Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Apa Task Force 2006
Apa Task Force 2006
Apa Task Force 2006
The evidence-based practice movement has become an sions about the care of individual patients” (pp. 71–72).
important feature of health care systems and health care The use and misuse of evidence-based principles in the
policy. Within this context, the APA 2005 Presidential Task practice of health care has affected the dissemination of
Force on Evidence-Based Practice defines and discusses health care funds, but not always to the benefit of the
evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP). In an in- patient. Therefore, psychologists, whose training is
tegration of science and practice, the Task Force’s report grounded in empirical methods, have an important role to
describes psychology’s fundamental commitment to sophis- play in the continuing development of evidence-based
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
F
The Task Force members were Carol D. Goodheart, EdD (Chair; Inde-
rom the very first conceptions of applied psychology pendent Practice, Princeton, NJ); Ronald F. Levant, EdD (ex-officio;
University of Akron); David H. Barlow, PhD (Boston University); Jean
as articulated by Lightner Witmer, who formed the Carter, PhD (Independent Practice, Washington, DC); Karina W. David-
first psychological clinic in 1896 (McReynolds, son, PhD (Columbia University); Kristofer J. Hagglund, PhD (University
1997), psychologists have been deeply and uniquely asso- of Missouri—Columbia); Steven D. Hollon, PhD (Vanderbilt University);
ciated with an evidence-based approach to patient care. As Josephine D. Johnson, PhD (Independent Practice, Livonia, MI); Laura C.
Witmer (1907/1996) pointed out, “the pure and the applied Leviton, PhD (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Princeton, NJ); Alvin
R. Mahrer, PhD (Emeritus, University of Ottawa); Frederick L. Newman,
sciences advance in a single front. What retards the PhD (Florida International University); John C. Norcross, PhD (Univer-
progress of one, retards the progress of the other; what sity of Scranton); Doris K. Silverman, PhD (New York University); Brian
fosters one, fosters the other” (p. 249). As early as 1947, D. Smedley, PhD (The Opportunity Agenda, Washington, DC); Bruce E.
the idea that doctoral psychologists should be trained as Wampold, PhD (University of Wisconsin); Drew I. Westen, PhD (Emory
University); Brian T. Yates, PhD (American University); Nolan W. Zane,
both scientists and practitioners became American Psycho- PhD (University of California, Davis). Professional American Psycholog-
logical Association (APA) policy (Shakow et al., 1947). ical Association (APA) staff included Geoffrey M. Reed, PhD, and Lynn
Early practitioners such as Frederick C. Thorne (1947) F. Bufka, PhD (Practice Directorate); Paul D. Nelson, PhD, and Cynthia
articulated the methods by which psychological practitio- D. Belar, PhD (Education Directorate); and Merry Bullock, PhD (Science
ners integrate science into their practice by “increasing Directorate).
The Task Force wishes to thank John Weisz, PhD, for his assistance
application of the experimental approach to the individual in drafting portions of the report related to children and adolescents;
case and to the clinician’s own ‘experience’” (p. 159). James Mitchell and Omar Rehman, APA Professional Development in-
Thus, psychologists have been on the forefront of the terns, for their assistance throughout the work of the Task Force; and
development of evidence-based practice for decades. Ernestine Penniman for administrative support.
In August 2005, the APA Council of Representatives approved the
Evidence-based practice in psychology is therefore policy statement on evidence-based practice in psychology developed by
consistent with the past 20 years of work in evidence-based the Task Force and received a version of this report. The report contains
medicine, which advocated for improved patient outcomes an expanded discussion of the issues raised in the policy statement,
by informing clinical practice with relevant research (Sox including the rationale and references supporting it. The policy statement
& Woolf, 1993; Woolf & Atkins, 2001). Sackett, Rosen- is available online at http://www.apa.org/practice/ebpstatement.pdf and as
the Appendix of this article.
berg, Gray, Haynes, and Richardson (1996) described Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to the
evidence-based medicine as “the conscientious, explicit, Practice Directorate, American Psychological Association, 750 First
and judicious use of current best evidence in making deci- Street NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242.
ing to accepted standards of scientific merit, recognizing that the controversy. The report increased recognition of demon-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
warrant for conclusions differs widely for different bodies of data. strably effective psychological treatments among the pub-
(p. 2) lic, policymakers, and training programs. At the same time,
many psychologists raised concerns about the exclusive
Both the Template and the subsequent revised policy focus on brief, manualized treatments; the emphasis on
document that replaced it—the Criteria for Evaluating specific treatment effects as opposed to common factors
Treatment Guidelines (American Psychological Associa- that account for much of the variance in outcomes across
tion, 2002)—were quite specific in indicating that the ev- disorders; and the applicability to a diverse range of pa-
idence base for any psychological intervention should be tients varying in comorbidity, personality, race, ethnicity,
evaluated in terms of two separate dimensions: efficacy and and culture.
clinical utility. The dimension of efficacy lays out criteria In response, several groups of psychologists, includ-
for the evaluation of the strength of evidence pertaining to ing other divisions of APA, offered additional frameworks
establishing causal relationships between interventions and for integrating the available research evidence. In 1999,
disorders under treatment. The clinical utility dimension APA Division 29 (Psychotherapy) established a task force
includes a consideration of available research evidence and to identify, operationalize, and disseminate information on
clinical consensus regarding the generalizability, feasibility empirically supported therapy relationships, given the pow-
(including patient acceptability), and costs and benefits of erful association between outcome and aspects of the ther-
interventions. apeutic relationship such as the therapeutic alliance
The Template was used to examine a selection of (Norcross, 2001). APA Division 17 (Society of Counseling
available mental health treatment guidelines, and wide Psychology) also undertook an examination of empirically
variation was found in the quality of the guidelines’ cov- supported treatments in counseling psychology (Wampold,
erage of the relevant literature as well as the scientific and Lichtenberg, & Waehler, 2002). The Society of Behavioral
clinical basis, specificity, and generalizability of their treat- Medicine, which is not a part of APA but has a significantly
ment recommendations (Stricker et al., 1999). Even guide- overlapping membership, has recently published criteria
lines that were clearly designed to educate rather than to for examining the evidence base for behavioral medicine
legislate, were interdisciplinary in nature, and provided interventions (Davidson, Trudeau, Ockene, Orleans, &
extensive empirical and clinical information did not always Kaplan, 2003). As of this writing, we are aware that task
accurately translate the evidence reviewed into the algo- forces have been appointed to examine related issues by a
rithms that determined the protocols for treatment under large number of APA divisions concerned with practice
particular sets of circumstances. Psychologists have been issues.
particularly concerned about widely disseminated practice At the same time that these groups within psychology
guidelines that recommend the use of medications over have been grappling with how best to conceptualize and
psychological interventions in the absence of data support- examine the scientific basis for practice, the evidence-
ing such recommendations (Barlow, 1996; Beutler, 1998; based practice movement has become a key feature of
Muñoz, Hollon, McGrath, Rehm, & VandenBos, 1994; health care systems and health care policy. At the state
Nathan, 1998). level, a number of initiatives encourage or mandate the use
The general benefits of psychotherapy had been es- of a specific list of mental health treatments within state
tablished by meta-analytic reviews during the 1970s (Smith Medicaid programs (e.g., Carpinello, Rosenberg, Stone,
& Glass, 1977; Smith, Glass, & Miller, 1980). Neverthe- Schwager, & Felton, 2002; Chorpita et al., 2002; see also
less, a perception existed in many corners of the health Reed & Eisman, 2006; Tanenbaum, 2005). At the federal
delivery system that psychological treatments for particular level, a major joint initiative of the National Institute of
disorders were either ineffective or inferior to pharmaco- Mental Health and the Department of Health and Human
logical treatment. In 1995, the APA Division 12 (Clinical Service’s Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Psychology) Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination Administration focuses on promoting, implementing, and
Task Force included scientists and practitioners from a It is important to clarify the relation between EBPP
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
wide range of perspectives and traditions, reflecting the and empirically supported treatments (ESTs). EBPP is the
diverse perspectives within the field. In this report, the Task more comprehensive concept. ESTs start with a treatment
Force hopes to draw on APA’s century-long tradition of and ask whether it works for a certain disorder or problem
attention to the integration of science and practice by under specified circumstances. EBPP starts with the patient
creating a document that describes psychology’s funda- and asks what research evidence (including relevant results
mental commitment to sophisticated evidence-based psy- from RCTs) will assist the psychologist in achieving the
chological practice and takes into account the full range of best outcome. In addition, ESTs are specific psychological
evidence that policymakers must consider. We aspire to set treatments that have been shown to be efficacious in con-
the stage for further development and refinement of evi- trolled clinical trials, whereas EBPP encompasses a
dence-based practice for the betterment of psychological broader range of clinical activities (e.g., psychological as-
aspects of health care as it is delivered around the world.1 sessment, case formulation, therapy relationships). As
such, EBPP articulates a decision-making process for inte-
Definition grating multiple streams of research evidence—including
On the basis of its review of the literature and its deliber- but not limited to RCTs—into the intervention process.
ations, the Task Force agreed on the following definition: The following sections explore in greater detail the
Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP) is the inte- three major components of this definition— best available
gration of the best available research with clinical expertise research, clinical expertise, and patient characteristics—
in the context of patient characteristics, culture, and and their integration.
preferences.
This definition of EBPP closely parallels the definition Best Available Research Evidence
of evidence-based practice adopted by the Institute of Med- A sizable body of scientific evidence drawn from a variety
icine (2001; as adapted from Sackett, Straus, Richardson, of research designs and methodologies attests to the effec-
Rosenberg, & Haynes, 2000): “Evidence-based practice is
the integration of best research evidence with clinical ex-
pertise and patient values” (p. 147). Psychology builds on 1
The Task Force limited its consideration to evidence-based practice as it
the Institute of Medicine definition by deepening the ex- relates to health services provided by psychologists. Therefore, other
organizational, community, or educational applications of evidence-based
amination of clinical expertise and broadening the consid- practice by psychologists are outside the scope of this report. Further, the
eration of patient characteristics. The purpose of EBPP is to Task Force was charged with defining and explicating principles of
promote effective psychological practice and enhance pub- evidence-based practice in psychology but not with developing practice
lic health by applying empirically supported principles of guidelines for individual psychologists or with other forms of
psychological assessment, case formulation, therapeutic re- implementation.
In its first two meetings, through an iterative process of small
lationship, and intervention. working groups and subsequent review and revision of all drafts by the
Psychological practice entails many types of interven- entire group, the Task Force achieved consensus in support of draft
tions, in multiple settings, for a wide variety of potential versions of its two primary work products: a draft APA policy statement
patients. In this document, intervention refers to all direct and a draft report. The draft documents were circulated widely, with a
request for review and comment to the APA Council of Representatives,
services rendered by health care psychologists, including boards and committees, divisions, and state and provincial psychological
assessment, diagnosis, prevention, treatment, psychother- associations. Notice of the documents’ availability for review and com-
apy, and consultation. As is the case with most discussions ment by members was published in the APA Monitor on Psychology and
of evidence-based practice, we focus on treatment. The publicized on the front page of the APA Web site. A total of 199 sets of
same general principles apply to psychological assessment, comments were submitted by groups and by individual members. Each of
these comments was reviewed and discussed by the Task Force in a series
which is essential to effective treatment. The settings in- of conference calls. At its final meeting, the Task Force achieved consen-
clude but are not limited to hospitals, clinics, independent sus on revised versions of the proposed APA policy statement and the
practices, schools, military installations, public health in- current report.
tematized clinical observation” (Criterion 2.2); and ● distinguishing common and specific factors as
“sophisticated empirical methodologies, including quasi mechanisms of change;
experiments and randomized controlled experiments or ● characteristics and actions of the psychologist and
their logical equivalents” (Criterion 2.3; American Psycho- the therapeutic relationship that contribute to posi-
logical Association, 2002, p. 1054). Among sophisticated tive outcomes;
empirical methodologies, “randomized controlled experi- ● the effectiveness of widely practiced treatments—
ments represent a more stringent way to evaluate treatment based on various theoretical orientations and inte-
efficacy because they are the most effective way to rule out grative blends—that have not yet been subjected to
threats to internal validity in a single experiment” (Amer- controlled research;
ican Psychological Association, 2002, p. 1054). ● the development of models of treatment based on
Evidence on clinical utility is also crucial. Per estab- identification and observation of the practices of
lished APA policy (American Psychological Association, clinicians in the community who empirically obtain
2002), at a minimum this includes attention to generality of the most positive outcomes;
effects across varying and diverse patients, therapists, set- ● criteria for discontinuing treatment;
tings, and the interaction of these factors; the robustness of ● accessibility and utilization of psychological
treatments across various modes of delivery; the feasibility services;
with which treatments can be delivered to patients in real- ● the cost-effectiveness and costs– benefits of psycho-
world settings; and the costs associated with treatments. logical interventions;
Evidence-based practice requires that psychologists rec- ● development and testing of practice research
ognize the strengths and limitations of evidence obtained from networks;
different types of research. Research has shown that the treat- ● the effects of feedback regarding treatment progress
ment method (Nathan & Gorman, 2002), the individual psy- to the psychologist or patient;
chologist (Wampold, 2001), the treatment relationship ● development of profession-wide consensus, rooted in
(Norcross, 2002), and the patient (Bohart & Tallman, 1999) the best available research evidence, on psychological
are all vital contributors to the success of psychological prac- treatments that are considered discredited; and
tice. Comprehensive evidence-based practice will consider all ● research on prevention of psychological disorders
of these determinants and their optimal combinations. Psy- and risk behaviors.
chological practice is a complex relational and technical en-
terprise that requires clinical and research attention to multi- Clinical Expertise
ple, interacting sources of treatment effectiveness. There Clinical expertise2 is essential for identifying and integrat-
remain many disorders, problem constellations, and clinical ing the best research evidence with clinical data (e.g.,
situations for which empirical data are sparse. In such in- information about the patient obtained over the course of
stances, clinicians use their best clinical judgment and knowl- treatment) in the context of the patient’s characteristics and
edge of the best available research evidence to develop co- preferences to deliver services that have the highest prob-
herent treatment strategies. Researchers and practitioners ability of achieving the goals of therapy. Psychologists are
should join together to ensure that the research available on trained as scientists as well as practitioners. An advantage
psychological practice is both clinically relevant and inter- of psychological training is that it fosters a clinical exper-
nally valid.
Future Directions 2
As it is used in this report, clinical expertise refers to competence
attained by psychologists through education, training, and experience that
EBPP has important implications for research programs results in effective practice; the term is not meant to refer to extraordinary
and funding priorities. These programs and priorities performance that might characterize an elite group (e.g., the top 2%) of
should emphasize research on the following: clinicians.
matically, adapt to new situations, self-monitor their Assessment, diagnostic judgment, system-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
knowledge and performance, know when their knowledge atic case formulation, and treatment planning.
is inadequate, continue to learn, and generally attain out- The clinically expert psychologist is able to formulate clear
comes commensurate with their expertise. and theoretically coherent case conceptualizations, assess
However, experts are not infallible. All humans are patient pathology as well as clinically relevant strengths,
prone to errors and biases. Some of these stem from cog- understand complex patient presentations, and make accu-
nitive strategies and heuristics that are generally adaptive rate diagnostic judgments. Expert clinicians revise their
and efficient. Others stem from emotional reactions, which case conceptualizations as treatment proceeds and seek
generally guide adaptive behavior as well but can also lead both confirming and disconfirming evidence. Clinical ex-
to biased or motivated reasoning (e.g., Ditto & Lopez, pertise also involves identifying and helping patients to
1992; Ditto, Munro, Apanovitch, Scepansky, & Lockhart, acknowledge psychological processes that contribute to
2003; Kunda, 1990). Whenever psychologists involved in distress or dysfunction.
research or practice move from observations to inferences Treatment planning involves setting goals and tasks of
and generalizations, there are inherent risks of idiosyncratic treatment that take into consideration the unique patient,
interpretations, overgeneralizations, confirmatory biases, the nature of the patient’s problems and concerns, the likely
and similar errors in judgment (Dawes, Faust, & Meehl, prognosis and expected benefits of treatment, and available
2002; Grove, Zald, Lebow, Snitz, & Nelson, 2000; Meehl, resources. The goals of therapy are developed in collabo-
1954; Westen & Weinberger, 2004). Integral to clinical ration with the patient and consider the patient and his or
expertise is an awareness of the limits of one’s knowledge her family’s worldview and sociocultural context. The
and skills and attention to the heuristics and biases— both choice of treatment strategies requires knowledge of inter-
cognitive and affective—that can affect clinical judgment. ventions and the research that supports their effectiveness
Mechanisms such as consultation and systematic feedback as well as research relevant to matching interventions to
from the patient can mitigate some of these biases. patients (e.g., Beutler, Alomohamed, Moleiro, & Romanelli,
The individual therapist has a substantial impact on 2002; Blatt, Shahar, & Zurhoff, 2002; Norcross, 2002).
outcomes, both in clinical trials and in practice settings Expertise also requires knowledge about psychopathology;
(Crits-Christoph et al., 1991; Huppert et al., 2001; Kim, treatment process; and patient attitudes, values, and con-
Wampold, & Bolt, in press; Wampold & Brown, 2005). text—including cultural context—that can affect the choice
The fact that treatment outcomes are systematically related and implementation of effective treatment strategies.
to the provider of the treatment (above and beyond the type Clinical decision making, treatment imple-
of treatment) provides strong evidence for the importance mentation, and monitoring of patient progress.
of understanding expertise in clinical practice as a way of Clinical expertise entails the skillful and flexible delivery
enhancing patient outcomes. of treatment. Skill and flexibility require knowledge of and
proficiency in delivering psychological interventions and
Components of Clinical Expertise
the ability to adapt the treatment to the particular case.
Clinical expertise encompasses a number of competencies Flexibility is manifested in tact, timing, pacing, and fram-
that promote positive therapeutic outcomes. These include ing of interventions; maintaining an effective balance be-
(a) assessment, diagnostic judgment, systematic case for- tween consistency of interventions and responsiveness to
mulation, and treatment planning; (b) clinical decision patient feedback; and attention to acknowledged and unac-
making, treatment implementation, and monitoring of pa- knowledged meanings, beliefs, and emotions.
tient progress; (c) interpersonal expertise; (d) continual Clinical expertise also entails the monitoring of pa-
self-reflection and acquisition of skills; (e) appropriate tient progress (and of changes in the patient’s circum-
evaluation and use of research evidence in both basic and stances— e.g., job loss, major illness) that may suggest the
applied psychological science; (f) understanding the influ- need to adjust the treatment (Lambert, Bergin, & Garfield,
ence of individual and cultural differences on treatment; (g) 2004). If progress is not proceeding adequately, the psy-
terpersonal expertise involves the flexibility to be clinically and other learning opportunities (e.g., practice networks,
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Some patients have a well-defined issue or disorder ● developing well-normed measures that clinicians
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
for which there is a body of evidence that strongly supports can use to quantify their diagnostic judgments, mea-
the effectiveness of a particular treatment. This evidence sure therapeutic progress over time, and assess the
should be considered in formulating a treatment plan, and therapeutic process;
a cogent rationale should be articulated for any course of ● distinguishing expertise related to common factors
treatment recommended. There are many problem constel- shared across most therapies and expertise specific
lations, patient populations, and clinical situations for to particular treatment approaches; and
which treatment evidence is sparse. In such instances, ● providing clinicians with real-time patient feedback
evidence-based practice consists of using clinical expertise to benchmark progress in treatment and clinical
in interpreting and applying the best available evidence support tools to adjust treatment as needed.
while carefully monitoring patient progress and modifying
treatment as appropriate (Hayes, Barlow, & Nelson-Gray, Patient Characteristics, Culture, and
1999; Lambert, Harmon, Slade, Whipple, & Hawkins, Preferences
2005; S. D. Miller, Duncan, & Hubble, 2005). Normative data on “what works for whom” (Nathan &
Gorman, 2002; Roth & Fonagy, 2004) provide essential
Future Directions guides to effective practice. Nevertheless, psychological
Although much less research is available on clinical exper- services are most likely to be effective when they are
tise than on psychological interventions, an important foun- responsive to the patient’s specific problems, strengths,
dation is emerging (Goodheart, 2006; Skovholt & Jennings, personality, sociocultural context, and preferences
2004; Westen & Weinberger, 2004). For example, research (Norcross, 2002). Psychology’s long history of studying
on case formulation and diagnosis suggests that clinical individual differences and developmental change, and its
inferences, diagnostic judgments, and formulations can be growing empirical literature related to human diversity
reliable and valid when structured in ways that maximize (including culture3 and psychotherapy), place it in a strong
clinical expertise (Eells, Lombart, Kendjelic, Turner, & position to identify effective ways of integrating research
Lucas, 2005; Persons, 1991; Westen & Weinberger, 2005). and clinical expertise with an understanding of patient
Research suggests that sensitivity and flexibility in the characteristics essential to EBPP (Hall, 2001; Sue, Zane, &
administration of therapeutic interventions produces better Young, 1994). EBPP involves consideration of the pa-
outcomes than rigid application of manuals or principles tient’s values, religious beliefs, worldviews, goals, and
(Castonguay, Goldfried, Wiser, Raue, & Hayes, 1996; preferences for treatment with the psychologist’s experi-
Henry, Schacht, Strupp, Butler, & Binder, 1993; Huppert et ence and understanding of the available research.
al., 2001). Reviews of research on biases and heuristics in Several questions frame current debates about the role
clinical judgment have suggested procedures that clinicians of patient characteristics in EBPP. The first regards the
might use to minimize those biases (Garb, 1998). Because extent to which cross-diagnostic patient characteristics,
of the importance of therapeutic alliance to outcome (Hor- such as personality traits or constellations, moderate the
vath & Bedi, 2002; Martin, Garske, & Davis, 2000; Shirk impact of empirically tested interventions. A second, re-
& Karver, 2003), an understanding of the personal at-
tributes and interventions of therapists that strengthen the 3
Culture, in this context, is understood to encompass a broad array of
alliance is essential for maximizing the quality of patient phenomena (e.g., shared values, history, knowledge, rituals, customs) that
care (Ackerman & Hilsenroth, 2003). often result in a shared sense of identity. Racial and ethnic groups may
Mutually respectful collaboration between researchers have a shared culture, but those personal characteristics are not the only
characteristics that define cultural groups (e.g., deaf culture, inner-city
and expert practitioners will foster useful and systematic culture). Culture is a multifaceted construct, and cultural factors cannot be
empirical investigation of clinical expertise. Some of the understood in isolation from social, class, and personal characteristics that
most pressing research needs are the following: make each patient unique.
tity, ethnicity, race, social class, disability status, sexual understanding adult psychopathology and particularly in
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
orientation) and problems (e.g., comorbidity) may differ treating children, adolescents, families, and older adults
from those of samples studied in research. This is a matter (e.g., American Psychological Association, 2004; Samer-
of active discussion in the field, and there is increasing off, Lewis, & Miller, 2000; Toth & Cicchetti, 1999).
research attention to the generalizability and transportabil- EBPP requires attention to many other patient char-
ity of psychological interventions. acteristics, such as gender, gender identity, culture, ethnic-
Available data indicate that a variety of patient-related ity, race, age, family context, religious beliefs, and sexual
variables influence outcomes, many of which are cross- orientation (American Psychological Association, 2000,
diagnostic characteristics such as functional status, readi- 2003). These variables shape personality, values, world-
ness to change, and level of social support (Norcross, views, relationships, psychopathology, and attitudes to-
2002). Other patient characteristics are essential to consider ward treatment. A wide range of relevant research literature
in forming and maintaining a treatment relationship and in can inform psychological practice, including ethnography,
implementing specific interventions. These include but are cross-cultural psychology (e.g., Berry, Segall, & Kagitçi-
not limited to (a) variations in presenting problems or basi, 1997), cultural psychiatry (e.g., Kleinman, 1977),
disorders, etiology, concurrent symptoms or syndromes, psychological anthropology (e.g., LeVine, 1983; Moore &
and behavior; (b) chronological age, developmental status, Matthews, 2001; Strauss & Quinn, 1992), and cultural
developmental history, and life stage; (c) sociocultural and psychotherapy (Sue, 1998; Zane, Sue, Young, Nunez, &
familial factors (e.g., gender, gender identity, ethnicity, Hall, 2004). Culture influences not only the nature and
race, social class, religion, disability status, family struc- expression of psychopathology but also the patient’s un-
ture, sexual orientation); (d) current environmental context, derstanding of psychological and physical health and ill-
stressors (e.g., unemployment, recent life event), and social ness. Cultural values and beliefs and social factors (e.g.,
factors (e.g., institutional racism, health care disparities); implicit racial biases) also influence patterns of seeking,
and (e) personal preferences, values, and preferences re- using, and receiving help; presentation and reporting of
lated to treatment (e.g., goals, beliefs, worldviews, treat- symptoms, fears, and expectations about treatment; and
ment expectations). Available research on both patient desired outcomes. Psychologists also understand and re-
matching and treatment failures in clinical trials of even flect on the ways their own characteristics, values, and
highly efficacious interventions suggests that different context interact with those of the patient.
strategies and relationships may prove better suited for Race as a social construct is a way of grouping people
different populations (Gamst, Dana, Der-Karaberian, & into categories on the basis of perceived physical attributes,
Kramer, 2000; Groth-Marnat, Beutler, & Roberts, 2001; ancestry, and other factors. Race is also more broadly
Norcross, 2002; Sue, Fujino, Hu, Takeuchi, & Zane, 1991). associated with power, status, and opportunity (American
Many presenting symptoms—for example, depres- Anthropological Association, 1998). In Western cultures,
sion, anxiety, school failure, and bingeing and purging— European or White “race” confers advantage and opportu-
are similar across patients. However, symptoms or disor- nity, even as improved social attitudes and public policies
ders that are phenotypically similar are often heterogeneous have reinforced social equality. Race is thus an interper-
with respect to etiology, prognosis, and the psychological sonal and political process with significant implications for
processes that create or maintain them. Moreover, most clinical practice and health care quality (Smedley & Smed-
patients present with multiple symptoms or syndromes ley, 2005). Patients and clinicians may “belong” to racial
rather than a single, discrete disorder (e.g., Kessler, Stang, groups as they choose to self-identify, but the importance
Wittchen, Stein, & Walters, 1999; Newman, Moffitt, Caspi, of race in clinical practice is relational rather than being
& Silva, 1998). The presence of concurrent conditions may solely a patient or clinician attribute. Considerable evi-
moderate treatment response, and interventions intended to dence from many fields (Institute of Medicine, 2003) sug-
treat one symptom often affect others. An emerging body gests that racial power differentials between clinicians and
of research also suggests that personality variables underlie their patients, as well as systemic biases and implicit ste-
patients and clinicians negotiate ways of working together clinical hypothesis testing has its limits, hence the need to
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
that are mutually agreeable and likely to lead to positive integrate clinical expertise with the best available research.
outcomes. Thus, patient values and preferences (e.g., goals, Perhaps the central message of this task force report—
beliefs, preferred modes of treatment) are a central com- and one of the most heartening aspects of the process that
ponent of EBPP. Patients can have strong preferences for led to it—is the consensus achieved among a diverse group
types of treatment and desired outcomes, and these prefer- of scientists, clinicians, and scientist– clinicians from mul-
ences are influenced by both their cultural context and tiple perspectives that EBPP requires an appreciation of the
individual factors. One role of the psychologist is to ensure value of multiple sources of scientific evidence. In a given
that patients understand the costs and benefits of different clinical circumstance, psychologists of good faith and good
practices and choices (Haynes, Devereaux, & Guyatt, judgment may disagree about how best to weigh different
2002). EBPP seeks to maximize patient choice among forms of evidence; over time, we presume that systematic
effective alternative interventions. Effective practice re- and broad empirical inquiry—in the laboratory and in the
quires balancing patient preferences and the psychologist’s clinic—will point the way toward best practice in integrat-
judgment— based on available evidence and clinical exper- ing best evidence. What this document reflects, however, is
tise—to determine the most appropriate treatment. a reassertion of what psychologists have known for a
century: The scientific method is a way of thinking and
Future Directions observing systematically, and it is the best tool we have for
Much additional research is needed regarding the influence learning about what works for whom.
of patient characteristics on treatment selection, therapeutic Clinical decisions should be made in collaboration
processes, and outcomes. Research on cross-diagnostic with the patient on the basis of the best clinically relevant
characteristics, polysymptomatic presentations, and the ef- evidence and with consideration for the probable costs,
fectiveness of psychological interventions with culturally benefits, and available resources and options. It is the
diverse groups is particularly important. We suggest the treating psychologist who makes the ultimate judgment
following research priorities: regarding a particular intervention or treatment plan. The
involvement of an active, informed patient is generally
● patient characteristics as moderators of treatment crucial to the success of psychological services. Treatment
response in naturalistic settings; decisions should never be made by untrained persons un-
● prospective outcome studies on treatments and re- familiar with the specifics of a case.
lationships tailored to patients’ cross-diagnostic The treating psychologist determines the applicability
characteristics, including Aptitude ⫻ Treatment in- of research conclusions to a particular patient. Individual
teraction designs; patients may require decisions and interventions not di-
● effectiveness of interventions that have been widely rectly addressed by the available research. The application
studied in the majority population with other of research evidence to a given patient always involves
populations; probabilistic inferences. Therefore, ongoing monitoring of
● examination of the nature of implicit stereotypes patient progress and adjustment of treatment as needed are
held by both psychologists and patients and success- essential to EBPP.
ful interventions for minimizing their activation or Moreover, psychologists must attend to a range of
impact; outcomes that may sometimes suggest one strategy and
● ways to make information about culture and psy- sometimes another, and they must attend to the strengths
chotherapy more accessible to practitioners; and limitations of available research vis-à-vis these differ-
● maximizing psychologists’ cognitive, emotional, ent ways of measuring success. Psychological outcomes
and role competence with diverse patients; and may include not only symptom relief and prevention of
● identifying successful models of treatment decision future symptomatic episodes but also quality of life, adap-
making in light of patient preferences. tive functioning in work and relationships, ability to make
liance. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 1–33. M. J., McGee, C., et al. (2002). Toward large-scale implementation of
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(Appendix follows)
The following statement was approved as policy of the lations, and treatment plans; b) making clinical decisions,
American Psychological Association (APA) by the APA implementing treatments, and monitoring patient progress;
Council of Representatives during its August 2005 meeting. c) possessing and using interpersonal expertise, including
the formation of therapeutic alliances; d) continuing to
Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP) is the self-reflect and acquire professional skills; e) evaluating
integration of the best available research with clinical ex- and using research evidence in both basic and applied
pertise in the context of patient characteristics, culture, and psychological science; f) understanding the influence of
preferences.A1 This definition of EBPP closely parallels the individual, cultural, and contextual differences on treat-
definition of evidence-based practice adopted by the Institute ment; g) seeking available resources (e.g., consultation,
of Medicine (2001, p. 147) as adapted from Sackett and adjunctive or alternative services) as needed; and h) having
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
colleagues (2000): “Evidence-based practice is the integration a cogent rationale for clinical strategies. Expertise develops
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient from clinical and scientific training, theoretical understand-
values.” The purpose of EBPP is to promote effective psy- ing, experience, self-reflection, knowledge of current re-
chological practice and enhance public health by applying search, and continuing education and training.
empirically supported principles of psychological assessment, Clinical expertise is used to integrate the best research
case formulation, therapeutic relationship, and intervention. evidence with clinical data (e.g., information about the
patient obtained over the course of treatment) in the context
Best Research Evidence of the patient’s characteristics and preferences to deliver
Best research evidence refers to scientific results related to services that have a high probability of achieving the goals
intervention strategies, assessment, clinical problems, and of treatment. Integral to clinical expertise is an awareness
patient populations in laboratory and field settings as well of the limits of one’s knowledge and skills and attention to
as to clinically relevant results of basic research in psy- the heuristics and biases— both cognitive and affective—
chology and related fields. A sizable body of evidence that can affect clinical judgment. Moreover, psychologists
drawn from a variety of research designs and methodolo- understand how their own characteristics, values, and con-
gies attests to the effectiveness of psychological practices. text interact with those of the patient.
Generally, evidence derived from clinically relevant re-
search on psychological practices should be based on sys- Patients’ Characteristics, Values, and
tematic reviews, reasonable effect sizes, statistical and clin- Context
ical significance, and a body of supporting evidence. The
validity of conclusions from research on interventions is Psychological services are most effective when respon-
based on a general progression from clinical observation sive to the patient’s specific problems, strengths, person-
through systematic reviews of randomized clinical trials, ality, sociocultural context, and preferences. Many pa-
while also recognizing gaps and limitations in the existing tient characteristics, such as functional status, readiness
literature and its applicability to the specific case at hand to change, and level of social support, are known to be
(APA, 2002). Health policy and practice are also informed related to therapeutic outcomes. Other important patient
by research using a variety of methods in such areas as characteristics to consider in forming and maintaining a
public health, epidemiology, human development, social treatment relationship and in implementing specific in-
relations, and neuroscience. terventions include a) variations in presenting problems
Researchers and practitioners should join together to or disorders, etiology, concurrent symptoms or syn-
ensure that the research available on psychological practice dromes, and behavior; b) chronological age, develop-
is both clinically relevant and internally valid. It is impor- mental status, developmental history, and life stage; c)
tant not to assume that interventions that have not yet been sociocultural and familial factors (e.g., gender, gender
studied in controlled trials are ineffective. However, widely identity, ethnicity, race, social class, religion, disability
used psychological practices as well as innovations devel- status, family structure, and sexual orientation); d) en-
oped in the field or laboratory should be rigorously evalu- vironmental context (e.g., institutional racism, health
ated and barriers to conducting this research should be care disparities) and stressors (e.g., unemployment, ma-
identified and addressed.
A1
Clinical Expertise To be consistent with discussions of evidence-based practice in other
areas of health care, we use the term patient to refer to the child,
Psychologists’ clinical expertise encompasses a number of adolescent, adult, older adult, couple, family, group, organization, com-
munity, or other population receiving psychological services. However,
competencies that promote positive therapeutic outcomes. we recognize that in many situations there are important and valid reasons
These competencies include a) conducting assessments and for using such terms as client, consumer, or person in place of patient to
developing diagnostic judgments, systematic case formu- describe the recipient of services.
For some patients (e.g., children and youth), the referral, choice of
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
chologist who makes the ultimate judgment regarding a therapist and treatment, and decision to end treatment are most often made
by others (e.g., parents) rather than by the individual who is the target of
particular intervention or treatment plan. The involvement treatment. This means that the integration of evidence and practice in such
of an active, informed patient is generally crucial to the cases is likely to involve information sharing and decision making in
success of psychological services. Treatment decisions concert with others.