JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 111, B09202, doi:10.

1029/2005JB004122, 2006

Cohesive strengthening of fault zones during the interseismic

period: An experimental study
Eric Tenthorey1 and Stephen F. Cox1
Received 25 October 2005; revised 24 April 2006; accepted 2 June 2006; published 6 September 2006.

[1] There is widespread evidence indicating that faults regain a portion of their strength
during the interseismic period. Here, we present experiments designed to understand and
quantify the interseismic cohesive strengthening resulting from fluid-rock reactions in
fault zones. The triaxial experiments consisted of fracturing cores of Fontainebleau
sandstone under dry conditions, forming a localized shear failure zone (stage 1). The
specimens were then reacted hydrothermally under isostatic conditions, allowing the
fault damage zone to compact, consolidate and strengthen (stage 2). Following reaction,
the specimens were then reloaded to failure under nominally dry conditions, so that the
increase in cohesive strength of the fault could be measured (stage 3). Experiments show that
cohesion increase is positively correlated to temperature and pore pressure during reaction.
After 6 hours of reaction at the highest temperatures (927
C) and pore pressures (200 MPa),
cohesion increases by as much as 35 MPa. Microstructural examination of the
specimens showed that the gouge particles within the fault compacted and cemented
together, exhibiting textures typical of pressure solution and that fractures in the
surrounding damage zone had healed. A theoretical treatment of the data was conducted
using these experiments in combination with results on time-dependent changes in fault
cohesion presented by Tenthorey et al. (2003). We find that the rate-controlling process in
our experiments has an activation energy (Q) of approximately 70 kJ mol
1. We use this
information to develop a model for time-dependent cohesive strengthening in fault zones
within the continental seismogenic regime. We conclude that significant cohesive
strengthening of fault zones can occur during the interseismic period of medium to large
earthquakes given the presence of reactive pore fluids.
Citation: Tenthorey, E., and S. F. Cox (2006), Cohesive strengthening of fault zones during the interseismic period: An experimental
study, J. Geophys. Res., 111, B09202, doi:10.1029/2005JB004122.

1. Introduction stress, pore fluid pressure change and the rates of change in
fault cohesion or friction. The process responsible for the
[2] Experimental data, seismic observations and mechan-
recovery of cohesive strength or increase in frictional resis-
ical considerations all indicate that faults must recover a
tance to sliding is generally referred to as ‘‘fault healing’’, a
portion of their strength during interseismic periods, which
term that refers to micromechanical processes that result in
range from tens to thousands of years [Scholz, 1990].
time-dependent changes to these parameters. Fault healing in
Furthermore, geologic observations of exhumed fault zones
the central gouge or cataclastic zone of mature faults may
indicate that significant mineralogical and chemical changes
take place through fluid-mediated pressure solution-type
can occur within faults; these processes are likely to affect
processes [Rutter, 1983; Cox and Paterson, 1991; Bos et
strength evolution [Sibson, 1992; Chester et al., 1993].
al., 2000; Fisher and Knipe, 2001], increases of asperity
Understanding interseismic strength recovery or change is
contact areas under nominally dry conditions [Scholz and
critical because time-dependent changes in fault strength, in
Engelder, 1976], or by hydrothermal sealing of fractures
combination with coseismic stress drop influence earthquake
[Cox, 1995; Nguyen et al., 1998; Streit, 1998]. In damage
recurrence intervals [Marone et al., 1995] and possibly
zones surrounding faults, strengthening occurs mainly via
seismic moment release [Kanamori and Allen, 1986]. The
crack closure or mineralogical sealing of cracked lithologies
time dependence of interseismic fault strength is controlled in
[Renard et al., 2000]. In this paper, we present a series of
a complex manner by a number of factors including coseis-
experiments that are designed to explore the link between
mic stress drop, recovery rates of shear stress and normal
fault healing and the time-dependent increase of cohesive
strength of fault zones.
1 [3] Over the past several decades, a number of experimen-
Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University,
Canberra, ACT, Australia. tal studies have been conducted with the aim of understand-
ing and quantifying the systematics of fault healing under
Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union. various conditions. In early experiments, faults were mod-
0148-0227/06/2005JB004122$09.00 eled as bare rock surfaces sliding unstably past each other

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B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES
[Dieterich, 1972; Scholz et al., 1972], yielding the observa-
tion that static friction increases with hold time, an analog for
the interseismic period. However, more recently the com-
plexity of natural faults has been acknowledged and most
experiments have incorporated gouge material, sheared be-
tween optimally angled forcing blocks, often in a hydrother-
mal environment [Lockner et al., 1986; Chester and Higgs,
1992; Beeler et al., 1994; Blanpied et al., 1995; Karner et al.,
1997; Olsen et al., 1998; Kanagawa et al., 2000; Nakatani
and Scholz, 2004]. Some of these experiments have explored
friction from a rate and state perspective, and despite the fact
that different healing mechanisms might have been active in
different studies, static friction also usually tends to increase
systematically with hold time. However, it is interesting that
these experimental studies appear to underestimate the mag-
nitude of fault strengthening per decade increase in hold time
when compared to field estimates that are based on stress
drops of repeating earthquakes [Scholz et al., 1986]. This
observation may indicate that there is some missing link or
some critical process that is not explored in the experimental
studies.
[4] The inconsistency between laboratory and field obser-
vations might be resolved by examining the limitations that
exist in the so-called slide-hold-slide (SHS) experiments
described above. For example, many SHS studies have been
conducted on quartz gouge at temperatures under 500
C,
with kinetics of reaction that render difficult the extrapolation
to geologic time frames. In these experiments, although static
friction may increase with hold time as a result of increased
contact area, substantial diffusional transport and redistribu-
tion of material is unlikely during short experiments at low
temperatures. Mineral dissolution, precipitation and cemen-
tation will affect the fault cohesion rather than the static
friction, although distinguishing these two parameters is not
straightforward. Nevertheless, if laboratory experiments fail
to reproduce the mass transfer observed in many faults, then
measured fault strengthening will underestimate that inferred
from the field. Furthermore, friction experiments that use
simulated fault gouge between two strong forcing blocks may
not ideally simulate natural conditions, especially in the case
of immature fault zones. Wall rocks of fault zones are often
characterized by widespread fracture networks [Chester et
al., 1993; Cox, 1995; Caine et al., 1996], a manifestation of
the damage that is incurred during a seismic event and during
interseismic creep. These damage zones are then repaired
during the interseismic period through crack closure, healing
and sealing, which all contribute to the overall strengthening
of the fault zone. With few exceptions, experimental SHS
studies fail to simulate such processes because the forcing
blocks are much stronger than the gouge material and are
commonly incompatible in terms of effecting strong cemen-
tation with the gouge. It is for this reason that slip is
sometimes observed to occur at the boundary between
forcing block and gouge material. This is an undesirable
situation when trying to characterize gouge rheology.
[5] In this paper, we present results from experiments that
were designed to overcome some of the limitations described
above. The experiments are novel in that they approach the
problem of fault strengthening by conducting experiments on
initially intact cores of sandstone, rather than shearing
artificial fault gouge between forcing blocks. In our experi-
ments, intact cores of quartz sandstone were loaded until
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B09202
failure and then reacted hydrothermally in situ, before being
loaded to failure a second time to gauge the interseismic
recovery of cohesive strength. The main benefit of conduct-
ing such experiments is that important properties of fault
zones are emulated, such as stochastic topography on the
fault surface and dilatant damage zones in the surrounding
intact rock. Furthermore, the mineralogical composition of
the system is consistent, from the cataclastic inner fault
regions to the outer damage zone. Here, we present results
from high-temperature hydrothermal experiments, exploring
the role of temperature and pore pressure on fault strength
evolution. We also incorporate results from an earlier study
focused on the time dependence of fault healing, thereby
allowing the formulation of a model which predicts the
magnitude of fault strengthening at seismogenic depths in
the Earth’s crust. This work has implications for the time-
dependent mechanical behavior of immature fault zones, as
well as mature fault zones in which interseismic fluid-rock
reaction leads to substantial recovery of cohesive strength in
the principal slip zone and adjacent damage zone.
2. Experimental Method
[6] The experiments were conducted using a Paterson gas
apparatus at the Research School of Earth Sciences, ANU.
The pressure vessel uses argon gas as a confining medium
and is capable of independently controlling confining pres-
sure (Pc), axial load (s1), axial strain rate, internal pore fluid
pressure (Pp) and temperature (T). The experimental speci-
mens were capped by drilled spacers (two on each end) that
allowed fluid to permeate the sample, and the whole assem-
bly was isolated from the Ar confining medium with a soft Fe
jacket (Figure 1) [Zhang et al., 1994; Tenthorey et al., 2003].
The spacers are composed of partially stabilized zirconia, a
strong and unreactive compound ideally suited to the experi-
ments. An additional Cu sleeve was inserted between the
specimen and Fe jacket so that unwanted reaction between
the specimen and the jacket was minimized and that maxi-
mum slip could be achieved during the sliding portions of the
experiments. Temperature was measured using an inconel
sheathed, type K (Cu-Constantan) thermocouple that was
inserted down the upper pore fluid conduit and measured
fluid temperature immediately above the specimen. Furnace
calibrations indicate that there is at most a 6
C variation along
the length of the specimen.
[7] To determine accurately the changes in shear strength
on the fault plane, a preliminary room temperature test was
conducted to measure the strength contribution from the soft
Fe jacket and Cu sleeve. In the test, a 1.5 mm thick sheet of
lubricated Teflon was sandwiched between two forcing
blocks inclined at 30
to the maximum principal stress
direction. This configuration adequately simulates slip on
our experimental fault zones, which are assumed to be
cohesionless immediately after failure. In the jacket test,
the dummy specimen was loaded axially until slip occurred.
This was done at four different confining pressures ranging
from 0 to 15 MPa, and at each level the shear and normal
stresses on the fault plane were calculated, thereby defining a
failure envelope for the test specimen. When the data are
extrapolated linearly, we find that a shear stress of 20 MPa is
needed for slip at zero normal stress on the fault plane. This
value corresponds to the jacket contribution to shear strength
B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES B09202

at room temperature and is therefore subtracted from all raw

shear strength data.
[8] The experiments consisted of a three stage process.
Stage 1 entailed fracturing cores of Fontainebleau sandstone
under dry conditions at Pc = 50 MPa and room temperature
at a deformation rate of 8.1  10
5 s
1. Stage 1 fracture of
the specimens resulted in the formation of a throughgoing
zone of shear failure, which was visible through the soft Fe
jacket (Figure 2). Because of elastic distortion of the appa-
ratus, significant strain was imparted to the specimen upon
failure, leading to approximately 1 mm of displacement.
However, as will be clear below, no corrections are necessary
for this apparatus distortion or fault displacement because all
strength data is collected subsequent to failure. These exper-
imental fault zones were oriented at approximately 25
to the
direction of maximum principal stress (see below for greater
detail).
[9] Following stage 1 failure of the specimens, deforma-
tion was continued until load remained approximately con-
stant, yielding the stable sliding shear strength. In stage 2,
deionized water was introduced to the specimen, axial load
reduced to zero and Pc, Pp and T were elevated to desired
levels and then held at these conditions for 6 hours. In order to
minimize further physical damage to the specimen during
stage 2, care was taken to never exceed the target effective
confining pressure during pressurization. This stage was the
analog for hydrothermal reaction during the interseismic

Figure 1. Illustration of specimen assembly used in all ex-

periments. PSZ spacers and sandstone specimen are isolated
from the Ar confining medium by a thin-walled soft Fe
jacket. During fluid-rock reaction, pore fluid pressure within
the specimen is maintained constant using a servo-
controlled pore fluid volumometer that is connected to the Figure 2. Photograph of the specimen assembly following
specimen via pore fluid conduits in the PSZ spacers. initial fracture of the Fontainebleau sandstone specimen. A
visible shear zone forms through the sample, oriented at
approximately 25
to the maximum principal stress.

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Table 1. List of Experiments

Reaction Conditions
Experiment Pc, MPa Pp, MPa Temperature,
C Duration, hours Cohesion, MPa Uncertainty, MPa
This Study
4285 250 200 700 6 5.5 0.9
4287 250 200 800 6 8.6 0.9
4290 250 200 850 6 17.1 0.9
4294 250 200 875 6 20.1 0.9
4295 250 200 927 6 23.3 1.0
4298 250 200 750 6 10.4 0.9
4306 250 200 875 6 30.0 0.9
4307 250 200 927 6 29.3 1.0
4303 100 50 927 6 5.5 1.1
4308 150 100 927 6 1.2 0.8
4309 250 200 927 6 19.9 0.9
4310 200 150 927 6 17.6 1.0
4311 100 50 927 6 3.8 0.8
4312 225 175 927 6 34.3 1.1
4317 150 100 927 6 5.6 0.8
4320 250 200 927 6 25.7 1.1
4322 225 175 927 6 23.2 1.0

Tenthorey et al. [2003]

4166 250 200 927 1 22.1 1.0
4172 250 200 927 12 66.7 1.0
4177 250 200 927 0.17 12.1 1.0
4185 250 200 927 6 33.6 1.0
4186 250 200 927 6 36.9 1.0

period. In stage 3, pressures and temperatures were dropped
to those used in stage 1. In this stage, the specimens were
axially reloaded until slip reactivated along the previously
formed failure zone, as indicated by a sudden drop in load. By
comparing the failure stress in the final stage to the stable
sliding stress in stage 1, the fault strengthening caused by
hydrothermal reaction could be assessed (see Results).
[10] The rock-type used in all the experiments was
Fontainebleau sandstone, an Oligocene unit from the Paris
basin, France. This sandstone was never buried deeper than
a few hundred meters [Cade et al., 1994; Thiry and
Marechal, 2001; Haddad et al., 2006] and was consolidated
via silica overgrowth in supersaturated solutions. Test speci-
mens were cylindrical cores measuring 10 mm in diameter
and 22 mm in length, with approximately 7% ± 1% porosity.
Porosity was determined by measuring the dimensions of the
cylindrical cores, determining the volume and then calculat-
ing the porosity associated with the mass deficit assuming a
density of 2.65 g cm
3 for quartz. This type of porosity
measurement was possible due to the monomineralic nature
of Fontainebleau sandstone. Fontainebleau sandstone is
composed of pure quartz, and therefore lends itself to high-
temperature experimentation (>600
C) without the compli-
cations of dehydration or partial melting of the specimen. In
this paper, we present two new suites of experiments explor-
ing the role of temperature and pore fluid pressure on fault
strengthening (Table 1). The variable temperature experi-
ments were reacted at Pc = 250 MPa and Pp = 200 MPa,
for 6 hours at temperatures of 700 – 927
C. Temperature was
increased at approximately 35
C min
1, meaning that an
extra 7 minutes would be needed to reach the highest
temperature experiments relative to those at 700
C. This is
a very short duration relative to the total length of the
experiments, and we therefore believe that heating rate does
not have any significant effect on our results or interpretation.
Experiments exploring the dependence of pore pressure were
all conducted at 927
C for 6 hours with Pp varying from 50 to
200 MPa. It is emphasized that although Pp was varied
between experiments, Pc was changed by an equal amount,
ensuring that the effective stress (=Pc
Pp) in the sample
during stage 2 reaction was maintained constant at 50 MPa.
We will also discuss a third suite of experiments that were
reported by Tenthorey et al [2003]. These experiments were
variable duration experiments conducted at Pc = 250 MPa,
Pp = 200 MPa and T = 927
C, and will play a very important
role in our final data interpretation.
3. Results
3.1. Strength Evolution
[11] To evaluate how hydrothermal reaction influences
experimental fault strength, the loading curves during
stage 1 and stage 3 from each experiment must be compared.
Typical loading curves showing these two stages are illus-
trated in Figure 3. In stage 1, the test specimens were loaded
axially until they failed. The lack of any inflection point
during loading indicates that no grain crushing occurred
during stage 1 [Zhang et al., 1990] and that the critical
effective pressure was not breached either during application
of confining pressure or during loading. According to Zhang
et al., this is expected for a rock with 7% porosity and an
average grain size of 250 mm. The specimens usually failed at
a differential stress of about 700 MPa (673 ± 71 MPa), at
which time the differential stress reduced suddenly to ap-
proximately 300 MPa (305 ± 26 MPa). This latter stress is the
stable sliding stress (so) and is the baseline against which
fault strengthening is measured. Following hydrothermal
reaction during stage 2, the specimens were then reloaded
to failure. In most cases, the specimens failed at differential
stresses that were significantly higher than so, with the
difference between the stable sliding stress and healed
strength being referred to as sh. The stable sliding stress
following stage 3 fracture was usually higher than that

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Figure 3. An example of two loading curves showing the temporal evolution of differential stress
during stage 1 and stage 3 fracture. Following initial failure of the specimen, differential stress drops by
so, to a level defining the stable sliding differential stress. When the specimen is reloaded to failure
during stage 3, the increase in differential strength in measured relative to the stage 1 stable sliding level
and is defined as the healed strength, sh.

following stage 1 failure by 20 – 30 MPa. This greater
apparent frictional strength following stage 2 reaction may
be caused by an increase in real contact area.
[12] To determine how cohesive strength evolved during
stage 2, the changes in shear and normal stress between stable
sliding and refracture on the fault plane must be determined.
This is done by measuring the fracture angles, which do show
some variation between experiments (25.3
± 2.5
), and
resolving both stresses. Immediately after stage 1 failure,
shear and normal stresses during stable sliding are denoted by
to and sno, respectively, and the coefficient of friction, m =
(to/sno). During stage 3 refracture of the specimen, the peak
shear strength is denoted by tF and the increase in shear
strength, Dt = (tF
to) (Figure 4). However, a portion of
Dt is simply added frictional strength caused by increased
normal stress on the fault at higher loads (see Figure 4b). To
extract information concerning the cohesive strength of the
fault following reaction, this effect must be subtracted using
tFN ¼ tF
mðDsn Þ ¼ to þ C ð1Þ
where tFN is the normalized shear strength of the fault. This
parameter is corrected for the extra normal stress that was
added during loading of the specimen. Dsn is the change in
normal stress on the fault from stable sliding in stage 1 to
refracture in stage 3, and C is the increase in fault cohesion.
This correction and the stress components involved are
illustrated schematically in Figure 4. For each experiment,
the increase in fault cohesion can then be expressed as
C ¼ Dt
mðDsn Þ ð2Þ
where all terms on the right-hand side are known, measured
quantities.
[13] The first series of experiments explored the temper-
ature dependence of fault strengthening, with all experiments
conducted at Pc = 250 MPa, Pp = 200 MPa for 6 hours
duration. Figure 5a shows that temperature of reaction is
strongly correlated with fault strengthening, with cohesion
increasing from about 5 MPa at 700
C to 30 MPa at
927
C. Although there is a clear correlation, repeat experi-
ments conducted at 875
C and 927
C show that there is
5– 10 MPa of uncertainty in the data. As will be discussed
further below, these uncertainties are likely caused by inher-
ent differences between experimental specimens rather than
errors in the measurements themselves. The scatter in the data
preclude any quantitative statement regarding the functional
form of the temperature dependency, although over the
temperature range tested, fault cohesion appears to vary
approximately linearly with temperature.
[14] The second series of experiments explores the role of
pore fluid pressure on the reactions that drive fault strength-
ening (Figure 5b). All experiments shown in Figure 5b were
reacted for 6 hours at 927
C with an effective confining
pressure of 50 MPa. Greatest fault cohesion is gained in
experiments that were reacted at high pore fluid pressures,
although the correlation seems to be less clear than for the
variable T experiments. At Pp of 50 and 100 MPa, cohesion
increases to about 5 MPa, while at Pp at 150 or above,
cohesion increases to greater than 20 MPa. As is the case
for the variable temperature experiments, the repeat experi-
ments show that there is approximately 5– 10 MPa scatter in
the strength data.

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B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES B09202

surfaces could be examined. The starting Fontainebleau sand-

stone is well sorted and composed of equant quartz grains
typically measuring 200 –300 mm in diameter (Figure 6a).
There is no apparent foliation or preferred grain orienta-
tion, nor does the starting material exhibit any intergranular
or intragranular cracking.
[16] Following initial fracture of the sandstone, the speci-
mens are characterized by widespread damage both within
the slip zone and in the adjacent wall rock (Figure 6b). The
fault zone is characterized by an inner cataclastic zone
approximately 200 mm in width, containing highly angular
and poorly sorted fragments. The surrounding damage zone
also exhibits abundant extension cracks oriented subparallel
to the maximum compressive principal stress direction.
These extension cracks likely reflect dilatancy of the speci-
men immediately preceding failure [Brace et al., 1966; Cox
and Scholz, 1988], although some may also have formed
during rupture propagation.

Figure 4. (a) Schematic illustration showing the variation

of shear stress with axial displacement during stage 1 and
stage 3 fracture. The observed increase in shear stress (Dt)
following stage 2 reaction is caused both by an increase in
cohesion (C) and an increase in friction caused by greater
normal stress during reloading (mDsn). The shear stress
measured during stage 3 refracture (tF) must therefore be
corrected to account for the frictional effect, thereby de-
fining a normalized shear stress (tFN), which can be used to
determine fault cohesion (see text for more details). This
schematic illustration is not corrected for apparatus distor-
tion, which is an important component when measuring
axial displacement. The positive slopes during loading and
unloading are mainly caused by apparatus distortion, al-
though dilatant deformation is also a likely contributor.
(b) Schematic Mohr diagram showing the stress states on an
experimental fault during stable sliding subsequent to
stage 1 fracture (grey) and during stage 3 refracture (black).
During each experiment, q and Dt are measured and used
to calculate cohesion increase (C).
Figure 5. Plots showing how the cohesion of experimental
fault zones increase with (a) temperature of reaction and
(b) pore fluid pressure. In Figure 5a, specimens were reacted
3.2. Microstructural Analysis at Pc = 250 MPa and Pp = 50 MPa and in Figure 5b all
[15] Starting material and tested specimens were analyzed specimens were reacted at 927
C, with Pc varied so that the
using SEM, both in secondary and backscatter mode. Starting effective confining pressure was 50 MPa. All experimental
Fontainebleau sandstone was examined in polished section, specimens were reacted for 6 hours. Both temperature and
while postexperiment specimens were analyzed using both pore fluid pressure during reaction are strongly correlated to
polished sections and broken specimens in which fault the magnitude of cohesion gain during reaction.

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B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES B09202

Figure 6. SEM micrographs showing typical textures in different stages of the experiments. (a) Starting
Fontainebleau sandstone with approximately 7% porosity (dark zones). (b) Specimen following failure,
showing shear fracture and associated damage zone. Gouge particles within shear zone are highly angular
and poorly sorted, while damage zone surrounding the fracture contains abundant extension cracks oriented
subparallel to the maximum principal stress direction (i.e., vertically). (c) Fault zone that has been
hydrothermally reacted for 6 hours at 927
C with Pp = 50 MPa. Gouge particles have consolidated together
forming larger domains and extension cracks formed during initial failure have healed completely. Cracks
that are present formed during decompression of the specimen. (d) Typical texture observed on a fresh fault
surface of a refractured specimen. Particles exhibit concave structures that were formed during grain
interpenetration. Most gouge particles have become very rounded following hydrothermal reaction.

[17] After the specimens were hydrothermally reacted
during stage 2, the cataclastic zones within the fractured
specimens exhibit varying degrees of compaction, induration
and fracture healing. Figure 6c shows a specimen that has
been reacted for 6 hours at 927
C without being refractured
[Tenthorey et al., 2003]. It can clearly be seen that relative to
the freshly fractured specimens (Figure 6b), the porosity of
the reacted specimen is much lower and the fine-grained
material has consolidated, forming large domains in which
grains are more rounded and have gently curving grain edges.
In zones where grain boundaries are visible, grain interpen-
etration textures are abundant, suggesting that a pressure
solution process was active during reaction. These interpen-
etration textures are highly visible when the fault zone is
viewed as a rough surface in SEM. Figure 6d is an SEM
micrograph in which the specimen was reacted at 875
C and
Pp = 200 and subsequently refractured. In this specimen,
some particles within the sheared, cataclastic zone exhibit
concave, indentation structures. As these microstructures are
typical of a pressure solution-type process in which grains
penetrate into one another, we infer that the microstructures
developed in stage 2 hydrothermal treatment, prior to
reshearing in stage 3. A high degree of reactivity is also
indicated in the damage zone surrounding the principal slip
surfaces. In Figure 6c, a specimen reacted at 927
C, the
extensional cracks that were ubiquitous following stage 1
fracture have healed up, leaving only linear arrays of fluid
inclusions along the former fracture traces. Although the a/b
transition for quartz is crossed as the specimen cools to room
temperature following stage 2 reaction, the specimens do not
appear to exhibit signs of the transition. We believe that the
few large cracks observed in Figure 6c are due to unloading
of the specimen. Nevertheless, if cracks do occur due to the
a/b transition, then they would serve to weaken the fault zone
and the cohesion data presented would therefore represent a
lower bound for fault strengthening.
[18] The fault zone microstructures show striking differ-
ences from low to high temperatures of reaction and from low
to high pore fluid pressures during reaction. Figure 7 shows
three images that compare and contrast the microstructures in

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B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES B09202

Figure 7. Scanning electron micrographs showing how fault zone microstructure changes depending on
the temperature or pore fluid pressure during reaction. Domains in between dashed white lines are
portions of the fault zone that have healed and remained intact following refracture of the specimen. In
the high-temperature, high pore fluid pressure specimen (left), the healed zone has lost most of its original
porosity, with smaller grains consolidating into larger domains. Initial cracks in fault zone and in the
surrounding intact rock have largely been eliminated through chemical healing processes. In the low-
temperature or low pore fluid pressure specimens (right), the healed zones possess finer grains that have
maintained much of their initial angular character. Furthermore, cracks that were formed during stage 1
fracture have not healed to the same degree, especially in the case of the low-temperature specimen.

the end-member cases. In the highest T and Pp experiments,
as also shown in Figures 6c and 6d, widespread reaction and
compaction are evident. However, as T and Pp are decreased,
progressively less reaction is evident. Figure 7 shows that the
fault zones from the low Pp/T experiments exhibit signifi-
cantly less reaction, with damage products produced during
deformation retaining their initial angular shape and an
apparent high porosity. There is also less evidence of crack
healing than in the high-Pp, 927
C experiment. Conversely,
in the high T/Pp specimen, there is widespread evidence for
intense reaction even after the specimen has been refractured.
4. Discussion
4.1. Mechanism for Fault Strengthening
[19] The results presented here and by Tenthorey et al.
[2003] show that hydrothermal reactions at high temper-
atures (700– 927
C) cause the cohesive strength of experi-
mentally generated fault zones to increase significantly on
short laboratory timescales. Microstructural analysis indi-
cates that the strength increase of the faults during the
simulated ‘‘interseismic’’ period is positively correlated with
the magnitude of reaction driven compaction and consolida-
tion of the gouge material, and to healing of fractures in the
damage zone immediately surrounding the faults. Micro-
structures observed on both polished sections and grain
surfaces suggest that intergranular pressure solution played
the most important role during hydrothermal reaction. Micro-
structural evidence for pressure solution is provided by
widespread grain interpenetration, significant porosity reduc-
tion within the fault zone and major changes in grain shape
from highly angular before reaction to slightly rounded
following reaction. Pressure solution processes can increase
the fault strength in two ways: changes to asperity contact
area and precipitation of secondary quartz, which effectively
cements the fault zone. In addition, the partial to complete
healing of microcracks in the wall rock damage zone is also
likely to contribute to the overall increase in fault zone
cohesion.

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B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES
[20] Although microstructural and theoretical considera-
tions (see below) suggest that chemical potential gradients at
grain boundaries were probably the cause of cementation and
cohesion increase in the experimental faults, some contribu-
tion was undoubtedly made by simple diffusional redistribu-
tion of quartz throughout the sample. Initially, fine-grained
gouge material may have been the preferred loci for dissolu-
tion due to the logarithmic relationship between solubility
and specific surface area, as stated in the Freundlich-Ostwald
equation [Parks, 1984]. At later stages, silica might have
preferentially precipitated within the fault zone due to the
high concentration of nucleation sites.
[21] Changes to asperity contact area are well studied and
are inferred to occur under both nominally dry and wet
conditions, but are accelerated under hot hydrothermal con-
ditions [Kanagawa et al., 2000]. Such variations in contact
area will strengthen fault zones by changing the friction
coefficient, rather than inducing any changes to fault cohe-
sion. According to Mohr-Coulomb theory, a fault possessing
cohesion should have some tensile strength normal to the
fault plane. This is clearly not expected for the short-duration,
low-T experiments conducted under dry conditions. In fact
the majority of SHS fault healing studies implicitly assume
zero cohesion and study fault healing from the viewpoint of
variable friction. However, we believe that the conditions in
our experiments and in many natural conditions are more
complex and involve significant changes to fault cohesion.
Many natural faults exhibit textures indicative of widespread
mineral transport, deposition and/or recrystallization, which
would all act to give the fault some finite cohesion. In our
experiments, the increases in strength are far greater than
those reported in previous SHS experiments and the textures
shown in Figures 6 and 7 clearly show that widespread
dissolution, mass transfer and precipitation have occurred
in the specimens. Previous high-temperature, hydrothermal
experiments on simulated quartz gouge [Cox and Paterson,
1991; Kanagawa et al., 2000], an appropriate analogue for
our fault gouge, show that after hydrothermal treatment,
specimens are well indurated and possess significant cohe-
sion. Furthermore, recent cathodoluminescence work on a
similar quartz gouge (S. Giger, personal communication,
2005) shows that secondary quartz precipitation envelopes
primary quartz grains, thereby cementing the specimen and
giving it a high degree of cohesion.
[22] The clear correlation between increase in fault cohe-
sion, temperature and pore pressure during reaction
(Figure 5) is not surprising. If fault strengthening is indeed
caused by fluid-rock reactions, then conditions that enhance
time-dependent kinetics of reaction and solubility of quartz
should lead to greater fault strengthening. In addition to
increasing rates of diffusion and transport, high temperatures
also significantly enhance the solubility of quartz. Over the
range of temperatures tested, silica solubility is positively
correlated to temperature [Manning, 1994], as is the increase
in cohesive strength. Pore fluid pressure also has a large
positive impact on quartz solubility, which is also reflected in
the cohesion increase with pore fluid pressure. Such in-
creased solubilities at high Pp and T should not strongly
affect the dissolution and transport of silica during pressure
solution, since these parameters are mainly controlled by
stresses at grain boundaries. However, increased solubility
within fluid-filled pore spaces will likely accelerate cemen-
9 of 14
B09202
tation reactions in the fault zone [Rimstidt and Barnes, 1980;
Ngwenya et al., 2000].
[23] Although the cohesion data presented in Figure 5
exhibit clear systematic trends with temperature and pore
pressure, there is significant scatter in the data. As mentioned
above, this scatter is not due to errors in the measurements but
is likely due to variations in the geometries and distributions
of the initial fractures and other heterogeneities in the internal
structure of the rupture zone. Most of the specimens initially
fail along a zone oriented approximately 25
to the principal
stress direction, as shown in Figure 2. However, a subset of
the specimens fail with fault zones that are offset slightly with
a portion of the fault surface abutting the end spacers. In such
cases, reloading of the specimens will result in more complex
stress fields, with a portion of the fault even being subject to
tensile stresses. Most often this will cause the specimens to
refracture at lower differential stresses in stage 3 and there-
fore the apparent fault cohesion will be lower. Heterogene-
ities in fault morphology will also result in some data
uncertainty relative to typical SHS experiments, which usu-
ally use uniformly fine-grained gouge material sandwiched
between homogeneous loading blocks. Following initial
shear failure, the fault planes in our experiments contain
significant large asperities and surface undulations. During
hydrothermal reaction in stage 2, areas where the fault zone
forms a low-angle dilatant jog will be under a lower effective
normal stress regime and compaction by pressure solution
will be less active. Conversely, in contractional jog regions
the gouge is under greater effective normal stress and will
therefore be regions that increase in cohesion the most. In
such cases, heterogeneous healing and strengthening of the
faults will result in small-scale stress and strength variations
during reloading and will therefore affect the macroscopic
strength in a manner that is hard to predict.
4.2. Theoretical Analysis
[24] In the preceding section, we showed that there is a
systematic, qualitative relationship between cohesion in-
crease in experimental faults and Pp and T. In this section
we analyze our data specifically with the aim of quantifying
rates of the underlying process responsible for fault strength-
ening. Specifically, we will calculate the activation energy
(Q) for the fault strengthening process and use this informa-
tion to place constraints on rates of cohesion increase for
conditions that are typical of the seismogenic regime in the
continental crust.
[25] To achieve this goal, it is necessary first to determine
the functional form for the time dependence of fault strength-
ening, since fault healing is expected to be nonlinear with
time. Although we have not conducted variable time experi-
ments in this study, we can use a data set presented by
Tenthorey et al. [2003] (Figure 8). These experiments were
conducted under the same conditions and using the same
porosity Fontainebleau sandstone as in this study. In Figure 8,
we have reformatted the original 927
C data, so that strength
recovery is recast in terms of cohesion increase, and time has
been plotted on a logarithmic scale. The function which best
fits the 927
C data is a power law of the form
C ¼ 0:96 t 0:38 ð3Þ
B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES B09202

Figure 8. Fault cohesion data for two series of experiments. Circles are cohesion data for variable times
at 927
C calculated from Tenthorey et al. [2003], and triangles are some of the variable temperature data
presented in this study. At 927
C, cohesion increases with the power of time, in contrast to previous
healing experiments which exhibit a log time dependence (see text). The curve fit to the variable time
data can be used as a master curve against which the variable temperature data can be compared. Variable
temperature experiments plot on a vertical array at 21,600 s, with highest temperature experiments
showing greatest cohesion. The length of the arrows are proportional to ln(t1/t2), where t1 is 21,600 s and
t2 is the time that the same healing would take at 927
C. This time difference is used to define an
Arrhenius function, which in turn allows an activation energy for fault strengthening to be extracted from
the data (see equation (5)).

where t is time. Such a function is significantly different
from the log time fits found in many other lower-T SHS
experimental studies [Dieterich, 1972; Chester and Higgs,
1992; Karner et al., 1997; Nakatani and Scholz, 2004;
Yasuhara et al., 2005]. It should be noted that the power law
function will only apply over a limited time frame and that
at larger times the cohesion of the fault should begin to
equilibrate to a value that is controlled by the intrinsic
strength of fully dense quartz aggregates. Using the
measured failure stresses together with the corresponding
fracture angles, the approximate cohesive strength of the
starting Fontainebleau sandstone was calculated to be
between 125 and 150 MPa. It is uncertain whether the fault
gouge would equilibrate at a cohesion equal to that of the
starting sandstone given enough time or at some other value
controlled by sorting and grain size properties of the gouge.
In fact, Kanagawa et al. [2000] demonstrated that hydro-
thermally treated fine-grained quartz gouges attained shear
strengths greater than the Fontainebleau sandstone forcing
blocks.
[26] The main principle to be used in extracting Q will be
time-temperature superposition using the Arrhenius rate
equation [Nowick and Berry, 1972]
t ¼ to eQ=RT ð4Þ
where to is a characteristic time and R is the gas constant.
Equation (4) defines how the time to an event varies with
temperature. For example, a form of equation (4) has been
used for the static fatigue of quartz, with the implication that
high temperatures result in rapid fatigue and a shorter time
to failure [Scholz, 1972]. In this study, we will use the
Arrhenius rate equation to determine the time needed to
achieve a particular cohesion at different temperatures. This
may be done by restating (4) as
      
t1 Q 1 1
ln ¼
ð5Þ
t2 R T1 T2
Simply stated, (5) tells us that if X MPa of cohesion increase
takes t1 at T1, then we can determine the time needed for
the same change in cohesion at another temperature, T2,
provided that we know Q. However, since Q is unknown, we
must first determine its value using the variable time data
from Tenthorey et al. [2003] and the variable temperature
data presented in this study.
[27] The variable time cohesion data and power law fit
presented in Figure 8 are extremely valuable to this analysis
because they provide expected cohesion changes for all times
at 927
C. This means that it is possible to determine how long
the strengthening observed in the variable T experiments
would have taken were they conducted at 927
C. It is
possible to show this graphically by plotting the variable T
and t data together with cohesion increase versus time data
(Figure 8). Here, the variable temperature data lie on a
vertical trend representing reaction for 6 hours (21,600 s).
Each horizontal arrow on Figure 8 represents a time shift
needed to superimpose the variable T data onto the 927
C

10 of 14
B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES
Figure 9. Arrhenius diagram showing the relative rates of
cohesion increase for the variable temperature experiments.
The ln(t1/t2) term represents the difference in time needed
for a given amount of cohesion to be gained by a fault at
two different temperatures, T1 (one of the variable
temperature experiments) and T2 (927
C, from the master
curve; see Figure 8). A linear regression of the data yields a
slope which can be used to calculate the activation energy
for the fault healing process (67.9 kJ mol
1).
master curve, so that ln(t1/t2) can be determined for each
experiment, where t1 is 21,600 s and corresponds to one of
the variable T experiments and t2 is the time that the same
healing would take at 927
C. At low temperatures, the shift
needed to superimpose healing data onto the master curve is
greater. Since Arrhenius functions describe the variation of
rates or time (to an event) with temperature, it is then
appropriate to use equation (5) to show the variation of
ln(t1/t2) with temperature. Substituting into (5), we get
 
21600 Q
ln ¼
B ð6Þ
t2 RT1
where, from equation (4)
t2 ¼ ðC=0:963Þ2:63 ð7Þ
C is the cohesion increase observed in a given variable
temperature experiment and B is a constant because T2 is
1200 K in all cases. Equation (6) can then be plotted as
an Arrhenius diagram, in which the linear array of time
shift factors defines a slope from which the activation
energy for the fault strengthening process can be extracted
(Figure 9). From Figure 9, we have determined that Q = 68 ±
15 kJ mol
1. Previous work exploring the thermodynamics
of pressure solution indicate that an activation energy of
70 ± 10 kJ mol
1 should be expected for quartz [Schutjens,
1991; Dewers and Hajash, 1995; Niemeijer et al.,
2002]. Another high-temperature deformation mechanism,
dislocation creep, is generally associated with Q greater than
120 kJ mol
1 [Luan and Paterson, 1992; Hirth et al., 2001;
Rutter and Brodie, 2004]. Our microstructural observations
and theoretical conclusions therefore indicate that pressure
solution is the rate-controlling process for cohesion increase
in our experimental fault zones. These results therefore
suggest that we can extrapolate our fault cohesion results to
lower temperatures that are more typical of the seismogenic
regime.
11 of 14
B09202
4.3. Implications for Natural Faults and Earthquakes
[28] Since Q for the interseismic fault healing process has
been calculated, we can use equation (6) to determine how
long a given amount of fault strengthening would take at
seismogenic depths in quartzitic continental crust. Assuming
constant Q for interseismic fault healing over the full range of
crustal conditions, Figure 10 illustrates the times required
for various increases in cohesive strength in the continental
seismogenic regime for a geothermal gradient of 20
C km
1,
effective confining pressure of 50 MPa and Pp of 200 MPa.
For example, recovery of fault cohesive strength to 20 MPa at
200
C takes 3.2 years. This suggests that a large degree of
reaction-driven fault strengthening would occur during the
100– 10000 year interseismic period [Scholz et al., 1986] in
fluid-saturated fault rupture zones at depths where large
earthquakes nucleate in the continental crust. Also plotted
on Figure 10 is the field for repeating earthquakes at Park-
field (P) [Bakun and McEvilly, 1984], indicating significant
increase in fault cohesion, even though the recurrence inter-
val is relatively short. It should be noted that the nature of the
fluids (i.e., salinity, pH) within fault zones will have some
effect on solubility and therefore on cohesive strengthening
of gouge material.
[29] Field data collected over a multiyear period also
suggests that fault healing occurs on very short timescales.
Increases in P and S wave velocity within the Landers fault
zone were observed to increase following the 7.5 magnitude
earthquake in 1992 [Li et al., 1998]. These changes in seismic
velocities were interpreted to be caused by closure of cracks
that were formed during the main seismic event. More
recently, a S wave splitting analysis of the Nojima fault zone
revealed a rotation of the faster polarized shear wave follow-
ing the Kyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake in 1995 [Tadokoro and
Ando, 2002]. Immediately following rupture, the faster
S wave direction was strike parallel, but within 3 years, the
fast direction had rotated to be parallel to the maximum
horizontal stress. This observation led the authors to conclude
that fault parallel fractures within the fault zone, formed
during the 1995 event, had healed during the 3 year post-
seismic time frame. Such seismological observations are
consistent with our conclusions that significant cohesive
strengthening should occur during interseismic periods that
span centennial to millennial timescales.
[30] A longstanding problem with laboratory studies
exploring fault strength evolution is that they underestimate
strengthening when compared to studies based on seismic
observations. Most SHS experimental work has shown that
static friction increases by about 5– 10% per decade in-
crease in hold time. Using a subset of data from Kanamori
and Allen [1986], it has been demonstrated that for certain
earthquakes, stress drop is positively correlated with recur-
rence time. This data set has been used to suggest that faults
strengthen by a much greater magnitude per decade increase
in recurrence interval [Scholz, 1990]. The Kanamori and
Allen data set includes only intraplate (Japan) and interplate
(San Andreas) seismic events with similar rupture length to
width ratios [Scholz, 1990]; this an important consideration
because stress drop is strongly controlled by rupture geom-
etry. A plot showing the variation of stress drop with
recurrence interval (Figure 11) reveals two interesting fea-
tures. First, although there is significant scatter, the data
appears to follow a power law rather than a logarithmic
B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES B09202

Figure 10. Diagram constructed using equations (6) and (7), in which lines of equal fault cohesion are
shown on a plot of crustal depth versus time. This diagram, based on experimental data presented here,
suggests that significant reaction-induced fault strengthening should occur during the interseismic period.
A geothermal gradient of 20
C km
1 is assumed in this model. Shown are the approximate fields for
large earthquakes and repeating earthquakes at Parkfield (region P).

relationship as observed in previous SHS experiments dis-
cussed above. It is also different from the logarithmic
function described by Marone et al. [1995] for repeating
earthquake sequences on the Calaveras fault. The power law
fit shown in Figure 11 has an exponent that is very similar to
that found for cohesion data from the variable time experi-
ments in this study (Figure 8), and as a result the data
Figure 11. Plot of stress drop versus recurrence time for a
series of interplate/intraplate earthquakes with similar length
to width ratios (see Scholz [1990, Table 6.2]; after
Kanamori and Allen [1986]). Although there is significant
scatter in the data, the functional form for stress drop with
time appears to follow a power law, as for our data
(Figure 8), rather than a logarithmic function as observed in
other experimental studies (see text).
similarly suggest that fault strength increases by a factor of
2– 5 MPa per decade increase in recurrence interval. Second,
the stress drops indicated in Figure 11 are roughly within
an order of magnitude of those predicted by this study
(Figure 10), in which we assume that all fault strengthen-
ing is caused by an increase in fault zone cohesion.
[31] In this study, we have explored fault strengthening
during the interseismic period by conducting experiments
using a monomineralic, quartz system. For polymineralic
systems involved in natural fault zones, the effects on time-
dependent cohesive strengthening are likely to be highly
variable. For example, if interseismic chemical reactions give
rise to clay mineral coatings or hydrous mineral assemblages,
then it is likely that cohesion increase will be smaller over a
given time. This is because hydrated mineral assemblages
have been shown to possess lower friction coefficients due to
interlayer H2O that effectively lubricates the medium [Moore
et al., 1997; Morrow et al., 2000]. Conversely, the presence
of micas or clay minerals in the primary mineral assemblage
has been shown to accelerate silica dissolution and transport
[Bjorkum, 1996; Renard et al., 1997; Oelkers et al., 2000]
and would therefore increase the rate of cohesion increase. In
addition to mineralogic effects are the possible differences in
strengthening rates caused by variable pore fluid composition
[Sheldon et al., 2003]. In the case of quartz, solubility is
strongly enhanced at high pH and to a lesser extent is also
salinity-dependent [Dove, 1995].
[32] In addition to the chemical effects of pore fluids, the
evolution of pore fluid pressures also plays a very important
role in the strength evolution of fault zones [Sibson, 1992].
It has been proposed that pore fluid pressures in some
fault zones may increase gradually during the interseismic

12 of 14
B09202 TENTHOREY AND COX: COHESIVE STRENGTHENING OF FAULT ZONES
period, thereby reducing the effective normal stress [Sleep
and Blanpied, 1992]. Increased pore fluid pressures within
the fault decreases effective normal stress and weakens the
fault, counteracting any cohesive strengthening caused by
hydrothermal reactions. This effect will be significant at
depths where fault zone permeability becomes low enough
to preclude significant drainage and reequilibration of pore
fluid pressures on large timescales. It is partly for this reason
that some recent experimental research has focused on the
time dependence of permeability in reactive porous media
[Main et al., 1994; Moore et al., 1994; Ngwenya et al., 1995;
Olsen et al., 1998; Tenthorey et al., 1998; Morrow et al.,
2001; Tenthorey et al., 2003]. Results from these studies
indicate that reaction driven permeability reduction can occur
on very short timescales under conditions for large crustal
earthquake nucleation, therefore lending credibility to mod-
els that call upon fluid overpressures to drive the nucleation
of earthquakes and aftershocks [Sibson, 1992; Sleep and
Blanpied, 1992; Miller et al., 2004].
[33] From the discussion above, it should be clear that
fault strengthening during the interseismic period is a
complex process involving feedbacks between different
processes in a fault system. In this paper we have presented
results strictly pertaining to hydrothermally driven changes to
fault cohesion in a pure quartz system. Even if natural fault
zones were composed of pure quartz, rapid healing processes
as observed in our experiments could possibly lead to fluid
entrapment within isolated pores, thereby lowering effective
normal stresses and destablilizing the fault. In more minera-
logically complicated systems involving quartz, feldspars
and micas, fluid-rock reactions and their effects on friction
and pore fluid pressure would be even more complicated. In
summary it is likely that the evolution of fault strength
involves an intricate interplay of evolving parameters includ-
ing cohesive strength, friction, pore fluid pressure, perme-
ability and both shear stress and normal stress. Unfortunately,
at present, there is too little experimental and field data to
determine which feedbacks will be dominant in any given
situation. However, this contribution is intended to constrain
quantitatively one end-member situation in which fault zone
consolidation leads to significant cohesive strengthening.
5. Conclusion
[34] Fault healing experiments using a quartz sandstone
show that hydrothermal reactions during the interseismic
period should lead to a significant increase in fault zone
cohesion. Over the range of temperatures and pore fluid
pressures tested, cohesion of the experimental fault zones
increased by a range of 5 –30 MPa after 6 hours of reaction
under isostatic, hydrothermal conditions. Microstructural
analysis of the specimens shows that the fault zones have
undergone widespread compaction and fracture healing, with
textures characteristic of pressure solution. A theoretical
analysis of the experiments, also incorporating results from
Tenthorey et al. [2003], suggests that the activation energy
for the fault healing process is approximately 70 kJ mol
1,
a value consistent with pressure solution being the rate-
controlling process. This data can be used to calculate the
expected increase in cohesive strength at any depth and
reaction time for a hypothetical quartz-rich fault. We find
that our results slightly overestimate the cohesive strength of
13 of 14
B09202
faults when compared to field examples based on inferred
stress drops from various earthquakes. This difference may
be accounted for by natural faults being composed of more
complicated mineral systems or possessing elevated pore
fluid pressures.
[35] Acknowledgments. We wish to thank the Australian Research
Council for making this work possible thanks to a Fellowship to E.T. Many
thanks to H. Kokkonen and C. Saint for technical support and to J. Fortin
(ENS-Paris), who kindly provided Fontainebleau sandstone starting mate-
rial. This manuscript benefited from useful discussions with M. Nakatani
and S. Giger. Thanks also to S. Karner, E. Rutter, and anonymous reviewers
for their reviews which greatly improved the manuscript.
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S. F. Cox and E. Tenthorey, Research School of Earth Sciences,
Australian National University, Mills Road, Canberra, ACT 0200,
Australia. (eric.tenthorey@anu.edu.au)