟ age ranges from 12 to

18 years old. The participants are adolescents because it is the beginning of long and

critical period in personality development. It is a period in which sexual thoughts,

feelings and behaviors present throughout life (Tymula et al., 2012).

Sampling Technique

The participants are purposively selected because the researchers are looking for

adolescents pregnant and not pregnant. In gathering the participants, snowball sampling

will be used. The process starts by identifying someone who meets the criteria for

inclusion in the study. The participants are then asked to recommend others whom they

may know who also meet the criteria. This sampling is especially useful when

populations that are inaccessible or hard to find are the target population (Reyes & Saren,

2003).
Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers brainstormed about ideas and concepts of the study. They turn the

ideas into research questions and review some literatures. Through with these, they

formulate questions for the qualitative part of the study which is the face to face

interview. The qualitative results will be the reference of the researchers in developing

the instrument that will measure the teenage pregnancy proneness level of the

respondents. The instrument will be validated by a clinical psychologist and registered

psychometricians.

After the validation and revision of the instrument, it will undergo pilot testing for

its reliability and validity. The researchers will purposively select the participants. They

come up to two groups, pregnant adolescents and not pregnant adolescents. They will

administer Cassnelle Teenage Pregnancy Proneness Level Scale (CTPPLS) to the two

groups. Snowball sampling technique has also been utilized upon selecting the

participants. After that, the presentation and interpretation of data will be discussed in

chapter four.
 Turn ideas into research questions

Review the Literature

Formulate questions for Qualitative data

Qualitative Interview

Instrument based on Qualitative Results

Establishing Reliability and Validity of Instrument

Administer the Instrument

Collect data

Analyze data and interpret findings

Figure 3. Data Gathering Flowchart

Statistical Treatment

To answer the research problem, the researchers deem to utilize the following

statistical tools:

A. Frequency

Frequency is the number of times occurred in a given category (Merriam, 2015). The

researchers determined the frequency of how many respondents have a Low proneness to

teenage pregnancy, Average proneness to teenage pregnancy, and High proneness to

teenage pregnancy. In qualitative, frequency will be utilized to know the most and least

occurring predictors of teenage pregnancy.

B. Percentage

Percentage is a part of a whole expressed in hundredths. (Merriam, 2015) The

researchers used percentage to express the frequency over the sample population multiply

by one hundred to know the numerical value in percentage form in order to determine the

most and the least occurring range in their proneness level to teenage pregnancy.

The formula for percentage is: % = x 100

Where:

% = Percentage
f = frequency
n = the sample population
 C. Mean

Mean is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in the

collection (Weinstein, 2015). The researchers used mean to determine the scores of

participants in instrument

∑
The formula for mean is: ̅=

Where:

̅ = Mean

∑ = the sum of data set

n = the number of data values