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Learning Outcomes: Lesson 2: Human Evolution and Culture
Learning Outcomes: Lesson 2: Human Evolution and Culture
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Learning Objective:
LO1. Trace the biological and cultural evolution of early to modern humans.
LO2.Explore the significance of human material remains as pieces of artefactual evidence
LO3. Identify forms of tangible and intangible heritage, and the treats to these.
LEARNING CONTENT
Cultural Beginnings
Cultural is defined as “that complex whole which encompasses belief, practices, values,
attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and
shares as amember of a society” (Tylor, 2010). It is a by-product of the attempt of humans to
survive their environment and to compensate for their biological characteristics and limitations.
The need to scrutinize human anatomy to understand culture is indispensable. Physical and
cultural anthropologists argue that we could trace how culture became possible by
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1. Our thinking capacity
The primary biological component of humans that allowed for culture is the developed
brain. It has the necessary parts for facilitating pertinent skills such as
speaking,touching,feeling,seeing,and smelling.
The frontal lobe and the motor cortex function for cognition and motor abilities. The
parietal lobe allows for touch and taste abilities. The temporal lobe allows for hearing skills. The
Compared with other primates, humans have a larger brain, weighing 1.4 kg. Chimpanzees
and the complexity of its parts, human were able to create survival skills that helped them
adapt to their environment and outlive their less adaptive biological relatives.
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As the brain is the primary source of human’s capacity to comprehend sound and provide
meaning to it, the vocal tract acts as the mechanism by which sounds are produced and
longer than that of a chimpanzee. A longer vocal tract means that there is a longer vibration
surface, allowing humans to produce a widere array of sounds than chimpanzees. The tongue of
humans is also more flexible than that a chimpanzee, allowing for more control in making sounds.
Traditional scientific belief pegs the development of language at 100 000 years ago,
making it an exclusive traits of the modern human. However, Dan Dediu from the Max Planck
Institute for Psycholinguistics in the Neatherland argued that the origin of language may be
rooted as far back as 500 000 years ago based on the discovered bone fragment from an
ancestor known as Homo heidelbergensis. This fossil is a hyoid bone which is “ crucial for
speaking as it supports the root of the tongue” ( Hogenboom, 2013). Homo neanderthalensis(
Neanderthals), our nearest relative, was also found to have the same bone, which functions
similarly as ours. Hence, current arguments include that the Neanderthals were a truly human
species.
Look at your hands. Notice how your thumb relates with your other fingers. This
capacity to diretly oppose your thumb with your other fingers is an exclusive trait of humans. It
allowed us to have a finer grip. Thus, we have the capability to craft materials with precision.
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Fig 2.4 Hands of selected primates
The hand of a human has digits (fingers) that are straight, as compared with the curved
grip: Power gripenabled humans to wrap the thumb and fingers on an object; it became the
cornerstone of our capacity to hold tools firmly for hunting and other activities. Precision grip
enabled humans to hold and pick objects steadily using their fingers. This capacity was crucial
Primates have two forms of locomotion: bipedalism and quadropedalis. Bipedalismis the
capcity to walk and stand on two feet, whereas quadropedalismuses all four limbs.
an important trait, as it gave humans more productivity with their hands. Apart from this,
humans gained a more efficient form of locomotion suitable for hunting and foraging.
Our evolution toward humanity as we know it has been a long journey of survival against the
elements of the environment and against competing species. As our ancestors evolved
biologically in response to their environment, they have also developed cultural technologies
that aided them to efficiently obtain food and deter predators.Archaeologists refer to these
early traditions are stone tool industries instead of culture, as the material products of these
periods merely display the methods by early humans in creating tools and not the modern
wood as digging sticks or even crude spears. Althrough there is no archaeological evidence to
prove this claim, it is being assumed that the earlier homos had at least this capacity, which is
observed among present-day chimpanzees. Some contest this perspective, arguing that the
evidence of stone tool usage found in the Dikika region in Ethiopia, Africa, puts the timeframe
the other discoveries, current archaeological and anthropological timelines suggest that
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The Oldowan Industry
The Oldowan industry, a stone tool industry, is characterized by the use of “ hard
water-worn creek cobbles made out of volcanic rock” ( O’Neil 2012). These raw materials were
then made into tools through percussion flaking, which is a process involving the systematic
collision of a hammer stone with a core stone. The impact of the collion produces a core tool (
Supporting the existence of this industry is the evidence found by Mary and Louis
Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, which was dated at 2.6 million years ago. This industry is
These forms of technology allowed for the species to “ butcher large animals, because
human teeth and fingers are totally inadequate for cutting through thick skins and slicing off
pieces of meat. Evidence of theire use in this manner can be seen in cuts marks that still are
visible on bones” and it improved their food gathering skills using the “hammering, digging, and
chopping imp;lements.
From Africa, this industry spread out to Europe and Asia during the migration of
Homo erectus, who acquired it from Home habilis within 1.9-1.8 million years ago. By 1.8-1.6
million years ago, the Oldowan industry has already reached Java, Indonesia, and Nothern China.
The Acheulian Industry
Homo erectus developed a more complex industry from what they inherited from H
omo
habilis. Using the same process of percussion flaking. Homo erectuscreated hand axes that were
bifacial shaped in both sides, and with straighter and sharper edges.
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Some archaeologists contest the general label of “ hand axels” as the stone implements
may have been used in different context. However, it is still generally accepted that these
stone implements were used in multiple activities such as light chopping of wood, digging up
roots and bulbs, butchering animals, and cracking nuts and small bones. Tools that were made
were kept and not disposed of like the tool in the OLdowan industry,as the tools of the latter
set were more useful due of their generic application. Homo erectus made other tools such as
“chopper, cleavers and hammers as well as flakes used as knives and scrapers”.
This industry was named after Saint Acheul, a patrol saint in southwest France, as
these artifacts were discovered in the area. The artifacts date to 1.5 million years ago.
Althrough tis industry is believed to have originated in East Africa, scholars argue that its
extensive use may have been out of Africa as H
omo erectusinved this industry and brought it to
The Mounsterian Industry
This industry was developed by Homo nearderthalensis (Neanderthals) in Europe and
West Asia between 300 000 and 30 000 years ago. This industry was named after a site in
combined Acheulian industry techniques with the Levalloisian technique, which involved the use
of a premade core tool and the extraction of a flake tool that has sharpened edges. This type
of tools is very efficient as all the sides of the flake tool are sharpened and, due to the
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Evidence of this industry dating back 100 000 years was also found in Northern Africa
and West Asia, where modern humans such as as that of Qafre migrated. Most archsaeologists
hypothesis that this industry could be an evidence of acculturation of modern humans with their
Neanderthal relatives
These differences are primarily due to the shifting needs of the users who were adapting
to their environment as they addressed their need for food and security. It could also be said
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that these are pieces of evidence of the development of tradition, as one efficient traits is
By the end of the Palaeeolithic period, early humans have been engaged in proto-culture
type of industries wherein they did not just create tools but also started creating art and
evidence for this industry was found. Users of this industry used raw materials such as flint,
animal bones, and antlers.The methods they employed in creating tools such as fine blades was
Apart from a more advanced toolmaking industry, what made this industry a
cultural milestone for the modern humans in Europe is their development of self-awareness.
The cave paintings found in the El Castillo cave in Cantabaria, Spain provide us with
a glimpse of the environment that the humans lived in. Most of the paintings are that of the
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Apart from the animal-themed figurines, archaeologists also unearthed human-inspired
Fels.This figurine was sculpted from a woody mammoth tusk. EWmphasis was also made by the
artisan on several parts of the body such as the breast and the hips. Scholars theorize that
this emphasis may be due to the importance of these parts in childbearing or childrearing.
The earliest evidence of music appreciation was also related to this period through the
The Magdalenian Industry
This industry saw the end of the Paleolithic perod as it transformed to the Neolithic
period. The industry was named after the La madeleine site in Dorgogne, France. This industry,
which is also a pro-culture used by the early humans, was defined by several revolutionary
advancements in technology such as by the creation of microliths from flint, bone, antler, and
ivory. Apart from functional tools which were engrossed in creating figurines, personal
adornments, and other forms of mobility art. A defining method used in toolmaking during this
casting the raw material on fire, which allowed for a more precise cut pon flaking.
The creation of spealized weapons such as barbed harpoons is evidence of the growing
Another cultural milestone for the users of this industry was the use of temporary
man-made shelters such as tents made of animals skin. Athough the use of rock shelters and
caves were still predominant during this period, the creation of tents allowed the early humans
to be more mobile.
The technological development in this industry has allowed the early humans to have
By 10 000 BCE, this industry has spread to part of Europe including contemporary
Processes of Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution
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In reference to cultural formation, the Paleolithic stage has provided the bases for the
development of complex human groups through the establishment of culture. At this period
must situate the early humans in terms of their physical environment. This way, we understand
the succeeding adaptions that they made which revolutionizes the entire way that the human
By the end of te Paleolithic perod, Earth was getting warmer as the Ice was ready at its last
stages. This implies that Earth’s surface was changing. The sea level was raising again as the
polar caps were melting. Land surface decreased as some parts were submerged in water.
The early humans have always been dependent on their environment, which made foraging
(hunting and gathering) the primary mode of subsistence. With the drastic changes in
strategies to survive. It was in tis setting that the “ Neolithic Revolution” ( Chle, 1936) spread
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This period is characterized by a major shift in economics subsistence of the early humans
as foraging made them nomads and agriculture encouraged permanent settlement. This shift in
itself changed the entire array of behaviors, attitudes,belief, and corresponding material
inventions.
Tools Small and handy for mobile Included a wider array of
sedentary lifestyle.
around.
painting)
status)
There are generally two perspectives on the impact of the Neolithic revolution on human
populations. Traditionally, it is being argued that with the development of agriculture and
technology,human s were able to develop socio-politically, as the existence of systematic food
production has provided food surplus that enabled members of the population to indulgein
self-actualizing activities such as the arts and politics. Opposingthis perspective, progressive
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scholars argue that the same phenomenon of surplus production has had negative impacts on
human populations such as social divisions, high population density, and gender inequality.
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Early Civization and the Rise of the State
The earliest civilizations rose by the end of the Neolithic period as the complexities brought
about by the shift in food production demanded a more rigid social structure that would mange
the opposing perspective of various sectors. As conflicts between groups developed and
Early civilizations were characterized by the presence of city-states, a system of writing, and
ceremonial center where public debates and decisions were made.However, it must be noted
that not all societies during this period could be considered as civilizations as not all possessed
apolitical system that could be equated to a state. A stateis apolitical entity that has four
Rulers ascended to power convinced that their right to rule is based on their filial
relationship with supernatural forces and entities. The concept of the god-king that was
as the latter were perceived by the former as direct descendants or representatives of
their gods.
2. Force Theory
was observed among the Mayans, as conflict over access to rivers resulted in the
3. Paternalistic theory
The father essentially is the leader is the leader of the first political unit, which grew
as the number of the members of his family grew. This is true for highly patriarchal,
male-dominated societies.
4. Social contract
The creation of a state was a mutual agreement between the ruler and the ruled to
5. Natural theory
Humans have an innate need to be part of a community. The Greeck philopher
Aristotle described humans as “political animals”, as it in their nature to indulge in
politics.
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Democratization of Early Civilizations
The early states were governed by a limited few who ascended to power through wealth, birth
right, or religious dogma. This alienated the masses from the daily administration of rules and
regulations in their society. As a result, the social cleavage in early civilizations widened and
The tradition view on the history of democracy highlights its development among the
city-states of an ancient Greece, around 507 BCE. It is believed that an Athenian statesman
the monopoly of the elites to the masses. This allowed for the closing in of social gaps between
divering social groups. Upon its introduction, democracy in Greece was primarily about the
Althrough this narrowed the social gap between the rich and the poor, it did not address
other issues such as gender inequality and racism. The new allowed for the creation of a
political identity and citizenship, which was exclusively ascribed to men who were born in Greece
by both Greek parents. Hence, women and individuals with multicultural background were not
A counter theory to the Greek or Western origins of the concept of democracy was
forwarded by Keane (2009), claiming that democracy was first practiced in the Fertile Crescent
regions, specifically in the sacred city of Nippur. This ancient city lies in the present territories
of Irag, Iran and Syria. The practice of demoracy in this region started asmearly as the Old
Babylonian empire days (1 894 BCE). He futher argued that the idea and implementation of
democracy could be traced to the Mycenaean settlements of the Peloponnese region between 1
500 and 1 200 BCE. This period frameprovides a basis for his theory that democracy may have
The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the
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This definition provides us with a two-part meaning of cultural heritage. On one end, there is
heritage being tangible in the form of structures, monuments, historical sites, and other
artifacts. On the end, there is heritage being intangible in the form of literature, oral
traditions, concepts, and values.
Tangible heritage could be divided into two categories: movable and immovable. The primary
difference in these categories is the size of the heritage.
Movable tangible heritage pieces are often removed from the sites where they were found
and transferred to museums for safe keeping and maintenance. Immovable tangible heritage
pieces are often left to the elements of nature(i.e rain,wind,sand,sun), which makes them
vulnerable to decay and corrosion. This does not mean that conservation efforts are not being
made. However, due to the constant explosure of these objects to these elemets, conservation
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Museums are the respository of archaeological finds that allow people from the contemporary
period to reconstruct he culture and environment of their ancestors. Unlike immovable tangible
heritage objects that are left in the archaeological sites where they have been found, movable
tangible heritage objects are often relocated to museums that have jurisdiction or at times
Because history is encapsulated in avenue, which is the museum, ordinary people get have an
access to their ancestors lives and environment without travelling to archaeological sites, which
are often highly inaccessible. In the 2010 Conference of the museum Association, new roles of
the museums were identified, which include (1) fostering community solidarity through shared
According to the National Geographic Society, the 10 most famous museums and with the
7. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, New York, USA
However, these world renowned museums are not without controversies. For example, the
British Museum has been questioned on the legitimacy of its claims of stewardship of artifacts
from Egypt suchas the Rosetta Stone. The Rosetta Stone is one of the most important
archaeological finds in Egypt, as it allowed for the translation of then undecipherable Egyptian
hieroglyphics.
Zahi Hawass, the head of Egypt’sSupreme Council of Atiquities, have been asserting the right
of Egypt to reclaim several of its artifacts being the rightful steward of these. However, the
British Museum and other museums that are being criticized for this issue have not yield,
asserting that these artifacts where discovered by their citizens and are being excellently
artifacts is the National Museum. There are local museums in the country that were built by
Fig.2.16. The Rosetta Stone
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Answer the following questions correctly (5pts each)
1.What are the four capacities that enabled humans to have culture?
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2.What is the significance of studying human biology in understanding cultural capacity?
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3.What are the key elements of Paleolithic technology?
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4.How do cave painting and accessories promote the possibility of self-awareness?
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5.Why is the Neolithic period considered as a revolution?
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Performance Task
Make a PowerPoint presentation of Lesson 2 Human Evolution and Culture
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