ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 7

AN AIRPORT OF INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

SILAY CITY, NEGROS OOCIDENTAL

Pana-ongon, Francis dee E.

De Los Reyes, Kylle Patrick L.
Rasgo, Ralph Kenn L.
Basiya, Jed D.

Ar. Demie M. Verde, UAP

Instructor
 Table of Content

List of Figure ....................................................................................................................... ii

List of table ......................................................................................................................... iii
I. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... i
Airport ........................................................................................................................... i
Types of Airports ......................................................................................................... iii
Airport ownership and operation .................................................................................. iv
Terminology ................................................................................................................. iv
II. History And Development .............................................................................................. v
Modern Airports ........................................................................................................... ix
III. Airport Terminal Designs/Shape ................................................................................ xi
Open Apron and Linear Designs ................................................................................... xi
Pier and Satellite Designs ............................................................................................ xii
Transporter designs ..................................................................................................... xii
Transporter Designs ................................................................................................... xiii
Passenger Terminal Layout And Design ..................................................................... xiii
IV. Functional Requirements.......................................................................................... xiv
Land Side Facilities .................................................................................................... xiv
Air Side Facilities ........................................................................................................ xv
Terminal Building .................................................................................................... xviii
V. Legal And Safety Requirements ............................................................................... xxiii
List of appendices ............................................................................................................... iv
References............................................................................................................................ v

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 List of Figure

Figure I:I Terminal 3 at Dubai International Airport ............................................................... i

Figure I:II O'Hare International Airport ................................................................................. ii

Figure I:III Sample infrastructure of a typical airport. Larger airports usually contain more
runways and terminals. .......................................................................................................... ii

Figure II :I Hounslow Heath Aerodrome 1918 overlaid on 2011 roads ................................. vi

Figure II :II College Park Airport in Maryland, US .............................................................. vi

Figure II :IIIThe Kharkiv Airport in Sokolniki, Ukraine (1924) .......................................... viii

Figure II :IVDubai international airport arieal view .............................................................. ix

Figure III :I Six design concepts for airline passenger terminals. .......................................... xi

Figure V :I Aircraft Dimension ...................................................................................... xxxii

Figure V :II Turning radius. ........................................................................................... xxxiii

Figure V :III Traditional landing gear confi gurations (Federal Aviation Administration). xxxv

Figure V :V Complex landing gear configurations (Federal Aviation Administration) .....xxxv

Figure V:VI Traffic. ...................................................................................................... xxxvii

Figure V :VII Declared distances, balanced field concept. ................................................. xlv

Figure V :VII An illustration of wake turbulence. ............................................................. xlvi

Figure V:VIII Crosswind correction. ................................................................................... liii

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 List of Table

Table V :I Characteristics of General Aviation Aircraft ................................................... xxix

Table V :II Characteristics of General Aviation Aircraft .................................................... xxx

Table V :III Characteristics of General Aviation Aircraft ................................................. xxx

Table V :IV Minimum Turning Radii for Typical Passenger Aircraft ............................. xxxiv

Table V :V Typical relationship between payload and range. .............................................. xli

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 List of Appendices
Appendix A

Land Side Facilities…………………………………………………………………… 14

Pedestrian Facilities
Public Transportation Facilities
Parking Facilities
Entry & Exit Roadways
 Airport Cargo Facility
 Taxiway

Air Side Facilities………………………………………………………………………. 15

Runway
Landing area
Apron
Aircraft Parking Stand
Hangar
Control Tower Standing
Ground Tower

Terminal Building………………………………………………………………………. 18
Public Lobby
Airport security
Aviation security
Baggage Handling System (BHS)
Departure Lounge
Administrative Offices
Terminal
 Cargo and Freight Services
 Premium and VIP Services

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I. Introduction

Airport - airport, also called air terminal, aerodrome, or airfield, site and installation

for the takeoff and landing of aircraft. An airport usually has paved runways and maintenance

facilities and serves as a terminal for passengers and cargo.

Figure I:I Terminal 3 at Dubai International Airport

The main function of the research is to provide a convenient facility from ground

transport to air transport and vice versa. A convenient facility from ground to air transport is

very important to a particular airport to ease, safety, and convenience of the passengers and

cargo as well.

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 Figure I:II O'Hare International Airport

And to solve this problem needs some sort of expansion for waiting areas,parking

spaces and other services terminals for passengers like food and drink outlets, some check in

counters to serve all the flights is serving and Seating accommodations in departure area

especially with some people choosing to place their bags in seat And therefore, if all the

convenient facilities will be provided surely the airport will serve the convenience and safety

of the passengers and cargos. And the airport will be ready to compit with the other airport in

the country.

Figure I:III Sample infrastructure of a typical airport. Larger airports usually contain more runways
and terminals.

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Types of Airports

Heliport - An airport solely serving helicopters

Seaplane Base - An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft

An international airport has additional facilities for customs and passport control as

well as incorporating all the aforementioned elements. Such airports rank among the most

complex and largest of all built typologies, with 15 of the top 50 buildings by floor area being

airport terminals.

Airports are divided into Landside and Airside zones:

landside is subject to fewer special laws and is part of the public realm, while access

to the airside zone is tightly controlled airside area includes all parts of the airport around the

aircraft, and the parts of the buildings that are restricted to staff, and sections of these

extended to travelling, airside shopping, dining, or waiting passengers.

Passengers and staff must be checked by security before being permitted to enter the

airside zone. Conversely, passengers arriving from an international flight must pass

through border control and customs to access the landside area, in which they exit, unless in

airside transit. Most multi-terminal airports have (variously termed) flight/passenger/air

connections buses, moving walkways and/or people movers for inter-terminal airside transit.

Their airlines can arrange for baggage to be routed directly to the passenger's destination.

Most major airports issue a secure keycard, an airside pass to employees, to assist in their

reliable, standardized and efficient verification of identity.

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Airport ownership and operation

Most of the world's large airports are owned by local, regional, or national

government bodies who then lease the airport to private corporations who oversee the

airport's operation.

Terminology

The terms aerodrome, airfield, and airstrip also refer to airports, and the

terms heliport, seaplane base, and STOLport refer to airports dedicated exclusively

to helicopters, seaplanes, and short take-off and landing aircraft. In colloquial use in certain

environments, the terms airport and aerodrome are often interchanged. However, in general,

the term airport may imply or confer a certain stature upon the aviation facility that

other aerodromes may not have achieved. In some jurisdictions, airport is a legal term of

art reserved exclusively for those aerodromes certified or licensed as airports by the

relevant national aviation authority after meeting specified certification criteria or regulatory

requirements. That is to say, all airports are aerodromes, but not all aerodromes are airports.

In jurisdictions where there is no legal distinction between aerodrome and airport, which term

to use in the name of an aerodrome may be a commercial decision. In US technical/legal

usage, landing area is used instead of aerodrome, and airport means “a landing area used

regularly by aircraft for receiving or discharging passengers or cargo”.

Figure I:IVAir bridges at Oslo Gardermoen Airport captured from an Icelandair Boeing.

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I. History And Development

The earliest aircraft takeoff and landing sites were grassy fields. The plane could

approach at any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. A slight improvement was

the dirt-only field, which eliminated the drag from grass.However, these only functioned well

in dry conditions. Later, concrete surfaces would allow landings regardless of meteorological

conditions.

To be classified as an airport, the facility must contain an aerodrome for flights to take

off and land, store and maintain aircraft, and has a control tower. The landing area features

an “aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a

runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such

as control towers, hangars and terminals.”

Hounslow Heath Aerodrome, the world’s first airport, closed its runways and was

replaced not too long after opening by the Croydon Airport in March 1920. It was in the

London borough of Hounslow, and in 1919 the first scheduled daily international commercial

air services flew to and from there. The airports of this era used a paved “apron”, which

permitted night flying as well as landing heavier aircraft. Soon after the Hounslow closure,

the world’s first permanent airport for commercial aviation opened in 1922 at Flughafen

Devau in East Prussia.

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 Figure II :I Hounslow Heath Aerodrome 1918 overlaid on 2011 roads

The title of "world's oldest airport " is disputed, but College Park Airport in Maryland,

US , established in 1909 by Wilbur Wright, is generally agreed to be the world's oldest

continually operating airfield, although it serves only general aviation traffic.

Figure II :II College Park Airport in Maryland, US

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 The oldest commercial airport in the world which is still in operation. Bremen Airport

opened in 1913 and remains in use, although it served as an American military field between

1945 and1949.Amsterdam Airport Schiphol opened on September 16, 1916, as a military

airfield, but only accepted civil aircraft from December 17, 1920, allowing Sydney Airport in

Sydney, Australia — which started operations in January 1920 — to claim to be one of the

world's oldest continually operating commercial airports. [22] Minneapolis-Saint Paul

International Airport in Minneapolis-Saint Paul, Minnesota, opened in 1920 and has been in

continuous commercial service since. It serves about 35,000,000 passengers each year and

continues to expand,recently opening a new 11,000 foot (3,355 meter) runway. Of the

airports constructed during this early period in aviation, it is one of the largest and busiest

that is still currently operating.Rome Ciampino Airport, opened 1916, is also a contender, as

well as the Don Mueang International Airport near Bangkok,Thailand, which opened in 1914.

Increased aircraft traffic during World War I led to the construction of landing fields. Aircraft

had to approach these from certain directions and this led to the development of aids for

directing the approach and landing slope.Following the war, some of these military airfields

added civil facilities for handling passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields was Paris –

Le Bourget Airport at Le Bourget, near Paris. The first airport to operate scheduled

international commercial services was Hounslow Heath Aerodrome in August 1919, but it

was losed and supplanted by Croydon Airport in March 1920. In 1922, the first permanent

airport and commercial terminal solely for commercial aviation was opened at Flughafen

Devau near what was then Königsberg, East Prussia. The airports of this era used a paved

"apron", which permitted night flying as well as landing heavier aircraft.The first lighting

used on an airport was during the latter part of the 1920s; in the1930s approach lighting came

into use. These indicated the proper direction and angle of descent. Additional lights

indicated incorrect altitude and direction After World War II, airport design became more

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sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways

arranged in groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities.

But it also meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane.An improvement in

the landing field was the introduction of grooves in the concrete surface. These run

perpendicular to the direction of the landing aircraft and serve to draw off excess water in

rainy conditions that could build up in front of the plane's wheels.Airport construction

boomed during the 1960s with the increase in jet aircraft traffic. Runways were extended out

to 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The fields were constructed out of reinforced concrete using a slip-form

machine that produces a continual slab with no disruptions along the length. The early 1960s

also saw the introduction of jet bridge systems to modern airport terminals, an innovation

which eliminated outdoor passenger boarding. These systems became common place in the

United States by the 1970s.

Figure II :IIIThe Kharkiv Airport in Sokolniki, Ukraine (1924)

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Modern Airports

The largest airports in the world employ more than 100,000 workers each. They are

immensely complex entities with regard to the physical facilities that they comprise, the

organizations that are active within their boundaries, and the services that are provided in

conjunction with their operation.

Physical facilities include runways, taxiways, aprons, and strips, which are used for

the landing and takeoff of aircraft, for the maneuvering and positioning of aircraft on the

ground, and for the parking of aircraft in order to load and discharge passengers and cargo.

For the safe landing and takeoff of aircraft, lighting and radio navigational aids are provided.

These are supplemented by airfield markings, signs and signals, and air traffic control

facilities. Support facilities on the airside of the field include meteorology, fire and rescue,

power and other utilities, aircraft maintenance, and airport maintenance. Landside facilities

are the passenger and cargo terminals and the access system, which includes parking, roads,

public transport facilities, and loading and unloading areas.

Figure II :IVDubai international airport arieal view

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 Many organizations are involved in the operation of a modern airport. Overall

management is usually in the control of an organization, authority, or company that holds a

license to operate the facility. This license is granted subject to a judgment by the national

civil aviation authorities that the managing body is fit and competent to run an airport within

national and, if applicable, international laws governing safety and operations. While overall

responsibility for efficient, safe, and legal operation lies with the airport management, many

of the individual services at an airport are provided by other organizations. Such

organizations include airlines; air traffic control authorities; ground handling companies;

fixed-base operators; concessionaires; security organizations; governmental agencies

responsible for customs, immigration, health control, and police; support companies

providing flight catering, fueling, aircraft engineering, and maintenance; aero clubs; and

flying schools. Since the early 1980s, when privatization began to sweep through civil

aviation, terminal-operation companies have also become more frequent, such as those that

own terminals in Birmingham, Eng.; Brussels; and Toronto.

Airport services related to the aircraft are frequently referred to as airside. Many of

these services are concentrated on the apron, or ramp, which is that part of the operational

surface adjacent to the terminals where aircraft are maneuvered or parked. They include the

apron handling of aircraft, airside passenger transfer to the aircraft, the handling of baggage

and cargo, aircraft fueling, catering and cabin cleaning, engine starting, deicing, ground

power and air-conditioning, and minor maintenance engineering. Other airside services are

runway inspection, lighting and navigational aids, fire fighting and rescue, airside

maintenance, and air traffic control. Among the landside services are those related to ground

passenger handling; these include check-in, security, customs and immigration, baggage

delivery, information, catering, cleaning and maintenance, shops and concessionary facilities,

automobile rental, ground transportation, porters, special help for the elderly and handicapped,

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automobile parking, and public transportation (including taxis). In addition, because airports

employ such a large number of workers, extensive provision must be made for their daily

requirements.

II. Airport Terminal Designs/Shape

Figure III :I Six design concepts for airline passenger terminals.

Open Apron and Linear Designs

The oldest and simplest layout for passenger terminals is the open apron design, in

which aircraft park on the apron immediately adjacent to the terminal and passengers walk

across the apron to board the aircraft by mobile steps. Frequently, the aircraft maneuver in

and out of the parking positions under their own power. As airports grow, however, it is

impossible to have large numbers of passengers walking across the apron. In this case, it is

common to have terminals designed to the linear concept, with aircraft parked at gates

immediately adjacent to the terminal itself. Usually, air bridges are employed for transferring

passengers directly between the terminal building and the aircraft. The limitation of the linear

concept is usually the long building dimensions required; these can mean long walking

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distances for transferring passengers and other complications related to building operation. In

practice, building lengths tend to be limited to approximately 800 meters (2,650 feet).

Examples of the linear design occur at Kansas City International Airport in Missouri,

U.S., Munich Airport in Germany, and Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris.

Pier and Satellite Designs

Where one building must serve a larger number of aircraft gates, the pier concept, originally

developed in the 1950s, has been found very useful. Frankfurt International Airport in

Germany and Schiphol Airport near Amsterdam still use such terminals. In the late 1970s,

pier designs at Chicago’s O’Hare and Atlanta’s Hartsfield successfully handled in excess of

45 million mainly domestic passengers per year. However, as the number of aircraft gates

grows, the distances that a passenger may have to travel within a pier-type terminal become

exceedingly long, passenger circulation volumes become very large, and the terminal itself

can become uncomfortable and unattractive to use. In order to cut down walking distances,

some terminals, beginning in the 1960s, were designed on the satellite concept. Frequently,

passengers are carried out to the satellites by some form of automated people mover or

automatic train. Some satellite designs were very successful—for example, at Orlando and

Tampa in Florida, U.S.—but to some degree the concept has fallen out of favour, having been

found difficult to adapt to the changing size of aircraft and wasteful of apron space. Los

Angeles International Airport originally had all its aircraft served at satellite buildings, but

during the 1980s all satellites were converted to pier structures.

Transporter designs

In the early 1960s the transporter concept originated as a method of reducing aircraft

maneuvering on the apron and of eliminating the need for passengers to climb up and down

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stairways in order to enter or exit the aircraft. In a concept derived from much older designs

(such as that at Linate in Milan, where ordinary apron buses are used), passengers are brought

directly to the aircraft by a specialized transporter vehicle. Mobile lounges used at Dulles

International Airport near Washington, D.C., and at Jiddah’s King Abdul Aziz International

Airport have bodies that can be raised and lowered to suit the exact height of the terminal

floor and the aircraft sill. However, passenger loading and unloading times are lengthened,

causing turnaround delays, and aircraft are more likely to be damaged by the heavy lounges.

For such reasons, this type of design has not proved popular with either passengers or airlines.

Transporter Designs

In the early 1960s the transporter concept originated as a method of reducing aircraft

maneuvering on the apron and of eliminating the need for passengers to climb up and down

stairways in order to enter or exit the aircraft. In a concept derived from much older designs

(such as that at linate in milan, where ordinary apron buses are used), passengers are brought

directly to the aircraft by a specialized transporter vehicle. Mobile lounges used at dulles

international airport near washington, d.c., and at jiddah’s king abdul aziz international

airport have bodies that can be raised and lowered to suit the exact height of the terminal

floor and the aircraft sill. However, passenger loading and unloading times are lengthened,

causing turnaround delays, and aircraft are more likely to be damaged by the heavy lounges.

For such reasons, this type of design has not proved popular with either passengers or airlines.

Passenger Terminal Layout And Design

As passenger throughput at airports increases, the passenger terminal becomes a more

important element of the airport, attaining a dominant status in the largest facilities. The

passenger terminal may amount to less than 10 percent of the total investment in a small

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airport, but at large airports terminals often account for more than 70 percent of

infrastructural investment. The design that is ultimately adopted depends principally on the

passenger volumes to be served and the type of passenger involved.

Passengers are frequently classified as business or leisure, scheduled or charter, originating or

destined, and transfer or transit. Business travelers tend to pay significantly higher fares, and

airlines usually wish to provide a high quality of service in order to attract such traffic. The

passenger terminal at Heathrow Airport near London, for example, was designed to a very

high standard of space and decor to attract just this type of passenger. Scheduled and charter

passengers, meanwhile, tend to have very different needs in the terminal, especially at check-

in and in the provision of ground transportation. Palma Airport, on the Spanish island of

Majorca, has a landside that is designed to accommodate large numbers of charter tourists

arriving and departing the airport by bus.

III. Functional Requirements

Land Side Facilities

Pedestrian Facilities Walkways are the portion of the public right-of-way that

provide a separated area for people traveling on foot. Walkways that are safe,

accessible, and aesthetically pleasing attract pedestrians.

Public Transportation Facilities A public transportation conveyance is any mode of

transportation other than a private vehicle. Types of public transportation

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 conveyances include airplanes, trains, subways, buses, taxis, ride-shares, maritime

transportation, trolleys, and cable cars.

Parking Facilities means an area, space, garage, parking structure, or other facility

upon or in which motor vehicles are parked, stored, or housed for a consideration and

that is located within the boundaries or within 5 miles of the boundaries of a regional

airport facility. However, an airport parking facility does not include publicly owned

metered spaces or a facility that is leased or rented exclusively for the use of

employees of employers located within the boundaries or within 5 miles of the

boundaries of a regional airport facility.

Entry & Exit Roadways

Airport Cargo Facility a place designated for the loading, or unloading, or any other

allied processes of such loading or unloading of cargo in a port, jetty, wharf or such

other places developed within inland waters for the purpose of loading and unloading

of cargo;transportation facility in which quantities of goods or container cargo are

stored without undergoing any manufacturing processes, transferred to other carriers

or stored outdoors in order to transfer them to other locations. Cargo terminals may

include accessory warehouses, railroad yards, storage yards, and offices.

Taxiway A defined path on a land aerodrome established for the taxiing of aircraft

and intended to provide a link between one part of the aerodrome and another.

Air Side Facilities

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Runway According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a

runway is a “defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing

and takeoff of aircraft”. Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete,

or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, sand or salt).

Landing area means a place on land or water, including an airport or intermediate

landing field, used, or intended to be used, for the takeoff and landing of aircraft, even

when facilities are not provided for sheltering, servicing, or repairing aircraft, or for

receiving or discharging passengers or cargo.

Apron A defined area on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for

purposes of loading or unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fueling, parking or

maintenance.

Aircraft Parking Stand the correct terminology for a place where aircraft park is

stand or aircraft stand, where bay or parking bay is colloquial. The official definition

from the ICAO annex 14/i aerodromes is: Aircraft stand. A designated area on an

apron intended to be used for parking an aircraft.

Hangar A large garage-like structure where aircraft are kept. The plane taxied on

over to the hangar for repairs.

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Control Tower Standing at over 80 meters tall,Tower control is responsible for

aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace immediately surrounding the

airport . Tower controllers may use radar to locate an aircraft's position in three-

dimensional space, or they may rely on pilot position reports and visual observation.

They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft on

how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the

airspace must also contact Tower Control in order to be sure that they remain clear of

other traffic.

Ground Tower is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated"movement

areas" , except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains,snowplows,

grass cutters, fuel trucks, stair trucks, airline food trucks, conveyor belt vehicles and

other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use,

which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it

is safe to cross runways. When a plane is ready to takeoff it will stop short of the

runway, at which point it will be turned over to Tower Control. After a plane has

landed , it will depart the runway and be returned to Ground Control.

Food & Beverage Services offering to cater for a new generation of tech-savvy

consumers who want diverse, high-quality produce at affordable prices. Ed Newton,

director at commercial consultancy Program, discusses key airport F&B trends.

Mechanical & Electrical Services Building to the mechanical and electrical systems

installed and operated by a facility management company in facilities management.

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 Ground Tower is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated"movement

areas" , except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains,snowplows,

grass cutters, fuel trucks, stair trucks, airline food trucks, conveyor belt vehicles and

other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use,

which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it

is safe to cross runways. When a plane is ready to takeoff it will stop short of the

runway, at which point it will be turned over to Tower Control. After a plane has

landed , it will depart the runway and be returned to Ground Control.

Control Tower Standing at over 80 meters tall,Tower control is responsible for

aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace immediately surrounding the

airport . Tower controllers may use radar to locate an aircraft's position in three-

dimensional space, or they may rely on pilot position reports and visual observation.

They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft on

how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the

airspace must also contact Tower Control in order to be sure that they remain clear of

other traffic.

Terminal Building

Public Lobby Check-In Facilities is the process whereby passengers are accepted by an

airline at the airport prior to travel. The airlines typically use service counters found

at airports. The check-in is normally handled by an airline itself or a handling agent working

on behalf of an airline. Passengers usually hand over any baggage that they do not wish or are

xviii
not allowed to carry in to the aircraft's cabin and receive a boarding pass before they can

proceed to board their aircraft.

Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in an attempt to protect

passengers, staff, aircraft, and airport property from accidental/malicious

harm, crime, terrorism, and other threats.

Aviation security is a combination of measures and human and material resources in order to

safeguard civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference. Unlawful interference could be

acts of terrorism, sabotage, threat to life and property, communication of false threat,

bombing, etc.

Baggage Handling System (BHS) is a type of conveyor system installed in airports that

transports checked luggage from ticket counters to areas where the bags can be loaded

onto airplanes. A BHS also transports checked baggage coming from airplanes to baggage

claims or to an area where the bag can be loaded onto another airplane.

Departure Lounge a seating area in an airport where passengers wait immediately prior to

boarding.

Administrative Offices The Flight Operations Administrator will be focused on managing

and maintaining all administrative processes and tasks for the Flight Operations Admin team.

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Concessionaire & Building Services vending machines, coin-operated laundry equipment,

rental golf carts, ice vending equipment, catered food service and food refreshments sold by

others at facilities accommodating civic, social, cultural, sporting or other entertainment or

business events.

Terminal Is the main building where passenger embark and disembark aircraft. is a

building with passenger facilities . Small airports have one terminal.Large ones often have

multiple terminals, though some large airports like Amsterdam Airport Schiphol still have

one terminal. The terminal has a series of gates, which provide passengers with access to the

plane.

The following facilities are essential for departing passengers:

 Check-in facilities, including a baggage drop-off

 Security clearance gates

 Passport control (for some international flights)

 Gates

 Waiting areas

The following facilities are essential for arriving passengers:

 Passport control (international arrivals only)

 Baggage reclaim facilities, often in the form of a carousel

 Customs (international arrivals only)

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  A ground side meeting place

For both sets of passengers, there must be a link between the passenger facilities and

the aircraft , such as jet bridges or air stairs . There also needs to be a baggage handling

system, to transport baggage from the baggage drop-off to departing planes, and from

arriving planes to the baggage reclaim.The area where the aircraft park to load passengers

and baggage is known as an apron or ramp (or incorrectly, "the tarmac").Airports with

international flights have customs and immigration facilities. However, as some countries

have agreements that allow travel between them without customs and immigration's, such

facilities are not a definitive need for an international airport International flights often

require a higher level of physical security , although in recent years, many countries have

adopted the same level of security for international and domestic travel. "Floating airports "

are being designed which could be located out at sea and which would use designs such as

pneumatic stabilized platform technology.

Cargo and Freight Services In addition to people, airports move cargo around the

clock. Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjacent infrastructure to

transfer parcels between ground and air.Cargo Terminal Facilities are areas where

international airports export cargo has to be stored after customs clearance and prior

to loading on the aircraft. Similarly import cargo that is offloaded needs to be in bond

before the consignee decides to take delivery. Areas have to be kept aside for

examination of export and import cargo by the airport authorities. Designated areas or

sheds may be given to airlines or freight forward ring agencies.Every cargo terminal

has a land side and an air side. The land side is where the exporters and importers

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through either their agents or by themselves deliver or collect shipments while the air

side is where loads are moved to or from the aircraft. In addition cargo terminals are

divided into distinct areas export, import and interline or transshipment.

Premium and VIP Services Airports may also contain premium and VIP services.

The premium and VIP services may include express check-in and dedicated check-in

counters. These services are usually reserved for First and Business class

passengers,premium frequent flier's, and members of the airline's clubs. Premium

services may sometimes be open to passengers who are members of a different

airline's frequent flyer program. This can sometimes be part of a reciprocal deal, as

when multiple airlines are part of the same alliance, or as a ploy to attract premium

customers away from rival airlines.Sometimes these premium services will be offered

to a non-premium passenger if the airline has made a mistake in handling of the

passenger, such as unreasonable delays or mishandling of checked baggage.Airline

lounges frequently offer free or reduced cost food, as well as alcoholic and non-

alcoholic beverages. Lounges themselves typically have seating, showers,quiet areas,

televisions, computer, Wi-Fi and Internet access, and power outlets that passengers

may use for their electronic equipment. Some airline lounges employ baristas,

bartenders and gourmet chefs.Airlines sometimes operate multiple lounges within the

one airport terminal allowing ultra-premium customers, such as first class customers,

additional services, which are not available to other premium customers. Multiple

lounges may also prevent overcrowding of the lounge facilities.

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IV. Legal And Safety Requirements

Development of New Airports The Board shall be responsible for the planning,

development, construction, operation, maintenance, or the expansion of airports. In

planning and developing new airports, the Board shall consider:

a. The suitability of a proposed site in terms of terrain and proximity to 31

population center(s);

b. The projected size of the market to be served by a proposed airport;

c. The ability of a proposed airport to generate sufficient revenue to cover

costs of operation. and maintenance;

d. The availability of funding from both local and foreign sources for the

construction of a new airport or expansion of an existing one;

e. The proximity of other airports to a proposed new airport and the

capability of such other airport to handle traffic projected to be handled

by the new proposed airport;

f. The government's public service obligations, more partlcularly the

government's duty to ensure the availability of air transport infrastructure

for remote areas far from major population centers and that are not

otherwise easily accessible by transportation via land or sea. ln such

cases, the Board shall take reasonable steps to ensure that funding will

be available for the operation and maintenance of such airports;

xxiii
 g. ICAO best practices and recommendations concerning the development

of airports; and

h. Such other considerations as the Board, in the exercise of its reasonable

discretion, may consider relevant or important.

Links to local ground transportation An airport should always be considered an

interchange where different modes of transportation connect. Since the airport itself is

not a primary destination, consideration must be given to access by surface vehicles.

This is as critical a factor in airport layout and design as it is in the process of site

selection. A large airport can quite easily generate in excess of 100,000 daily access

trips by passengers and the same number of trips by workers, visitors, and suppliers.

Such a scale of surface movement requires careful consideration of the design of

internal circulation roads and access highways to the city centre and to the economic

hinterland served by the airport. Additionally, road-based access requires the careful

design of drop-down and pick-up areas and of both long-term and short-term parking.

Larger airports are able to sustain economically viable links to taxi, limousine,

and bus services. In addition, many of the world’s largest airports are linked to

intercity, suburban, and metro-style rail systems.

Airport Security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual

persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the

September 11 attacks and the Real ID Act of 2005, airport security has dramatically

increased and got tighter and stricter than ever before.

xxiv
Access and Onward Travel Airports require parking lots , for passengers who may

leave the cars at the airport for a long period of time. Large airports will also have car

rental firms,taxi ranks, bus stops and sometimes a train station. Many large airports

are located near railway trunk routes for seamless connection of multimodal transport,

for instance Frankfurt Airport, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, London Heathrow

Airport, Tokyo Haneda Airport, Tokyo Narita Airport, London Gatwick Airport and

London Stansted Airport. It is also common to connect an airport and a city with rapid

transit, light rail lines or other non-road public transport systems. Some examples of

this would include the Air Train JFK at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New

York , Link Light Rail that runs from the heart of downtown Seattle to Seattle

Tacoma International Airport, and the Silver Line T at Boston's Logan International

Airport by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). Such a

connection lowers risk of missed flights due to traffic congestion. Large airports

usually have access also through controlled-access highways (freeways or motorways)

from which motor vehicles enter either the departure loop or the arrival loop.

Internal Transport The distances passengers need to move within a large airport can

be substantial.It is common for airports to provide moving walkways, buses, and rail

transport systems. Some airports like Harts field – Jackson Atlanta International

Airport and London Stansted Airport have a transit system that connects some of the

gates to a main terminal. Airports with more than one terminal have a transit system

to connect the terminals together, such as John F. Kennedy International Airport,

Mexico City International Airport and London Gatwick Airport.

xxv
Passenger Requirements Some airports have a very high percentage of passengers

who are either transiting the airport (i.e., continuing on the same flight) or transferring

to another flight. At Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport in Georgia and at

Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport, for example, two-thirds of all passengers

transfer to other flights and do not visit the cities where the airports are sited. These

passengers have special needs but usually only on the airside of the terminal. There is

no need to provide parking or ground transportation to the city for such passengers;

they will, however, need transit lounges and other areas such as transit check-in desks.

Airports that receive a large number of transferring and transiting passengers

are referred to as hubbing airports. At a hub, aircraft arrive in waves, and passengers

transfer between aircraft during the periods when these waves are on the ground. By

using a “hub-and-spoke” network, airlines are able to increase the load factors on

aircraft and to provide more frequent departures for passengers at the cost, however,

of inconvenient interchange at the hub.

Aircraft vary widely in terms of their physical dimensions and performance

characteristics, whether they be operated for commercial air service, cargo, or general

aviation activities. There are a large number of specifications for which aircraft may

be categorized. Depending on the portion of the area of the airport, certain aircraft

specifications become more critical. For example, aircraft weight is important for

determining the thickness and strengths of the runway, taxiway, and apron pavements,

and affects the takeoff and landing runway length requirements at an airport, which in

turn to a large extent influences planning of the entire airport property. The wingspan

xxvi
and the fuselage length influence the size of parking aprons, which in turn influences

the configuration of the terminal buildings. Wingspan and turning radii dictate width

of runways and taxiways, the distances between these traffic ways, and affects the

required turning radius on pavement curves. An aircraft’s passenger capacity has an

important bearing on facilities within and adjacent to the terminal building. Since the

initial success of the Wright Flyer in 1903, fixed-wing aircraft have gone through

more than 100 years of design enhancements, resulting in vastly improved

performance, including the ability to fly at greater speeds and higher altitudes over

larger ranges with more revenue generating carrying capacity (known as payload) at

greater operating efficiencies. These improvements are primarily the results of the

implementation of new technologies into aircraft. specifications, ranging from

materials from which the airframes are built, to the engines that power the aircraft. Of

great challenge to airport planning and design, historically has been to adapt the

airport environment to accommodate changes in aircraft physical and performance

specifications. For example:

 The introduction of “cabin-class” aircraft, such as the Douglas DC-3, in the

mid-1930s resulted in the need for airports to construct longer, paved

runways from the shorter grass strips that previously existed.

 The introduction of aircraft equipped with turbofan and turbojet engines in

the late 1950s added requirements for longer and stronger runways, facilities

to mitigate jet-blast, and policies to reduce the impact of aircraft noise at and

around the airport.

xxvii
  The introduction of “jumbo-jet” or “heavy” aircraft, such as the Boeing-747,

in the late 1960s added new requirements for runway specifications, as well

as terminal area design requirements for accommodating large volumes of

passengers and cargo.

 The proliferation of regional jet aircraft, introduced because of more efficient

engine technologies, resulted in the need for airports to modify many

terminal areas that had accommodated larger jets or smaller turbo-prop

aircraft.

Most recently, the introduction of the world’s largest passenger aircraft, the

Airbus A-380, as well as the smallest of certified general aviation jet aircraft,

continues to affect design specifications of airport airfield and terminal areas. Table 2-

1 provides a summary of some of the important aircraft characteristics of some of the

aircraft that make up the world’s commercial airline fleet. Many regional airlines use

smaller aircraft with less than 50 seats, while the world’s major airlines use very large

aircraft, with potential configurations for more than 800 seats. Table 2-2 provides a

summary of important aircraft characteristics for common general aviation aircraft.

While it should be noted that aircraft designed primarily for air carrier purposes are

also often used for general aviation activity (e.g., the Boeing 737 is often configured

for personal or business use and marketed as the Boeing Business Jet), most general

aviation aircraft are smaller than typical commercial airline aircraft. Some of the

aircraft listed in Table 2-2 are part of the fleet of “very light jets” that have emerged

into the market since 2007. Many of the values provided in Tables 2-1 and 2-2 are

only approximate and tend to vary by specific model, as well as by each individual

operation. For more precise values appropriate references, such:

xxviii
Table V :I Characteristics of General Aviation Aircraft

xxix
Table V :II Characteristics of General Aviation Aircraft

Table V :III Characteristics of General Aviation Aircraft

xxx
 the runway length required to operate a particular aircraft, whether it be a

takeoff or a landing, can vary considerably based on aircraft engine performance and

total operating weight, as well as by the local environmental and atmospheric

conditions. Calculation of required runway length is often performed prior to each

operation as part of aircraft flight planning, often using tables, charts, or formulas

provided by the aircraft manufacturer.

Dimensional Standards Figure illustrates some of the terms related to aircraft

dimensions that are important to airport planning and design.

The length of an aircraft is defined as the distance from the front tip of the fuselage,

or main body of the aircraft, to the back end of the tail section, known as the

empennage. The length of an aircraft is used to determine the length of an aircraft’s

parking area, hangars. In addition for a commercial service airport, the length of the

largest aircraft to perform at least five departures per day determines the required

amount of aircraft rescue and firefighting equipment on the airfield. The wingspan of

an aircraft is defined as the distance from wingtip to wingtip of the aircraft’s main

wings.

The wingspan of an aircraft is used to determine the width of aircraft parking areas

and gate spacing, as well as determining the width and separations of runways and

taxiways on the airfield.

xxxi
The maximum height of an aircraft is typically defined as the distance from the

ground to the top of the aircraft’s tail section. Only in rare cases is an aircraft’s

maximum height found elsewhere on the aircraft, for example, the Airbus Beluga’s

maximum height is noted as the distance from the ground to the top of the forward

fuselage entry door when it is fully extended upward in the open position.

The wheelbase of an aircraft is defined as the distance between the center of the

aircraft’s main landing gear and the center of its nose gear, or tail-wheel, in the case

of a tail-wheel aircraft. An aircraft’s wheel track is defined as the distance between

the outer wheels of an aircraft’s

Figure V :IV Aircraft Dimension

Main landing gear. The wheelbase and wheel track of an aircraft determine its

minimum turning radius, which in turn plays a large role in the design of taxiway

turnoffs, intersections, and other areas on an airfield which require an aircraft to turn.

Turning radii are a function of the nose gear steering angle. The larger the angle, the

xxxii
smaller the radii. From the center of rotation the distances to the various parts of the

aircraft, such as the wingtips, the nose, or the tail, result in a number of radii. The

largest radius is the most critical from the standpoint of clearance to buildings or

adjacent aircraft. The minimum turning radius corresponds to the maximum nose gear

steering angle specified by the aircraft manufacturer. The maximum angles vary from

60° to 80°, although for design purposes a steering angle of approximately 50° is

often applied. The turning radius of an aircraft may be expressed using the following

formula:

Figure V :II Turning radius.

The center of rotation can be easily determined by drawing a line through the

axis of the nose gear at whatever steering angle is desired. The intersection of this line

xxxiii
with a line drawn through the axes of the two main gears is the center of rotation.

Some of the newer large aircraft have the capability of swiveling the main gear when

making sharp turns. The effect of the swivel is to reduce the turning radius (Fig. 0-0).

Minimum turning radii for some typical transport aircraft are given in Table 00.

Landing Gear Configurations Aircraft currently operating in the world’s civil use

airports have been designed with various configurations of their landing gear. Most

aircraft are designed with one of three basic landing gear configurations; the single-

wheel configuration, defined as a main gear of having a total of two wheels, one on

each strut, the dual-wheel configuration, defined as a main gear of having a total of

four wheels, two on each strut, and the dual-tandem configuration, defined as two sets

of wheels on each strut. These configurations are illustrated in Fig.0-0.

Table V :IV Minimum Turning Radii for Typical Passenger Aircraft

xxxiv
 Figure V :VI Traditional landing gear confi gurations (Federal Aviation Administration).

The landing configurations of the largest of commercial service aircraft have

become more complex than the simple configurations illustrated in Fig. 2-3. For

example, the Boeing 747, Boeing 777, and Airbus A-380 landing gear configurations

are illustrated in Fig. 0.

Figure V :IV Complex landing gear configurations (Federal Aviation Administration)

The complexity of landing configurations prompted the FAA to adopt standard

naming conventions for aircraft landing gear configurations [60]. Examples of this

naming convention are represented in quotes in Figs. 00 and 00. The landing gear

configuration plays a critical role in distributing the weight of an aircraft on the

ground it sits on, and thus in turn has a significant impact on the design of airfield

pavements. Specifically, the more wheels on a landing gear, the heavier an aircraft

xxxv
can be and still be supported on a ramp, taxiway, or runway of a given pavement

strength.

Air traffic control (ATC ) is the task of managing aircraft movements and making

sure they are safe, orderly and free of delays. At the largest airports, air traffic control

is a series of highly complex operations that requires managing frequent traffic that

moves in all three dimensions.A "towered" or "controlled" airport has acontrol tower

where the air traffic controllers are based. Pilots are required to maintain two-way

radio communication with the controllers, and to acknowledge and comply with their

instructions. A"non-towered" airport has no operating control tower and therefore

two-way radio communications are not required, though it is good operating practice

for pilots to transmit their intentions on the airport's common traffic advisory

frequency (CTAF) for the benefit of other aircraft in the area. The CTAF may be a

Universal Integrated Community (UNICOM), MULTICOM, Flight Service Station

(FSS), or tower frequency.The majority of the world's airports are small facilities

without a tower. Not all towered airports have24/7 ATC operations. In those cases,

non-towered procedures apply when the tower is not in use, such as at night. Non-

towered airports come under area (en-route) control. Remote and virtual tower (RVT)

is a system in which ATC is handled by controllers who are not present at the airport

itself.

xxxvi
 Figure IV:V Traffic.

At all airports the use of a traffic pattern (often called a traffic circuit outside the

U.S.) is possible. They may help to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and

arriving aircraft. There is no technical need within modern aviation for performing

this pattern, provided there is no queue . And due to the so-called SLOT-times, the

overall traffic planning tend to assure landing queues area voided. If for instance an

aircraft approaches runway 17 (which has a heading of approx. 170 degrees) from the

north (coming from 360/0 degrees heading towards 180 degrees), the aircraft will land

as fast as possible by just turning 10degrees and follow the glide path, without orbit

the runway for visual reasons,whenever this is possible. For smaller piston engined

airplanes at smaller airfields without ILS equipment, things are very different though.

Generally, this pattern is a circuit consisting of five "legs" that form a

rectangle(two legs and the runway form one side, with the remaining legs forming

three more sides). Each leg is named (see diagram), and ATC directs pilots on how to

join and leave the circuit. Traffic patterns are flown at one specific altitude, usually

800 or 1,000 ft (244 or 305 m) above ground level (AGL). Standard traffic patterns

are left-handed , meaning all turns are made to the left. One of the main reason for

xxxvii
this is that pilots sit on the left side of the airplane, and a Left-hand patterns improves

their visibility of the airport and pattern. Right-handed patterns do exist,usually

because of obstacles such as a mountain, or to reduce noise for local residents. This

then allows aircraft to take the most direct approach path to the runway and land

without worrying about interference from other aircraft.

Aircraft Weight These various measurements of aircraft weight are important to

airport planning and design, in particular the facilities such as ramps, taxiways, and

runways that are designed to support the aircraft. While it is rare that any two aircraft,

even those of the same model and configuration, have the same weight measurements

(as there are almost always variations between aircraft in equipment, seating

configurations, galleys, and other objects), most manufactures will assign typical

weights to their aircraft for planning and design purposes. These weights are as

follows.

The lightest measure of an aircraft’s weight is known as the operating empty weight

(OEW), the basic weight of the aircraft including crew and all the necessary gear

required for flight but not including payload and fuel. The OEW of an aircraft is

considered for the design of aircraft that may occupy maintenance hangars, aircraft

storage facilities, or any other areas that are not intended to support the weight of an

aircraft when loaded with fuel or payload.

The zero fuel weight (ZFW) is the OEW of an aircraft plus the weight of its payload.

The ZFW is the weight of the aircraft at which all additional weight must be fuel, so

xxxviii
that when the aircraft is in flight, the bending moments at the junction of the wing and

fuselage do not become excessive. The payload is a term which refers to the total

revenue-producing load. This includes the weight of passengers and their baggage,

mail, express, and cargo. The maximum structural payload is the maximum load

which the aircraft is certified to carry, whether this load be passengers, cargo, or a

combination of both.

The maximum ramp weight is the maximum weight authorized for ground

maneuver including taxi and run-up fuel. As the aircraft taxis between the apron and

the end of the runway, it burns fuel and consequently loses weight.

The maximum gross takeoff weight is the maximum weight authorized at brake

release for takeoff. It excludes taxi and run-up fuel and includes the operating empty

weight, trip and reserve fuel, and payload. The difference between the maximum

structural takeoff weight and the maximum ramp weight is very nominal, only a few

thousand pounds for the heaviest aircraft.

The maximum structural takeoff weight (MSTOW), is typically designed as the

maximum gross takeoff weight for an aircraft operating at sea level elevation at a

temperature of 59°F (15°C). It is also the maximum weight that the aircraft’s landing

gear can support. The MSTOW is the standard design weight measurement used in

airport planning and design.

The maximum structural landing weight (MLW) is the structural capability of the

aircraft in landing. The main gear is structurally designed to absorb the forces

xxxix
encountered during landing; the larger the forces, the heavier must be the gear.

Normally the main gears of transport category aircraft are structurally designed for a

landing at a weight less than the maximum structural takeoff weight. This is so

because an aircraft loses weight en route by burning fuel. This loss in weight is

considerable if the journey is long, being in excess of 80,000 lb for large jet transports.

It is therefore not economical to design the main gear of an aircraft to support the

maximum structural takeoff weight during landing, since this situation will rarely

occur.

Payload and Range The maximum distance that an aircraft can fly, given a certain

level of fuel in the tanks is known as the aircraft’s range. There are a number of

factors that influence the range of an aircraft, among the most important is payload.

The relationship between payload and range is illustrated in Fig. 2-8. The point A, the

range at maximum payload, designates the farthest distance, Ra , that an aircraft can

fly with a maximum structural payload. To fly a distance of Ra and carry a payload of

Pa the aircraft has to take off at its maximum structural takeoff weight; however, its

fuel tanks are not completely filled.

xl
 Table V :V Typical relationship between payload and range.

These diagrams are most useful in airport planning for determining the most

probable weight characteristics of aircraft flying particular stage lengths between

airports.

Runway Performance One of the most critical elements of aircraft performance is

how such characteristics, along with local atmospheric conditions, affect the runway

length for an aircraft to safely takeoff and land.Required runway length may vary

widely for a specific aircraft, as a result of the aircraft’s weight at the time of the

operation, as well as the local atmospheric conditions. For the airport planner and

designer, such variations have less direct impact on the design length of runways, and

more to aircraft operators who must determine whether the length of a runway at a

given time is safe for a particular operation. Nevertheless, the airport planner and

designer should be aware of how an aircraft’s performance characteristics specifically

affect its runway length requirements. The factors which have a bearing on and

xli
aircraft’s runway length requirements for a given operations may be grouped into two

general categories:

1. The physical capabilities of the aircraft under given environmental conditions

2. Requirements set by the government to protect for safe operations

An aircraft’s performance capabilities and hence runway length requirements

are often significantly affected by certain natural environmental conditions at the

airport.

Runway Gradient To accommodate natural topographic or other conditions, runways

are often designed with some level of slope or gradient. For airport planning purposes

only, the FAA uses an effective gradient. The effective gradient is defined as the

difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points on the actual runway

profile divided by the length of the runway.

Condition of Runway Surface Slush or standing water on the runway has an

undesirable effect on aircraft performance. Slush is equivalent to wet snow. It has a

slippery texture which makes braking extremely poor. To reduce the hazard of

hydroplaning and to improve the coefficient of braking friction, runway pavements

have been grooved in a transverse direction. The grooves form reservoirs for the water

on the surface. The FAA is conducting extensive research to establish standards for

groove dimensions and shape. In the past the grooves were normally ¼ in wide and

deep and spaced 1 in apart figure[].

xlii
Runway Configurations The operational capacity of an airport, which is usually

defined as the maximum possible number of aircraft landings and takeoffs, is

determined by the number of runways that are available for use at any one time. The

vast majority of airports around the world have the simplest possible layout, a single

runway. Where crosswinds would be high for an unacceptable proportion of

operational time, a two-runway configuration is necessary, usually in the form of a

main runway and an auxiliary crosswind runway. Depending on the shape of the site

and the availability of land, the crosswind facility can take on a crossed configuration

or an open or closed V layout. Where visibility is good and aircraft can operate

under visual flight rules (VFR), operational capacity increases from the lowest level,

crossed runways, through the closed V and open V configurations. However, in poor

visibility or under certain conditions of very heavy air traffic, aircraft must operate

under the strict instructions and rules of air traffic control and instrument operation;

these are called instrument flight rules (IFR). Under such conditions, crosswind

runways cannot be used simultaneously with main runways, so that the capacities of

the crossed and V configurations are equivalent to that of a single runway.

Runway pavements Until the introduction of heavy monoplane aircraft in the latter

part of the 1930s, civil air-transport aircraft were able to operate from grass runways

with takeoff distances of less than 600 metres (2,000 feet). The advent of heavy

aircraft such as the DC-3 required the provision of paved runways; at the same time,

takeoff distances increased to more than 900 metres (3,000 feet). The length

requirements for runways continued to increase into the mid-1970s, when large

civilian aircraft such as the Douglas DC-8 and some models of the Boeing 747

required almost 3,600 metres (12,000 feet) of runway at sea level. (Even longer

xliii
runways were necessary at higher elevations or where high ambient air temperatures

occurred during operations.) The trend toward increasing runway lengths caused

many problems at existing civilian airports, where runways had to be extended in

order to accommodate the new aircraft. Ultimately, pressure by airport operators and

the development of turbofan jet engines arrested and finally reversed the trend. Since

the 1970s, runway length requirements have actually decreased, and the takeoff and

climb performance of civilian aircraft has improved substantially. This has brought a

dual benefit in reducing the area of land required by an airport and also in reducing

the area around the airport that is adversely affected by noise on takeoff.

Runway Marking Considerable additional visual guidance is given to pilots by

painted markings on the runway. The form of marking indicates at a glance whether

radio instrument guidance is available at any particular airfield. On precision

instrument runways, the runway edges are indicated by painted lines, and distances

along the runway from the threshold are indicated by pavement markings. In addition,

touchdown-zone markings are painted on the pavement immediately after the

threshold, providing vital visual guidance during the moments immediately before

touchdown when all lighting may be obscured by fog.

Declared Distances Transport category aircraft are licensed and operated under the

code of regulations known as the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR). This code is

promulgated by the federal government in coordination with industry. The regulations

govern the aircraft gross weights at takeoff and landing by specifying performance

requirements, known as declared distances which must be met in terms related to the

xliv
runway lengths available. The regulations pertaining to turbine aircraft consider three

general cases in establishing the length of a runway necessary for safe operations.

These three cases are 1. A normal takeoff where all engines are available and

sufficient runway is required to accommodate variations in liftoff techniques and the

distinctive performance characteristics of these aircraft 2. Takeoff involving an engine

failure, where sufficient runway is required to allow aircraft to continue the takeoff

despite the loss of power, or else brake to a stop 3. Landing, where sufficient runway

is required to allow for normal variation in landing technique, overshoots, poor

approaches, and the like The regulations pertaining to piston-engine aircraft retain in

principal the above criteria, but the first criterion is not used. This particular

regulation is aimed toward the everyday, normal takeoff maneuver, since engine

failure occurs rather infrequently with turbine-powered aircraft. The runway length

needed at an airport by a particular type and weight of turbine-powered aircraft is

established by one of the foregoing three cases, whichever yields the longest length.

Figure V :VI Declared distances, balanced field concept.

xlv
From an airport planning perspective, it is not typical to design a runway’s full-

strength pavement, stopway, and clearway based on a given aircraft. Both aircraft

operators and airport planners are interested in clearways, because clearways will, for

a fixed available length of runway, allow the operator additional gross takeoff weight

with less expense to airport management than building full-strength pavement would

require.

Wingtip Vortices The vortices are made up of two counter-rotating cylindrical air

masses about a wingspan apart, extending aft along the flight path.

Figure V :VII An illustration of wake turbulence.

xlvi
 Table V :VII FAA and ICAO Wake Turbulence Classification

For airport planning and design, as well as air traffic safety purposes, aircraft

have been categorized into wake-turbulence classifications, based primarily their

maximum structural takeoff weights, as illustrated in Table 2-8. Operating aircraft of

varying wake-turbulence classifications in the same vicinity has significant effects on

the safe and efficient operation of an airfield.

Navigational Aids There are a number of aids available to pilots, though not all

airports are equipped with them. A visual approach slope indicator (VASI) helps

pilots fly the approach for landing. Some airports are equipped with a VHF

omnidirectional range (VOR) to help pilots find the direction to the airport. VORs are

often accompanied by a distance measuring equipment (DME) to determine the

distance to the VOR. VORs are also located off airports, where they serve to provide

airways for aircraft to navigate upon. In poor weather, pilots will use an instrument

landing system (ILS) to find the runway and fly the correct approach,even if they

cannot see the ground. The number of instrument approaches based on the use of the

Global Positioning System (GPS) is rapidly increasing and may eventually be the

primary means for instrument landings.Larger airports sometimes offer precision

approach radar (PAR), but these systems are more common at military air bases than

civilian airports. The aircraft's horizontal and vertical movement is tracked via radar,

xlvii
and the controller tells the pilot his position relative to the approach slope. Once the

pilots can see the runway lights, they may continue with a visual landing.

Airport Ground Crew (Ground Handling) Most airports have ground crew

handling the loading and unloading of passengers, crew, baggage and other services.

Some ground crew are linked to specific airlines operating at the airport.Among the

vehicles that serve an aircraft on the ground are: A tow tractor to move the aircraft in

and out of the berth. A jet bridge (in some airports) or stairs unit to allow passengers

to embark and disembark.

 A ground power unit for supplying electricity. As the engines will be switched

off, they will not be generating electricity as they do in flight.

 A cleaning service.

 A catering service to deliver food and drinks for a flight.

 A toilet waste truck to empty the tank which holds the waste from the toilets in

the aircraft.

 A water truck to fill the water tanks of the aircraft.

 A refueling vehicle. The fuel may come from a tanker, or from underground

fuel tanks.

 A conveyor belt unit for loading and unloading luggage.

 A vehicle to transport luggage to and from the terminal.

xlviii
The length of time an aircraft remains on the ground in between consecutive flights is

known as "turnaround time". Airlines pay great attention to minimizing turnaround

times in an effort to keep aircraft utilization (flying time) high, with times scheduled

as low as 25 minutes for jet aircraft operated by low-cost carriers on narrow-body

aircraft.

Field Elevation All other things being equal, the higher the field elevation of the

airport, the less dense the atmosphere, requiring longer runway lengths for the aircraft

to get to the appropriate ground speed to achieve sufficient lift for takeoff.For

planning purposes, it can be estimated that between sea level and 5000 ft above sea

level, runway lengths required for a given aircraft increases approximately 7 percent

for every 1000 ft of increase in elevation, and greater under very hot temperatures

those that experience very hot temperatures or are located at higher altitudes, the rate

of increase can be as much as 10 percent. Thus, while an aircraft may require 5000 ft

of runway to takeoff at an airport at sea level, the same aircraft may require 7500 ft or

more at an airport 5000 ft above sea level, especially during periods of high

temperatures.

Noise By the early 1960s, aircraft noise in the vicinity of urban airports had become a

major problem. The cause of the problem was a rapidly increasing number of aircraft

movements and the introduction of the first generation of turbojet aircraft with low

climb performance, such as the early models of the Boeing 707 and the Douglas DC-8.

Subsequently, public objections arose to the planned expansion of most urban airports.

These objections often held up expansion for many years and, in cities such as

xlix
London and Munich, ultimately severely modified the development of new airports.

In addition, noise curfews were introduced at many existing airports, such as John F.

Kennedy in New York, London’s Heathrow, and Kingsford Smith Airport

near Sydney.

Environmental Concerns And Sustainability Aircraft noise is a major cause of

noise disturbance to residents living near airports.Sleep can be affected if the airports

operate night and early morning flights.Aircraft noise not only occurs from take-off

and landings, but also ground operations including maintenance and testing of aircraft.

Noise can have other noise health effects. Other noise and environmental concerns are

vehicle traffic causing noise and pollution on roads leading the airport.The

construction of new airports or addition of runways to existing airports, is often

resisted by local residents because of the effect on countryside, historical sites,local

flora and fauna. Due to the risk of collision between birds and aircraft, large airports

undertake population control programs where they frighten or shoot birds.The

construction of airports has been known to change local weather patterns.For example,

because they often flatten out large areas, they can be susceptible to fog in areas

where fog rarely forms. In addition, they generally replace trees and grass with

pavement, they often change drainage patterns in agricultural areas, leading to more

flooding, run-off and erosion in the surrounding land.Some of the airport

administrations prepare and publish annual environmental reports in order to show

how they consider these environmental concerns in airport management issues and

how they protect environment from airport operations. These reports contain all

environmental protection measures performed by airport administration in terms of

water, air, soil and noise pollution, resource conservation and protection of natural life

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around the airport.A growing number of airports are installing solar photovoltaic

arrays to offset their electricity use. The National Renewable Energy Lab has shown

this can be done safely.

The world's first airport to be fully powered by solar energy is located at

Kochi, India. Another airport known for considering environmental parameters is the

Seymour Airport at Galapagos Islands.

Weather Observations At the airport are crucial to safe takeoffs and landings. In the

US and Canada, the vast majority of airports, large and small, will either have some

form of automated airport weather station, whether an AWOS, ASOS, or AWSS, a

human observer or a combination of the two. These weather observations,

predominantly in the METAR format, are available over the radio,through automatic

terminal information service (ATIS), via the ATC or the flight service station. Planes

take-off and land into the wind in order to achieve maximum performance. Because

pilots need instantaneous information during landing,a windsock is also kept in view

of the runway. Aviation windsocks are made with lightweight material, withstand

strong winds and are lit up after dark or in foggy weather. Because visibility of

windsocks is limited, often multiple glow-orange windsocks are placed on both sides

of the runway.

Surface Wind Wind speed and direction at an airport also have a significance on

runway length requirements. Simply, the greater the headwind the shorter the runway

length required, and the greater the tailwind the longer the runway required. Further,

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the presence of crosswinds will also increase the amount of runway required for

takeoff and landing. From the perspective of the planner, it is often estimated that for

every 5 kn of headwind, required runway length is reduced by approximately 3

percent and for every 7 kn of tailwind, runway length requirements increase by

approximately 7 percent. For airport planning purposes runway lengths are often

designed assuming calm wind conditions.

Wind Speed and Direction Since aircraft depend on the velocity of air flowing over

their wings to achieve lift, and fly through streams of moving air, similar to ships

moving along water with currents, the direction and speed of wind, both near the

surface of airports and at altitudes have great effect on aircraft performance. As winds

primarily affect the speed at which aircraft operate at an airport, it is important to

understand the basic difference between two ways of measuring speed in an aircraft,

ground speed and airspeed. The ground speed is the speed of the aircraft relative to

the ground. True airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air flowing over the

airfoil, or wing. For example, if an aircraft is flying at a ground speed of 500 kn in air

where the wind is blowing in the opposite direction, known as a headwind, at a speed

of 100 kn, the true airspeed is 600 kn. Likewise, if the wind is blowing in the same

direction, a tailwind, and the aircraft maintained a ground speed of 500 kn, the true

airspeed would be 400 kn. , the speed and direction of winds directly affect aircraft

runway utilization. For takeoff and landings, for example, aircraft perform best when

operating with the wind blowing directly toward them, that is, with a direct headwind.

Headwinds allow an aircraft to achieve lift at slower ground speeds, and thus allow

takeoffs and landings with slower ground speeds and shorter runway lengths. While

wind blowing from behind an aircraft, that is, a tailwind is preferable for aircraft

lii
flying at altitude, as they achieve greater ground speeds at a given airspeed, it is not

preferable for takeoff or landing, for precisely the same reason. As such, airports tend

to plan and design runways so that aircraft may operate most often with direct

headwinds, and orient their primary runways in the direction of the prevailing

winds.The relation between track, heading, and crosswind is illustrated in Fig. 2-7. In

order not to be blown laterally off the track by the wind, the aircraft must fly at an

angle x from the track.

Figure IV:VIII Crosswind correction.

Aircraft Speed Reference is made to aircraft speed in several ways. Aircraft

performance data is typically made reference two airspeeds, namely, true airspeed

(TAS) and indicated airspeed (IAS.For airport planning and design, many of these

speeds contribute to determining required runway lengths for takeoff and landing, as

well as in determining the maximum number of operations (i.e., the capacity) that can

be performed on runways over a given period of time.

Drainage Large airports are actually urban complexes in which high-population

activity centres are closely associated with very extensive paved areas. Typically a

liii
large airport can, on a daily basis, handle more than 100,000 passengers and support a

working population of more than 50,000 employees. The sewage system of such an

airport must cope with large daily flows of sanitary sewage effluent and, in addition,

must accommodate runoff from rain and snow accumulating over several hundred

acres of impervious pavement. The scale of the sewage problem at many large

airports is such that some facilities have their own sewage treatment plants, especially

for sanitary sewage. Because many airports are situated on low-lying ground, which is

more likely to provide the flat land necessary for airstrips, the sewage system must

often include extensive pumping faciliti

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Curriculum Vitae

PERSONAL DATA _________

Surname, First name: Rasgo, Ralph Kenn L.
Address: Brgy. Taculing, Prk. 5, Vidamo Subd. Bacolod
City
Phone:
Date of birth: Bacolod City, Negros Occidental
Marital status: Single
Email: ralphlumampao23@gmail.com

EDUCATION_________________________________________________________
Oct. 2021 - current Bachelor of Science in Architecture
La Consolation College Bacolod
Due for completion: 2023

PERSONAL DATA ________

Surname, First name: Pana-ongon, Francis dee E.
Address: Brgy. Sagua Banwa, Valladolid
Phone: 09664865627
Date of birth: Valladolid, Negros Occidental
Marital status: Single
Email: panaongonfrancisdee@gmail.com

EDUCATION_________________________________________________________
Bachelor of Science in Architecture
La Consolation College Bacolod

PERSONAL DATA _______

Surname, First name: Kylle Patrick L. De Los Reyes
Address: Prk.Kasilingan, Brgy. Tangub Bacolod city

iv
Phone: 09266886119
Date of birth: Bacolod City, Negros Occidental
Marital status: Single
Email: elykpatrick1@gmail.com
EDUCATION_________________________________________________________
Bachelor of Science in Architecture
La Consolation College Bacolod

PERSONAL DATA ________

Surname, First name: Basiya, Jed
Address: Purok Avila, Brgy. Daga, Cadiz City
Phone: 09455113355
Marital status: Single
Email: basiyaje12@gmail.com

EDUCATION_________________________________________________________
Industrial Technology, Bachelor of Science
Carlos Hidalgo Memorial State College Visayas
Philippines

Bachelor of Science in Architecture

La Consolation College Bacolod
WORK
EXPERIENCE________________________________________________________
Mega City General Construction National
Capital Region Philippines, Draftsman

iiv
References

Thomas, Andrew R. (2011). Soft Landing: Airline Industry Strategy, Service, and
Safety. Apress. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-4302-3677-1.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport

https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport#ref72408
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport#ref72409
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport/Site-selection
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport/Runway-pavements
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport/Navigational-aids-lighting-and-
marking#ref72420
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport/Passenger-terminal-layout-and-
design#ref72423
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport/Passenger-terminal-layout-and-
design#ref72424
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport/Cargo-facilities#ref72428
https://www.britannica.com/technology/airport/Airport-security
https://caap.gov.ph/
https://caap.gov.ph/republic-act-no-9497/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control
https://caap.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/PART-1-General-Policies-
Procedures-and-Definitions.pdf
https://caap.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/PART-18-Transportation-of-
Dangerous-Goods-by-Air.pdf
Planning and Design of Airports by Robert Horonjeff Francis X. McKelvey William
J. Sproule Seth B. Young

v
 PHILOSOPHY

“Adopt A highly modernize design depicting the famous culture of the place”

-Jed Basiya

“Environment speaks for itself, structure follows”

-Kylle Patrick Delosreyes

“Everything is to be considered in its next larger context”

-Ralph Kenn Rasgo

“Timeless design is the harmony of past and present

with beauty, form and purpose”

-Francis Dee Pana-ongon