A

PROJECT REPORT ON

POWER FLOW IMPROVEMENT IN TRANSMISSION

LINE USING UPFC

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Submitted By
R. RAKESH (18285A0240)
T. SREEJA (18285A0243)
L. ARAVIND (16281A0246)
G. VIVEK (18285A0231)
M. LIKITHA (17281A0259)

Under the Guidance of

Mrs. T. PAVANI
Asst. Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Hyderabad & Accredited by NAAC B++
Sponsored by Vodithala Education society, Hyderabad
SINGAPUR, KARIMNAGAR -505468 (T.S.)
(2020-2021)
 KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
SINGAPUR, HUZURABAD.
Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Hyderabad & Accredited by NAAC B++

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. R. RAKESH (18285A0240), Ms. T. SREEJA (18285A0243), Mr.
L. ARAVIND (16281A0246), Mr. G. VIVEK (18285A0231), Ms. M. LIKITHA (17281A0259) of
final year B. Tech has satisfactorily completed the module of major project entitled “POWER

FLOW IMPROVEMENT IN TRANSMISSION LINE USING UPFC” under my supervision and

guidance towards partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering JNTU, Hyderabad, T.S. during the academic
year 2020-2021.

Project Guide Head of the department

Mrs. T. PAVANI Dr. YOGESH. Y. PUNDLIK

Asst. Professor Professor

Prof. K. SHANKER

Principal
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A

We are very pleased to present this project work. This period of my student life has been

truly rewarding a number of people were of immense help to me during the course of my project

work and preparation of this book.

First, we wish to thank God Almighty who created heavens and earth, who helped us in

completing this project.

We thank my parents, encouraged me all along to complete this big task and to my

friends who has given good support along the way.

We would like to thank Mrs. T. PAVANI, Assistant Professor of EEE Department

in KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, Singapur, our project

internal guide, for her guidance and help. Her insight during the course of my research and

regular guidance were invaluable to us.

And also, we thank Dr. YOGESH YASHWANT PUNDLIK, Head of Electrical &

Electronics Engineering Department, for his encouragement and cooperation throughout the

project.

We place our sincere thanks to Prof. K. SHANKER, Principal of KAMALA

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE for his kind co-operation.

We are grateful to the Management of KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &

SCIENCE College for providing all the facilities required for completing this project work.

Presented by
R. RAKESH (18285A0240)
T. SREEJA (18285A0243)

L. ARAVIND (16281A0246)

G. VIVEK (18285A0231)

M. LIKITHA (17281A0259)
INDEX
S.NO LIST OF CONTENTS PAGE NO
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER-2 POWER QUALITY 3

2.1 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS 3
2.2 THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY 6

CHAPTER-3 FACTS 10
3.1 CONFIGURATION OF FACTS DEVICES 12
1. SHUNT DEVICES 12
2. SERIES DEVICES 20
3. SHUNT AND SERIES DEVICES 22
4. UPFC 25

CHAPTER -4 UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER(UPFC) 28

4.1 CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT 28
4.2 OPERATION OF UPFC 29
4.3 BASIC CONTROL FUNCTION 30
4.4 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF P AND Q CONTROL 31

CHAPTER-5 MODELLING OF CASE STUDY 37

5.1 CONTROL STRATEGY FOR UPFC 37
5.2 BASIC CONTROL SYSTEM 38
5.3 REAL AND REACTIVE POWER COORDINATION 40
CONTROLLER

CHAPTER-6 MATLAB 44
6.1 SIMULINK 45
6.2 CONCEPT OF SIGNAL AND LOGIC FLOW 46
CHAPTER-7 MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS 53
7.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF UPFC 53
7.2 OUTPUT WAVEFORMS 54

CONCLUSION 59
REFERENCE 60
 S.NO LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO

FIG 1.1 OPERATIONAL LIMITS OF TRANSMISSIONS LINES 11

FOR DIFFERENT VOLTAGE LEVELS

FIG 1.2 OVERVIEW OF MAJOR FACTS DEVICES 11

FIG 3.1 SVC BUILDING BLOCKS AND VOLTAGE/CURRENT 14

CHARACTERISTICS

FIG 3.2 SVC OF THE FC/TCR TYPE 15

FIG 3.3 SVC OF COMBINED TSC AND TCR TYPE 16

FIG 3.4 STATCOM STRUCTURE AND VOLTAGE/CURRENT 18

CHARACTERISTICS

FIG 3.5 6 PULSES STATCOM 18

FIG 3.6 STATCOM EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 19

FIG 3.7 PRINCIPLE SETUP OF TCSC AND ITS 21

OPERATIONAL DIAGRAM

FIG 3.7 PRINCIPLE CONFIGURATION OF DFC 22

FIG 3.8 OPERATIONAL DIAGRAM OF A DFC 24

FIG 3.10 PRICIPLE CONFIGURATION OF AN UPFC 25

FIG 3.11 A BASIC UPFC FUNCTIONAL SCHEME 26

FIG 4.1 BASIC CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT OF UPFC

FIG 4.2 BASIC UPFC CONTROL FUNCTIONS 33

FIG 4.3 SIMPLE TWO MACHINE SYSTEM 31

FIG 4.4 TWO MACHINES SYSTEM WITH THE UNIFIED POWER 32

FLOW CONTROLS

FIG a,b,c&d ATTAINABLE SENDING END REACTIVE POWER 35

VS TRANSMITTED POWER

FIG 5.1 DE COUPLED D-Q AXIS SHUNT CONVERTER

CONTROL SYSTEM 38
S.NO LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO

FIG 5.2 SERIES CONVERTERS REAL AND REACTIVE POWER 38

FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM

FIG 5.3 UPFC CONNECTED TO A TRANSMISSION LINE 39

FIG 5.4 D-AXIS SHUNT CONVERTER CONTROL SYSTEM WITH REAL

POWER COORDINATION CONTOLLER 40

FIG 5.5 SHUNT CONVERTS Q-AXIS CONTROLLER WITH REACTIVE

POWER CO ORDINATION CONTROLLER 41

FIG 5.6 POWER SYSTEM WITH UPFC 43

FIG 6.1 SIMULINK LIBRARY BROWSER 46

FIG 6.2 CONNECTING BLOCKS 47

FIG 6.3 SOURCES AND SINKS 48

FIG 6.4 CONTINOUS AND DESCRETE SYSTEMS 49

FIG 6.5 SIMULINK BLOCKS 50

FIG 6.6 SIMULINK MATH BLOCKS 50

FIG 6.7 SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS 51

 ABSTRACT

UPFC is the most\ comprehensive multivariable flexible ac transmission system

(FACTS) controller. Simultaneous control of multiple power system variables with UPFC
posses enormous difficulties. This paper proposes a new real and reactive power coordination
controller for a unified power flow controller (UPFC). The basic control for the UPFC is such
that the series converter of the UPFC controls the transmission line real/reactive power flow
and the shunt converter of the UPFC controls the UPFC bus voltage/shunt reactive power and
the DC link capacitor voltage. In steady state, the real power demand of the series converter is
supplied by the shunt converter of the UPFC. To avoid instability/loss of DC link capacitor
voltage during transient conditions, a new real power coordination controller has been
designed.
The need for reactive power coordination controller for UPFC arises from the fact that
excessive bus voltage (the bus to which the shunt converter is connected) excursions occur
during reactive power transfers. A new reactive power coordination controller has been
designed to limit excessive voltage excursions during reactive power transfers. The shunt
converter of the UPFC controls the UPFC bus voltage/shunt reactive power and the dc link
capacitor voltage. The series converter of the UPFC provides simultaneous control of real and
reactive power flow in the transmission line the shunt converter has been modeled as a 4-
module converter. The series converter consists of two sets of converters. One set of converter
is used for the real power flow control and the other set of converter is used for the reactive
power flow control. Recent advances in high voltage IGCT technology allow for higher
switching frequencies with lower losses. This allows for practical implementation of PWM
control. The switching frequency for the converters has been chosen to be nine times the
fundamental. Here we use matlab/simulink for the simulation purpose and outputs are
verified in the scope.
 CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
UPFC is the most comprehensive multivariable flexible ac transmission system
(FACTS) controller. Simultaneous control of multiple power system variables with UPFC
possess enormous difficulties. In addition, the complexity of the UPFC control increases due
to the fact that the controlled and the control variables interact with each other.
UPFC which consists of a series and a shunt converter connected by a common dc
link capacitor can simultaneously perform the function of transmission line real/reactive
power flow control in addition to UPFC bus voltage/shunt reactive power control. The shunt
converter of the UPFC controls the UPFC bus voltage/shunt reactive power and the dc link
capacitor voltage. The series converter of the UPFC controls the transmission line
real/reactive power flows by injecting a series voltage of adjustable magnitude and phase
angle. The interaction between the series injected voltage and the transmission line current
leads to real and reactive power exchange between the series converter and the power
system. Under steady state conditions, the real power demand of the series converter is
supplied by the shunt converter. But during transient conditions, the series converter real
power demand is supplied by the dc link capacitor.
If the information regarding the series converter real demand is not conveyed to the
shunt converter control system, it could lead to collapse of the dc link capacitor voltage and
subsequent removal of UPFC from operation. Very little or no attention has been given to
the important aspect of coordination control between the series and the shunt converter
control systems. The real power coordination discussed is based on the known fact that the
shunt converter should provide the real power demand of the series converter. In this case,
the series converter provides the shunt converter control system an equivalent shunt
converter real power reference that includes the error due to change in dc link capacitor
voltage and the series converter real power demand. The control system designed for the
shunt converter in causes excessive delay in relaying the series converter real power demand
information to the shunt converter. This could lead to improper coordination of the overall
UPFC control system and subsequent collapse of dc link capacitor voltage under transient
conditions. In this paper, a new real power coordination

1
controller has been developed to avoid instability/excessive loss of dc link capacitor voltage
during transient conditions.
In contrast to real power coordination between the series and shunt converter control
system, the control of transmission line reactive power flow leads to excessive voltage
excursions of the UPFC bus voltage during reactive power transfers. This is due to the fact
that any change in transmission line reactive power flow achieved by adjusting the
magnitude/phase angle of the series injected voltage of the UPFC is actually supplied by the
shunt converter. The excessive voltage excursions of the UPFC bus voltage is due to absence
of reactive power coordination between the series and the shunt converter control system.
This aspect of UPFC control has also not been investigated. A new reactive power
coordination controller between the series and the shunt converter control system has been
designed to reduce UPFC bus voltage excursions during reactive power transfers.
In this paper, a UPFC control system that includes the real and reactive power
coordination controller has been designed and its performance evaluated.

2
 CHAPTER 2
POWER QUALITY
The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is often
enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed performance,
and levels of automation that can be achieved. Although these features and their indirectly
related computer-based enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we
must not forget the foundation upon which we are building. Power quality is the mortar
which bonds the foundation blocks.

Power quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability, our
environment, and initial investment in power distribution systems to support new crane
installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which accompanied the last monthly
issue of my home utility billing: ‘Using electricity wisely is a good environmental and
business practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from generating plants, and
conserves our natural resources.’ As we are all aware, container crane performance
requirements continue to increase at an astounding rate.

Next generation container cranes, already in the bidding process, will require average
power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW – almost double the total average demand three years
ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in container crane population,
SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large AC and DC drives needed to power and
control these cranes will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very near
future.

2.1 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:

For the purpose of this article, we shall define power quality problems as:

‘Any power problem that results in failure or mis operation of customer equipment,
manifests itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces negative impacts on the
environment. When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade
power quality include:

3
• Power Factor

• Harmonic Distortion

• Voltage Transients

• Voltage Sags or Dips

• Voltage Swells

The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are significant
contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion. Whereas SCR phase control
creates the desirable average power factor, DC SCR drives operate at less than this. In
addition, line notching occurs when SCRs commutate, creating transient peak recovery
voltages that can be 3 to 4 times the nominal line voltage depending upon the system
impedance and the size of the drives. The frequency and severity of these power system
disturbances varies with the speed of the drive. Harmonic current injection by AC and DC
drives will be highest when the drives are operating at slow speeds. Power factor will be
lowest when DC drives are operating at slow speeds or during initial acceleration and
deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum value when the SCRs are phased on to
produce rated or base speed.

Above base speed, the power factor essentially remains constant. Unfortunately,
container cranes can spend considerable time at low speeds as the operator attempts to spot
and land containers. Poor power factor places a greater kVA demand burden on the utility or
engine- alternator power source. Low power factor loads can also affect the voltage stability
which can ultimately result in detrimental effects on the life of sensitive electronic
equipment or even intermittent malfunction. Voltage transients created by DC drive SCR
line notching, AC drive voltage chopping, and high frequency harmonic voltages and
currents are all significant sources of noise and disturbance to sensitive electronic
equipment. It has been our experience that end users often do not associate power quality
problems with Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or
there was no economic Consequence if power quality was not addressed.
4
 power supplies, Power factor was reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal.
Not until the crane Population multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static
power conversion became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge.

Even as harmonic distortion and power Factor issues surfaced, no one was really
prepared. Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System vendors avoid the issue
during competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness and
understanding of the potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or
unintentionally ignored. Power quality problem solutions are available. Although the
solutions are not free, in most cases, they do represent a good return on investment.
However, if power quality is not specified, it most likely will not be delivered.

Power quality can be improved through:

• Power factor correction,

• Harmonic filtering,

• Special line notch filtering,

• Transient voltage surge suppression,

• Proper earthing systems.

In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may not be fully aware
of the potential power quality issues. If this article accomplishes nothing else, we would
hope to provide that awareness.

In many cases, those involved with specification and procurement of container cranes
may not be cognizant of such issues, do not pay the utility billings, or consider it someone
else’s concern. As a result, container crane specifications may not include definitive power
quality criteria such as power factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Also, many of
those specifications which do require power quality equipment do not properly define the
criteria. Early in the process of preparing the crane specification:

5
 • Consult with the utility company to determine regulatory or contract requirements that
must be satisfied, if any.

• Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality profiles
that can be expected based on the drive sizes and technologies proposed for the specific
project.

• Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the present situation,
but consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the future development plans for
the terminal.

2.2 THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY:

Power quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of the
terminal operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects other consumers
served by the same utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in the following
paragraphs.

1. ECONOMIC IMPACT:

The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container terminal
operators. Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in several ways:

A. POWER FACTOR PENALTIES:

Many utility companies invoke penalties for low power factor on monthly billings.
There is no industry standard followed by utility companies. Methods of metering and
calculating power factor penalties vary from one utility company to the next. Some utility
companies actually meter kVAR usage and establish a fixed rate times the number of kVAR-
hours consumed. Other utility companies monitor kVAR demands and calculate power
factor. If the power factor falls below a fixed limit value over a demand period, a penalty is
billed in the form of an adjustment to the peak demand charges. A number of utility
companies servicing container terminal equipment do not yet invoke power factor penalties.

6
 However, their service contract with the Port may still require that a minimum
power factor over a defined demand period be met. The utility company may not
continuously monitor power factor or kVAR usage and reflect them in the monthly utility
billings; however, they do reserve the right to monitor the Port service at any time. If the
power factor criteria set forth in the service contract are not met, the user may be penalized,
or required to take corrective actions at the user’s expense. One utility company, which
supplies power service to several east coast container terminals in the USA, does not reflect
power factor penalties in their monthly billings, however, their service contract with the
terminal reads as follows: The average power factor under operating conditions of
customer’s load at the point where service is metered shall be not less than 85%. If below
85%, the customer may be required to furnish, install and maintain at its expense corrective
apparatus which will increase the Power factor of the entire installation to not less than 85%.
The customer shall ensure that no excessive harmonics or transients are introduced on to the
[utility] system. This may require special power conditioning equipment or filters.’

The Port or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for maintaining
container cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment, should be aware of these
requirements. Utility deregulation will most likely force utilities to enforce requirements
such as the example above. Terminal operators who do not deal with penalty issues today
may be faced with some rather severe penalties in the future. A sound, future terminal
growth plan should include contingencies for addressing the possible economic impact of
utility deregulation.

B. SYSTEM LOSSES:

Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not only result in
possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses in the distribution system.
These losses are not visible as a separate item on your monthly utility billing, but you pay for
them each month. Container cranes are significant contributors to harmonic currents and low
power factor. Based on the typical demands of today’s high speed container cranes,
correction of power factor alone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result in a
reduction of system
7
 losses that converts to a 6 to 10% reduction in the monthly utility billing. For most of the
larger terminals, this is a significant annual saving in the cost of operation.

C. POWER SERVICE INITIAL CAPITAL INVESTMENTS:

The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as well as
modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost, specialized, high
and medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing
cables, collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the kVA demand. Thus cost of the
equipment is directly related to the total kVA demand. As the relationship above indicates,
kVA demand is inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e. a lower power factor
demands higher kVA for the same kW load. Container cranes are one of the most significant
users of power in the terminal. Since container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate
at relatively low power factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the
case if power factor correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some
common bus location in the terminal. In the absence of power quality corrective equipment,
transformers are larger, switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper sizes
are larger, collector system and cable reel cables must be larger, etc. Consequently, the cost
of the initial power distribution system equipment for a system which does not address
power quality will most likely be higher than the same system which includes power quality
equipment.

2. EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY:

Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce the life of
components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags and swells are all power
quality problems and are all interdependent. Harmonics affect power factor, voltage
transients can induce harmonics, the same phenomena which create harmonic current
injection in DC SCR variable speed drives are responsible for poor power factor, and
dynamically varying power factor of the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The
effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can be mitigated
using specially designed filters.

8
3. POWER SYSTEM ADEQUACY:

When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power

distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine the adequacy
of the system to support additional crane loads. Power quality corrective actions may be
dictated due to inadequacy of existing power distribution systems to which new or relocated
cranes are to be connected. In other words, addition of power quality equipment may render
a workable scenario on an existing power distribution system, which would otherwise be
inadequate to support additional cranes without high risk of problems.

4. ENVIRONMENT:

No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our environment.

Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction in the consumption of
our natural nm resources and reduction in power plant emissions. It is our responsibility as
occupants of this planet to encourage conservation of our natural resources and support
measures which improve our air quality.

9
 CHAPTER 3
FACTS
Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well
known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic
devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide.
A number of new types of devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice.

In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or

landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of
substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying
operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic applications
of FACTS-devices are:

• Power flow control.

• Increase of transmission capability.
• Voltage control.
• Reactive power compensation.
• Stability improvement.
• Power quality improvement.
• Power conditioning.
• Flicker mitigation.
• Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.
Figure shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems. The usage of lines
for active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and
stability limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can
be seen that with growing line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and
more important. The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled
shunt compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work
electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows
very short reaction times down to far below one second.

10
 The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of
power electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in
converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network
elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system.
Figure 1.2 shows a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the
FACTS-devices.
For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some
explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-devices
provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the
conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like
mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore, most of the FACTS-
devices can equally be static and dynamic.

11
 The left column in Figure 1.2 contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or
mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together
with transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional
power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with
switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of FACTS-
devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or converters are well known since
several years. They have low losses because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle
in the converters or the usage of the Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.
The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source
converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Insulated
Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free controllable
voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs.
High modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to
compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an
increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore, special designs
of the converters are required to compensate this .

3.1 CONFIGURATIONS OF FACTS-DEVICES:

1. SHUNT DEVICES:
The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source
Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power
compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks
are:
• Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses.
• Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power.
• Compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge
demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground
train systems.
• Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines.
• Improvement of static or transient stability.
12
 Almost half of the SVC and more than half of the STATCOMs are used for industrial
applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require power
quality. Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of industrial processes
due to insufficient power quality. Railway or underground systems with huge load variations
require SVCs or STATCOMs.
1.1 SVC:
Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the transmitted load
varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as
well. The result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or even a voltage
depression, at the extreme a voltage collapse.
A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can continuously provide the
reactive power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various system
conditions and thereby improve the power system transmission and distribution stability.

Applications of the SVC systems in transmission systems:

a. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability margin
b. To damp power oscillations
c. To achieve effective voltage control

In addition, SVCs are also used

1. in transmission systems
a. To reduce temporary over voltages
b. To damp sub synchronous resonances
c. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems
2. in traction systems
a. To balance loads
b. To improve power factor
c. To improve voltage regulation
3. In HVDC systems
a. To provide reactive power to ac–dc converters
13
4. In arc furnaces
a. To reduce voltage variations and associated light flicker

Installing an SVC at one or more suitable points in the network can increase transfer
capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different
network conditions. In addition, an SVC can mitigate active power oscillations through
voltage amplitude modulation.
SVC installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important is the
Thyristor valve, i.e., stack assemblies of series connected anti-parallel Thyristors to provide
controllability. Air core reactors and high voltage AC capacitors are the reactive power
elements used together with the Thyristor valves. The step-up connection of this equipment
to the transmission voltage is achieved through a power transformer.

Fig 3.1 SVC building blocks and voltage / current characteristic

In principle the SVC consists of Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) and Thyristor
Switched or Controlled Reactors (TSR / TCR). The coordinated control of a combination of
these branches varies the reactive power as shown in Figure. The first commercial SVC was
installed in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On transmission level the first SVC was used in
1979. Since then, it is widely used and the most accepted FACTS-device.
14
1.1 SVC USING A TCR AND AN FC:
In this arrangement, two or more FC (fixed capacitor) banks are connected to a TCR
(thyristor-controlled reactor) through a step-down transformer. The rating of the reactor is
chosen larger than the rating of the capacitor by an amount to provide the maximum lagging
vars that have to be absorbed from the system.
By changing the firing angle of the thyristor controlling the reactor from 90° to 180°,
the reactive power can be varied over the entire range from maximum lagging vars to
leading vars that can be absorbed from the system by this compensator.

Fig 3.2 SVC of the FC/TCR type:

The main disadvantage of this configuration is the significant harmonics that will be
generated because of the partial conduction of the large reactor under normal sinusoidal
steady- state operating condition when the SVC is absorbing zero MVAr. These harmonics
are filtered in the following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled by arranging the TCR
and the secondary windings of the step-down transformer in delta connection. The capacitor
banks with the help of series reactors are tuned to filter fifth, seventh, and other higher-order
harmonics as a high-pass filter. Further losses are high due to the circulating current between
the reactor and capacitor banks.
15
 Comparison of the loss characteristics of TSC–TCR, TCR–FC compensators and
synchronous condenser.
These SVCs do not have a short-time overload capability because the reactors are
usually of the air-core type. In applications requiring overload capability, TCR must be
designed for short-time overloading, or separate thyristor-switched overload reactors must be
employed.
1.2 SVC USING A TCR AND TSC:
This compensator overcomes two major shortcomings of the earlier compensators
by reducing losses under operating conditions and better performance under large system
disturbances. In view of the smaller rating of each capacitor bank, the rating of the reactor
bank will be 1/n times the maximum output of the SVC, thus reducing the harmonics
generated by the reactor. In those situations where harmonics have to be reduced further, a
small amount of FCs tuned as filters may be connected in parallel with the TCR.

Fig 3.3 SVC of combined TSC and TCR type

16
 When large disturbances occur in a power system due to load rejection, there is a
possibility for large voltage transients because of oscillatory interaction between system and
the SVC capacitor bank or the parallel. The LC circuit of the SVC in the FC compensator. In
the TSC–TCR scheme, due to the flexibility of rapid switching of capacitor banks without
appreciable disturbance to the power system, oscillations can be avoided, and hence the
transients in the system can also be avoided. The capital cost of this SVC is higher than that
of the earlier one due to the increased number of capacitor switches and increased control
complexity.

1.3 STATCOM:
In 1999 the first SVC with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM (STATic
COMpensator) went into operation. The STATCOM has a characteristic similar to the
synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the
synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost
and lower operating and maintenance costs.
A STATCOM is build with Thyristors with turn-off capability like GTO or today
IGCT or with more and more IGBTs. The static line between the current limitations has a
certain steepness determining the control characteristic for the voltage.

The advantage of a STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is independent

from the actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the
maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the SVC. This means,
that even during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM keeps its full capability.

In the distributed energy sector, the usage of Voltage Source Converters for grid
interconnection is common practice today. The next step in STATCOM development is the
combination with energy storages on the DC-side. The performance for power quality and
balanced network operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and
reactive power.

17
 Fig 3.4 STATCOM structure and voltage / current characteristic

STATCOMs are based on Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topology and utilize
either Gate-Turn-off Thyristors (GTO) or Isolated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) devices.
The STATCOM is a very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser.
If the STATCOM voltage, Vs, (which is proportional to the dc bus voltage Vc) is
larger than bus voltage, Es, then leading or capacitive VARS are produced. If Vs is smaller
than Es then lagging or inductive VARS are produced.

Fig 3.5 6 Pulses STATCOM

The three phases STATCOM makes use of the fact that on a three phase,
fundamental frequency, steady state basis, and the instantaneous power entering a purely
reactive device must

18
be zero. The reactive power in each phase is supplied by circulating the instantaneous real
power between the phases. This is achieved by firing the GTO/diode switches in a manner
that maintains the phase difference between the ac bus voltage ES and the STATCOM
generated voltage VS. Ideally it is possible to construct a device based on circulating
instantaneous power which has no energy storage device (i.e. no dc capacitor).
A practical STATCOM requires some amount of energy storage to accommodate
harmonic power and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real power is non-zero.
The maximum energy storage required for the STATCOM is much less than for a TCR/TSC
type of SVC compensator of comparable rating.

Fig 3.6 STATCOM Equivalent Circuit

Several different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the
STATCOM. Fundamental switching of the GTO/diode once per cycle can be used. This
approach will minimize switching losses, but will generally utilize more complex
transformer topologies. As an alternative, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) techniques, which
turn on and off the GTO or IGBT switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This
approach allows for simpler transformer topologies at the expense of higher switching losses.

The 6 Pulse STATCOM using fundamental switching will of course produce the 6
N1 harmonic. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics. These methods
include the basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta transformer connections, a
complete elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic current using series connection of star/star and
star/delta transformers and a quasi 12 pulse method with a single star-star transformer, and
two secondary
19
 windings, using control of firing angle to produce a 30phase shift between the two 6
pulsebridges.
This method can be extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48 pulse STATCOM, thus
eliminating harmonics even further. Another possible approach for harmonic cancellation is
a multi-level configuration which allows for more than one switching element per level and
therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has a staircase
effect, dependent on the number of levels. This staircase voltage can be controlled to
eliminate harmonics.

2. SERIES DEVICES:
Series devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically switched
compensations to the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) or even Voltage
Source Converter based devices.
The main applications are:
• Reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line,
• Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power
transmissions,
• Improvement of system damping resp. damping of oscillations,
• Limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations,
• Avoidance of loop flows resp. power flow adjustments.
2.1 TCSC:
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) addresses specific dynamical
problems in transmission systems. Firstly, it increases damping when large electrical systems
are interconnected. Secondly it can overcome the problem of Sub Synchronous Resonance
(SSR), a phenomenon that involves an interaction between large thermal generating units
and series compensated transmission systems.
The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling
line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows
for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The TCSC
also can regulate steady-state power flow within its rating limits.

20
 From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC resembles the conventional
series capacitor. All the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including
the Thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank. Likewise
the control and protection is located on ground potential together with other auxiliary
systems. Figure shows the principle setup of a TCSC and its operational diagram. The firing
angle and the thermal limits of the Thyristors determine the boundaries of the operational
diagram.

Fig 3.7 Principle setup of a TCSC and its operational diagram

ADVANTAGES
 Continuous control of desired compensation level
 Direct smooth control of power flow within the network
 Improved capacitor bank protection
 Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR). This permits higher levels of
compensation in networks where interactions with turbine-generator torsional vibrations or
with other control or measuring systems are of concern.
 Damping of electromechanical (0.5-2 Hz) power oscillations which often arise between areas
in a large interconnected power network. These oscillations are due to the dynamics of inter
area power transfer and often exhibit poor damping when the aggregate power transfer over
a corridor is high relative to the transmission strength.

21
3 SHUNT AND SERIES DEVICES:
3.1 DYNAMIC POWER FLOW CONTROLLER:
A new device in the area of power flow control is the Dynamic Power Flow
Controller (DFC). The DFC is a hybrid device between a Phase Shifting Transformer (PST)
and switched series compensation.
A functional single line diagram of the Dynamic Flow Controller is shown in Figure 1.19.
The Dynamic Flow Controller consists of the following components:

• A standard phase shifting transformer with tap-changer (PST)

• series connected Thyristor Switched Capacitors and Reactors (TSC / TSR)
• A mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is optional depending on the
system reactive power requirements)

Fig: 3.8 Principle configuration of DFC

Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series TSC or TSR.
The mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage support in case of
overload and other conditions.
Normally the reactance of reactors and the capacitors are selected based on a binary
basis to result in a desired stepped reactance variation. If a higher power flow resolution is
needed, a reactance equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be added.

22
 The switching of series reactors occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics.
However, in general, the principle of phase-angle control used in TCSC can be applied for a
continuous control as well. The operation of a DFC is based on the following rules:

• TSC / TSR are switched when a fast response is required.

• The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC / TSR.
• The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the currents
higher than normal loading.
• The total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimized by the operation of
the MSC, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors.

In order to visualize the steady state operating range of the DFC, we assume an
inductance in parallel representing parallel transmission paths. The overall control objective
in steady state would be to control the distribution of power flow between the branch with
the DFC and the parallel path. This control is accomplished by control of the injected series
voltage.

The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature with the
node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature with the
throughput current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor close to one, the two
parts of the series voltage will be close to collinear. However, in terms of speed of control,
influence on reactive power balance and effectiveness at high/low loading the two parts of
the series voltage has quite different characteristics. The steady state control range for
loadings up to rated current is illustrated in Figure 3.8. where the x-axis corresponds to the
throughput current and the y-axis corresponds to the injected series voltage.

Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power through
the DFC, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds to increasing the
power flow through the DFC. The slope of the line passing through the origin (at which the
tap is at. zero and TSC / TSR are bypassed) depends on the short circuit reactance of the
PST.
23
 Fig 3.9 Operational diagram of a DFC

Starting at rated current (2 kA) the short circuit reactance by itself provides an
injected voltage (approximately 20 kV in this case). If more inductance is switched in and/or
the tap is increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the DFC decreases
(and the flow on parallel branches increases). The operating point moves along lines parallel
to the arrows in the figure. The slope of these arrows depends on the size of the parallel
reactance. The maximum series voltage in the first quadrant is obtained when all inductive
steps are switched in and the tap is at its maximum.
Now, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases (due
e.g. to changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease. At zero current, it
will not matter whether the TSC / TSR steps are in or out, they will not contribute to the
series voltage.
Consequently, the series voltage at zero current corresponds to rated PST series
voltage. Next, moving into the second quadrant, the operating range will be limited by the
line corresponding to maximum tap and the capacitive step being switched in (and the
inductive steps by-passed). In this case, the capacitive step is approximately as large as the
short circuit reactance of the PST, giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second
quadrant.
24
3. UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER:

The UPFC is a combination of a static compensator and static series compensation.

It acts as a shunt compensating and a phase shifting device simultaneously.

Fig 3.10 Principle configuration of an UPFC

The UPFC consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected via two
voltage source converters with a common DC-capacitor. The DC-circuit allows the active
power exchange between shunt and series transformer to control the phase shift of the series
voltage. This setup, as shown in Figure 1.21, provides the full controllability for voltage and
power flow. The series converter needs to be protected with a Thyristor bridge. Due to the
high efforts for the Voltage Source Converters and the protection, an UPFC is getting quite
expensive, which limits the practical applications where the voltage and power flow control
is required simultaneously.
OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF UPFC:
The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source inverters (VSIs) sharing
a common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through coupling
transformers. One VSI is connected to in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt
transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series transformer.

25
 Fig 3.11 A basic UPFC functional scheme

The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system
(Vse), of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and
reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter will exchange active and
reactive power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series
inverter, and the active power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is
operated in such a way as to demand this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the
line keeping the voltage across the storage capacitor Vdc constant. So, the net real power
absorbed from the line by the UPFC is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their
transformers.

The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive power
with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point.

The two VSI’s can work independently of each other by separating the dc side. So in
that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a STATCOM that generates or absorbs reactive
power to

26
regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is
operating as SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and
hence the power low on the transmission line.
The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is
operating in such a way to inject a controllable current, ish into the transmission line. The
shunt inverter can be controlled in two different modes:

VAR Control Mode: The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request.
The shunt inverter control translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt current
request and adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. For this mode of
control a feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc, is also required.

Automatic Voltage Control Mode: The shunt inverter reactive current is

automatically regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection
to a reference value. For this mode of control, voltage feedback signals are obtained from the
sending end bus feeding the shunt coupling transformer.
The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series
with the line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage
can be obtained in several ways.

Direct Voltage Injection Mode: The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and
phase angle of the series voltage.

Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode: The reference input is phase displacement
between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Line Impedance Emulation
mode: The reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line impedance.

Automatic Power Flow Control Mode: The reference inputs are values of P and Q to
maintain on the transmission line despite system changes.

27
 CHAPTER 4
UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (UPFC):
Gyugyi proposed the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) concept in 1991. The
UPFC was devised for the real time control and dynamic compensation of ac transmission
systems, providing multifunctional flexibility required to solve many of the problems facing
the delivery industry. Within the framework of traditional power transmission concepts, the
UPFC is able to control, simultaneously or selectively, all the parameters affecting power
flow in the transmission line (i.e., voltage, impedance and phase angle), and this unique
capability is signed by the adjective “unified” in its name. Alternatively, it can independently
control both the real and reactive power flows in the line.

4.1 Circuit Arrangement:

In the presently used practical implementation, The UPFC consists of two switching
converters, which in the implementations considered are voltage source inverters using gate
turn- off (GTO) thyristor valves, as illustrated in the Fig 4.1. These back-to-back converters
labeled “Inverter 1 and “Inverter 2” in the figure, are operated from a common dc link
provided by a dc storage capacitor. This arrangement functions as an ac-to-ac power
converter in which the real power can freely flow in either direction between the ac terminals
of the two inverters and each inverter can independently generate (or absorb) reactive power
at its own ac output terminal.

Fig 4.1 Basic circuit arrangement of UPFC

28
4.2 Operation of UPFC:

Inverter 2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting an ac voltage Vpq
with controllable magnitude Vpq (0≤Vpq≤Vpqmax) and phase angle (0≤≤360), at the power
frequency, in series with the line via an insertion transformer. The injected voltage is
considered essentially as a synchronous voltage source. The transmission line current flows
through this voltage source resulting in real and reactive power exchange between it and the
ac system. The real power exchanged at the ac terminal (i.e., at the terminal of insertion
transformer) is converted by the inverter into dc power that appears at the dc link as positive
or negative real power demanded. The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal is
generated internally by the inverter.

The basic function of inverter 1 is to supply or absorb the real power demanded by
Inverter 2 at the common dc link. This dc link power is converted back to ac and coupled to
the transmission line via a shunt-connected transformer. Inverter 1 can also generate or
absorb controllable reactive power, if it is desired, and there by it can provide independent
shunt reactive compensation for the line. It is important to note that where as there is a
closed “direct” path for the real power negotiated by the action of series voltage injection
through Inverters 1 and 2 back to the line, the corresponding reactive power exchanged is
supplied or absorbed locally by inverter 2 and therefore it does not flow through the line.

Thus, Inverter 1 can be operated at a unity power factor or be controlled to have a

reactive power exchange with the line independently of the reactive power exchanged by the
Inverter 2. This means there is no continuous reactive power flow through UPFC.

4.3 Basic Control Functions:

Operation of the UPFC from the standpoint of conventional power transmission

based on reactive shunt compensation, series compensation, and phase shifting, the UPFC
can fulfill these functions and thereby meet multiple control objectives by adding the
injected voltage Vpq, with appropriate amplitude.

29
 Fig 4.2: Basic UPFC Control Functions

Terminal Voltage Regulation, similar to that obtainable with a transformer tap-changer

having infinitely small steps, as shown at (a) where Vpq=V (boldface letters represent
phasors) is injected in-phase (or anti-phase) with Vo.

Series capacitor compensation is shown at (b) where Vpq=Vc is in quadrature with the line
current I.

Transmission angle Regulation (phase shifting) is shown at (c) where V pq=Vo is injected with
angular relationship with respect to Vo that achieves the desired s phase shift (advance or
retard) without any change in magnitude.

30
Multifunctional Power Flow Control, executed by simultaneous terminal voltage regulation,
series capacitive compensation, and phase shifting, is shown at (d) where V pq=V+Vc+Vo.

4.4 Basic Principles of P and Q Control:

Consider Fig At (a) a simple two machine (or two bus ac inter-tie) system with
sending end voltage Vs, receiving-end voltage Vr, and line (or tie) impedence X (assumed,
for simplicity, inductive) is shown. At (b) the voltages of the system in the form of a phasor
diagram are shown with transmission angle  and Vs=Vr=V. At (c) the transmitted power
P (P=V2/X sin) and the reactive power Q=Qs=Qr (Q=V2/X (1-cos)) supplied at the ends of
the line are shown plotted against angle . At (d) the reactive power Q=Qs=Qr is shown
plotted against the transmitted power corresponding to “stable values of ” (i.e., 0<=
<=90o).

Fig 4.3: Simple Two Machine System

Basic power system of fig with the well-known transmission characteristics is

introduced for the purpose of providing a vehicle to establish the capability of the UPFC to
control the transmitted real power P and the reactive power demands, Qs and Qr, at the
sending end, respectively, the receiving end of the line.
31
 Consider Fig. The simple power system of Fig is expended to include the UPFC. The
UPFC is represented by a controllable voltage source in series with the line which, as
explained in the previous section, can generate or absorb reactive power that it, or absorbed
from it, bye the sending end generator. The UPFC in series with the line is represented by
the phasor Vpq having magnitude Vpq(0 ≤ Vpq ≤ Vpqmax ) and angle ρ (0 ≤ ρ ≤ 360) measured
from the given phase position of phasor Vs, as illustrated in the figure. The line current
represented by the phasor I, flows through the series voltage source, Vpq and generally result
in both reactive and real power exchange.

In order to represent UPFC properly, the series voltage source is stipulated to

generate only the reactive power Qpq it exchanges with the line. Thus the real power P pq it
negotiates with the line is assumed to be transferred to the sending-end generator excited.
This is in arrangement with the UPFC circuit structure in which the dc link between the two
constituent inverters establish a bi-directional coupling for real power flow between the
injected series voltage source and the sending end bus.

As Fig implies, in the present discussion it is further assumed for clarity that the
shunt reactive compensation capability of the UPFC not utilized. This is the UPFC shunt
inverter is assumed to be operated at unity power factor, its sole function being to transfer
the real power demand of the series inverter to the sending-end generator. With these
assumptions, the series voltage source, together with the real power coupling to the sending
end generator as shown in fig 4.4, is an accurate representation of the basic UPFC.

Fig: 4.4 Two Machines System With the UPFC

32
 It can be observed in Fig that the transmission line “sees” Vs+Vpq as the effective
sending end voltage. Thus, it is clear that the UPFC effects the voltage (both its magnitude
and angle) across the transmission line and therefore it is reasonable to expect that it is able
to control, by varying the magnitude and angle of Vpq, the transmittable real power as well
as the reactive power demand of the line at any given transmission angle between the
sending-end and receiving-end voltages.

Independent Real and Reactive Power Flow Control:

In Fig(a) through (b) the reactive power Qs supplied by the sending-end generator,
and Qr supplied by the receiving-end generator, are shown plotted separately against the
transmitted power ρ as a function of the magnitude Vpq and angle p of the injected voltage
phasor Vpq at four transmission lines; δ=0,30,60 and 90. At Vpq=0 each of these plots
becomes a discrete point on the basic Q-p curve as shown in Fig 2.3(d), which is included in
each of the above figures for reference. The curves showing the relationships between Q s and
P, and Qr and P, for the transmission angle range of 0<= δ<=90, when the UPFC is operated
to provide the maximum transmittable power with no reactive power control (Vpq=Vpqmax and
ρ= ρp=Pmax), are also shown by a broken –line with the label “P(δ)=MAX” at the sending
end and respectively, “receiving- end” plots of the figure.

33
 Fig (a) & (b). Attainable sending-end reactive power Vs transmitted power (left hand
side plots) and receiving-end reactive power Vs transmitted power (right hand side
plots) values with the UPFC at =0o and =30o

Consider the first fig.5(a), which illustrates the case when the transmission angle is
zero(δ=0). With Vpq=0, P, Qs and Qr are all zero, i.e., the system is standstill at the origins of
the Qs, P and Qr, P coordinates. The circle around the origin of the {Qs, P} and {Qr, P}
planes sown the variation of Qs and P and Qr and P respectively. As the voltage phasor Vpq,
with its maximum Vpqmax is rotated a full revolution (0<= ρ<=360). The area with in these
circles defines all P and Q values obtainable by controlling the magnitude V pq and ρ of the
phasor Vpq.

34
 Fig (c) & (d). Attainable sending-end reactive power Vs transmitted power (left-hand
side plots) and receiving-end reactive power Vs transmitted power (right hand side
plots) values with the UPFC at =60o and =90o

Consider the first fig.5(a), which illustrates the case when the transmission angle is
zero(δ=0). With Vpq=0, P, Qs and Qr are all zero, i.e., the system is standstill at the origins of
the Qs, P and Qr, P coordinates. The circle around the origin of the {Qs, P} and {Qr, P}
planes sown the variation of Qs and P and Qr and P respectively. As the voltage phasor Vpq,
with its
35
maximum Vpqmax is rotated a full revolution (0<= ρ<=360). The area with in these circles
defines all P and Q values obtainable by controlling the magnitude Vpq and ρ of the phasor
Vpq.

In other words, the circle in {Qs, p} and {Qr, p} planes define all P and Qs and
respectively, P and Qr values attainable with the UPFC of a given rating. It can be observed,
for example, that the UPFC with the stipulated voltage rating of 0.5. p.u. is able to establish
0.5. p.u. power flow, in either direction, without imposing any reactive power demand on
either the sending-end or the receiving-end generator. Of course, the UPFC, as seen, can
force the generator at one end to supply reactive power for the generator at the other end. (In
case of inertia, one system can be forced to supply reactive power of the line.)

In general at any given transmission angle δ, the transmitted real power P, and the
reactive power demands at the transmission line ends, Q s and Qr, can be controlled freely by
the UPFC with in the boundaries obtained in the {Qs, p}and {Q r, P} planes by rotating the
injected voltage phasor Vpq with its maximum magnitude a full revolution. The boundary in
each plane is centered around the point defined by the transmission angle on the Q verses P
curve that characteristics the basic power transmission at Vpq=0.

Consider the next case of δ=30 (fig. 5(b)), it is seen that the receiving-end control
region boundary in the {Qs, P} plane become an ellipse. As the transmission angle δ is
further increased, for example, to 60 (fig.5(c)), the ellipse defining the control region for P
and Qs in the
{Qs, P} plane becomes narrower and finally 90(fig. 5(d)) it degerates into a straight line. By
contrast, the control region boundary for p and Qr in the {Qr, P} plane remains a circle at all
transmission angles.

36
 CHAPTER 5
MODELLING OF CASE STUDY
5.1 CONTROL STRATEGY FOR UPFC:

A. Shunt Converter Control Strategy:

The shunt converter of the UPFC controls the UPFC bus voltage/shunt reactive
power and the dc link capacitor voltage. In this case, the shunt converter voltage is
decomposed into two components. One component is in-phase and the other in quadrature
with the UPFC bus voltage. De-coupled control system has been employed to achieve
simultaneous control of the UPFC bus voltage and the dc link capacitor voltage.

B. Series Converter Control Strategy:

The series converter of the UPFC provides simultaneous control of real and reactive
power flow in the transmission line. To do so, the series converter injected voltage is
decomposed into two components. One component of the series injected voltage is in
quadrature and the other in-phase with the UPFC bus voltage. The quadrature injected
component controls the transmission line real power flow. This strategy is similar to that of a
phase shifter. The in- phase component controls the transmission line reactive power flow.
This strategy is similar to that of a tap changer.

5.2 BASIC CONTROL SYSTEM:

A. Shunt Converter Control System:

Fig.5.1 shows the de-coupled control system for the shunt converter. The D-axis
control system controls the dc link capacitor voltage and the Q-axis control system controls
the UPFC bus voltage /shunt reactive power. The details of the de-coupled control system
design can be found .The de-coupled control system has been designed based on linear
control system techniques and it consists of an outer loop control system that sets the
reference for the inner control system loop. The inner control system loop tracks the
reference.

37
 Fig.5.1 De-coupled D-Q axis shunt converter control system.

Fig.5.2 Series converter real and reactive power flow control system.

38
 Fig.5.3 UPFC connected to a transmission line.

A. Series Converter Control System:

Fig.5.2 shows the overall series converter control system. The transmission line real
power flow is controlled by injecting a component of the series voltage in quadrature with
the UPFC bus voltage. The transmission line reactive power is controlled by modulating the
transmission line side bus voltage reference. The transmission line side bus voltage is
controlled by injecting a component of the series voltage in-phase with the UPFC bus
voltage.

39
5.3 REAL AND REACTIVE POWER COORDINATION
CONTROLLER:

A. Real Power Coordination Controller:

To understand the design of a real power coordination controller for a UPFC,

consider a UPFC connected to a transmission line as shown in Fig 5.3. The interaction
between the series injected voltage and the transmission line current leads to exchange of
real power between the series converter and the transmission line. The real power demand of
the series converter causes the dc link capacitor voltage to either increase or decrease
depending on the direction of the real power flow from the series converter.

Fig.5.4 D-axis shunt converter control system with real power coordination controller.

This decrease/increase in dc link capacitor voltage is sensed by the shunt converter

controller that controls the dc link capacitor voltage and acts to increase/decrease the shunt
converter real power flow to bring the dc link capacitor voltage back to its scheduled value.
Alternatively, the real power demand of the series converter is recognized by the shunt
converter controller only by the decrease/increase of the dc link capacitor voltage.

40
 Thus, the shunt and the series converter operation are in a way separated from each
other. To provide for proper coordination between the shunt and the series converter control
system, a feedback from the series converter is provided to the shunt converter control
system. The feedback signal used is the real power demand of the series converter. The real
power demand of the series converter is converted into an equivalent D-axis current for the
shunt converter. By doing so, the shunt converter responds immediately to a change in its D-
axis current and supplies the necessary series converter real power demand. The equivalent
D-axis current is an additional input to the D-axis shunt converter control system as shown
in Fig.5.4

Equation shows the relationship between the series converter real power demand Pse
and the shunt converter D-axis current iDse.

Fig.5.5 Shunt converter Q-axis controller with reactive power coordination controller.

41
 The real power demand of the series converter Pse is the real part of product of the
series converter injected voltage Vse and the transmission line current Ise. Vupfcbus, iDse
represent the voltage of the bus to which the shunt converter is connected and the equivalent
additional D- axis current that should flow through the shunt converter to supply the real
power demand of the series converter. As shown in Fig.5.4, the equivalent D-axis additional
current signal (iDse) is fed to the inner control system, thereby increasing the effectiveness
of the coordination controller. Further, the inner control system loops are fast acting PI
controllers and ensure fast supply of the series converter real power demand Pse by the shunt
converter.

A. Reactive Power Coordination Controller:

The in-phase component (VseD) of the series injected voltage which has the same
phase as that of the UPFC bus voltage, has considerable effect on the transmission line
reactive power (Qline) and the shunt converter reactive power (Qsh). Any increase/decrease
in the transmission line reactive power (Qline) due to in-phase component (VseD) of the
series injected voltage causes an equal increase/decrease in the shunt converter reactive
power (Qsh). In short, increase/decrease in transmission line reactive power is supplied by
the shunt converter. Increase/decrease in the transmission line reactive power also has
considerable effect on the UPFC bus voltage. The mechanism by which the request for
transmission line reactive power flow is supplied by the shunt converter is as follows.
Increase in transmission line reactive power reference causes a decrease in UPFC bus
voltage. Decrease in UPFC bus voltage is sensed by the shunt converter UPFC bus voltage
controller which causes the shunt converter to increase its reactive power output to boost the
voltage to its reference value. The increase in shunt converter reactive power output is
exactly equal to the increase requested by the transmission line reactive power flow
controller (neglecting the series transformer T2 reactive power loss). Similarly, for a
decrease in transmission line reactive power, the UPFC bus voltage increases momentarily.
The increase in UPFC bus voltage causes the shunt converter to consume reactive power and
bring the UPFC bus voltage back to its reference value. The decrease in the shunt converter
reactive power is exactly equal to the decrease in transmission line reactive power flow
(neglecting the reactive power absorbed by the series transformer T2).
42
 In this process, the UPFC bus voltage experiences excessive voltage excursions. To
reduce the UPFC bus voltage excursions, a reactive power flow coordination controller has
been designed. The input to the reactive power coordination controller is the transmission
line reactive power reference. Fig.5.5 shows the shunt converter Q-axis control system with
the reactive power coordination controller.

Fig.5.6 Power system with UPFC.

The washout circuit represents the reactive power coordination controller. The gain
of the washout circuit has been chosen to be 1.0. This is because, any increase/decrease in
the transmission line reactive power flow due to change in its reference is supplied by the
shunt converter. The washout time constant is designed based on the response of the power
system to step changes in transmission line reactive power flow without the reactive power
coordination controller.

43
 CHAPTER 6
MATLAB
Matlab is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include Math
and computation Algorithm development Data acquisition Modeling, simulation, and
prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user interface building.

Matlab is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take
to write a program in a scalar no interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

The name Matlab stands for matrix laboratory. Matlab was originally written to
provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPAC and eispack projects.
Today, Matlab engines incorporate the lapack and blas libraries, embedding the state of the
art in software for matrix computation.

Matlab has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university
environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in
mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, Matlab is the tool of choice for high-
productivity research, development, and analysis.

Matlab features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes.

Very important to most users of Matlab, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of Matlab functions (M-files) that
extend the Matlab environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy
logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others.

44
The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:

Development Environment. This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use
Matlab functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the
Matlab desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and
browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path.

The Matlab Mathematical Function Library. This is a vast collection of

computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and
complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix eigenvalues,
Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

The Matlab Language. This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow
statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming
features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-
away programs, and "programming in the large" to create large and complex application
programs.

Matlab has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well
as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional
and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation
graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully customize the
appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your
MATLAB applications. The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API). This is a
library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with Matlab. It
includes facilities for calling routines from Matlab (dynamic linking), calling Matlab as a
computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

6.1 SIMULINK:

Simulink is a software add-on to Matlab which is a mathematical tool developed by

The Math works, (http://www.mathworks.com) a company based in Natick. Matlab is
powered by extensive numerical analysis capability.
45
 Simulink is a tool used to visually program a dynamic system (those governed by
Differential equations) and look at results. Any logic circuit, or control system for a dynamic
system can be built by using standard building blocks available in Simulink Libraries.
Various toolboxes for different techniques, such as Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks, dsp,
Statistics etc. are available with Simulink, which enhance the processing power of the tool.
The main advantage is the availability of templates / building blocks, which avoid the
necessity of typing code for small mathematical processes.

6.2 CONCEPT OF SIGNAL AND LOGIC FLOW:

Fig 6.1 Simulink library browser

46
 In Simulink, data/information from various blocks are sent to another block by lines
connecting the relevant blocks. Signals can be generated and fed into blocks dynamic /
static). Data can be fed into functions. Data can then be dumped into sinks, which could be
scopes, displays or could be saved to a file. Data can be connected from one block to
another, can be branched, multiplexed etc. In simulation, data is processed and transferred
only at discrete times, since all computers are discrete systems. Thus, a simulation time step
(otherwise called an integration time step) is essential, and the selection of that step is
determined by the fastest dynamics in the simulated system.

CONNECTING BLOCKS:

Fig 6.2 Connecting blocks

To connect blocks, left-click and drag the mouse from the output of one block to the input of
another block.
47
SOURCES AND SINKS:

The sources library contains the sources of data/signals that one would use in a
dynamic system simulation. One may want to use a constant input, a sinusoidal wave, a step,
a repeating sequence such as a pulse train, a ramp etc. One may want to test disturbance
effects, and can use the random signal generator to simulate noise. The clock may be used to
create a time index for plotting purposes. The ground could be used to connect to any unused
port, to avoid warning messages indicating unconnected ports.

The sinks are blocks where signals are terminated or ultimately used. In most cases, we
would want to store the resulting data in a file, or a matrix of variables. The data could be
displayed or even stored to a file. The stop block could be used to stop the simulation if the
input to that block (the signal being sunk) is non-zero. Figure 3 shows the available blocks in
the sources and sinks libraries. Unused signals must be terminated, to prevent warnings
about unconnected signals.

Fig 6.3 Sources and sinks

CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE SYSTEMS:

All dynamic systems can be analyzed as continuous or discrete time systems.
Simulink allows you to represent these systems using transfer functions, integration blocks,
delay blocks etc.
48
 Fig 6.4 continous and descrete systems

NON-LINEAR OPERATORS:

A main advantage of using tools such as Simulink is the ability to simulate non-linear
systems and arrive at results without having to solve analytically. It is very difficult to arrive
at an analytical solution for a system having non-linearities such as saturation, signup
function, limited slew rates etc. In Simulation, since systems are analyzed using iterations,
non-linearities are not a hindrance. One such could be a saturation block, to indicate a
physical limitation on a parameter, such as a voltage signal to a motor etc. Manual
switches are useful when trying
49
simulations with different cases. Switches are the logical equivalent of if-then statements in
programming.

Fig 6.5 simulink blocks

MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS:

Mathematical operators such as products, sum, and logical operations such as and, or,
etc.can be programmed along with the signal flow. Matrix multiplication becomes easy with
the matrix gain block. Trigonometric functions such as sin or tan inverse (at an) are also
available. Relational operators such as ‘equal to’, ‘greater than’ etc. can also be used in logic
circuits

Fig 6.6 Simulink math blocks

50
SIGNALS & DATA TRANSFER:

In complicated block diagrams, there may arise the need to transfer data from one
portion to another portion of the block. They may be in different subsystems. That signal
could be dumped into a goto block, which is used to send signals from one subsystem to
another. Multiplexing helps us remove clutter due to excessive connectors, and makes matrix
(column/row) visualization easier.

Fig 6.7 signals and systems

MAKING SUBSYSTEMS:

Drag a subsystem from the Simulink Library Browser and place it in the parent block
where you would like to hide the code. The type of subsystem depends on the purpose of the
block. In general, one will use the standard subsystem but other subsystems can be chosen.
For instance, the subsystem can be a triggered block, which is enabled only when a trigger
signal is received.

51
 Open (double click) the subsystem and create input / output PORTS, which transfer
signals into and out of the subsystem. The input and output ports are created by dragging
them from the Sources and Sinks directories respectively.

When ports are created in the subsystem, they automatically create ports on the
external (parent) block. This allows for connecting the appropriate signals from the parent
block to the subsystem.

SETTING SIMULATION PARAMETERS:

Running a simulation in the computer always requires a numerical technique to solve

a differential equation. The system can be simulated as a continuous system or a discrete
system based on the blocks inside. The simulation starts and stop time can be specified. In
case of variable step size, the smallest and largest step size can be specified. A Fixed step
size is recommended and it allows for indexing time to a precise number of points, thus
controlling the size of the data vector. Simulation step size must be decided based on the
dynamics of the system. A thermal process may warrant a step size of a few seconds, but a
DC motor in the system may be quite fast and may require a step size of a few milliseconds.

52
 CHAPTER 7

MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS

7.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF UPFC:

53
7.2 OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:
1. OUTPUT WAVEFORM FOR PAND Q UPFC WITHOUT REACTIVE POWER
CO- ORDINATION:

54
2. OUTPUT WAVEFORM FOR P AND Q UPFC WITHOUT REAL POWER CO-
ORDINATION:

55
3. OUTPUT WAVEFORM FOR P-Q CO-ORDINATION:

56
4. OUTPUT WAVEFORM FOR THREE FAULT:

57
5. OUTPUT WAVEFORM FOR WITHOUT THREE FAULT:

58
 CONCLUSION

This project has presented a new real and reactive power coordination controller for a
UPFC. The basic control strategy is such that the shunt converter of the UPFC controls the
UPFC bus voltage/shunt reactive power and the dc link capacitor voltage. The series
converter controls the transmission line real and reactive power flow. The contributions of
this work can be summarized as follows.

Two important coordination problems have been addressed in this paper related to
UPFC control. One, the problem of real power coordination between the series and the shunt
converter control system. Second, the problem of excessive UPFC bus voltage excursions
during reactive power transfers requiring reactive power coordination.

Inclusion of the real power coordination controller in the UPFC control system
avoids excessive dc link capacitor voltage excursions and improves its recovery during
transient conditions. MATLAB simulations have been conducted to verify the improvement
in dc link voltage excursions during transient conditions. Significantly reducing UPFC bus
voltage excursions during reactive power transfers. The effect on transmission line reactive
power flow is minimal. MATLAB simulations have shown the improvement in power
oscillation damping with UPFC.

59
 REFERENCES

[1] L. Gyugyi, C. D. Schauder, S. L. Williams, T. R. Reitman, D. R. Torgerson, and A.

Edris, “The unified power flow controller: A newapproach to power transmission control,”
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[2] C. D. Schauder, L. Gyugyi, M. R. Lund, D. M. Hamai, T. R. Rietman, D. R.

Torgerson, and
A. Edris, “Operation of the unified power flow controller (UPFC) under practical
constraints,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 13, pp. 630–636, Apr. 1998.

[2] K. K. Sen and E. J. Stacey, “UPFC-UnifiedPower flow controller: Theory, modeling,

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[6] Z. Huang, Y. Ni, F. F. Wu, S. Chen, and B. Zhang, “Appication of unified power flow
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