ENM237

Reservoir Geology and Petrophysics

Formation Evaluation Measurements

Caliper
Self potential
Sonic
Gamma Ray
Density
Neutron
Resistivity
 Density – curves on the log

Typical wellsite
density log

RHOB - Density curve

PEF – Photo Electric Factor

(indicates lithology)

DRHO - Density correction curve

(should be near zero for
CALI – Caliper good log
(indicates hole diameter)
 FAMILY OF NUCLEAR TOOLS

Particle GR Neutrons

Emitted
Source Natural GR Emitted GR
Neutrons

Shaliness Porosity
Application Porosity
Correlation Density
Lithology

Gas
Oil
GR tools Density tools Neutron tool
 Density Log

Density log is measured in g/cm3 and indicated by ρ ; ρ

Density comes ρ as two separate values, bulk density (RHOB, b) and
matrix density ( ma)
Bulk density: density of entire formation (fluids and solids),
measured by the tool; Matrix density is density of solid framework of
rock

The most frequently used scales are a range of 2.0 to 3.0 gm/cc or
1.95 to 2.95 gm/cc across two tracks. Track #1 contains a gamma ray
log and caliper
 Density Tool

Caliper
(for hole size)
Gamma Ray
Detectors

Gamma Ray
source
Principle.
A radioactive source, Caesium-
137 or Cobalt-60, emits
medium-energy gamma rays
into the formation (0.5 - 2
MeV). These gamma rays, or
called photons are scattered in
all directions in the process.
The scattered photons reaching
the detector are counted and
give an indication of the
formation density.
•Mud cake
Effects.
•Slow logging
Speed 1800ft/hr

This tool is a contact-type tool; i.e., the skid device must ride against the side of
the borehole to measure accurately.
 PRINCIPLE

• Gamma rays emitted from radioactive source

• Gamma rays collide with electrons in formation, losing

energy

• Detectors measure intensity of backscattered gamma

rays

– High energy GR relate to - Density

– Low energy GR relate to - Lithology

 Density Tool

Tool measures formation density

(Higher porosity gives lower density)
 Measures formation’s bulk density
 Used as a porosity measure
 Gas detection
 Differentiates lithologies with Neutron Log
 Used with Sonic Logs to generate synthetic seismic traces
to match to seismic lines

Formation bulk density is a function of matrix density, porosity, and density of

the fluid in the pores (salt, mud, fresh mud, or hydrocarbons). Density is one
of the most important pieces of data in formation evaluation. In the majority of
the wells drilled, density is the primary indicator of porosity. In combination
with other measurements, it may also be used to indicate lithology and
formation fluid type.
COMPENSATED DENSITY LOG

ρe φD ρb ρc
To determine density porosity, either by chart or by calculation, the
matrix density and type of fluid in the borehole must be known. The
formula for calculating density porosity is:

ρma − ρ b
Φ =
ρ ma − ρ f

Where invasion of formation is shallow, low density of the

formation’s hydrocarbon will increase density porosity. Oil does not
significantly affect density porosity, but gas does (gas affect). Hilchie
(1978) suggests using a gas density of 0.7 gm/cc for fluid density (pf)
in the density porosity formula if gas density in unknown.
The Pe, or lithodensity log (LDT), is another version of the standard
formation density log. In addition to the bulk density (rb), the tool also
measures the photoelectric absorption index (Pe) of the formation. This
new parameter enables a lithological interpretation to be made without
prior knowledge of porosity.
Presentation and log response of Pe to different lithologies
Identification of lithologies with the photo-electric absorption index
6 CALI 16 1.95 RHOB 2.95

Porosity
increases
 Density – curves on the log

Typical wellsite
density log

RHOB - Density curve

PEF – Photo Electric Factor

(indicates lithology)

DRHO - Density correction curve

(should be near zero for
CALI – Caliper good log
(indicates hole diameter)
 Density (RHOB) – computing the porosity

RHOBmatrix RHOBfluid

(1−Φ ) Φ

RHOBlog = RHOBmatrix.(1- Φ) + Φ. RHOBfluid

Density porosity = Φ = RHOBmatrix - RHOBlog

RHOBmatrix - RHOBfluid

RHOBmatrix = 2.65 in sandstone, RHOBfluid = 1 in fresh water

Example of porosity from
density

RHOBlog
= 2.15 gm/cc

12810

Density porosity = Φ = RHOBmatrix - RHOBlog

RHOBmatrix - RHOBfluid

RHOBmatrix = 2.65 in sandstone, RHOBfluid = 1 in fresh water

Example of porosity from
density

RHOBlog
= 2.15 gm/cc

Density porosity = Φ = RHOBmatrix - RHOBlog

RHOBmatrix - RHOBfluid

= 2.65 – 2.15 = .3 = 30%

2.65 – 1.0
RHOBmatrix = 2.65 in sandstone, RHOBfluid = 1 in fresh water
 PEF – PhotoElectric Factor
PhotoElectric Factor (PEF) measurement comes from low energy
gamma ray countrate made at the same time as the density
measurement.

High atomic number atoms (eg Calcium) and lower atomic number
atoms (eg. Silicon) will have different PEF.

Typical density/PEF values:

PEF
limestone (~Ca) 5
sandstone (~Si) 1.8
dolomite 3.5
Salt (~Cl) 5
Anhydrite (~Ca) 5
Pure Coal ~0.2
 Neutron Tool

Backup arm

Neutron
Detectors

Neutron source
(note some
neutron tools
use minitron)
NEUTRON TOOL PRINCIPLE

• Detects neutrons from the

source which have been
scattered back by the
formation.

• The neutron tool employs a

dual detector design to
compensate for mudcake,
lithology, etc.

• Still, corrections are

required for the NPHI
values.
• NOTE : The tool is pressed
against the borehole wall to
minimize mud effects.
 Neutron – principle of measurement

Tool measures the Hydrogen Index (HI) of the

formation.
(HI of water is 100%)

Tool is placed against borehole wall and neutrons

move through the formation and are captured by
two neutron detectors.

Higher porosity (more hydrogen) results in fewer

neutrons reaching far detectors, because neutrons
are rapidly slowed down by hydrogen, then
captured by the formation.

12
• Neutrons emitted from source
• Neutrons interact with Hydrogen in formation
• Neutrons loose energy
• Neutrons are absorbed or reflected back to
detectors
– High counts = Low porosity
– Low counts = High porosity

Therefore tool measures amount of hydrogen in

formation, ie., water, oil
 Neutron Tool
Measures hydrogen ‘index’ of formation
(The hydrogen content, compared to pure water)

Where neutron logs can be used

• Any borehole
• Open or cased
• Liquid- or air-filled

Primary application:
• Porosity
• Other applications:
• Lithology, when combined with density
• Gas detection – neutron porosity reads quite low
• Through casing porosity.

Depth of investigation
6-12 inches for CN
0.45 NPHI -0.15

Porosity
increases
 Combining density & neutron in clastic
rocks
Density
Neutron
Use curve separation in 1.95
.45
2.95
-.15
density/neutron logs to 1 Shale
2 Organic Shale
help interpret lithology
and fluids Shale
( always check for ‘compatible’
3 Clean Gas sand
scale between density and neutron)
4 Clean Oil sand

5 Clean Water sand

6 Lower porosity
water sand
Clay indication 0.45 NPHI -0.15
from GR 1.95 RHOB 2.95

Coal

Low porosity cemented zone

 Neutron – lithology corrections

True
porosity Neutron logs are nearly always
presented in ‘limestone porosity
units’, which only gives correct
porosity in clean water bearing
limestone.

In all other formations use this chart

to get true porosity in Sandstone and
Dolomite.

Log porosity
15
Example of porosity from
neutron

0.26

Neutron porosity = Φ = .26 (correct in limestone)

 Neutron – lithology corrections

30

26

15
 Combining density & neutron in clastic
rocks
Density
Neutron
Use curve separation in 1.95
.45
2.95
-.15
density/neutron logs to
help interpret lithology 1 Shale
and fluids
( always check for ‘compatible’
2 Clean Gas sand
scale between density and neutron)
3 Clean Oil sand
Note: ‘clean’ formations have no
shale/clays in them. 4 Clean Water sand

5 Lower porosity
water sand
 Combining density & neutron
Density
Density
Neutron
Neutron
1.95 2.95
.45 -.15
1 Shale

Shale

Clean Gas sand

2

Clean Oil sand

3

Clean Water sand

4

Lower porosity
5 water sand
Neutron
Use curve separation in log format to help interpret lithology and fluids – always
check for ‘compatible’ scale between density and neutron
 Combining density & neutron
Density
Density
Neutron
Neutron
1.95 2.95
.45 -.15
2
3 1 Shale
4

Clean Gas sand

2
1
Clean Oil sand
3

Clean Water sand

4

Lower porosity
5 water sand
Neutron
Use curve separation in log format to help interpret lithology and fluids – always
check for ‘compatible’ scale between density and neutron
Now plot log data on a
density/neutron plot

2.15 gm/cc

0.26
 30pu sandstone
Gas
2.15
Combining
density &
neutron to
determine
Shales
lithology and
porosity

Neutron
26
Density – neutron data is often displayed in a crossplot
17
 Salt (NaCl)
Coal
Gas

Combining
density &
neutron to
determine
Shales
lithology and
porosity

Anhydrite
Neutron

Density – neutron data is often displayed in a crossplot

17
 carbonate containing about 30 % dolomite and 70 % limestone

2.45 16.5

19

Density – neutron data is often displayed in a crossplot

 Clastic and carbonate lithology
Density
GR Neutron
PEF Sonic
1.95 2.95
0 150 .45 -.15 0 10 140 40

Salt

Anhydrite

Clean tight
Limestone

Dolomite

Shale

Shaly gas
sand

Coal
Now use GR and Density-
Neutron curves to build up a
lithology column

Clay/Shale

Coal

Sand

Shaley Sand

Cemented sand
 Sonic Tool

Sonic is a porosity tool in addition to the density and neutron

devices and for the purpose of stratigraphic correlation and
Lithology assessment.

• Principle. The sonic tool measures the time it takes for a sound pulse
to travel from a transmitter to a receiver.
• Porosity log that measures interval transit time (∆Τ or DT) of a
compressional wave traveling through the formation along the axis of
the borehole;
• ∆Τ In microseconds per foot or microseconds per meter is the
reciprocal of velocity in feet per second;
• A sonic-derived porosity (SPHI) is shown in the same track (2&3) as the
DT curve;
• Track 1 usually contains a Caliper (CALI) and a gamma ray (GR) or an
SP
• Interval transit time depends on lithology and porosity, so a formation’s
matrix interval transit time must be known to derive sonic porosity from
chart or formula (e.g. Wyllie time-average equation);
 Sonic Tool
Purpose.
To measure the velocity of a sound pulse through a formation.

Principle.
A transmitter emits a sound wave which spreads in all directions. The
fastest wave, the compressional wave, is detected by two receivers.
The difference in arrival time of the compressional wave at the two
receivers is recorded and is called the interval transit time, delta T.

Advantageous Characteristics.
•Can be used in all types of mud.
•There is hardly any borehole effect.
•There are no restrictions on the logging speed.
•Combination with other tools is possible.
 Sonic Tool

Receivers

Transmitter
 Sonic – principle of measurement

Far receiver
Tool designed to
prevent direct Modern tools
sound arrival have multiple
receivers, and
Near receiver extract transit
times using
sophisticated
signal
processing.
Transmitter
Sonic Tool
 Sonic – principle of measurement

Tool measures time taken for compressional and

shear waves to travel through one foot of
formation.

This ‘transit time’ (microseconds/ft) is displayed

on the log.

An array of receivers is usually use, with

compressional and shear measurements extracted
from coherent events on the receiver waveforms.

Transform to porosity requires knowledge of

lithology and fluid content.

20
 Sonic Tool

Measures time sound takes to travel 1 foot

(higher porosity gives longer time)

Depth of Investigation is between 12cm and 1 meter

Primary applications:
•Porosity (if rock type known)
•Well to well correlation.
•Lithology identification.
•Compaction studies
•Over-pressure detection.
•Source-rock identification.
•Seismic applications.
 Log Presentation
When the sonic log is run on its own, it is presented in tracks 2 and 3, as shown in Figure
below. The sonic interval transit times (ΔT) are given in microseconds/foot, with a linear
scale from 40-140 μs/ft, reading from right to left. When the sonic log is run in combination
with other wireline logging tools, the log is restricted to track 3, often with the same
sensitivity scale of 40-140 μs/ft maintained.

Sonic log
 Applications
Porosity Determination

Wyllie et al (1956) proposed an empirical relationship, called the "time average equation". It
links the interval transit time to porosity by taking the total interval transit times in the matrix
and in the pores.

∆Tlog − ∆Tma
φ=
∆T f − ∆Tma

Compressional wave travel path.

∆Tlog − int erval transit time in the formation

∆Tma − int erval transit time in the matrix

∆T f − int erval transit time in the fluid (fresh water mud 189 usec/ft, salt mud 185 usec/ft)
 Δt (μs/ft.) Vma (ft./s)

Sandstone 55.6 - 51.3 18,000 - 19,500

Limestone 47.6 - 43.5 21,000 - 23,000
Dolomite 43.5 - 38.5 23,000 - 26,000

Anhydrite 50.0 20,000

Salt (Halite) 66.70 15,000
Casing 57.10 17,500
Shale 170 - 60 5,880 - 16,660
Bituminous Coal 140 - 100 7,140 - 10,000
0il 238 4,200
Methane 626 1,600

Interval transit times and the speed of the compressional waves in various rocks
Raymer – Hunt Chart
Sonic log - core porosity calibration
 HYDROCARBON EFFECTS

Effect of hydrocarbon on Sonic derived Porosity.

Due to its low density, gas/oil decreases the density of the formation, which in its
turn causes an increase in the sonic transit time and higher porosity.

Hilchie (1978) suggests the following corrections:

φ = φ s X 0.70 ( gas )
φ = φ s X 0.90 (oil )
 EFFECT OF SHALE

Effect of Shale on the Sonic derived Porosity

The effect of shale on the sonic log response is variable and depends on the density
of the shale present in a porous and permeable formation.

Young shales, at shallow depth, are generally under-compacted and tend to increase
the sonic transit time, leading to a slightly higher log-derived porosity.

Ancient shales, on the other hand, tend to be well compacted and as dense, or even
denser than some sandstones. The presence of such a shale in a porous and
permeable formation may lead to an increase in the density of that formation,
thereby reducing the transit time, and consequently giving a lower computed
porosity.
 Secondary Porosity
In general, the sonic log tends to ignore vugs and fracture porosity,
common in carbonate reservoirs. The density log and the neutron log,
by contrast, respond to total porosity.

A secondary porosity index (SPI or Ø2) may therefore be derived by

taking the difference between density porosity, ØD, or neutron
porosity, ØN, and the sonic porosity, ØS:

Ø2 = (ØD, ØN) - ØS
 Correlation

The sonic log is a sensitive recorder of a formation’s lithology, which is especially

evident in fine grained sediments or in beds without porosity. The sonic log can
pick out small variations, probably in texture, carbonate or quartz content, to show
a very distinct stratigraphical interval.

Source Rock Identification

The presence of organic matter in shales lowers the sonic velocities,

If, therefore, sonic velocities are cross-plotted against another
diagnostic log, such as the resistivity log, organic rich zones may be
identified.
 Lithology Identification

A better lithology determination is obtained when the sonic log readings

are compared to those of the density and neutron logs (sonic-density,
sonic-neutron and neutron-density cross-plots
 Compaction
As a sediment becomes compacted, the velocity to sound increases. Plotting the
interval transit time on a logarithmic scale against depth on a linear scale gives a
straight line relationship.

Compaction trends are constructed using only one lithology and comparing the
same stratigraphic interval at various depths. From these trends it is possible to
estimate the amount of erosion at unconformities, or the amount of uplift.
Compaction is generally accompanied by irreversible diagenetic effects, which do
not alter after uplift. The compaction of a sediment represents its deepest burial.

When a general compaction curve for an interval is available, the amount of the
over-compaction can be explained by the uplift of the formation, as is illustrated
below.

Therefore, any drastic changes in the compaction curves at faults, or at

unconformities, may indicate the amount of section that is missing.
Uplift and erosion by Sonic Log
 Overpressure Detection
The sonic log can be used to detect over-pressured zones in a well. An increase in pore
pressures is shown on the sonic log by a drop in sonic velocity, or an increase in the sonic
travel time.

A plot of the shale interval transit time against depth will show a change in the "average"
compaction line to higher interval transit time values, which is probably due to higher shale
porosities in the over-pressured zone. An example of an over-pressured zone on a transit
time versus depth plot is shown below. The top of the over-pressured zone is shown at the
depth where the shale transit time deviates from the normal trend.
 140 DT 40

Porosity
increases
Coal

Low porosity cemented zone

 Sonic – computing the porosity

DT_matrix DT_fluid

(1−Φ ) Φ

DT_log = DT_matrix.(1- Φ) + Φ. DT_fluid

Sonic porosity = Φ = DTlog - DTmatrix

DTfluid - DTmatrix

DTmatrix = 55 in sandstone, DTfluid = 190 in fresh water

 Computing sonic porosity
with ‘time average’ equation

90

Sonic porosity = Φ = DTlog – DTmatrix

DTfluid – DTmatrix
90 - 55 = 35 = 0.26
190 – 55 135
DTmatrix = 55 in sandstone, DTfluid = 190 in fresh water
 Computing
Sonic
porosity
using
charts
Other transforms
from transit time to
porosity exist.

Here the ‘field

observation’ non-
linear relation gives
similar results to the
time average value.

For high porosity

unconsolidated sands
(>30pu) use this
chart, not the time
average value
Example: 90 us/ft in water bearing sandstone gives 27pu.
equation.
22
 Sonic – other information

Typical Compressional Sonic transit time values:

DT us/ft
Salt 67
Anhydrite 50
0 pu limestone 49
0 pu sandstone 56
0 pu dolomite 44
Coal 100 – 160
Steel casing 57

Depth of investigation: up to ~9”

Vertical resolution: normally 12” -18”

Sonic porosity is particularly important when bad hole conditions affect

density and neutron tools.