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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The Guelb Moghrein deposit is located in western Mauritania near the town of
Akjoujt (Figure 1.1). The deposit is hosted within a metacarbonate body enclosed within
mafic igneous rocks that have experienced peak amphibolite grade and retrograde
greenschist facies metamorphism. The mineralogy of the metacarbonate units is
dominated by weakly- to non-manganiferous ankerite and siderite with locally abundant
magnetite. The Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate bodies are locally enveloped by a
chlorite-biotite-grunerite/cummingtonite-anthophyllite alteration assemblage. The deposit
contains a sulfide assemblage dominated by pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite with subordinate
cubanite, cobaltite and arsenopyrite. The deposit also has trace amounts Ni, Bi, Au, and
Ag which occur as various sulfides, arsenides, tellurides, and electrum (Kolb et al.,
2007). The metacarbonate lenses hosting the sulfides range in combined thickness from
less than 1cm to greater than 150m. Some of the metacarbonate horizons in the district
have strike lengths up to several kilometers, with down-dip continuity of at least one
kilometer (demonstrated at Guelb Moghrein). However, mineralized zones are usually
less continuous and often focused in discrete horizons that have experienced significant
deformation. The highest ore grades are often associated with brittle structures and
especially breccias that occur along the edges of the thicker metacarbonate lenses.

1.1 Purpose
This study focused on gaining a detailed understanding of the mine scale
geology at Guelb Moghrein through detailed geological mapping, logging of drill core,
petrography, and limited analytical analyses. Information derived from this work was
used to better constrain the structural controls and paragenetic sequence of alteration
and mineralization at the deposit. This study sought to determine the origin of the
metacarbonate host rocks at Guelb Moghrein, a subject of considerable historic debate.
Prior research suggested either a sedimentary or hydrothermal origin. Data derived from
this study suggests a mixed origin in which marine carbonates were subjected to
metamorphism, hydrothermal alteration, and structural deformation.

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 LEGEND
Guelb Moghrein Mine
0 (KM) 500

Figure 1.1 Map showing the location of the Guelb Moghrein (Gaba, 2009). This study is
focused on the immediate vicinity of the Guelb Moghrein mine, which is situated about
4km to the west of Akjoujt.

Guelb Moghrein has previously been classified as an iron oxide copper-gold

(IOCG) deposit (Strickland and Martyn, 2001), a relatively new class of ore deposits that
contain significant amounts of iron oxide in addition to both copper and gold (Groves et
al., 2010). The results of this research is utilized to clarify the relation of Guelb Moghrein
to the spectrum of the IOCG deposit class (Groves et al., 2010) and to add to the
growing body of evidence suggesting that IOCG’s are characterized by a diverse group
of deposits that may be temporally and spatially related. Importantly, this research
suggests that oxidation-reduction reactions may be important in causing sulfide
precipitation in this deposit class.

This study corroborates results presented in recent publications (Kolb et al.,

2006; Meyer et al., 2006; Sakellaris, 2007; Kolb et al., 2008). However, the combination
of a number of available drill holes, particularly to the south of mine, and the availability
of exposures in the open pit have allowed a much more detailed structural model of the
deposit to be constructed. The new structural interpretation presented here suggests
that particular faults exerted a fundamental control on the distribution of the copper- and
gold- at Guelb Moghrein as well as the location of higher-grade metamorphic mineral
assemblages.

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1.2 Deposit Overview
The Guelb Moghrein deposit is located within a bend in the northern part of the
Mauritanide fold and thrust belt. Mauritanide supracrustal rocks were accreted along the
western edge of the West African craton and its final emplacement likely occurred during
the Variscan orogeny (Lécorché and Clauer, 1984). In the vicinity of Akjoujt, the
supracrustal sequence is characterized by a series of thrust sheets comprised of
metamorphic rocks ranging in grade from greenschist to granulite facies. The protoliths
of these rocks are interpreted to be basalt, dolerite, felsic volcanic rocks (and associated
volcanoclastic rocks), and banded iron formation, with less abundant sandstone,
greywacke, shale, and carbonate (Martyn and Strickland, 2004).

The Mauritanide belt has a complicated structural history..Clauer et al. (1991)

dated rocks from the sole thrust of the Mauritanides about 30km northeast of Akjoujtand
obtained K-Ar ages from muscovite ranging from 308-472 Ma. Crystalline basement
rocks from the same location yielded Ar-Ar ages of 2400 Ma and 1850 Ma for
hornblende and biotite, respectively (Clauer et al., 1991). Recent U-Pb dating of
xenotime and monazite intergrown withthe ore assemblage at Guelb Moghrein gives an
age of 2492 ± 9 Ma which represents a minimum age for the sequence hosting the
deposit. A second generation of monazite at Guelb Moghrein gives an age of 1742 ± 12
Ma, indicating reworking of the rocks in the Proterozoic (Meyer et al., 2006).The
similarity between the Precambrian ages of the basement(Clauer et al., 1991) and the
mineralized rocks at Guelb Moghrein (Meyer et al., 2008)may indicate that both
sequences underwent similar tectonic histories.

1.3 Genetic Classification of Mineralization at Guelb Moghrein

The nature of mineralization at Guelb Moghrein has been the subject of debate
since the mid 1900’s. Early company reports mention, with a degree of skepticism, that
the deposit was classified as a carbonatite (Freeman and Gibbs, 1963). Ba Gatta (1982)
later proposed that the Guelb Moghrein deposit formed as a volcanogenic-hosted
massive sulfide deposit (VHMS). Pouclet et al. (1987) proposed that the sulfides were
hosted within a sedimentary carbonate sequence confined to the hinge zone of a south
plunging fold (Strickland and Martyn, 2001).

Strickland and Martyn (2001) recognized that the style of mineralization at Guelb
Moghrein had similarities with numerous other Cu-Au prospects throughout the district;

3
metacarbonate host rocks, a strong correlation of mineralized rock with shear zones,
and most importantly, the discontinuous nature of most metacarbonate horizons and
their confinement to shear zones. These observationsled them to interpret the
metacarbonate-hosted sulfide zonesas an alteration assemblage within veins. They
suggested that metacarbonate bodiesformed either by volcanic-hydrothermal or seafloor
alteration, or as the result of re-mobilization of carbonate from banded iron formations
during tectonism.

Strickland and Martyn (2001) proposed that Guelb Moghrein represents an IOCG
type deposit. This interpretation was based on: 1) the metal suite (Fe-Cu-Au-Co-Ni-As-
U-LREE), 2) abundance of magnetite, 3) the dominance of low sulfur mineral phases
(pyrrhotite, pentlandite, arsenopyrite, and cobaltite), and 4) a lack of quartz veins. They
also recognized that Guelb Moghrein had a strong structural control similar to some of
the Australian ICOG deposits (Skirrow and Walsche, 2002).

More recent work byKolb et al. (2008) supportedan IOCG origin for Guelb
Moghrein but suggested that the metacarbonate host rocks were sedimentary in origin.
They utilized the carbon and oxygen isotopic composition together with the rare earth
element distribution of the metacarbonate bodies to suggest they were derived from
Archean banded iron formations. They also proposed that the chlorite-biotite-grunerite-
cummingtonite-anthophyllite-bearingassemblages within and adjacent to the
metacarbonate bodies had geochemical signatures characteristic of marine shale.
Based on these observations they concluded that the metacarbonates at Guelb
Moghrein represent an iron formation deposited on a continental shelf.

This study concludes that Guelb Moghrein is a variant of the IOCG class. IOCG
deposits are characterized by abundant, low-titanium iron oxide minerals; generally
magnetite at deeper levels and hematite higher in such systems. The depositsoccur both
within inter-continental extensional environments and along continental margins
associated with subduction (Hitzman et al., 1992; Hitzman, 2000). IOCG deposits are
commonly situated along high-to low-angle structures forming splays off of major crustal-
scale faultsand are often associated with large volumes of breccia (Groves et al., 2010;
Hitzman, 2000).

IOCG deposits typically display intense Fe-metasomatism and a number of

alteration assemblages that varyin mineralogy as a function of host lithology, nature of

4
hydrothermal fluids, and depth of formation (Hitzman et al., 1992; Hitzman, 2000). The
deposits are usually characterized by a low abundance of pyrite,and the absence of
large amounts of hydrothermal quartz. Many IOCG deposits show relative enrichments
of a wide variety of trace elements including U, F, P, Co, Ni, As, Mo, Ag, Ba, and LREE
(Williams et al., 2005).

The presence or absence of economically significant copper and gold in some

IOCG-like deposits led Hitzman (2000) to conclude that IOCG’s comprise a spectrum
ofdeposits all formed from highly oxidizedhydrothermal fluids. Fluid inclusion studies
indicate that IOCG deposits were formed from complex brines with a carbonic
component (Williams et al., 2005). The oxidizing character of the fluid (indicated by the
presence of iron oxides) is difficult to reconcile with the deposition of reduced sulfur-
bearing minerals, and the mechanisms responsible for sulfide precipitation in these
deposits has remained elusive (Hitzman, pers. comm., 2011).The work at Guelb
Moghrein is important because geological relationships suggest that oxidation-reduction
reactions between oxidized, metal-bearing ore fluids and graphite formed by thermal
breakdown of metacarbonate may have been largely responsible for sulfide precipitation.

1.4 Study Area and Methods

The study areafor this research was focused on the Guelb Moghrein open pit.
Limited outcrops within several hundred meters of the pit were also investigated. The
best rock exposures away from the mine occur along two hills adjacent to the open pit.
Occidental hill rises from the desert floor and forms the northeast slope of the current
open pit. Oriental Hillon the eastern edge of the open pit also rises above the desert
floor. Metacarbonate horizons occur throughout in the district surrounding Guelb
Moghrein. A number of these were investigated and sampled to varying degrees. These
samples proved critical in allowing comparative study between the Guelb Moghrein and
district metacarbonates.The majority of fieldwork was completed over two consecutive
summers from 2007-2008. Field work conducted during this period had two primary
objectives: 1) detailed core logging of recently drilled holes in and around the open-pit
mine, and 2) detailed bench and outcrop mapping of the mine and immediately adjacent
outcrops.

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1.4.1 Core Logging
Most of the detailed core logging was completed during the summer of 2007. The
drill holes available at this time (PL and EX series drillholes) were drilled primarily within
the known orebody for the purpose of resource definition (most were twinned on
historicdrill holes). Core logging involved detailed descriptionof host and ore lithologies
as well as identification and visual percent estimation of alteration and ore mineralogy.
Structural data were also collected and include description of veins, shear zones, and
faults (all holes are vertical and non-oriented). Qualitative deformation intensity of the
rocks was recorded to help define the major structural zones. Evidence used to rank the
deformation intensity included the development and pervasiveness of foliation,
elongation and flattening of veins, and the abundance of chlorite associated with these
features.
Sampling of drill core was conducted to collect a suite of key lithologies and
representative alteration and mineralization assemblages for petrographic studies.
Additional core logging was completed during the 2008 field season on newly drilled,
near-pit exploration holes (GD and additional EX series drillholes). Because there were
numerous drillholes available at this time, most were logged in a cursory fashion, or by
using high resolution core photographs. The resulting “quick-logs” and “photo-logs” are
much less detailed than the 2007 logging and mainly record lithology, visually discernible
alteration, and deformation intensity. These holes were not sampled, thus the
stratigraphy to the south and west of the open pit is described in less detail in this study.

1.4.2 Mapping
Detailed pit mapping was initiated during the summer of 2007, however the
limited extent of the open-pit at that time coupled with intense mining activity left many
areas inaccessible. During the 2008 summer field campaign, the mine had expanded
considerably and many new rock exposures were available for study. The resulting map
coverage includes most of the open pit area, but some areas remained inaccessible due
to active mining operations and unsafe bench conditions.The 2008 pit mapping was
completedusing parameters similar to those used in the 2007 detailed drill core logs.
Particular attention was paid to the orientation of contacts and other structural features,
as this type of information was lacking in the core logs due to the non-oriented nature of
the drill core.

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 Pit mapping was completed at a scale of 1:500 on mine maps containing bench
crest and toe surveys. The maps were compiled using a series of reference points that
were marked on bench walls and surveyed by the mine staff. A measuring tape was
spanned between survey points so that contacts and other measurements could be
accurately plotted at the crest and toe levels. Completed map sheets were subsequently
scanned, imported, and geo-referenced using MapInfo GIS software. These scans were
then manually digitized and geological contacts and structures were interpreted between
benches. The resulting pit map was expanded through examination of exposures in road
cuts and trenches outside of the mine and through utilization of unpublished maps made
available by First Quantum Minerals. Some of these maps predate the significant
mining-related surface disturbance around the Guelb Moghrein open-pit (especially to
the south and west). These maps correlated well with the detailed pit maps and allowed
for extrapolation of key units and structural features up to 700m beyond the open-pit
boundary (i.e., outside the mapping area of this study). All location data presented in this
paper are reported in the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system using
the WGS 1984 datum (zone 28).

1.4.3 Sampling and Geochemistry

Approximately 100 rock samples were collected from drill core and outcrop
between 2007 and 2008. Thirty three samples were selected forpolished thin sections of
key lithologiesand alteration and mineralization assemblages within the deposit. Some
thin sections were also analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) in
backscatter and secondary electron mode. The SEM was also equipped with a PGT
Spirit energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) which allowed for semi-quantitative mineral
identification.

About 20 representative samples were also selected for whole rock geochemical
analysis which was completed by ACME Labs of Vancouver, BC (Appendix A).Total
abundance of major oxides (plus Mn, Ti, P, and Cr), rare earth, and refractory elements
were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) followinga
lithium metaborate/tetrabortatefusion and nitric acid digestion of a 0.1 gsample.In
addition, a separate 0.5 g split was digestedin Aqua Regia and analyzed by ICPMS to
report the precious andbase metals. Total C and S analyses were obtained by
combustion and infrared detection using a LECO analyzer.

7
 Samples of key mineralization and alteration styles underwent analysis for sulfur,
carbon, and oxygen isotopic analysis (Appendix B and C). Sulfide samples chosen for
sulfur isotopic analysis included major styles of mineralization (i.e., massive sulfide,
disseminated, and vein hosted). Carbon and oxygen isotopic analysis samples were
selected on the basis of carbonate type and alteration relationships. Carbonate mineral
identification was initially based on HCl reaction, but this was later verified with both X-
ray diffraction (XRD) and SEM analysis.

Isotopic samples were selected on the basis of thin section study and binocular
microscope examination of freshly cut hand specimens. The mineralogical context of
each sample was noted and appropriate photographs were taken. Isotope samples were
collected using a dental drill and a binocular microscope. Samples of sufficient size
(most carbonates and about one half of the sulfide samples) were ground with mortar
and pestle to reduce and homogenize grain size. Mortar and pestle were cleaned
between each sample preparation by grinding clean quartzite and rinsing with water and
then acetone.

Isotopes were analyzed using a GV Instruments IsoPrime gas-sourced isotope

ratio mass spectrometer. All carbon and oxygen values are reported as a per mil
difference relative to the Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (V-PDB) standard. For the
carbonates, the average mean half range for 6 duplicate samples (of 77 total samples)
was: 0.02‰ for carbon, and 0.06‰ for oxygen. Sulfur isotope values are reported as a
per mil difference relative to the Vienna Canyon Diablo Troilite (V-CDT) standard, using
the standards NBS-127 and IAEA-S-1. The mean half range for 6 duplicate samples (of
40 total samples) was 0.33‰.

XRD analysis was completed to verify carbonate mineralogy in the samples

prepared for isotopic study. A small amount of powder from each carbonate isotope
sample was doped with fluorite (as an internal calibration standard). This mixture was
applied to a round glass XRD slide with acetone to produce a random orientation.
Samples were analyzed using a Scintag XDS-2000 θ-θdiffractometer. The instrument
was run at 40 kV accelerating voltage with a 40 mA filament current. Continuous
diffraction scans were collected over the interval 27-36° 2θ at a scan rate of 1.2° per
minute with a step size of 0.02° and count time of 1.0 second. The samples were rotated

8
during analysis, and diffraction patterns were corrected for Kα2 contributions and
smoothed using a 3-point boxcar filtering.

1.4.4 Data Sources and Limitations of Data

First Quantum Minerals Ltd. was instrumental in arranging access to the field
area and providing drill core. The company also provided access to historic data as well
as more recent internal and external unpublished reports. These data span a time period
in excess 60 years and much of the information was in database format and lacked any
type of metadata. Another important resource for historic information was the Thayer
Lindsley collection of papers housed in the American Heritage Center at the University of
Wyoming. This collection provided the earliest documents available on Guelb Moghrein,
ranging from the late 1940’s through the 1960’s, and helped to correct problems with the
digital datasets.

Core drilled prior to 2004 has been lost, making attempts at quality control of
some of the historic data impossible. Older unpublished reports containing maps, cross
sections, resource estimates and geologic descriptions were useful in corroborating
some of the historic drill data. However, these cross checks also revealed some
troubling instances of inconsistency that were resolved by eliminating the data
completely or by validating with nearby recent drilling where possible. It should be noted
that core was available for all of the drillholes with a PL, GD, EXPL, and FW prefix in this
paper. However, there were no core or cuttings available for the RC and “alphabet
series” (for example, Cxx, Dxx, Hxx, Ixx, Jxx) drillholes.

The names used to describe stratigraphic units are based on the interpretations
of Martyn and Strickland (2004). These informal stratigraphic names have been slightly
modified in this thesis. The Akjoujt Metabasalts unit of Martyn and Strickland (2004) is
called the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit, and the St. Barbe Volcanics unit is referred to as the
St. Barbe Volcanic unit.

9
10
 CHAPTER 2
LOCATION AND MINING HISTORY OF THE GUELB MOGHREIN DEPOSIT

The Guelb Moghrein deposit is situated about 4 kilometers west of Akjoujt, a

small town in the Islamic Republic of Mauritania (Figure 1.1). This remote area is located
about 250km northeast of the main port and capitol city, Nouakchott. The area is
characterized by the very hot and arid climate of the west Sahara Desert, where annual
rainfall rarely exceeds 10cm.

The local topography is characterized by rocky hills and mountains separated by

flat, sparsely vegetated expanses of sandy sub-crop and occasional drifting dunes
(Figure 2.1). The land is dissected by wadis that are dry for all but a few days each year.
The Akjoujt area is accessible via paved highway from Nouakchott and there are
numerous unimproved dirt roads providing access to the surrounding area.

Or
Oc Mill

Figure 2.1Photograph of the Guelb Moghrein orebodies taken near Akjoujt. The
photograph view is oriented west toward the Oriental (Or) and Occidental (Oc) hills, with
the ore processing facility also shown (Mill). Dry, rocky and vegetation-free expanses of
desert punctuated by occasional hills are typical of this part of Mauritania.

The Guelb Moghrein deposit consists of two distinct, mineralized metacarbonate

bodies that are exposed at the surface, Occidental and Oriental. The Occidental
metacarbonate body forms a natural hill that originally projected about 50 meters above
the surrounding, relatively flat desert topography (Figure 2.1). Historic mining has
focused on the Occidental Hill orebody because it carries good gold and copper grades
with significant secondary copper minerals originally exposed at the surface. Supergene
alteration and weathering of the orebody resulted in the formation of abundant iron and
copper-oxides (hematite, limonite, goethite, malachite, and chrysacolla) as well as native
copper.

11
 The Oriental Hill metacarbonate body is situated 500 meters to the southeast of
Occidental Hill and rises about 70 meters from the desert floor (Figure 2.1). Unlike
Occidental Hill, Oriental has only minor amounts of secondary copper minerals exposed
at the surface. However, iron-oxide is abundant at Oriental and occurs in the form of
magnetite, hematite and goethite. Drilling has taken place on Oriental Hill during the past
and several trenches still remain around its base. To date, no mining of the Oriental Hill
orebody has occurred.

2.1 History of the Guelb Moghrein Deposit

Evidence suggests that the Guelb Moghrein Occidental deposit was probably an
important source of copper in prehistoric times. Neolithic artisinal workings were first
observed at Guelb Moghrein by the French military in 1931 (Freeman and Gibbs, 1963).
In 1968 the French archeologist Nicole Lambert began an excavation at the Grotte aux
Chauves-souris (Bat Cave) which was located on Occidental Hill. She discovered that
the cave was actually an adit which followed a thick malachite vein. Her excavations led
to the discovery of slag, furnace fragments, and charcoal which yielded several 14C ages
ranging from 800 to 200 BC (McIntosh and McIntosh, 1986). The subsequent analysis of
160 copper artifacts collected in southern and western Mauritania revealed that they
were all derived from Guelb Moghrein ores (Lambert, 1972).
Modern mining has taken place at Guelb Moghrein sporadically since the mid
1900’s with variable degrees of success (Strickland and Martyn, 2001). The potential for
an exploitable ore deposit was first recognized in 1946 by G. Arnoud, the director of the
Mauritanian Department of Mines, when he obtained samples of rock impregnated with
malachite from Guelb Moghrein (Freeman and Gibbs, 1963). These samples led the
Bureau Minier, under the direction of A. Blanchot, to begin an exploration program
(Strickland and Martyn, 2001).

The first commercial attempt at mining occurred during the 1950’s. However, this
venture proved unsuccessful due to metallurgical problems with the treatment of oxide
ore and the mine remained dormant through much of the 1960’s. In 1967 the Societe
Miniere de Mauritanie commenced mining and constructed a large oil-fired refractory ore
treatment plant (TORCO) at the site. However, the treatment process was ineffective
and by 1978 the operation was shut down due to high fuel costs and low metal prices.
Between the 1980’s and 2004 various companies were involved in stripping the

12
remaining oxide portion of the deposit and re-processing the tailings for gold;
approximately 158,0000 ounces of gold were recovered.

2.2 Current Status and Mineral Resources

Guelb Moghrein is currently being mined by Mauritania Copper Mines, a
subsidiary of First Quantum Minerals. First Quantum Minerals acquired an 80% interest
in the property in 2004 and commenced production in 2005. The current mine plan
predicts open pit mining at Guelb Moghrein through 2017 (First Quantum Minerals,
2010).

Mining is currently focused on the remaining sulfide portion of the Occidental

orebody. The ore is crushed and processed on site to produce a sulfide concentrate
which is transported by truck to the port in Nouakchott. The company produces about
17,000 tons of concentrate monthly, with an average copper grade of 22.5% (with credits
given for contained gold). The company has also constructed a carbon-in leach (CIL)
circuit to produce gold bullion on site (First Quantum Minerals Ltd., 2010).

A NI-43101 compliant resource estimate for the Guelb Moghrein deposit was
published by First Quantum Minerals in 2008 (Table 2.1). This resource is based on a
0.75% cutoff grade for copper and represents the in-situ material present in the
Occidental deposit. No cutoff grade was applied to gold, and the included gold resource
is associated with copper mineralization. At the time of publication of the NI-43101
resource estimate, the Guelb Moghrein Occidental deposit had ameasured and indicated
resource of 33.02 million tonnes of sulfide ore grading 1.49% copper and 1.10 g/t of
gold(Newell, 2008).

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Table 2.1 Resource estimate for the Guelb Moghrein Occidental orebody (Newell,
2008). Copper COG represents the copper cut-off grade used for resource calculations.
Resource Copper Ore tonnes Copper Gold Contained Contained
Classification COG (%) (Mt) (%) (g/t) copper (Kt) gold (t)
Sulfide
Measured 0.75 12.38 1.59 1.38 197.10 17.09
Indicated 0.75 20.64 1.44 0.93 296.36 19.27
Total Sulfide 0.75 33.02 1.49 1.10 493.47 36.37
Oxide
Measured 0.75 0.36 2.87 2.41 10.31 0.87
Indicated 0.75 0.01 2.46 1.81 0.33 0.02
Total Oxide 0.75 0.37 2.85 2.39 10.64 0.89
(Sulfide & Oxide)
Total Measured
& Indicated 0.75 33.39 1.51 1.12 504.11 37.26
(Sulfide & Oxide)
Inferred
0.75 2.45 1.37 0.73 33.51 1.78

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 CHAPTER 3
REGIONAL GEOLOGY

This chapter presents the regional geology and large-scale structural aspects of
the Guelb Moghrein deposit. The tectonothermal history of the region is also discussed
with particular emphasis on events that may relate to mineralization at the Guelb
Moghrein deposit. The district scale stratigraphy of the Akjoujt area is also presented,
along with an overview of the district’s structural and metamorphic history. The
information presented here is largely summarized from available published literature with
emphasis on more recent research.

3.1 Gross Architecture of the West Side of the West African Craton
The Guelb Moghrein deposit is located at a bend in the Variscan-aged
Mauritanide fold belt (Figure 3.1), which extends from the Anti-Atlas Mountains in
Morocco to the southern part of Senegal. At the southern end of the belt in Senegal the
Mauritanides cut through the Bassaride fold and thrust belt, which records a Pan-African
tectonothermal event. These orogenic belts demarcate the western boundary of the
West African craton, separating the generally older igneous and metamorphic rocks of
the craton to the east from the rift related sedimentary sequences and oceanic crust to
the west.

The West African craton is thought to have stabilized at about 1.7 Ga, at which
point a sedimentary cover sequence was deposited in several basins along the edge of
the craton (Schofield et al., 2006). In Mauritania, the most significant of these is the
Taoudeni Basin (Figure 3.1), which is comprised of an Upper Proterozoic to Paleozoic
sedimentary sequence deposited unconformably (nonconformity) on the crystalline
basement rocks of the West African craton. Sedimentation in the Taoudeni Basin began
about 1 Ga and lasted to the end of the Carboniferous. The sedimentary sequence is
comparatively thin, averaging about 3000m (Deynoux et al., 2006).

15
Figure 3.1 Generalized geologic map of northwest Africa. Geology is composited from
numerous sources with preference given to more recent and detailed publications. The
abbreviations used are: TTT-:Tasiast-Tijirit Terrane, CRAT-:Choum-Rag el Aboid
Terrane, and TISZ-:Tasiast-Tijirit Shear Zone. Letters A-K are the approximate locations
(yellow circle) for published dates in the Mauritanides and Reguibat Shield: A; maximum
age for the TISZ ~2954 (Key et al., 2008), B-C; ~2933 Ma for granitic plutons in the the
TTT (Key et al., 2008), D; ~2965 Ma for the formation of a greenstone belt in the TTT
(Key et al., 2008), E; ~2064-2117 Ma for anatexis and sinistral transpression (Schofield
et al., 2006), F; ~302-313 Ma for the sole thrust of the Mauritanides and, two
metamorphic events recorded in the basement rock of ~1850 and ~2400 Ma (Clauer et
al., 1991), G; ~1742 Ma metamorphic event and ~2492 Ma metamorphic/mineralization
event at Guelb Moghrein (Meyer et al., 2006), H; ~2800-3050 Ma for the central
Reguibat Shield, precise location unknown (Lahondère et al., 2004), I; ~3515-3422 Ma
for orthogneiss (which also reveal a ~2700 Ma metamorphic event) (Potrel et al., 1996),
J; ~2730 Ma for granite, gabbro and peak metamorphism with an older age of ~2990 Ma
for charnockite (Potrel et al., 1998), K; Various amphibole samples collected between
(K) and Akjoujt have maximum ages of ~2600 Ma (likely reflecting peak metamorphism),
variably reset to younger ages by a ~300-310 Ma event preserved in muscovite
(recording final emplacement of the Akjoujt Supracrustal sequence in its current position)
(Dallmeyer and Lécorché, 1990).

The rocks of the Taoudeni Basin are not significantly metamorphosed and are
essentiallyunaffected by deformation associated with the emplacement of the
Mauritanides. However, in the vicinity of Atar, there is weak folding of the Taoudeni
Basin sedimentary rocks (Villeneuve, 2008) and small reverse faults are present along
the Akjoujt-Atar highway as it ascends the Adrar Plateau (Figure 3.2). Clauer et al.
(1991) described weak metamorphism that completely reset K-Ar ages in clays in a 5

16
meter zone around the sole thrust of the Mauritanides at Guelb Hadej (letter (F) in Figure
3.1).

~3m

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2 Photographs of Taoudeni Basin sedimentary rocks taken along the Akjoujt to
Atar highway near the western edge of the Adrar Plateau (about 30km southwest of
Atar): (a) View looking west showing relatively un-deformed sandstone, siltstone and
shale cliffs. (b) View looking north showing small scale, east-directed reverse faults
offsetting intercalated sandstone and shale layers.

Although most of the West African Craton is concealed beneath younger basin
fill, there are several windows that expose portions of the crystalline basement. The
Reguibat Shield (Figure 3.1) extends from west-central Mauritania and northeastward
into Western Sahara and Algeria. The southern portion of the shield is exposed about 30
km northeast of Akjoujt, where it is situated beneath the frontal (sole) thrust of the
Mauritanide belt (Figure 3.1). Farther east the basement rocks of the Reguibat Shield
are covered by Upper Proterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Taoudeni Basin. The
Mauritanide-Reguibat contact extends westward where it becomes concealed beneath
sedimentary rocks of the Mauritania-Senegal Basin, about midway between Akjoujt and
Nouadhibou. The thrust contact reemerges from beneath the basin sediments to the
north and trends northward toward the border with Western Sahara.

The Reguibat Shield can begrossly divided into two parts (Figure 3.1): a western
terrane consisting predominately of Archean gneisses and granitic rocks with lesser
metasediments and metavolcanics, and an eastern terrane comprised of Lower
Proterozoic granites and metamorphosed supracrustal rocks (Rocci et al., 1991;
Lahondère et al., 2004; Schofield and Gillespie, 2007). These two terranes coalesced
during the 2.0-2.1 Ga Eburnean orogeny along a north-south trending suture that is
roughly contiguous with a similar Eburnean belt preserved in the Leo Shield to the south
(Schofield et al., 2006)

17
 The southeast Archean portion of the Reguibat Shield contains two distinct
domains separated by the Tâçarât-Inemmaûdene Shear Zone (TISZ on Figure 3.1). The
domain situated to the east of the TISZ has been termed the Choum-Rag el Aboid
Terrane (CRAT; see Figure 3.1) by Key et al. (2008), but was formerly called the
Amsaga-Tiris-Ouassat (or, the Amsaga Terrane after Rocci et al. (1991)). The terrane
situated west of the TISZ has been termed the Tasiast-Tijirit Terrane (TTT; see Figure
3.1) by Key et al. (2008). These domains record separate polyphase tectonothermal
histories (Rocci et al., 1991; Key et al., 2008). The age of the TISZ has been constrained
by Key et al. (2008) to have formed between 3.0 Ga and 2.73 Ga ago. The zone is a
transpressive sinistral ductile shear zone with unknown lateral offset containing
lithologies of both domains. Based on published mapping the northern terminus of the
Tâçarât-Inemmaûdene Shear Zone is unconstrained.

The Choum-Rag el Aboid Terrane is comprised of granulite facies migmatitic

orthogneiss (massive quartzo-feldspathic and sillimanite-garnet-cordeirite-K-feldspar
geniss) and charnockite cut by later granitic and gabbroic intrusions. Minor amounts of
quartzite, banded iron formation, amphibolite and calc-silcate rocks have been
tectonically emplacedwithin the package. Potrel et al. (1998; 1996) established that the
Choum-Rag el Aboid Terrane formed through a series of polyphase crustal growth
events beginning at about 3.5-3.45 Ga (peak metamorphism and formation of migmatite)
and ending around 2.73 Ga with granitic magmatism and associated gabbroic intrusions.

The Tasiast-Tijirit Terrane has been divided into three major groups (Key et al.,
2008). The oldest portion is comprised of migmatitic orthogneiss containing minor
amphibolite lenses and gneissic granites which are lithologically similar to those within
the Choum-Rag el Aboid Terrane sequence but of different age (2.96 Ga; Chardon,
1997).These orthogneisses underlie a 2.965 Ga greenstone succession (Key et al.,
2008) comprised of several elongate belts of interlayered mafic to ultramafic
metavolcanic rocks with intercalated banded iron formation and siliciclastic rocks. The
greenstone belts are cut by a series of granite (biotitetonalite) plutons that have been
dated to 2.93 Ga (Chardon, 1997; Key et al., 2008).

18
3.2 Stratigraphy of the Akjoujt Area
The Akjoujt area contains two supracrustal suites, the Oumachoueϊma and
Eizzene Groups (Figures 3.3 and 3.4) (Martyn and Strickland, 2004) separated by an
angular unconformity defined by the base of the Atilis Quartzite of the Oumachoueϊma
Group. The Guelb Moghrein deposit is hosted within, and the majority of the Akjoujt area
is underlain by, rocks belonging to the Oumachoueϊma Group.
Akjoujt Metabasalt unit: Basalt (light
green), dolerite/gabbro (dark green)
with thin intercalated BIF (black) and
carbonate (blue). The carbonate units
are host to sulfides (red) at Guelb
Moghrein.

Oumachoueϊma Group
Lembeith Fm: BIF marker
unit.
St. Barbe Volcanic unit: Basalt to
rhyodacite lavas and associated
volcanoclastic rocks with thin BIF.
Atomai Fm: Mafic tuffaceous siltstone,
sandstone, BIF and lava.
Irarchéne el Hamra Fm: Graywacke,
siltstone, tuffaceous sandstone and
semi-pelitic schist.
Atilis Quartzite: Massive to thin
bedded orthoquartzite, psammitic
schist, and thin BIF/carbonates.
Angular Unconformity
Khmeiyat Fm: Siltstone, semi-pellitic
schist, quartzite, and intercalated BIF. Eizzene
Group

Raoui Metabasalts: Quartz-

albite- epidote-carbonate altered
basalt flows and thin quartzite.
? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Undifferentiated Basement (?):
Basement

Over-thrust basement rocks consisting

granitic gneiss, coarsely porphyritic
monzogranite and metamorphosed
supracrustal rocks.

Figure 3.3Generalized stratigraphic column of the Akjoujt area (after Martyn

andStrickland, 2004). The Guelb Moghrein IOCG deposit is hosted within metacarbonate
bodies in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit. The unit colors correspond to the color scheme of
the regional map presented in Figure 3.4, non-colored units do not crop out in the Guelb
Moghrein area. The Lembeith Formation has been omitted from the regional map, but is
included here following the stratigraphic interpretation of Martyn and Strickland (2004).
Banded iron formation is abbreviated as BIF.

19
Figure 3.4 Regional geologic map of the Akjoujt area based on the mapping of Martyn
and Strickland (2004) with modifications reflecting the detailed mapping conducted in the
vicinity of Guelb Moghrein (this study) and exposed metacarbonate and banded iron
formation (BIF) horizons in the district (First Quantum Minerals Ltd.). The
undifferentiated BIF category of this map contains finely banded quartz-magnetite,
massive chert with disseminated magnetite, and pyritic chert. Because lithologically
similar BIF is common throughout the Oumachoueϊma Group, the Lembeith Formation
has been assigned as undifferentiated BIF. The undifferentiated metacarbonate and
carbonate alteration category of the map includes calcite±ankerite±siderite±magnetite
bodies that occur as both discrete lenses and continuous zones. This category also
contains carbonate-rich schist zones. The Abbreviations used in this map are (isotope
sample locations): CL; Colline, EH; Elephant Hill, EJ; El Joul, GM; Guelb Moghrein, GM-
SW; Guelb Moghrein Southwest. Bou Seroul is located to the north of the map area at
N2191363, E574285.

20
Antiform
Synform

21
 The rocks of the Eizzene Group are not exposed in the vicinity of Guelb
Moghrein. The Raoui Metabasalt unit consists of monotonous lava flows that lack the
doleritic and gabbroic phases commonly found in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit of the
Oumachoueϊma Group. The Khmeiyat Formation consists of a sequence of weakly
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks that include phyllite, pelitic and semi-pelitic schists,
greywacke, sandstone, and thin intermittent banded iron formation (Martyn and
Strickland, 2004). The relative stratigraphic positions of the Raoui Metabasalt unit and
Khmeiyat Formation are unknown due to a lack of way-up criteria (Martyn and
Strickland, 2004).

Martyn and Strickland (2004) concluded based on geological mapping that the
Oumachoueϊma Group was deposited nonconformably over Eizzene Group rocks. The
Oumachoueϊma Group has been divided into six units (Figure 3.3) (Martyn and
Strickland, 2004). The Atilis Quartzite is the basal unit of the sequence and was
deposited over folded rocks of the Eizzene Group. The Atilis Quartzite is typically
coarser near the Eizzene Group contact and fines upward.

The two units overlying the Atilis Quartzite are poorly exposed in the Akjoujt area,
and are not exposed in the immediate vicinity of Guelb Moghrein. The Irarchéne el
Hamra Formation crops out about one kilometer to the southwest of Guelb Moghrein
(Martyn and Strickland, 2004). However, the outcrop pattern implies that the Irarchéne el
Hamra Formation and Atilis Quartzite must be overturned (Figure 3.4). The Atomai
Formationis not exposed in the Akjoujt vicinity, implying that it locally thins out
considerably, has been subject to extreme structural attenuation, or becomes
indistinguishable from the other units (Martyn and Strickland, 2004).

The St. Barbe Volcanic unit occurs as a series of fault-bound slivers in the Akjoujt
area (Figure 3.4). In the vicinity of Guelb Moghrein, the unit contains andesitic to
rhyodacitic flows, tuffs, agglomerates and welded tuffs. Near Guelb Moghrein, the
mineralogy of this unit is dominated by quartz, sericite, and chlorite with conspicuous
quartz phenocrysts. Martyn and Strickland (2004) suggest that the lower portion of the
St. Barbe Volcanic unit has been faulted out in the Akjoujt area as the unit lacks basaltic
lavas, tuffaceous shale and banded iron formation that are common within the unit
regionally.

22
 The Lembeith Formation is a thin but prominent banded iron formation that forms
the boundary between the St. Barbe Volcanic unit and the overlying Akjoujt Metabasalt
unit. Martyn and Strickland (2004) used this unit as a key marker bed to work out the
stratigraphy in the Akjoujt area. The Lembeith Formation is represented as an
undifferentiatedbanded iron formation (Figure 3.4) in this study as it could not be
distinguished from many of the other banded iron formations present within the
Oumachoueϊma Group.

The Akjoujt Metabasalt unit comprises the uppermost unit of the Oumachoueϊma
Group and crop out extensively in the vicinity of Akjoujt (Figure 3.4). This mafic volcanic
suite consists of tholeiitic meta-basalts and synvolcanic meta-dolerite/gabbro. In the
vicinity of Guelb Moghrein, doleritic and gabbroic phases are dominant. Mafic rocks in
the Akjoujt Metabasalt unitare characterized by an albite-actinolite-epidote-quartz
assemblage and are interpreted to have experienced greenschist facies metamorphism
(Martyn and Strickland, 2004).

The Akjoujt Metabasalt unit also locally contains thin bands or lenses of
metacarbonate, carbonate-rich schist, banded iron formation, and massive quartz.
These lithologies typically are coarsely re-crystallized with development of closely
spaced foliation in the surrounding metabasalt. The metacarbonate units are comprised
of calcite, ankerite, and/or siderite ± magnetite ± quartz; different carbonate species
commonly occur within the same body. The metacarbonate units are of variable
thickness ranging from several centimeters to tens of meters thick. These thickness
changes can be observed at both the outcrop and regional scale. Carbonate-bearing
schists are typically comprised of a chlorite-quartz-calcite assemblage and are usually
confined to shear zones. The banded iron formation units vary from finely banded
magnetite-quartz to quartz-rich zones containing abundant disseminated magnetite (all
classified as banded iron formation in Figure 3.4). In addition, several discontinuous
massive quartz zones occur in the vicinity of Guelb Moghrein; the protolith of these rocks
is unclear. No relict detrital grains are preserved so they are likely either large quartz
veins or re-crystallized chert beds.

Rocks at Guelb Moghrein appear to have experienced higher temperature

conditions of metamorphism compared to those reported regionally. Characteristic
mineral assemblages at Guelb Moghrein include plagioclase-hornblende-biotite-quartz

23
with local zones containing garnet and cummingtonite-grunerite. These assemblages are
commonly been retrograded in the vicinity of shear zones to a chlorite-quartz ±
anthophylite assemblage.

To the west (Hajar Dekhen) and far-south (Kléouat synform) of the Akjoujt area
there higher grade metamorphic rocks dominated by gneissic granite, coarsely
porphyritic monzonite, and metamorphosed supracrustal rocks are exposed (Figure 3.4)
(Martyn and Strickland, 2004). These rocks have been interpreted as over-thrust
basement by various authors.However, there is little data to constrain their stratigraphic
position.

3.3 Structure of the Akjoujt Area

The Akjout area is characterized by upright open folds comprising supracrustal
rocks of the Oumachoueϊma Group. A major anticline at Akjoujt (Figure 3.4) has
moderately dipping limbs (25-35°) and plunges to the southwest. The supracrustal rocks
comprising the anticline are offset by low angle faults which repeat stratigraphy and
superimpose older rocks on top of younger rocks. The majority of these low angle faults
are coincident with the occurrence of banded iron formation and/or metacarbonate units.
This suggests that these units preferentially served as a locus for focused deformation.
An alternative explanation is that these units represent alteration assemblages
associated with faulting. Both possibilities have been discussed in the literature (Martyn
and Strickland, 2004; Kolb et al., 2006; Sakellaris, 2007; Kolb et al., 2008). This study
suggests a combination of both processes were responsible for forming the outcrop
pattern observed in the Akjoujt anticline.

To the northwest (Hajar Dekhen) and southeast (Kléouat) of Guelb Moghrein the
Akjoujt anticline is structurally overlain by synformal sheets comprised of basement
rocks (Figure 3.4). Muscovite within mylonitic gneiss from Hajar Dekhen yielded ages of
~307 Ma and 314 Ma, leading Dallmeyer and Lécorché (1990) to conclude that this
represented the last, late metamorphic cooling event associated with the emplacement
of these rocks.The northeast axes of the basement synclines (Guelb Moghrein and the
El Joul-Colline areas) appear more deformed than areas along strike. These zones
contain highly foliated rocks and abundant fault repetition, (Figure 3.4). The northern
zone hosts the Guelb Moghrein deposit; sulfide zones have also been discovered in the
southern zone at El Joul-Colline that is currently an exploration target.

24
3.4 Timing and Tectonothermal History of the Mauritanides in the Akjoujt Area
The ages of rocks, and the timing of tectonothermal and magmatic events in the
Akjoujt area are poorly understood due to a dearth of well-constrained geochronological
data. Available ages within the Mauritanide belt range from Late Archean to Upper
Proterozoic (see Figure 3.1 for approximate locations of dated rocks).The Mauritanide
Belt has undergone multiple episodes of cratonic-scale tectonic deformation and
metamorphism. Meyer et al. (2006) suggest that three significant geodynamic events
affected the Mauritanide Belt, based on previous work in the southern Mauritanides and
the Rokelides in Senegal. These include an early Pan-African event from 680-620 Ma, a
later Pan-African event from 600-550 Ma, and alate deformation related to the Variscan
orogeny between 330-270 Ma.It appears the rocks in the Akjoujt area retain much older
ages than have been discovered elsewhere in the Mauritanides and record only of the
Variscan event. These ages combined with dates for xenotime and monazite in the ore
at Guelb Moghrein, led Meyer et al. (2006) to conclude that the Eizzene and
Oumachoueϊma Groups are the remnants of an Archean to Lower Proterozoic
greenstone belt.

The metamorphic grade of rocks in the Akjoujt area appears to increase

stratigraphically upward according to the mapping done by Martyn and Strickland (2004).
The rocks of the lower Oumachoueϊma Group exposed to the east of Akjoujt generally
exhibit mineral assemblages that reflect lower greenschist facies conditions while the
rocks of the upper Oumachoueϊma Group exposed to the west in the vicinity of Akjoujt
and Guelb Moghrein are characterized by a mineral assemblage that reflects peak
amphibolite grade conditions (Kolb et al., 2006). This led Strickland and Martyn (2001,
2004) to conclude that the sequence was first metamorphosed and then inverted.

Clauer et al. (1991) dated both crystalline basement belonging to what is mapped
as Reguibat Shield by Martyn and Strickland (2004) and supracrustal rocks exposed at
the basal thrust of Mauritanides at Guelb el Hadej (~20km northeast of Akjoujt).
Muscovite in low grade metamorphic rocks from the basal thrust yielded K-Ar ages of
around 301-312 Ma, suggesting that final emplacement of these rocks occurred during
the Variscan orogeny. Variscan ages were only obtained from the immediate vicinity of
the thrust suggesting that final emplacement was not associated with a penetrative
metamorphic event in this location. These ages are very similar to those obtained from
the Hajar Dekhen (Dallmeyer and Lécorché, 1990), where foliated, muscovite-rich rocks

25
are better developed. This suggests that the ~300Ma metamorphic event affected more
of the section around the low angle structure to the west. Hornblende and biotite from
the gneissic basement at Guelb el Hadej yielded ages of about ~2400 Ma and ~1850
Ma, respectively. These dates compare favorably with dates obtained by Meyer et al.
(2006) from Guelb Moghrein rocks.

Unpublished work by the Geological Survey of Japan established a plateau

Ar/Ar age of 1742 Ma for pargasite from metabasaltat Guelb Moghrein (Murakami,
2004). This study suggested a much older age of roughly 2500 Ma during the initial heat
step before the plateau was reached. This older age could represent a minimum age for
the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit.

Dating of hydrothermal xenotime and monazite from the Guelb Moghrein orebody
(Meyer et al., 2006) yielded two sets of U-Pb ages, based on two distinct morphological
occurrences of the minerals. Relatively coarse, zoned euhedral xenotime and monazite
intergrown with chalcopyrite yielded an age of 2492 ± 9 Ma. Anhedral, un-zoned
monazite and xenotimefrom shear zones with a “retrograde” cummingtonite-grunerite
assemblageyielded a U-Pb date of 1742 ± 12 Ma. Based on these data Meyer et al.
(2006) concluded that hydrothermal IOCG mineralization at Guelb Moghrein occurred at
2492± 9 Ma and was followed by reactivation of the hydrothermal system during the
Proterozoic at1742 ± 12 Ma.

26
 CHAPTER 4
LITHOLOGIC UNITS, STRUCTURE, AND DEFORMATION

This chapter describes the lithology of rock units and structural geology of the
study area. The stratigraphy is considered within the context of the regional framework
proposed by Martyn and Strickland (2004). Lithologic descriptions are based on the
least altered rock samples. The structural observations and interpretations presented are
based on detailed pit mapping and core logging in addition to available company data.
Observed deformation styles are also described and correlated with interpreted major
structures. Sulfide distribution is discussed in this chapter within the context of structure
and deformation.

4.1 Lithology
Sulfide minerals at Guelb Moghrein are largely confined to a series of coalescing
metacarbonate lenses that occur within the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit (Figures 3.3, 3.4 and
4.1). The major carbonate units crop out in two prominent hills (guelbs) known as
Oriental and Occidental (Figures 2.1 and 4.1). The Occidental metacarbonate body has
been stripped from the hill by mining. The Oriental metacarbonate body is relatively
undisturbed. The contact between the metacarbonate units and the surrounding Akjoujt
Metabasalt unit is marked by a zone of intense foliation and alteration of variable
thickness and intensity.

A quartz- and muscovite-rich unit is exposed along the south and western edges
of the current Guelb Moghrein open pit above the sulfide-bearing metacarbonate unit. It
separated from the underlying Akjoujt Metabasalt unit by a zone of intense
foliation.Following the interpretation of Martyn and Strickland (2004) and Kolb et al.
(2008), this unit is referred to as the St. Barbe Volcanic unit (Figures 3.3 and 4.1).

27
Figure 4.1Geologic map of the Guelb Moghrein mine and surrounding area. The map is
based on field and open pit mapping and incorporates geology adapted from Kralev et
al. (1976) that is currently concealed by mining-related surface disturbance.

28
29
4.1.1 Akjoujt Metabasalt Unit
The Akjoujt Metabasalt unit in the study area is heterogonous and displays
considerable variation in mineralogy, grain size and texture (Figure 4.2). The least
hydrothermally altered rocks are characterized by an assemblage of coarse-grained
metamorphic hornblende and plagioclase (Figure 4.2a); the coarse grained texture has
led previous workers (Martyn and Strickland, 2004) to interpret the rocks as having a
doleritic or gabbroic protolith.Due to metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration it is
unclear whether the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit represents dominantly intrusive or extrusive
mafic rocks. However, the occurrence of apparently sedimentary lenses of carbonates
and rare possible siliciclastic rocks within the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit would suggest it
had a dominantly extrusive protolith.

Hornblende in relatively unaltered rocks of the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit are

medium to dark green in color and usually occurs as subhedral to anhedral laths that
range up to 3-5 mm in length. Hornblende commonly contains numerous inclusions of
plagioclase and lesser quartz resulting in a skeletal appearance (Figure 4.2a). The
hornblende ranges in composition from ferro-pargasite to ferroan pargasitic hornblende
and ferro-tschermakite to ferro-tschermakitic hornblende (Sakellaris, 2007). Approaching
the metacarbonate body, hornblendes become rimmed by actinolitic hornblende,
reflecting a retrograde metamorphic overprint (Sakellaris, 2007).

Plagioclase occurs in several morphologies and sizes, but individual plagioclase

crystals (up to 300µ) are usually much smaller than the hornblende. The largest
plagioclase crystals may be well formed and often exhibit simple twinning (Figure 4.2c).
Although some of the coarse plagioclase is euhedral, no obvious magmatic zoning was
observed in thin section or by backscatter SEM imaging. Plagioclase is also present as
anhedral masses together with lesser quartz and variable amounts of biotite, chlorite and
opaque minerals (magnetite, ilmenite and occasionally pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite)
(Figures 4.2a-c). These fine-grained masses form embayments and rims around more
euhedral hornblende and plagioclase.In some instances, plagioclase forms coarse
anhedral clots that enclose and form embayments within hornblende (see lower left
corner of Figure 4.2a). In these zones, the plagioclase often has a “fuzzy” appearance
and contains opaque inclusions (possibly graphite) that are dull in reflected light. Based
on EDS spectra, the composition of all analyzed plagioclase is albite.

30
 200 µm 500 µm gt
pl+qtz

qtz
mgt
hbl
cpy
qtz+ab

qtz
pl
gt
(a) (b)

200 µm 500 µm mgt

mgt
pl

pl cal hbl
bio
hbl
pl pl
hbl
chl
chl
(c) (d)
hbl
200 µm 500 µm
pl ank

cal

ank
chl

(e) cal
hbl (f)

Figure 4.2 Polarized transmitted light photomicrographs of weakly altered mafic volcanic
rock in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit (a-e) and metacarbonate (f): (a) Coarse hornblende
(hbl) and plagioclase (pl) in a matrix of fine grained quartz (qtz) and quartz + plagioclase.
The small opaque minerals are magnetite (mgt). DDH EX-05, 22.6m. (b) Poikiloblast of
garnet (gt) containing fine-grained quartz inclusions in a matrix of fine-grained albite (ab)
and quartz with minor chalcopyrite (cpy). DDH EX-02, 84.3m. (c) Hornblende and
plagioclase with minor rims and embayments of biotite (bio) and chlorite (chl). DDH PL-
08, 22.6m; (d) A hornblende + plagioclase assemblage overprinted by calcite (cal) and
later chlorite. DDH PL-14, 21.9m. (e) Calcite vein with chlorite growing between calcite
grains. There is a chloritic selvage around the vein showing weak foliation developed
along the contact with the surrounding hornblende and plagioclase assemblage. DDH
PL-08, 22.6m. (f) Fine-grained ankerite (ank) replacing (or, replaced by) coarse-grained
ankerite along a zone of brittle deformation in a light colored, barren metacarbonate.
DDH PL-01, 106.2m.

31
This is in agreement with plagioclase analyses by Sakellaris (2007). Fine-grained albite
is abundant in rocks of the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit immediately below the metacarbonate
body at Guelb Moghrein. The abundance of such fine-grained albite in this position
suggests that these rocks underwent sodic alteration.

Carbonates may form irregular masses between hornblende and plagioclase

crystals (Figure 4.2d). In areas where carbonate is more abundant it completely
encloses and partially embays hornblende and commonly embays and forms inclusions
within plagioclase.Because of the difficulty in identifying fine-grained carbonate minerals,
most of the calcite was identified by using 10% HCL on the rocks from which the thin
sections were produced. There is often a noticeable increase in HCL reaction in rocks
that contain numerous calcite or quartz + calcite veins (see the selvages along the
calcite vein in Figure 4.2e).

The Akjoujt Metabasalt unit locally contains pale reddish brown, euhedral to
anhedral garnet poikiloblasts that range in size from 3mm-1cm in diameter. Garnet may
occur as skeletal formswith abundant quartz inclusions (Figure 4.2b). EDS spectra
collected from the SEM indicate that the garnets are almandine with a low Mn content.
Garnet occurrence is sporadic and garnet-rich horizons are rarely correlative between
drillholes. The majority of garnet occurs in well-foliated rocks that alsocontain biotite and
chlorite. Garnet abundance also increases with proximity to the metacarbonate body..

Hornblende and plagioclase in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit are progressively

replaced by biotite, actinolite, chlorite, cummingtonite-grunerite, and anthophyllite
approaching the metacarbonate body. This assemblage is interpreted to reflect a
retrograde overprint of the peak metamorphic assemblage associated with deformation
along the contact between the metabasalt unit and the metacarbonate body. This
retrograde assemblage is less well developed beneath the metacarbonate body.

Sakellaris (2007) estimated conditions for peak metamorphism based on an

equilibrium mineral assemblage of the cores of coarse amphibole crystals (magnesio-
hornblende) and un-zoned plagioclase in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit. Assuming a
pressure of 5 kbar the minimum calculated peak metamorphic temperature was 580 ±
40°C. Sakellaris (2007) also calculated a temperature of 410 ± 30°C (3 kbar) for biotite-

32
garnet pairs and concluded that this reflected a retrograde metamorphic event
associated with the precipitation of sulfides at Guelb Moghrein.

Trace element geochemistry of samples of the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit suggests

that the protolith for these rocks was of basaltic composition (Appendix A, Figure 4.3a).
Previous interpretation by Kolb et al. (2008) used the (Z4/4-Y-Nb*2) triangular plot of
Meschede (1986) to determine that the rock of the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit formed in a
volcanic arc. However, Meschede (1986) demonstrates that there is considerable
overlap between volcanic arc basalts and within plate tholeiites using this scheme. Using
the tectonic discrimination diagram proposed by Pearce and Norry (1979), it is possible
in some circumstances to differentiate between within plate basalts, mid-ocean ridge
basalts and island arc basalts. Based on whole rock geochemistry, this discrimination
diagram suggests that the mafic igneous rocks of the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit most
closely resemble within-plate basalts. However, using the Hf/3-Th-Ta discrimination
diagram of Wood (1980) the rockscorrespond to basalts formed at a destructive plate
margin

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3 Composition and tectonic environment of the mafic igneous rocks of the
Akjoujt Metabasalt unit based on position on discrimination diagrams: a) Nb/Y-Zr/Ti
discrimination diagram (after Winchester and Floyd, 1977; Pearce, 1996); b) tectonic
discrimination diagram of Pearce and Norry (1979).

Although Kolb et al. (2008) suggest that the mafic igneous rocks of the Akjoujt
Metabasalt unit formed in a volcanic setting along an active continental margin utilization
of discrimination diagrams by Pearce and Norry (1979) and Wood (1980) indicates the
unit contains a significant continental component. The Oumachoueϊma Group likely
represents rocks deposited along the edge of the West African Craton. This is in
agreement with the interpretation of Martyn and Strickland (2004) that the deposition of

33
sediments in the lower Oumachoueima Group reflects renewal of sedimentation on the
eroded Eizzene Group basement with early siliciclastic sedimentation followed by felsic
volcanism represented in the St. Barbe Volcanic unit and finally eruption or intrusion of
the mafic igneous rocks of the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit.

4.1.2 Metacarbonate Units and Associated Rocks

Metacarbonate units in the Akjoujt area display variable mineralogy. Mineralogy
was determined on the basis of HCl reaction, X-ray diffraction patterns, and EDS
analysis on the SEM (Appendix B). Most metacarbonate horizons in the district are
comprised of calcite and ankerite, lack sulfides, and often display a finely laminated
texture that is interpreted to be relict bedding (see Figure 4.4 b). Near faults,
metacarbonate horizons commonly are altered to ankerite- and siderite-rich
assemblages and may become foliated. The transformation of a calcite-ankerite
assemblage to a siderite + magnetite assemblage seems to be an important precursor or
perhaps indicator for sulfides at Guelb Moghrein.Many of the metacarbonate horizons in
the district contain abundant inclusions of coarsely crystalline quartz (Figure 4.4b). This
quartz is interpreted to have formed by the re-crystallization of cherty concretions. Such
quartz is absent in the metacarbonates at Guelb Moghrein.

The metacarbonate units that host magnetite and sulfides at the Guelb Moghrein
deposit contain a spectrum of Ca-, Mg-, and Fe-bearing carbonate minerals andalso
locally containcummingtonite-grunerite and anthophyllite. The least altered
metacarbonate at Guelb Moghrein contains magnesian ankerite with minor manganese
(Appendix B). Calcite occurs in the Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate bodies as small, rare
inclusions in ankerite. Based on whole rock and SEM analyses ankerite-rich
metacarbonate contains abundant calcium and iron with minor magnesium and
manganese. Ankerite-rich metacarbonate is creamy white to tan in color and in hand
specimen it reacts more readily to HCl compared to siderite-rich metacarbonate (faint
effervescence without powdering). Ankerite zones contain both fine-grained (Figure 4.2f)
and coarse-grained ankerite (up to 5 cm in diameter; Figure 4.4a). Although the fine-
grained ankerite commonly appears to cut the coarse-grained ankerite it is possible that
some of the coarse-grained ankerite is a re-crystallization of a fine-grained protolith.
Ankerite abundance decreases inabundance towards magnetite-rich domains and is
replaced by siderite which imparts a dark gray color to the rock(Figure 4.4a).

34
 Finely banded schists are commonly present along the contact between the
metacarbonate and the overlying Akjoujt Metabasalt unit. Similar schists are less
abundant along the lower contact between the metacarbonate and Akjoujt Metabasalt
unit. The schists are comprised of alternating layers of carbonate, grunerite-
cummingtonite with or without anthophyllite, and chlorite with or without biotite.Chlorite
layers typically range up to several meters thick, while the carbonate and grunerite-
cummingtonite with or without anthophyllite layers are rarely more than several
centimeters thick. Individual layers commonly display boudinage and may be isoclinally
folded.

Similar schists form discontinuous bands from several centimeters to four meters
thick within the metacarbonate unit. These schists lacks banding and are commonly
comprised of massive chlorite. Some schist layers have massive fibrous amphibole
along the contact with the surrounding metacarbonate.It is unclear if these schist bands
represent rocks deposited within the metacarbonates or slivers introduced tectonically.

qtz

S0

sid ank

cal

(a) 5 cm (b)

Figure 4.4 Photographs of weakly altered metacarbonate from Guelb Moghrein and
vicinity: (a) Photograph of drillcore showing light colored, coarsely crystalline ankerite-
rich metacarbonate (ank) in contact with dark gray, siderite-rich metacarbonate (sid)
(containing abundant disseminated magnetite) to the left. DDH PL-23 127.3m;
(b)Photograph of a sub-cropping metacarbonate horizon to the south-southwest of
Guelb Moghrein (GM-SW in Figure 3.4). This rock is comprised of calcite and contains
coarse clots of quartz. Note the fine lamination preserved in the calcite (S0).

Metacarbonate adjacent to the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit is commonly brecciated.

Similar breccias are also commonly present adjacent to schist bands within the
metacarbonate unit. Breccia zones range from about 10 centimeters to one meter thick.
The breccias consist of rounded to subangular clasts of metacarbonate in a matrix of
siderite, cummingtonite-grunerite, and sulfide minerals.

35
4.1.3 St. Barbe Volcanic Unit
The St. Barbe Volcanic unit occurs above both the metacarbonate and Akjoujt
Metabasalt unit. The St. Barbe Volcanic unit was not studied in detail. The following
discussion is largely based on petrographic work by Kolb et al. (2008) and Sakellaris
(2007). TheSt. Barbe Volcanic unit is comprised of quartz-sericite schist and biotite-
garnet-quartz schist; it lacks sulfides. It crops out along the south-southwest benches of
the Guelb Moghrein open pit (Figure 4.1). Drilling indicates this unit thickens down-dip.
Based on igneous textures and geochemistry, Kolb et al. (2008) suggested the quartz-
sericite schist was derived from rhyodacite while the biotite-garnet-quartz schist
represents metamorphosed pelitic siliciclastic sediments. The St. Barbe Volcanic
unitdisplays a lower greenschist metamorphic assemblage (Sakellaris, 2007). Kolb et al.
(2006) state that the St. Barbe Volcanic unit was not subjected to the amphibolite facies
metamorphism experienced by the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit.

Along the eastern base of the Oriental metacarbonate body, a 10-20m thick
quartz-sericite schist horizon crops out (Figures 4.1 and 4.5a) beneath the
metacarbonate unit. These rocks are interpreted as part of the St. Barbe Volcanic unit.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.5 Photographs of St. Barbe Volcanic unit in outcrop: (a) Strong planar foliation
developed in quartz-sericite schist along the southeast base of the Occidental
metacarbonate body (hammer circled for scale). Black cobble to boulder-sized float is
weathered metacarbonate derived from the Oriental metacarbonate body (above); (b)
Light colored quartz-sericite schist from the upper south walls of the Guelb Moghrein
open pit mine. Roughly equant shape of the quartz porphyroblast indicates that the
development of foliation in the St. Barbe Volcanic unit was dominated by flattening
(nosignificant elongation is evident).

The Akjoujt Metabasalt unit is present beneath the quartz-sericite schist but the nature of
the contact is unclear due to poor exposure. An equivalent unit is not present along the

36
western edge of the Oriental metacarbonate body or beneath the Occidental
metacarbonate body.

4.2 Structure of the Guelb Moghrein Deposit

The dominant structures present at the Guelb Moghrein mine are, brittle-ductile
fault zones that generally dip shallowly to moderately west-southwest (Figures 4.1 and
4.6). Kinematic indicators such as S-C fabrics, rotated porphyroblasts, and offset of
veins and other linear features suggest displacement along these structures included
both normal and reverse movement. The net displacement along these fault zones is
unconstrained. The low angle St. Barbe Fault is interpreted to be the major structure in
the area. It is highly foliate and locally displays mylonitic textures. This structure
separates greenschist facies rocks to the west in the hangingwall from amphibolite-
greenschist facies rocks in the footwall of the fault. The West Pit Fault appears to be a
splay off the St. Barbe Fault while shear zones bounding the metacarbonate body
accommodated movement between the rheologically distinct metacarbonate and the
Akjoujt Metabasalt unit. The St. Barbe and associated faults form the locus of intense
hydrothermal alteration. The mine area also has several moderate- to high-angle faults
that appear to post-date the sulfide mineralizing event. Based on offset in the
metacarbonate units, displacement along these structures is less than 10 meters.

4.2.1 St. Barbe Fault

The St. Barbe Fault is exposed along the southern margin of the Guelb Moghrein
open pit (Figure 4.1) and juxtaposes the quartz-sericite and biotite-garnet schists of the
St. Barbe Volcanic unit over the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit (Figure 4.6, B-B’). The fault
strikes northwest and has an average dip of 35° to the southwest (Figure 4.7a). Along
the western portion of the Guelb Moghrein mine the St. Barbe Fault appears to
propagate downward into the Akjoujt Metabasalts and coalesces with the West Pit Fault
(Figure 4.1). The geometric relationships together with a similarity in the style of foliation
along both faults, suggests they may be kinematically linked. However, the St. Barbe
Volcanic unit is concealed by cover to the west of the open-pit making interpretation
difficult.Although sulfides are not present along either the St. Barbe or West Pit faults,
sulfides are most abundant in the footwall metacarbonate adjacent to the faults and no
significant sulfide bodies are known in the hangingwall of the faults.

37
Figure 4.6 Interpreted geologic sections through the Guelb Moghrein deposit. Lithologic
units are the same as those presented in Figure 4.1. Section lines are shown on Figure
4.1. All drill holes are vertical and elevation is given relative to sea level in meters. See
Appendix D for the drill hole location map.

38
39
F=43 F=52 F=14
L=7 L=12 L=9

(a) (b) (c)

F=59 F=45 F=23
L=21 L=20 L=3

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 4.7 Equal area stereonet projections showing the poles to foliations (F) (black
circles) and the trend/plunge of mineral stretching lineations (L) (gray triangles). Great
circles represent the average plane to the foliations. The black triangles represent the
average trend/plunge of measured lineations. Black squares represent the trend/plunge
of fold axes determined form the calculation of eigenvectors using Stereonet (computer
program): (a) Plot of foliations from the St. Barbe Faultshowing an average foliation
plane of 143°/35° and an average lineation of 32°/212°;(b) Plot of foliations from the
West Pit Fault showing an average foliation plane of 175°/37° and an average lineation
of 35°/227°; (c) Plot of foliations from the East Pit Faultshowing an average foliation
plane of 221°/43° and an average lineation of 47°/234°; (d) Plot of foliations from the
Hangingwall Fault showing an average foliation plane of 158°/38° and an average
lineation of 37°/220°. Foliations within the Hangingwall Fault define a synformal shape
with an axis trending 236° and dipping 37°;(e) Plot of foliations from the Footwall Fault
showing an average foliation plane of 159°/34° and an average lineation of 34°/218°.
Foliations within the Footwall Fault define an antiformalshape with an axis trending 245°
and dipping 34°SW. The circled foliation poles are from the northeast corner of the pit
where the Footwall fault steepens (average plane is 100°/58°);(f) Plot of foliations from
the Oriental Fault beneath the metacarbonate body showing an average foliation plane
of 171°/30° and an average lineation of 24°/207°.

Mineral stretching lineations within foliated rocks along the St. Barbe structure plunge at
32° to the south-southwest. Oblique mineral stretching lineations suggest strike-slip
movement has occurred along this fault but the sense of shear (sinistral or dextral) is
unclear due to conflicting kinematic indicators (reverse and normal).

40
 The St. Barbe Fault is characterized by intense mylonitic foliation. and ductile
deformation within The St. Barbe Volcanic unit displays well developed foliation above
the structure and a pronounced foliation is present in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit for up to
100 meters beneath the fault (Figure 4.6, B-B’). S-C fabrics in foliated rocks within the
fault zone indicate the St. Barbe Fault underwent both reverse and normal movement
during ductile deformation (Figures 4.8i-j). The relative timing of reverse and normal
movement is unconstrained. The net displacement along the St. Barbe Fault is unknown,
but was enough to emplace the stratigraphically lower St. Barbe Volcanic unit on top of
the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit.Small offset fractures and en-echelon calcite-biotite veins
within the St. Barbe Fault indicate minor late brittle movement.

The St. Barbe fault zone contains interleaved lens-shaped pods consisting of
both St. Barbe Volcanic unit and Akjoujt Metabasalt unit rocks. These lenses range from
the scale of centimeters to about 20 meters across. They are commonly less foliated
than surrounding schists in the fault zone which are commonly complexly deformed
adjacent to the lenses. Immediately above the St. Barbe Fault is a continuous zone of
red colored rock containing abundant quartz and hematite approximately 25 meters
thick. This zone is extremely weathered where exposed and it is unclear if it represents
an alteration zone related to the fault or a highly deformed banded iron formation.

4.2.2 West Pit Fault

The West Pit Fault occurs within theAkjoujt Metabasalt unit and dips about 37° to
the west along the western edge of the Guelb Moghrein open pit (Figures 4.1; 4.6, A-A’;
4.7b). The West Pit Fault trends more northeasterly in the northwest corner of the open
pit and along the northwest slope of Occidental Hill (Figure 4.1). This change in strike of
the fault is not expressed well in the stereonet data (Figure 4.7b) because these areas
were not easily accessible and hence few measurements of fault orientation were
collected in this area.

The West Pit Fault is characterized by a zone of pale green highly foliated
chlorite-rich schist that is intercalated with lenses of boudinaged, massive metabasalt.
The contact between the chlorite schist and metabasalt may be abrupt or gradational.
The gradational contacts suggest that some of the chlorite-rich schist may represent an
alteration product of metabasalt.

41
Figure 4.8 Photographs of diamond drill core (HQ size) showing examples of common
structural styles and deformation fabrics at Guelb Moghrein. Images (a) through (c)
represent a down-hole sequence approaching the top of the metacarbonate body. All
holes are vertical and photos are oriented top to bottom: (a) Akjoujt Metabasalt from
approximately ~75m above the metacarbonate body showing brittle offset of moderate to
high angle quartz ± calcite veins (qcv) along high angle structures. Some of these veins
have a chloritic selvage (chl selv). A reverse sense of movement is suggested from the
displacement of the coarse, chloritic vein selvage (cvs); (b) Typical ductile shear zone
located approximately ~10m above the metacarbonate body. This zone is characterized
by banded chlorite schist (chl) with cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite (cum) and
boudinaged calcite ± quartz veins (cqv) and sheared metacarbonate (mc) lenses
(ankerite ± siderite). Note the presence of coarser metabasalt textures (mb) in several
areas, implying that this assemblage represents alteration of the metabasalt and not a
sequence of intercalated metabasalt and meta-sediments; (c) Intense ductile
deformation in chlorite schist above the metacarbonate body closely spaced foliations.
White stringers are calcite ± quartz veins and paler colored areas contain abundant
anthophyllite > cummingtonite (ath). This type of deformation occurs where the
metacarbonate thins abruptly between Occidental and Oriental (East Pit Fault); (d)
Brecciated and mineralized zone within the lower portion of the metacarbonate body
bound by well foliated chlorite- and cummingtonite schist with abundantpyrrhotite (po)
and chalcopyrite (cpy). Such zones are typical of the upper metabasalt to metacarbonate
contact and are usually cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite-rich. Magnetite is
commonly present along the interface between metacarbonate and cummingtonite-
grunerite/anthophyllite;(e) Relatively un-deformed metabasalt (mb) in contact with
coarsely crystalline metacarbonate. The small breccia zone has a pyrrhotite massive
sulfide matrix and the underlying ankerite>>siderite metacarbonate contains only minor
magnetite (mgt). This assemblage is typical of the largely barren metacarbonate units
occurring down-dip to the southwest of the Occidental metacarbonate; (f) Chlorite schist
with cummingtonite-grunerite ± anthophyllite ± magnetite ± biotite that commonly occurs
within the thicker metacarbonate horizons. These zones are strongly foliated, often well-
mineralized, and typically show the following zonation from an inner zone of chlorite
outwards to chlorite + magnetite thento cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite,thento
cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite + magnetite, then to magnetite, to an outer zone
of brecciated siderite with massive sulfide. The red arrows show the rotation direction for
a coarse magnetite phenocryst, which suggests a reverse sense of movement; (g) The
well-mineralized lower contact between brecciated metacarbonate and underlying
metabasalt. The contact is sharp and the metabasalt is weakly foliated compared to (b),
(c), or (d). The metabasalt displays well foliated bands of chlorite schist; this foliated
texture is not present in the quartz + albite altered rock below the chlorite schist bands;
(h) Folded layers of schist in the Footwall Fault that display a reverse sense of
movement; (i) S-C fabric developed in the St. Barbe Volcanic unit showing a normal
sense of movement; (j) S-C fabric developed in the St. Barbe Volcanic unit showing a
reverse sense of movement; (k) Deformed layers from the East Pit Fault showing a
normal sense of movement.

42
PL-25, 28m PL-21, 37m PL-14, 75m PL-14, 88m GD10, 309m PL-01, 60m PL-20, 107m
chl mgt

cum

chl chl mc
chl mb
selv
qcv
qcv chl
cpy

mc po
cum
cum po +
cum po
mb mgt

chl
cvs ath

cpy mgt
mc
qcv mc

mc qtz+ab

mb
mgt
Po+ cpy

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

s c

s s
s
c

(h) 1cm (i) (j) (k) 1cm

43
Like the St. Barbe Fault, the West Pit Fault displays similarly oriented mineral stretching
lineations (Figure 4.7b) and both reverse and normal S-C fabrics. Foliation within the
West Pit Fault dips more westerly than that in the St Barbe Fault. Drilling by First
Quantum Minerals Ltd. Indicates that metacarbonate is not present to the west of the
West Pit Fault. This suggests that the West Pit fault has either a reverse sense of
movement. Although the West Pit Fault does not contain significant sulfides, copper and
gold grades are enhanced within the metacarbonate adjacent to the structure (Figure
4.6, A-A’).

The orientation of the West Pit Fault appears to be partially controlled by the
western portion of the Occidental metacarbonate body which is up to 130 meters thick
(Figure 4.6, A-A’). This thick body of metacarbonate is elongated sub-parallel to the
strike of West Pit Fault (Figure 4.1). At depth to the south of the open pit the
metacarbonate is elongated southwest (Figure 4.1), parallel to the mineral stretching
lineations along the St. Barbe and West Pit faults (Figure 4.7a-b). These relationships
suggest that the metacarbonate body in the west-central part of the open pit may have
been rotated in a counterclockwise direction by the West Pit Fault. The orientation of the
thick metacarbonate horizon adjacent to the West Pit Fault may also have locally
influenced the geometry of the fault, resulting in a steeper dip and more northerly strike
compared to the St Barbe Fault (Figure 4.7).

The West Pit and St. Barbe faults contain foliated rocks with similar textures,
structures, and orientations. Both appear to control the distribution of copper and gold
mineralization and hydrothermal alteration within the Occidental metacarbonate body.
The geometry of the West Pit Fault suggests it forms a downward propagated splay of
the St. Barbe Fault. The difference in dip of the West Pit Fault relative to the St. Barbe
fault was likely caused by the ductile flow and thickening of the metacarbonate during
deformation.

4.2.3 East Pit Fault

The East Pit Fault occurs along the eastern edge of the Guelb Moghrein open pit
(Figures 4.1 and 4.6, A-A’). The structure is characterized by a well foliated and often
crenulated zone up to 50 meters thick (Figure 4.8c). In drill core, these foliated rocks
display kinematic indicators that suggest normal movement (Figure 4.8k). Discrete
planes within the fault exposed along the east edge of the open pit dip 43° to the

44
northwest and have associated mineral stretching lineations that imply a dominant dip-
slip sense of movement with slight dextral component (Figure 4.7c). The zone is
associated with intense chloritization and sulfides occur locally within the foliated
zone.The East Pit fault appears to truncate the Occidental metacarbonate body at depth
(Figure 4.6, A-A’). The fault is also coincident with the unusual protuberance in the
outcrop pattern of the Oriental metacarbonate body (northeast corner of Oriental shown
in Figure 4.1). This suggests that the dextral component of movement along this fault is
more pronounced than that preserved in the mineral stretching lineations measured
within the open pit. The foliated textures and association with sulfides suggests that this
fault may be temporally equivalent to the St Barbe and West Pit faults.

4.2.4 Shear Zones Bounding theMetacarbonate Unit

The major ore-bearing metacarbonate bodiesat Guelb Moghrein are bound by
shear zones termed the Hangingwall and Footwall faults (Figures 4.1 and 4.6). These
metacarbonate bounding shear zones locally host significant ore (Figures 4.8d-g). No
economically significant sulfide bodies have been identified above or below the upper
and lower shear zones.

The ductile shear zones that bound the Occidental metacarbonate body display a
moderate foliation that becomesmore pronounced toward the contact with the
metabasalt (Figure 4.8b). Foliation within the Akjoujt Metabasalt unitbecomes better
developed approaching the metacarbonate body and high angle veins cutting the
metabasalt are progressively deformed and rotated into parallelism with the foliation as
the contact with the metacarbonate is approached. Along the contact between the two
units, zones of interleaved carbonate and highly deformed metabasalt consisting of
amphibole, biotite, and chlorite display evidence of intense ductile deformation
characterized by isoclinal folding, local development of S-C fabric, and boudinage.The
increase in foliated textures with proximity to the metacarbonate body is most
pronounced along the upper contact of the metacarbonate body where highly foliated
and interleaved metacarbonate and deformed metabasalt form a zone up to 20 meters
thick. Brittle features are less pervasive in these zones, but where present are
characterized by veins that cut and are cut by foliation and minor brittle fractures that
offset schistose bands.

45
 Ductile deformation within the Hangingwall shear zone was most intense along
the up-dip portions of the Occidental metacarbonate body (Figures 4.8b-d and f). Down-
dip to the south of the Guelb Moghrein open pit the thickness of the well foliated zone
decreases to locally less than one meter thick. These thin foliated zones are weakly
chloritized compared to the foliated zones up-dip adjacent to the St. Barbe and West Pit
faults (Figure 4.8e).

The development of a well-foliated fabric is less pervasive along the Footwall

shear zone. In some instances, the metacarbonate body sits directly on massive,
relatively un-foliated metabasalt that shows very little ductile fabric development (Figure
4.8g). The absence of foliated rocks along the contact is particularly pronounced in some
of the southern-most deep drill holes that intercept the Occidental metacarbonate body.
The decrease in foliation is accompanied by a decrease in thickness of intense alteration
along the base of the metacarbonate (see GD-2A and GD-3A in Figure 4.6).

The shear zones bounding the metacarbonate body have a similar orientation to
the St. Barbe Fault but a slightly shallower dip of approximately 38° (Figures 4.7 d-e).
Mineral stretching lineations within the shear zones plunge ~35° to the southwest.
Reverse kinematics are indicated by Rotated porphyroblasts within well foliated rocks of
the shear zones suggest reverse movement (Figures 4.8f and h).Small scale structures
within both the hangingwall and footwall shear zones display a dextral sense of
movement.

Brittle fabrics are commonly observed along the edges of the metacarbonate
body. Both the Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones commonly contain a thin zone,
generally less than one meter thick, of brecciated metacarbonate. The clasts are often
rounded and occur in a matrix of massive sulfide, fine-grained carbonate, and/or
massive cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite (Figures 4.8d-g). In some instances,
brittlely deformed zones contain veins that display reverse offset (Figure 4.8a).

The Hangingwall shear zone within the Occidental metacarbonate body has been
folded into an antiform whose long axis is generally coincident with mineral stretching
lineations (Figures 4.1, 4.6, A-A’, and 4.7a). The footwall shear zone adjacent to the
Occidental metacarbonate body is folded into a crude synform (Figures 4.6, A-A’ and
4.7b); mineral stretching lineations within the Footwall shear zone are roughly parallel to

46
the axis of the fold (Figure 4.7b). In the northeast corner of the open pit, the Footwall
shear zone steepens sharply and dips south (Figure 4.7b). Recent mapping of this area
by First Quantum Minerals Ltd. suggests that this steepening may be caused by normal
movement along this portion of the shear zone.

The Oriental metacarbonate body is bounded below by the Oriental shear zone
(Figures 4.1 and 4.6, A-A’). It is likely that a shear zone also existed along the top of the
Oriental metacarbonate, but has been completely eroded.Based on limited field
measurements the Oriental shear zone has a similar orientation to the St. Barbe and
Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones bounding the Occidental metacarbonate body
(Figure 4.7).

The absence of detailed geometricdata forthe Oriental metacarbonate body

makes it difficult to interpret its relationship to the Occidental metacarbonate body. The
Oriental metacarbonate body would appear to be an eastern extension of the Occidental
metacarbonate body separated by a dextral normal fault (Figure 4.6, A-A’). However it is
more likely that the Oriental metacarbonate body isthe southwest (down-dip) portion of
the Occidental metacarbonate that was moved to the north-northeast by reverse
movement along the St. Barbe and West Pit faultsystem (Figures 4.1 and 4.6). Such
movement would be consistent with mineral stretching lineations observed along the
base of the Oriental metacarbonate body (Figure 4.7), and would imply a minimum
displacement of the Oriental metacarbonate several hundred meters to the north to
northeast. Reverse faulting of the Oriental metacarbonate to its current position is
supported by the distribution of cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite ± carbonate
altered zones situated to the southwest of Oriental (Figure 4.1). These altered zonesare
similar to those observed along the Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones of the
Occidental and Oriental metacarbonate bodies.

4.2.5 High Angle Faults

The Guelb Moghrein open pit area contains high angle faults. Unlike the low
angle shear zones, displacement along these brittle structures is constrained by
dominantly normal offsets in the south-southwest dipping metacarbonate bodies (Figure
4.9a). Offset along these structures does not appear to exceed several meters. The
trends of these higher angle structures are variable. Two of the most significant high
angle faults (Figure 4.1) occur along the east-central pit boundary (see Figure 4.9b)

47
within the footwall of the Occidental metacarbonate body. These structures do not
contain visible copper minerals.

(a) (b)

sidbx cum
cpy/po cpy

po
cpy
(c)

Figure 4.9 Photographsof exposed faultsat Guelb Moghrein. Hammers circled for scale
in a) and b): (a) A moderate dipping normal fault exposed in the west central bottom of
the open pit. The metacarbonate body shows brittle deformation characterized by offset
along a single plane. The chlorite-amphibole schist (above) displays a down-warped
ductile fabric characterized by closely spaced foliation; (b) Normal fault exposed below
the Footwall shear zone in the northeast corner of the pit. Note the well foliated fabric to
the left (west) compared to the massive metabasalt on the right (east); (c) A high angle
fault zone cutting through the Occidental metacarbonate body. The fault is characterized
by a cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite (cum) infill with brecciated siderite (sid bx)
developed along the metacarbonate contact. Note the chalcopyrite (cpy) and pyrrhotite
(po) associated within the fault.

High angle structures are also commonly observed in drill core. These structures
display a spectrum of both brittle and ductile deformation fabrics and commonly contain
sulfides (Figure 4.9c). The orientation of these faults is unconstrained. However, similar
structures were observed in the immediate footwall of the Occidental metacarbonate
body during mapping strike west-northwest and dip about 50-60° south. These faults are
probably related to localized normal movements within the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit and
the metacarbonate body as they commonly overprint well developed foliation related to
earlier deformation events. These structures place important constraints on the nature

48
and timing of sulfide deposition at Guelb Moghrein as they imply an at least partially
extensional environment during their formation.

4.3 Structurally-controlled Morphology and Textures within the Occidental

Metacarbonate Body
The metacarbonate bodies at Guelb Moghrein display a distinctive boudin-like
morphology (Figures 4.1 and 4.6).These boudin shapes are elongated sub-parallel to
mineral stretching lineations in the Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones, suggesting
that the metacarbonate bodies experienced ductile flow (Figure 4.6, and the elongation
suggested by the isopach lines in Figure 4.1). The thickest portion of the Occidental
metacarbonate body occurs where theFootwall shear zone steepens, suggesting that
the metacarbonate was buttressed against the St. Barbe-West Pit fault zone.This
deformation is interpreted to have occurred during reverse movement along the
Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones.

The Occidental metacarbonate body also displays brittle deformation textures,

although these textures are commonly obscured by subsequent re-crystallization. Brittle
breccia zones are especially well developed adjacent to the Hanging and Footwall shear
zones. Magnetite and sulfide often form rims around clasts of carbonate within these
breccia zones. Re-crystallized portions of the metacarbonate display irregular zones of
magnetite and sulfide that may be relict expressions of an original brittle breccia. Thus,
brecciation may have once been much more abundant within the Occidental
metacarbonate body.

Thick metacarbonate commonly containszones of well-foliated chlorite schist

(Figures 4.8f). Metacarbonate adjacent to these schist lenses are commonly brecciated.
While the schists themselves commonly show intense ductile deformation fabrics, the
contacts with surrounding metacarbonate are often defined by breccias (Figure 4.8f).
These schist lenses are rarely correlative between adjacent drill holessuggesting they
represent either highly attenuated sedimentary layers or are tectonized blocks
introduced during shearing or ductile carbonate flow. Locally, upper portions of the
Occidental metacarbonate body contain numerous small angular clasts of chlorite schist
(Figure 4.10a). These clasts of chlorite schist commonly display rims of cummingtonite-
grunerite/anthophyllite ± magnetite where they contact the surrounding metacarbonate
(Figure 4.10b). The metacarbonate in close proximity to these clasts often contains

49
patchy zones of fibrous cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite. In many instances, the
metacarbonates contain only small zones of fibrous amphibole with no chlorite schist
fragments present (Figure 4.10a). These zones of small clasts may represent zones
were originally larger chlorite schist lenses have been structurally disrupted.

cum only chl

mgt
chl
chl cum
(b) chl

(a)
Figure 4.10 Drill core (one meter segments) showing brecciated textures at Guelb
Moghrein: a) Brecciated clasts of chlorite schist (chl) in a matrix of siderite + magnetite.
This texture is commonly preserved within the metacarbonate in zones adjacent to
intercalated chlorite schist. In some instances, chlorite is absent and only fibrous
amphibole (cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite) is present (cum). b) Inset from (a)
showing dark green, iron-rich chlorite surrounded by pale colored cummingtonite-
grunerite/anthophyllite with rims of coarse-, clotty-magnetite (mgt). DDH PL-06 at
approximately 106m depth.

Down-dip to the southwest, the Occidental metacarbonate thins to about 30-50

meters and becomes more uniform in thickness. This metacarbonate either has a thin,
less than one meter, selvage of foliated rock in the adjacent Akjoujt Metabasalt unit or
lacks a ductile shear fabric on its outer edges altogether (Figure 4.7e). The down-dip
extension of the Occidental metacarbonate body contains more ankerite and has less
siderite and magnetite than metacarbonate nearer the St. Barbe-West Pit fault system.
Texturally the deep metacarbonate more closely resembles the tabular sedimentary
carbonate bodies cropping out throughout the district (Figure 4.4b).

50
 CHAPTER 5
ALTERATION AND MINERALIZATION AT GUELB MOGHREIN

This chapter presents the mineralogical and textural changes associated with
metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration at Guelb Moghrein. It is focused on rocks
containing copper and gold within the study area, and discusses related mineralogical
and textural changes in adjacent lithologies. The structural and lithologic controls on
mineralization are also discussed.

5.1 Alteration of the Akjoujt Metabasalt Unit

The least altered portions of the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit at Guelb Moghrein have
a medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic mineral assemblage dominated by
hornblende and albitic plagioclase with lesser calcite (Figure 4.2). Approaching the
metacarbonate body, this peak metamorphic assemblage is replaced by a finer-grained
assemblage of metamorphic minerals. The pervasiveness of this alteration correlates
with the development of a closely spaced foliation, which is especially pronounced
where the St. Barbe Fault cuts the Akjoujt Metabasalt and along the upper (hangingwall)
contact of the metacarbonate bodies. The alteration mineralogy and associated textures
developed in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit differ in the rocks above and below the
metacarbonate unit and will be discussed separately.

5.1.1 Alteration of Metabasalts along the St. Barbe and West Pit Faults
The most intensely deformed and hydrothermally altered rocks at Guelb
Moghrein occur along the St. Barbe Fault; highly altered rocks are also present along the
West Pit Fault.To the south and southwest of the Guelb Moghrein mine, the St. Barbe
Fault is characterized by a mylonitic fabric that is defined primarily by very fine-grained
magnesian chlorite (Figure 4.5b). Mylonitic textures are better developed in proximity to
the fault. Foliation in this 10 to 100m thick deformed zone (Figure 4.6, B-B’) displays an
undulating geometry resulting from the formation of numerous elongated, boudin-shaped
lenses. The Akjoujt Metabasalt unit is also pervasively chloritized and foliated along the
West Pit Fault. Some un-deformed and non-chloritized blocks of metabasalt occur in the
faults zones. Chloritized zones along these structures contain irregular, elongate- to
boudinged quartz lenses up to 5cm in thickness.

51
 Chlorite-rich mylonites (samples GM015 and GM011 in Appendix A) from the
fault zones are compositionally distinct from less deformed metabasalt. The chlorite-rich
rocks contain little to no Na or K (NaO and K2O ranges from 0.0-0.13%), low but variable
SiO2, and high amounts of Mg (11.59-19.83% MgO). Thus, alteration clearly resulted in
destruction of both amphibole and plagioclase in the metabasalts and leaching of Ca, K,
Na, and Si. It is unclear if magnesium is remnant or whether it was also introduced.
Altered rocks along the faults contain anomalously high amounts of Ti, P, Ni, Hf, Nb, Sn,
Ta, Th, U, W, Zr, Y, and heavy rare earth elements, and these rocks also show depletion
of Mn, Ba, Co, Cs, Rb, Sr, La, Ce, Pr, Nd and Cu (Appendix A). Kolb et al. (2008)
observed similar whole rock and trace element patterns in the altered rocks.

5.1.2 Alteration of Metabasalts along the Hangingwall Shear Zone

Metabasalts above the Hangingwall shear zone are altered and deformed. The
intensity of alteration and degree of foliation decreases outward from the Hangingwall
shear zone. However, this altered zone displays a variable thickness within the mine
area (Figure 4.6). Alteration zones are thickest and best developed where the
Hangingwall shear zone intersects the St. Barbe and West Pit faults.

The mineral assemblage within the metacarbonate body immediately below the
Hangingwall shear zone typically consists of brecciated metacarbonate which grades
upwards to a tan colored cummingtonite-grunerite ± anthophyllite assemblage along the
contact with the metabasalt (Figure 4.7d). The metabasalt along the contact is
characterized by chlorite replacing the assemblage of hornblende, plagioclase, and
biotite (Figure 5.1c). The metabasalt generally contains disseminated magnetite
porphyroblasts, some of which are rotated and display reverse sense of shear (Figure
4.8f).Sulfides are commonly present in the contact zone, especially in the up-dip portions
of the Occidental metacarbonate (Figure 4.8d).

Metabasalt within close proximity to the metacarbonate contains abundant, dark

green chlorite (Figure 4.8). Based on SEM analysis and the characteristic berlin blue
color observed in thin section under cross polars, this chlorite has a Fe-rich composition.
The metabasalts located near the metacarbonate also contain an assemblage of albite,
biotite, actinolite, cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite, magnetite, siderite, and ankerite
(Figure 5.1a). These minerals form rims and embayments around hornblende and
plagioclase and are interpreted as a retrograde metamorphic assemblage.

52
Figure 5.1 Photomicrographs of thin sections showing alteration mineralogy and related
textures developed in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit (a-d) and metacarbonate units (e-h):
(a) plane polarized view of the typical alteration assemblage found within the less
foliated portions of the upper shear zone. Bladed cummingtonite-grunerite (cum) crystals
are rimmed by biotite (bio) which has been moderately replaced by chlorite (chl). There
is a minor amount of relict hornblende (hbl) remaining. The light colored groundmass is
mainly sodic plagioclase (pl). DDH PL-21, 37.9m; (b) Plane polarized photomicrograph
showing rock comprised of mainly albite. This is typical alteration of the Akjoujt
Metabasalt unit below the meta-carbonate horizon. The fine-grained material in the
upper left is a mixture of albite (al) and graphite (gr), and is separated from an albite +
chlorite +biotite zone by a graphitic stylolite. Chlorite forms after biotite. DDH PL-21,
113.5; (c) Cross polarized view of foliated rock from the upper shear zone in which relict
hornblende crystals are replaced by chlorite. There are also boudinaged fragments of a
coarser-grained, sodic-plagioclase vein oriented parallel to the dominant foliation
(diagonally across the photo). Akjoujt Metabasalt unit grab sample from central open pit;
(d) Cross polarized view of Akjoujt Metabasalt unit from the Footwall shear zone. Coarse
albite is in contact with a fibrous anthophyllite (ath) bundle containing a core of
cummingtonite. There are also some hornblende crystals rimmed by anthophyllite. DDH
PL-25, 207m; (e) Plane polarized view of coarsely crystalline ankerite cut by zone of
magnesian siderite associated with pyrrhotite. Stylolites containing graphite are
developed along the siderite-ankerite contact. DDH PL-18, 121.1m; (f) Cross polarized
view of metacarbonate with strong development of anthophyllite. A euhedral crystal of
cummingtonite is rimmed by anthophyllite. Note how the anthophyllite just below the
cummingtonite has a similar morphology, suggesting that it is a complete replacement of
cummingtonite by anthophyllite. The upper right corner shows a minor aggregate of
ankerite and has graphite developed around the contact with surrounding siderite. DDH
PL-18, 121.1m; (g) Plane polarized view of coarsely crystalline siderite with a
mineralized fracture zone. Chalcopyrite (cpy) occurs in a matrix of late chlorite after
biotite, which in turn has rimmed and replaced earlier cummingtonite cores. Within the
meta-carbonate unit, sulfides are often focused in such brittle fractures. Grab sample
collected near base of meta-carbonate in the northeast open pit; (h) Reflected light
photomicrograph showing a radiating cluster of graphite and associated fine-grained
disseminations of graphite developed in siderite.DDH PL-18, 121.1m.

53
200 µm chl 200 µm

pl ab+gr ab

hbl chl
cum gr
bio

(a) (b) bio

500 µm pl 200 µm

hbl hbl

cum pl
hbl hbl
ab

cum ath
pl
(c) chl (d)

500 µm sid 100 µm sid

po
ank
ank sid
ank
cum
gr
po
gr sid
gr ath
ank
sid ath
(e) (f)

100 µm 200 µm sid

cp

cp
cp
cum
cp chl
sid
gr
sid sid
bio sid
(g) cum mgt (h)

54
 Metabasalts above the metacarbonate sometimes display a banded appearance
characterized by discreet zones of cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite, chlorite,
quartz, and carbonate (Figures 4.7b, d, f, and h). Based on HCL reaction, the carbonate
minerals are mainly siderite and ankerite, but calcite also occurs locally. These bands
may represent deformed veins, which are relatively common in the overlying
metabasalts (Figure 4.7a). Veins in weakly foliated metabasalt commonly dip steeply
(50-70°); they flatten in increasingly foliated rocks approaching the contact with the
metacarbonate. These relationships suggest the veins formed prior to significant ductile
deformation along the Hangingwall shear zone. Later ductile deformation resulted in vein
rotation and flattening, and related hydrothermal alteration resulted in the growth of the
chlorite-cummingtonite/grunerite ± magnetite ± siderite commonly observed in these
banded rocks.

These banded zones were interpreted as intercalated marine sediments by Kolb

et al. (2006 and 2008). Intercalated sediments and layers of volcanic rock would likely
display sharp contacts. However, the transition from the metabasalts into the banded
assemblage is typically gradational, sometimes spanning 20-30 meters, and is always
associated with increased foliation development. This suggests that the bands probably
formed during deformation and related hydrothermal alteration.

Outboard from the banded rocks the metabasalts become progressively less
chloritized, contain less cummingtonite-grunerite, and display less well developed
foliation (Figures 4.7a-d). This zone of weak deformation and alteration ranges in
thickness from several meters to several tens of meters. The zone has an assemblage
dominated by biotite and chlorite with lesser cummingtonite-grunerite, and typically lacks
associated anthophyllite (Figure 5.1a). Biotite and chlorite form rims around hornblende
and plagioclase and are in turn replaced by chlorite. Cummingtonite-grunerite also
replaces hornblende and may be replaced by chlorite (Figures 5.1a and c). Actinolite
and epidote are reported as important constituents in this assemblage by Kolb et al.
(2008) but were not particularly common in samples examined for this study. Alteration
minerals gradually decrease in abundance away from the metacarbonate contact.

Distal, less-altered metabasalts are characterized by the peak metamorphic

plagioclase and hornblende assemblage. Based on petrography, assays and SEM
analysis, the plagioclase is sodic with a composition approaching albite. The hornblende

55
within these areas also has a sodic composition ranging from pargasite to ferropargasite
(Murakami et al., 2004; Kolb et al., 2006; Sakellaris, 2007). Albitic plagioclase extends at
least 50-60 meters above the Hangingwall shear zone suggesting the deposit is
surrounded by a significant sodic alteration halo. The regional extent of the albite and
sodic hornblende alteration halo within the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit is not known.

Semi-quantitative EDS analysis of cummingtonite-grunerite from within the

metacarbonate body outward into the hangingwall on the SEM indicate it is iron-rich
(grunerite), regardless of proximity to the metacarbonate. Anthophyllite, where present,
has a similar composition to the cummingtonite-grunerite minerals. Chlorite occurring
above, within and below the metacarbonate is iron rich with variable magnesium
contents. Biotite examined with the EDS contains trace amounts of Cu, Cl, Sn, and Ti.

The whole rock geochemistry for samples from the hangingwall alteration zone
approaching the metacarbonate shows depletions of Ca and Si, an increase in Mg and
LOI, and variable K contents (Appendix A), consistent with the observed mineralogical
changes. The increase in Mg approaching the metacarbonate is interpreted to reflect the
higher abundance of siderite, ankerite, and cummingtonite-grunerite, all of which contain
Mg. The replacement of albitic plagioclase and hornblende by chlorite, ankerite, siderite
and cummingtonite-grunerite released Ca and Si into hydrothermal fluids and fixed Mg
and OH. Outward migration of these fluids through fractures may explain the occurrence
of quartz and quartz + calcite veins in the less altered metabasalts, as well as the
commonly observed chloritic selvage around these veins (Figure 4.7a). The variable K
within the altered rocks correlates with the presence or absence of biotite in the
assemblage.

Trace element geochemistry of altered metabasalt is generally similar to that of

the less altered metabasalt based on the analyses of two samples in this study (GM047
and GM-zircon; see appendix A) and the published analyses of ten samples by Kolb et
al. (2008). All samples generally plot in the same fields as unaltered metabasalts in rock
type and tectonic discrimination diagrams (Figure 4.3).

5.1.3 Alteration of Metabasalts Along the Footwall Shear Zone

Metabasalt below the metacarbonate horizon is also altered. However, these
rocks are less intensely chloritized, contain more albite, and are generally less deformed

56
than those above the Hangingwall shear zone. The metacarbonate body adjacent to the
Footwall shear zone commonly displays a breccia texture similar to that within the
metacarbonate adjacent to the Hangingwall shear zone (Figure 4.7g). Metabasalt along
the Footwall shear zone in close proximity to the metacarbonate horizon contains an
assemblage of chlorite and fibrous amphibole (cummingtonite-grunerite often rimmed
and replaced by anthophyllite (Figure 5.1d)) with variable amounts of biotite, ankerite
and siderite. This assemblage sometimes displays a banded appearance similar to that
above the metacarbonate, but such zones are rarely as thick or well developed as those
above the Hangingwall shear zone (Figure 4.7g). Ductile fabrics are poorly developed
below the metacarbonate body in comparison to above the metacarbonate body.

Below the zone containing chlorite and fibrous amphibole, the footwall
metabasalts display varying degrees of albitization (Figures 4.7g and 5.1d). Albite occurs
as masses and fine disseminations with some relict hornblende preserved. Pervasively
albitized rocks have a medium to dark gray, uniform color and are very hard (will ring
when struck with hammer) compared to the typical metabasalt.

The thickness and extent of albite alteration in the footwall metabasalts is poorly
constrained because most drill holes end near the base of the metacarbonate horizon.
One deep drill hole (FW-02, shown in Figure 4.6, A-A’) through the up-dip portion of the
footwall metabasalts (drilled within the open pit) has high Na values to approximately
80m below the metacarbonate horizon (Beeson et al., 2010). Other deep drill holes to
the south of the pit did not intersect rocks with significant albitization beneath the
metacarbonate body (Figure 4.6, B-B’; GM-01, GM02, GM-03, and GM-10). Thus,
intense albitization of the footwall to the metacarbonate body may be restricted to a zone
near the intersection of the metacarbonate body with the St. Barbe and West Pit Faults.

Rocks rich in albite commonly contain significant graphite as fine disseminations

and along stylolites (Figure 5.1b). One strongly albitized footwall metabasalt sample
(GM049) contains 0.77% C by weight (Appendix A). No carbonate minerals were
observed in this sample by hand lens or by microscope, so this likely reflects carbon in
graphite. Carbon was likely derived from carbon dioxide produced by the breakdown of
siderite in the metacarbonate body (discussed in the next section).

57
 Weakly altered metabasalts in both the footwall and the hangingwall of the
metacarbonate body display similar alteration mineral assemblages, but the zone
containing these assemblages varies considerably in thickness. This alteration
assemblage is present at all scales at Guelb Moghrein and is commonly observed in
veins within the metabasalts. Veins that are less than several centimeters thick have a
fibrous amphibole center and a chloritized selvage. Thicker veins generally have a core
of calcite, ankerite, or siderite ± magnetite surrounded by fibrous amphiboles and
strongly chloritized selvages (Figure 5.2). The metabasalt around the veins is albite-rich
in some areas. Minor sulfides are commonly present within the veinsand foliated
minerals and mineral lineations are commonly present along the selvages.

Figure 5.2 Vein comprised of siderite + magnetite and fibrous amphibole (anthophyllite
> cummingtonite/grunerite) with an intensely chloritized selvage. The vein is developed
in typical Akjoujt Metabasalt and is associated with pale-colored albite alteration (right).
Similar veins range from several centimeters to one meter in thickness with an average
strike of 117° and dip of 56° to the southwest (based on 29 veins occurring mainly in the
footwall metabasalts). DDH EX-03, 42m.

Although the majority of biotite in the metabasalt formed prior to chloritization and
is commonly altered to chlorite, there are late biotite veins adjacent to the Hangingwall
and Footwall shear zones. These veins cut foliated, chloritized metabasalt and fibrous
amphibole assemblages, and are sometimes associated with minor sulfides. Biotite also
forms selvages around late calcite veins, and has been observed in association with
veins containing Fe- and Cl-rich pyrosmalite. The identity of pyrosmalite was inferred by
EDS analysis and confirmed optically.

The presence of pyrosmalite at Guelb Moghrein is significant because it is

sometimes associated with metamorphosed Pb-Zn deposits (Broken Hill and Pegmont in
Australia) and VMS deposits (Matagami, Manitouwadge, Thompson Nickel Belt in
Canada) (Vaughan, 1986; Pan et al., 1993). The high Cl content of the pyrosmalite (and

58
association of Cl with some of the biotite) suggests that Cl-rich brines were present
during the formation of these veins.

5.1.4 Alteration ofGuelb Moghrein Metacarbonate Bodies

The Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate is dominated by an assemblage comprised
of siderite and magnetite with variable amounts of ankerite, calcite, chlorite, fibrous
amphibole (cummingtonite-grunerite/anthophyllite), graphite, and sulfides. The
subordinate minerals occur within the massive siderite-magnetite bodies as veins,
layers, and patchy disseminations. They are most abundant along the footwall and
hangingwall contacts with metabasalt, but also occur as discrete zones or layers up to
several meters thick within the metacarbonate (Figure 4.6, A-A’).

The massive siderite-magnetite occurs in the form of coalescing lenses from

centimeters to tens of meters thick. Individual lenses display distinctive colors, textures,
or mineralogy, especially in terms of magnetite content. Individual lenses are difficult to
correlate between drill holes, but can easily be mapped. They are commonly
discontinuous and elongate in shape. The larger metacarbonate bodies are elongated
parallel to the south- to southwest-plunging mineral stretching lineations observed in the
Hangingwall, Footwall, and St Barbe fault zones (see Figure 4.8). The boudin
morphology of individual lenses are mirrored by the shape of the entire Guelb Moghrein
metacarbonate bodies (see Figure 4.6, and the isopachs on Figure 4.1). Similar
elongated, lenticular shapes are characteristic of metacarbonate bodies found
throughout the district (Figure 3.4).

Siderite in the metacarbonate is medium to dark gray and occurs as both fine-
grained aggregates (Figure 5.1e) and coarse interlocking crystals up to 5cm across.
Ankerite is much less common, but where present it is white to pale tan and very
coarsely crystalline (Figures 4.4a and 5.1e). In the up-dip portions of the Guelb Moghrein
metacarbonate bodies, ankerite comprises less than 1% of the metacarbonate by
volume. Down-dip along the Occidental metacarbonate, the volume of ankerite
increases.

Siderite and ankerite in the Guelb Moghrein metacarbonates contain variable

concentrations of Ca, Fe, Mg, and Mn (Appendix B). Siderite contains variable amounts
of Mg, subordinate to Fe (XMg ranging from 13-29 based on semi-quantitative EDS

59
analyses) and minor Ca and Mn. In thin section, siderite forms embayments within
ankerite suggesting a replacement texture. The contact between the two carbonates
frequently contains magnetite and graphite (Figure 5.1e). Undeformed siderite is of
pistomesite composition with an average XMg=36, and in some areas the siderite
displays a zonation characterized by Mg-rich cores and Fe-rich rims (Kolb et al., 2008).
Ankerite contains significant but variable amounts of Mg and minor Mn, with some
samples verging toward a ferroan dolomite composition. XMg ranges from 19-50 based
on semi-quantitative EDS analyses (Appendix B).

Magnetite occurs throughout the Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate bodies. It is

most abundant in the northern, up-dip portions of the metacarbonate bodies, particularly
the Occidental body, were the modal percentage of magnetite can be up to 50%.
Magnetite occurs as hairline veins along crystal boundaries and fractures and as
disseminated grains in siderite that range in diameter from several microns to one
centimeter. Finely disseminated magnetite often imparts a dark gray color to siderite
(Figure 4.4a). The largest magnetite porphyroblasts occur along grain boundaries
between siderite or siderite and ankerite crystals (Figure 5.1e); they are most common
where three or more crystal faces or fractures intersect.

Graphite is frequently found with magnetite along the boundaries of individual

carbonate crystals (Figure 5.1e) and as rims to magnetite porphyroblasts. Not all
magnetite grains have associated graphite. Graphite also occurs as disseminations
within magnetite-free siderite (Figures 5.1f and h). Sakelleris and Meyer (2008) report a
single δ13C value for Guelb Moghrein graphite of -27.3 (‰) (PDB) and suggest that this
extremely negative value resulted from fractionation during thermal dissociation of
siderite. Thermal dissociation of siderite to magnetite, carbon dioxide, and graphite is
well documented in the literature (Yui, 1966; French,1971; Shuguang, 1984). This
reaction occurs above temperatures of 450°C (Van Zuilen et al., 2002). Graphite in
areas without magnetite, both within the metacarbonate bodies at Guelb Moghrein and
within the footwall metabasalts suggests some carbon could be precipitated during
dissociation of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide (Yui, 1966).

Fibrous amphiboles, dominantly grunerite (Kolb et al., 2006, 2008) occur

throughout the Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate bodies. They typically form euhedral
crystals within siderite crystals, or irregular patches interstitial to siderite crystals, and

60
along fractures (Figure 5.1). SEM EDS spectra indicate the amphiboles are iron rich but
display variable Mg:Fe ratios. Iron-rich amphiboles are often rimmed and surrounded by
anthophyllite (Figure 5.1f). Anthophyllite tends to be much more fibrous than the
cummingtonite-grunerite making it distinctive in hand specimen. Anthophyllite is
abundant in both highly ductily and brittlydeformed zones. Anthophyllite is stable at
temperatures less than ~400°C (Evans et al., 2001) for compositions where XMg is less
than about 0.5, The replacement of grunerite by anthophyllite ranges from incipient to
pervasive and suggests a retrograde metamorphic overprint associated with structurally
controlled fluid flow.

Fibrous amphibole also occurs as massive, layered zones up to two meters thick
that are spatially associated with strongly foliated chlorite schist. Amphibole-rich layers
within the metacarbonate bodies usually contain interstitial siderite ± magnetite ±
sulfides. Fibrous amphibole, dominantly anthophyllite, together with graphite and sulfides
(Figure 4.9c) occurs along high angle veins that cut, and locally brecciate, the
metacarbonate bodies. These high angle structures are difficult to interpret because they
imply the addition of silica to these zones. These veins may have originally contained
quartz (similar to veins found in the Akjoujt Metabasalt) that reacted with the surrounding
metacarbonate to form amphibole. An alternative explanation is that silica was present in
the hydrothermal fluids that precipitated the anthophyllite.

Fibrous amphibole also forms angular “clasts” or patches within the

metacarbonate; these are rarely associated with the patches of chlorite schist (Figures
4.10 b and c). The reaction of quartz and siderite to form grunerite is well documented in
banded iron formation literature (Klein, 2005). The formation of patchy grunerite within
the metacarbonate at Guelb Moghrein is interpreted to have followed a similar reaction.
Quartz for this reaction is presumed to have been present as volumetrically minor chert
within the metacarbonate, similar to some of the less altered carbonates in the district
(Figure 4.4b).

Cummingtonite-grunerite and anthophyllite commonly envelope chlorite schist

pods within the metacarbonate. These minerals are interpreted to represent reaction
rims between the chlorite schist and metacarbonate. A similar mineral assemblage is
commonly present around the edges of thicker chlorite schist horizons within the
metacarbonate (Figure 4.8f). The chlorite schist pods are interpreted to represent

61
metabasalt breccia clasts that were structurally incorporated within the metacarbonates.
The thicker chlorite schist horizons are interpreted as structurally incorporated lenses
within the metacarbonate. This interpretation is based on the discontinuous nature of the
well-foliated chlorite schist. The presence of breccia within adjacent metacarbonate
adjacent to these chlorite schist lenses lends credence to this hypothesis (Figure 4.8f).

Whole rock analyses of Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate samples indicate the unit
has low but variable concentrations of SiO2, ranging from 0.1 to 5.25 weight % and
generally less than 0.1 weight percent Al2O3 and Na2O (Appendix A). The
metacarbonate often contains anomalous Sc (23-43 ppm) compared to published values
for carbonates (Bogoch et al., 1984; Bau, 1993). Copper and gold mineralized
metacarbonates display depletions in Ba, Ga, Sr, LREE, and HREE and enrichments in
Ni, Co, Sn, W, Zn, As, Bi, Ag, and Se (Appendix A).

5.1.5 Alteration of Metacarbonate Bodiesthroughout the Guelb Moghrein District

– Carbon and Oxygen Isotopic Results
Metacarbonates from throughout the Guelb Moghrein area display differences in
mineralogy. Samples containing possible relict sedimentary textures are usually calcite-
bearing. The calcite-dominated metacarbonates are observed to be progressively
altered to ankerite and siderite with proximity to faults. The least altered calcite-bearing
metacarbonates display relatively heavy carbon (~-4 ‰) and oxygen (~ 24‰) isotopic
values (Figure 5.3; Appendix C). The heaviest C-O isotopic signatures in
metacarbonates are for calcite from the Colline area. These isotopic values fall within the
ranges published for marine carbonates (Veizer et al., 1989: Parts I and II; Beukes et al.,
1990; Heimann et al., 2010).

Ankerite from the metacarbonate bodies at Guelb Moghrein is characterized by

carbon isotopic values that ranges from -15 to -18 δ13C (‰) (VPDB) and oxygen isotopic
values that ranges from 8 to 11.5 δ18O (‰) (VSMOW) (Figure 5.3; Appendix C). Two
Guelb Moghrein ankerite samples have significantly different isotopic values of δ13C of -
10 (‰) (VPDB) and δ18O of 24 (‰) (VSMOW). Calcite from late veins has signatures
similar to those of most ankerites, with slightly heavier δ13C values and slightly lighter
δ18O values.

62
 Siderite from Guelb Moghrein is characterized by very light carbon isotopic
values averaging -18 δ13C (‰) (VPDB) and δ18O (‰) values averaging 12.3 (VSMOW)
(Figure 5.3; Appendix C). These values are similar to those reported by Sakellaris (2007)
and Kolb et al. (2008). Although Sakellaris (2007) and Kolb et al. (2008) interpreted the
siderite isotopic values as representative of marine carbonate, the range of isotopic
values reported here for carbonate bodies throughout the Guelb Moghrein area,
combined with the geologic evidence of replacement of calcite and ankerite by siderite
suggests that the ankerite and siderite were formed from interaction of hydrothermal
fluids with isotopically light carbon and oxygen marine carbonate.

Figure 5.3 Carbon and oxygen isotopic data from carbonate samples collected at Guelb
Moghrein and the surrounding district. Samples from Guelb Moghrein have lighter
carbon and often lighter oxygen isotopic values than samples from other metacarbonate
bodies in the district. There appears to be a general trend from least altered (calcite-
bearing) carbonates with relatively heavy carbon and oxygen isotopic values to
isotopically lighter carbon and oxygen values in extensively altered (Guelb Moghrein
siderite-ankerite) carbonate bodies. The δ18O values were originally reported relative to
(VPDB) and were converted to (VSMOW) using the equation of Coplen et al. (1983).
See Figure 3.4 for location of district samples, and Appendices B-C for a data table with
detailed description of the carbonate minerals, related assemblages, and sample
preparation. Appendix D contains a drill hole location map showing the location of the
Guelb Moghrein samples.

63
5.2 Copper Sulfide and Gold Mineralization
Significant copper and gold mineralization at Guelb Moghrein occurred within and
immediately adjacent to the Occidental and Oriental metacarbonate bodies. Sulfides are
found predominantly along large- and small-scale structures and are most abundant
within zones that experienced both brittle and ductile deformation.

The ore assemblage at Guelb Moghrein is dominated by pyrrhotite and

chalcopyrite. Subordinate sulfide minerals include cubanite, cobaltite, arsenopyrite, and
pyrite. Minor constituents identified in this study include gold, gersdorfite, nickeline,
electrum, and Au-Bi tellurides (Figure 5.5). Previous work at Guelb Moghrein has
identified clinosafflorite, hedleyite, mackinawite, maldonite, native Bi, pentlandite, petzite,
pilsenite, stuetzite, sylvanite, and valleriite (Strickland and Martyn, 2002; Kolb et al.,
2006; Sakellaris, 2007;). Sulfides are typically associated with a gangue assemblage
comprised of siderite, magnetite, chlorite, fibrous amphiboles (cummingtonite-
grunerite/anthophyllite), and graphite (Figures 4.7, 4.9, 5.1, and 5.4).

Pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite occur as discrete grains and aggregates that range in
size from minute inclusions several microns in diameter to massive sulfide horizons up
to a 0.5m thick. They appear to have been precipitated simultaneously (Figures 5.4e-f
and 5.5g). Both commonly contain exsolved phases such as cubanite in chalcopyrite
and troilite and pentlandite in pyrrhotite (Sakellaris, 2007). Chalcopyrite commonly rims
and forms embayments within siderite, magnetite, fibrous amphibole, pyrrhotite,
arsenopyrite, gersdorffite and cobaltite (Figures 5.4 and 5.5). It may also be enclosed by
pyrrhotite, magnetite, pyrite or graphite. Arsenopyrite, cobaltite, and gersdorffite typically
occur as distinct, euhedral crystals ranging in size from several microns up to
approximately 3mm across. Pyrite is rare and comprises less than 1% of the total modal
sulfides. Where present, it rims and embays other sulfide minerals and appears to have
formed late (Figure 5.4f).

Where graphite is present in the ore assemblage, the sulfides are commonly in
contact with it. Graphite commonly forms rims around some of the sulfide minerals
(Figures 5.5a-c and f). The textures suggest that graphite may have locally acted as
reductant that drove precipitation of sulfides. However, the highest-grade portions of the
Guelb Moghrein deposit contain low percentages of carbon (Heino, 2009); graphite in
such zones may have been completely destroyed during mineralization.

64
Figure 5.4 Reflected light photomicrographs showing mineralogy, morphology, and
textural features of the mineralized zones at Guelb Moghrein. All examples are from the
metacarbonate unit, except for (b) and (d), which are from the hangingwall and footwall
metabasalts, respectively: (a) Anthophyllite (ath) and graphite (gr) occurring inside a
shear zone. Magnetite (mgt) and chalcopyrite (cpy) occur within the cleavage planes of
the anthophyllite. Although most of the magnetite within the metacarbonate appears to
have formed prior to sulfide precipitation or cummingtonite-anthophyllite growth, this
example suggests that at least some of it formed late in the paragenesis. DDH PL-02,
117.6m; (b) Coarse hornblende and plagioclase cut by a zone of chlorite. Some of the
chlorite needles are cored with biotite. Note how the needles of chlorite are preserved
within the chalcopyrite, suggesting that the biotite (and perhaps the chlorite) were
formed prior to sulfide precipitation. DDH PL-28, 78m; (c) Chlorite-cummingtonite-
anthophyllite schist situated within the metacarbonate horizon. Chalcopyrite occurs
within cummingtonite along the cleavage planes, suggesting it formed after
cummingtonite. Chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite form rims around magnetite. DDH PL-11,
79.6m; (d) Footwall metabasalt with a groundmass of hornblende and plagioclase with
interstitial cummingtonite. Pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite occur within the cleavage planes of
the cummingtonite, suggesting they are later. DDH PL-23, 152.8m; (e) Typical massive
sulfide developed within siderite of the metacarbonate unit. Much of the pyrrhotite is
encased in chalcopyrite and cubanite (cub). Note the exsolution lamellae of cubanite
within the chalcopyrite (center of image). DDH PL-22, 52.7m; (f) Pyrite is very rare at
Guelb Moghrein. It is generally restricted to massive sulfide zones. This sample was
collected in the northeast corner of the pit near the base of the metacarbonate unit. In
this image, pyrite is observed to encase small inclusions of chalcopyrite in close
proximity to intergrown, pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite; (g) Chalcopyrite-rich massive sulfide
from approximately 10m above (f). The massive sulfide is comprised primarily of
chalcopyrite. Euhedral magnetite crystals are completely enclosed within the
chalcopyrite. Siderite is present around the edges of the image. There are also small
inclusions of chalcopyrite within magnetite; (h) Pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite form a rim
around cobaltite (cbt). Note the apparent growth zones around the euhedral cobaltite
crystal. SEM analysis was unable to reveal a significant compositional difference
between the rim and core of this cobaltite crystal. The growth rim may suggest multiple
pulses of mineralizing fluids (sample is from the northwest corner of the pit and was
collected near the top of the meta-carbonate horizon).

65
 50 µm 200 µm hbl

pl
cpy gr mgt
chl

gr
mgt
ath cpy
hbl
hbl
(a) (b)

200 µm 100 µm
po cpy
cpy
mgt
po
sid
cpy
cum
cum

(c) cpy (d)

500 µm sid 200 µm po

sid
cub
sid sid

cpy py
po
cpy sid
sid cpy py cpy
po po cpy
(e) sid
(f)

200 µm 50 µm sid
cpy
mgt
sid
cpy
mgt
cpy po
Growth cbt

cpy po rim

sid
(g) mgt (h) cpy sid

66
Figure 5.5 Reflected light photomicrographs showing gold occurrences (a-d) and the
graphite distribution (b, e-h) within the metacarbonate unit. All observed native gold and
gold-bearing minerals occur within well-mineralized samples; gold was only found within
or in close proximity to cobaltite: (a) Well-mineralized metacarbonate consisting of
siderite (sid), magnetite (mgt), graphite (gr) and sulfides. Coarse magnetite is rimmed by
chalcopyrite (cpy) containing exsolution lamellae of cubanite (cub). Euhedral cobaltite
(cbt) crystals are also rimmed by chalcopyrite, but relationship to magnetite is unclear.
Sample collected from middle of metacarbonate in the northeast open pit; (b) Inset box
from (a) showing development of electrum (el) within cobaltite. Graphite occurs as rims
around chalcopyrite and cobaltite; (c) Relatively large cobaltite grain situated along the
contact between the schist (right) and metacarbonate (left). The metacarbonate is
composed of very fine-grained siderite with disseminated graphite and magnetite. The
schist is mainly cummingtonite along the contact. DDH PL-11, 79.6m; (d) Inset box from
(c) showing gold in a vein inside a large cobaltite crystal. The vein contains dominantly
pyrrhotite with Ni-rich cobaltite (approaching gersdorffite in composition). Chalcopyrite
and electrum occur along the contact with the cobaltite. The more Ni-rich cobalt has a
pinkish hue within in the vein; (e) Coarse magnetite crystal (white in the photo to show
graphite texture) containing elongate inclusions and rims of graphite. Such inclusions of
graphite are uncommon in most coarse magnetite, but the rimming of magnetite by
graphite is a common feature in the metacarbonate unit. The rims occur along the lower
edge of the photograph, along the contact with the siderite (dark gray). DDH PL-18,
121.1m; (f) Well-mineralized sample with chalcopyrite and pyrhhotite occurring in a
fracture zone within coarsely crystalline siderite. The sulfides and magnetite are rimmed
by graphite along the contact with the surrounding siderite. Sample collected in the
northeast corner of the open pit, from about the middle of the metacarbonate horizon; (g)
Massive sulfide consisting of intergrown pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and cubanite. Minor
magnetite is present and in one instance is completely encased in chalcopyrite (lower
right corner). The dark gray mineral is siderite containing fine disseminations of graphite
(pervasive in center-left portion of the image). DDH PL-22, 52.7m; (h) Anthophyllite with
clots of graphite in contact with a coarse grain of magnetite. DDH PL-02, 117.6m.

67
 100 µm mgt 50 µm
cpy gr
cbt
gr cpy
mgt
gr
cpy
mgt gr
cbt
sid el
gr cbt sid
cpy
cub cpy mgt
cbt
(a) sid (b) gr

100 µm 25 µm el

po
gr+ mgt cpy cbt el
mgt
Ni-cbt
sid+mgt
po
cbt cbt
cum
(c) sid (d) cpy

200 µm 100 µm gr

gr

sid cpy
gr po
mgt

mgt

(e) sid
(f)

500 µm cpy
100 µm
po cpy
cub
diss. ath
po
gr po
cub gr
cpy mgt
po
sid mgt
(g) sid (h)

68
 Gold at Guelb Moghrein occurs in electrum, hedleyite, maldonite, petzite,
pilsenite, stuetzite, and as native gold (Sakellaris, 2007). Maldonite, electrum, and native
gold typically occur as minute inclusions and veinlets (ranging from ~1 to 50µm) within
euhedral arsenopyrite, cobaltite, and gersdorffite grains (Figures 5.5a-d). Heino (2010)
suggests that over half of the gold in the deposit occurs within siderite and magnetite
grains with 20% associated with sulfides, 8% in Bi- and Te-minerals, and 5% as native
gold grains with graphite. Gold-bearing Te and Bi minerals occur as tiny (several
microns), rounded inclusions within sulfides and siderite and magnetite. The rounded
morphology of the grains coupled with the low melting temperatures of Bi suggests some
of these may have formed from a bismuth melt that scavenged Au from hydrothermal
fluids (Tooth et al., 2008). Copper and gold are variably correlated within the Guelb
Moghrein deposit (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6 Scatter plot showing the distribution of whole rock gold relative to copper
concentration. Data are compiled from drillhole assays and is cut off at 5% Cu and 5
g/ton Au. Copper and gold display a relatively linear relationship with a significant
amount of scatter.

The abundance of sulfides and gold at Guelb Moghrein is strongly controlled by

proximity to important structures. The vast majority of copper-bearing sulfide occurs
within the upper portions of the Occidental metacarbonate body (Figure 4.6), especially
where the St. Barbe Fault approaches or intersects the metacarbonate body (Figures 4.1
and 4.6). Copper grades drop off with distance from this structural intersection bothwithin

69
the metacarbonate body and within the Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones (Figure
4.6, B-B’). The zone of highest-grade copper corresponds to the area of most abundant
siderite and magnetite within the metacarbonate body.

Sulfides are most prevalent in zones displaying both ductile and brittle structures.
While sulfides and gold occur in both types of structures they appear to be most
common in brittle vein and fracture zones. The metacarbonate contains breccias in
contact with surrounding rocks and such brecciated zones often contain massive sulfide
near the contact of the metacarbonate with the surrounding metabasalts. Within the well-
mineralized portions of the metacarbonate, copper and gold are typically concentrated in
breccia zones.

Sulfides from the Guelb Moghrein deposit show a very narrow isotopic
compositional range clustering about 1 ‰ (Figure 5.7). This distribution of sulfur isotopic
values agrees with previous studies (Sakellaris and Meyer, 2008). The restricted range
suggests a homogeneous sulfur source that could represent magmatic or metamorphic
fluids.

5.3 Supergene Mineralization

The previously mined supergene-enriched portion of the Occidental
metacarbonate contained an assemblage dominated by siliceous, hematite- and
goethite-rich gossan with fracture controlled malachite and native copper and
subordinate chrysacolla, chalcocite and covellite (Strickland and Martyn, 2001). The un-
mined Oriental metacarbonate body is comprised of a similar gossan with minor
secondary copper minerals sporadically present along the basal contact with metabasalt
and quartz sericite schist (the Oriental Fault; see Figure 4.1). Based on drilling to the
south of the open pit, weathering extends to a depth of approximately 40-50 meters
below the surface and is strong to a depth of about 20 meters.

70
 δ34S‰ (V-CDT)

Figure 5.7 Histogram showing the frequency of δ34S values of Guelb Moghrein sulfides.
Raw data, sample descriptions, and sample locations can be found in Appendices C-D.

71
72
 CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION

The Guelb Moghrein deposit is located where the St. Barbe Fault system
intersects a major metacarbonate body (Figure 6.1). The mineralogy of the
metacarbonate body is zoned from siderite to ankerite to calcite outward from the fault
(Figure 6.2). The highest-grade mineralized zones within the deposit occur adjacent to
splay faults from this major shear zone (Figures 6.1, 6.2). Sulfides in the orebody are
intergrown with metamorphic minerals. The mineralized zone appears to represent a
zone of intense syn-metamorphic hydrothermal alteration, which may have occurred in
two temporally distinct stages.
The origin of the mineralized meta-carbonate lenses at Guelb Moghrein has been
debated since the deposit was first studied. Early research by Michaud (1963) concluded
that the metacarbonates were of sedimentary origin and later work by Pouclet (1987)
supported this conclusion. The Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate body was also
interpreted as a product of hydrothermal carbonate deposition post-dating the formation
of the enclosing metabasalts (Freeman and Gibbs; 1963). Ba Gatta (1982) suggested a
syn-volcanic origin for the metacarbonate units, akin to a volcanogenic-hosted massive
sulfide deposit. Mapping in the Akjoujt area led Strickland and Martyn (2001) to suggest
that the metacarbonates were deposited along structures by hydrothermal fluids derived
from the adjacent volcanic sequence.

Observation of metacarbonate bodies from throughout the Guelb Moghrein area

suggests they had a sedimentary origin. Some of the bodies were then significantly
modified by metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration. Least altered carbonate bodies
in the district, which locally preserve apparent sedimentary textures, are comprised of
calcite and/or ankerite. Within several of these bodies, a transition occurs from
dominantly calcite, to ankerite or ankerite-siderite (± magnetite) assemblage in close
proximity to structures that often display a foliated fabric in adjacent rocks. Calcite in
these weakly altered carbonate units has carbon and oxygen isotopic values similar to
those of Late Archean marine limestones and banded iron formation (Beukes et al.,
1990; Ohmoto et al., 2004; Klein, 2005; Heimann et al., 2010).

73
Figure 6.1 Schematicdiagram showing the structural interpretation of the Guelb
Moghrein area. The diagram also shows how structures influence the shape of the
metacarbonate body and the distribution of sulfide minerals (red asterisks). The St.
Barbe Fault system consists of the St. Barbe Fault and the West Pit Fault that forms a
splay off the St. Barbe Fault.

Based on trace element geochemistry and isotopic compositions Kolb et al.

(2008) concluded that Guelb Moghrein metacarbonates represented carbonate facies
iron formations that were structurally incorporated within the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit.
However, oxide facies Precambrian banded iron formations have SiO2contents ranging
from 34-56 weight percent (Klein, 2005) while carbonate facies banded iron formation
have SiO2 contents in excess of 24 weight percent (James, 1954). The SiO2 content of
the Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate unit ranges from 0.12 to 6.0 weight percent
SiO2(Kolb et al., 2008; Appendix A) suggesting a relatively pure carbonate protolith.
Though the REE geochemistry of the Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate is similar to that of

74
banded iron formation (Kolb et al., 2008), the presence of significant scandium in the
metacarbonate (average of 30 ppm; appendix A) suggests that the carbonate units
contain elements introduced by hydrothermal alteration or incorporation of a clastic
component, making REE analysis an unreliable indicator of carbonate origin (Bau,
1993). Additionally, while most Precambrian banded iron formation ankerite, siderite and
dolomite have δ13C values between +1 to -12‰ (PDB), and δ18O values between 18 and
26 (‰) (SMOW) (Ohmoto et al., 2004), the Guelb Moghrein siderites and ankerites are
much more depleted in δ13C (~-18‰ (PDB)) andextremely depleted in δ18O (~12 ‰
(SMOW)); these values are more similar to hydrothermal carbonates (calcite, siderite
and ferroan dolomite) in Precambrian greenstone belts (Veizer et al., 1989; part I).

Figure 6.2 Schematic cross section through the Guelb Moghrein deposit illustrating the
emplacement of greenschist facies St. Barbe Volcanic unit rocks over Akjoujt Metabasalt
unit rocks along the St. Barbe fault system. Metamorphic grade of the Akjoujt Metabasalt
unit is amphibolite adjacent to the fault and decreases outward to greenschist grade. A
metacarbonate body within the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit displays mineralogical zoning
from siderite to ankerite to calcite away from the main fault. Well-foliated rocks occur
along faults of the St. Barbe system and on the top and base of the metacarbonate
body. Shearing of the edges of the metacarbonate body probably resulted from the
rheological contrast between the carbonate rocks and the surrounding mafic igneous
rocks. Sulfides are concentrated on the edge of the metacarbonate body. The thickest
and highest grades occur adjacent to the major fault with sulfide abundance and grade
decreasing outward from the structure. Early sodic alteration appears to form a halo
around the deposit while later potassic alteration is more restricted to faults and sheared
zones.

75
 Kolb et al. (2008) interpreted the chlorite ± biotite- and cummingtonite-
grunerite/anthophyllite-rich zones within the metacarbonate body at Guelb Moghrein as
metamorphosed marine shales intercalated within carbonate facies iron formation.
However, these chlorite- and amphibole-rich lenses commonly display textures similar to
those in the adjacent Akjoujt Metabasalt unit. The occasional presence of albitic
plagioclase and hornblende in the lenses suggests a basaltic protolith, similar to rocks of
the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit. Although Kolb et al. (2008) noted that the REE patterns of
the silicate layers matched those of iron-rich marine sediments they acknowledged that
the trace element chemistry was also similar to that of the St. Barbe Volcanic unit and
Akjoujt Metabasalt unit.

The Guelb Moghrein deposit occurs where a major hydrothermally altered

metacarbonate body intersects the St. Barbe Fault system. The faults at Guelb Moghrein
experienced north-northeast directed reverse movement that resulted in the formation of
ductile fabrics. Later south-southwest normal movement along the fault system resulted
in ductile to brittle deformation along the St. Barbe Fault and the underlying East Pit and
West Pit Faults. This later normal motion probably caused reactivation along the
Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones and the Oriental Fault.

The metacarbonate bodies at Guelb Moghrein display textural evidence of ductile

deformation. The Oriental and Occidental metacarbonate bodies have highly variable
thicknesses ranging from greater than 100 meters to a few meters over horizontal
distances of hundreds of meters (Figures 4.1 and 4.6). Abrupt thickness changes are
coincident withchanges in dip of the footwall Akjoujt Metabasalt unit. The elongation
direction of these thickened zones is coincident with mineral stretching lineations
preserved in the hangingwall and footwall rocks suggesting that elongation occurred
during deformation (south-southwest orientation of the thickened metacarbonate
indicated by isopachs in Figure 4.1 and the average mineral stretching lineations in
Figure 4.7a-d and f).

Sulfide mineralization was localized along structures (Figure 6.2). The highest
grades of copper are located along the edges of the Occidental metacarbonate body
adjacent to the Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones. Sulfides occur in both ductile and
brittle structures indicating mineralization took place throughout the ductile to brittle
transition. Brittle fabrics are concentrated along the edge of the metacarbonate body in

76
siderite-rich assemblages. Siderite is rheologically strong relative to other carbonate
minerals at elevated temperature and would preferentially deform in a brittle fashion
relative to other carbonate minerals and to the amphibole and chlorite in the adjacent
Akjoujt Metabasalt (Kolb et al., 2008). The preferential fracturing of siderite made it an
ideal host for the ingress of hydrothermal fluids.

Metamorphism in the Guelb Moghrein area resulted in a prograde amphibolite

facies assemblage of plagioclase-hornblende in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit and
grunerite-bearing assemblages locally along shear zones in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit
and within clasts or tectonic fragments of Akjoujt Metabasalt enclosed by metacarbonate
rocks. The St. Barbe Volcanic unit in the hangingwall of the St. Barbe Fault appears to
have reached only greenschist facies. Regional mapping suggeststhe Akjoujt Metabasalt
unit displays primarily greenschist facies assemblagesat distances of several kilometers
from the St. Barbe fault zone at Guelb Moghrein (Martyn and Strickland, 2004). Thus,
the highest-grade metamorphic assemblages appear to be spatially restricted to a zone
along andbeneath the St. Barbe Fault (Figure 6.2). A somewhat similar pattern has been
observed in the Carajás district of northern Brazil where anomalous metamorphic
assemblages reaching granulite grade have been recognized along faults cutting
greenschist to sub-greenschist facies rocks (Hitzman, pers. comm., 2011). These
anomalous metamorphic assemblages represent intense, syn-metamorphic
metasomatism associated with iron oxide-copper-gold mineralization (Montiero et al.,
2008). Though additional regional mapping is required to fully document the
metamorphic assemblages in the Guelb Moghrein region, it appears that a similar syn-
metamorphic metasomatic event may have occurred here.

It is difficult to separate metamorphism at the Guelb Moghrein deposit from

hydrothermal alteration. The prograde amphibolite facies assemblage of the Akjoujt
Metabasalt unit contains dominantly albite at Guelb Moghrein. The metabasalt is locally
replaced by semi-massive albite adjacent to major structures and along veins outboard
from the faults (Figure 6.2). Albite is intergrown with hornblende indicating that the
plagioclase was albitized prior to or during metamorpism. It appears that albitization
occurred prior to sulfide mineralization as sulfides are intergrown with metamorphic
minerals that replace albite. The presence of locally massively albitized zones at Guelb
Moghrein suggests sodic alteration rather than simply metamorphic growth of albite. The
spatial distribution of albitized rocks in the Guelb Moghrein district is poorly understood.

77
It may be centered on the St. Barbe Fault system or may be regional in extent. Sodic
alteration is typical of many metamorphic ore systems including iron oxide-copper-gold
(IOCG) systems where it generally forms a regional alteration halo around deposits
(Hitzman et al., 1992).

Hornblende intergrown with albite in the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit is locally

replaced by biotite in the Guelb Moghrein area. The distribution of biotite is poorly
constrained. It is clearly present along the St. Barbe fault system (Figure 6.2) but has
largely been altered to chlorite. Biotite is also present in Akjoujt Metabasalt unit in both
the hangingwall and footwall of the Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate bodies. This biotite
is locally pervasive but has been largely over-printed by chlorite during a retrograde
metamorphic event. The distribution of biotite at Guelb Moghrein suggests it may be part
of a potassic alteration assemblage. Early biotite appears to either pre-date or be
synchronous with at least some sulfide mineralization. Potassic alteration is commonly
spatially and temporally associated with copper sulfide mineralization in many IOCG
systems (Hitzman et al., 1992).

Late biotite veins sometimes containing sulfides in addition to calcite and

pyrosmalite overprint chlorite. These late biotite veins are associated with a transition
from ductile to brittle deformation, since they cut and are cut by intensely foliated rocks.
These veins indicate a later potassic alteration event that was associated with at least
minor copper and gold mineralization. The association of Cl in biotite and local presence
of pyrosmalite in veins suggeststhat the hydrothermal fluids responsible for potassic
alteration where chlorine rich.

Sulfides at Guelb Moghrein are intergrown with metamorphic grunerite,

anthophyllite, biotite, and chlorite as well as with siderite and ankerite. Grunerite and
early biotite appear to be part of a retrograde metamorphic assemblage that is
temporally related to peak amphibolite facies metamorphism, indicating that initial sulfide
mineralization was concurrent with this event. Grunerite is restricted to the
metacarbonate and adjacent areas influenced by the St. Barbe Fault system (e.g. West
Pit Fault, Hangingwall and Footwall shear zones); biotite is also most abundant along
and adjacent to major structures. Grunerite is locally intergrown with hydrothermal
siderite in the Guelb Moghrein metacarbonate bodies. This indicates that siderite was
present during the amphibolite facies metamorphic event. The high pressures and

78
temperatures generated by the amphibolite grade metamorphism probably resulted in
the observed dissociation of siderite to magnetite, graphite, and carbon dioxide. The
major sulfide mineralization event appears to have occurred during subsequent
retrograde greenschist facies metamorphism.

The metamorphic generation of graphite may have been critical to formation of

the Guelb Moghrein deposit. Sulfides are common along grain boundaries within siderite
masses; in un-mineralized areas similar grain boundaries often contain graphite and
magnetite presumably generated from metamorphic breakdown of siderite. The absence
of graphite in well-mineralized zones (Heino, 2010) suggests that graphitewasoxidized
and destroyed during sulfide precipitation. The petrographic association of graphite with
sulfides and the apparent concentration of sulfide mineralization in areas of graphite
enrichment suggest that reduction reactions were important in the genesis of the
deposit. Relatively oxidized metamorphic fluids carrying copper, iron, gold, and other
metals were reduced upon encountering graphite in the metacarbonate bodies resulting
in sulfide and gold precipitation.

Sulfides occur with chlorite around and within the metacarbonate bodies. Chlorite
is present in two distinct mineral assemblages that appear to be associated with different
retrograde metamorphic events. Dark-green, Fe-rich chlorite forms well-foliated bands
along the edges of the metacarbonate bodies and completely replaces much of the
mafic igneous rocks intercalated with the metacarbonates. This chlorite is interpreted to
have formed at the expense of plagioclase, hornblende, actinolite and biotite during
retrograde metamorphism following the peak amphibolite grade event. Pale-green,
magnesian chlorite is found locally within the Akjoujt Metabasalt unit and in the St. Barbe
Volcanic unit. This chlorite is most common along structures that show evidence of
normal movement and contain anthophyllite after cummingtonite-grunerite that probably
formed during the retrograde stage of later metamorphic event. This event alsoresulted
in sulfide precipitation as evidenced by replacement of anthophyllite by chalcopyrite and
pyrrhotite. It is unclear, however, if the sulfur and metals for these sulfides were provided
by a new hydrothermal fluid or were recycled from already existing sufldies. The
homogenous isotopic value of all sulfides at Guelb Moghrein suggests that new sulfur
was not contributed by late metamorphic-hydrothermal fluids.

79
 Meyer et al. (2006) demonstrated that zoned euhedral xenotime and monazite
enclosed by sulfides has a U-Pb age of 2492 ± 9 Ma. This Late Archean age is roughly
similar to that obtained for hornblende (~2400 Ma) from the crystalline basement rocks
of the Reguibat Shield along the base of Guelb el Hadej, located to the northeast of
Guelb Moghrein (Clauer et al., 1991). This age is also similar to a date of ~2500 Ma
obtained from the initial heat step during Ar/Ar dating of pargasite from Guelb Moghrein
(Murakami, 2004). Meyer et al. (2006) interpreted the 2492 ± 9 Ma date to represent a
retrograde greenschist event. However, the similarity of this age to the Ar/Ar ages of
hornblende in the region suggests it may actually reflect peak amphibolite grade
metamorphism. The available data suggest deformation along the St. Barbe Fault
system, hydrothermal alteration of the carbonate units, amphibolite facies
metamorphism, and initial sulfide mineralization probably occurred in the Late Archean.
This age is slightly younger than mineralization ages of approximately 2.6 Ga
determined in the Carajás IOCG district of Brazil (Requla et al., 2003; Marschik, et al.,
2005; Tallarico et al., 2005).

A later period of hydrothermal alteration, and possibly metamorphism, was

documented by Meyer et al. (2006) at Guelb Moghrein. Anhedral, un-zoned
monaziteand xenotimefrom shear zones containing a cummingtonite-grunerite
assemblagethat is morphologically distinct from the euhedral monazite and xenotime
that gave the Late Archean age, yield a U-Pb date of 1742 ± 12 Ma. This age is similar
to the Ar/Ar date on pargasite obtained from metabasalt in the Guelb Moghrein area
(Murakami, 2004). It is also roughly equivalent to a poorly constrained date obtained by
Clauer et al. (1991) for biotite from the crystalline basement at Guelb el Hadej. These
data indicate that the Guelb Moghrein area was subjected to an episode of hydrothermal
alteration/metamorphism during the early Proterozoic. This event is interpreted to be
associated with development of anthophyllite after cummingtonite-grunerite near and
within the metacarbonate and with the pervasive Mg-rich chloritization along the West Pit
Fault. Based on the presence of sulfide inter-grown with anthophyllite, this event also
resulted in copper mineralization.

Currently it appears that the bulk of sulfides were precipitated during the earlier
Late Archean event. However, further work is required to confirm this hypothesis.
Multiple ages of mineralization along major shear zones are not unusual and several

80
IOCG districts display protracted periods of alteration and mineralization (e.g. Duncan et
al., 2011).

Guelb Moghrein has been interpreted as an iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG)

deposit (Strickland and Martyn, 2001; Kolb et al., 2006). Iron oxidecopper-gold (IOCG)
deposits are a relatively new class of ore deposits recognized in the past two and a half
decades (Hitzman et al., 1992). The class includes the giant Olympic Dam (Australia)
and Salobo (Brazil) deposits as well as large deposits in the Gawler and Cloncurry
districts of Australia, the Carajás district of Brazil, and the Chilean coastal belt (Hitzman,
2000; Williams et al., 2005). In recent years a number of other deposits, including Guelb
Moghrein, have been grouped into the IOCG class. However, as discussed by Groves et
al. (2010) many of these deposits probably should not be classed together and their
designation as IOCGs has confused understanding of this deposit type.

Groves et al. (2010) state that the characteristics of IOCG deposits sensu stricto are:

 Magmatic-hydrothermal deposits that contain economic copper and gold grades,

generally 0.7-1.5% Cu, 0.8-1 g/t Au;
 Structurally controlled and commonly contain significant volumes of breccia;
 Commonly associated with pre-sulfide sodic or sodic-calcic alteration on a large,
often regional, scale relative to economic mineralization;
 Have abundant low-Ti iron oxides and/or iron silicates intimately associated with,
but generally earlier than, Fe-Cu sulfides;
 Lack abundant pyrite;
 Generally have elevated (anomalous) Ce and La;
 Lack significant or abundant quartz veins or silicification; and
 Show a clear temporal, but not close spatial, relationship to major magmatic
intrusions.

The Guelb Moghrein deposit shares some characteristics with the sensu stricto
IOCG deposits of Groves et al. (2010) but also differs in important respects. The copper
and gold grades of Guelb Moghrein match those of other IOCG deposits. Though the
deposit is not pyrite rich, it does contain abundant iron sulfide in the form of pyrrhotite.
Like many IOCG deposits, Guelb Moghrein contains a diverse metal suite including Ni,
Bi, Ag, and LREE.

81
 The deposit is grossly structurally controlled and like many sensu stricto IOCG’s
occurs in a zone of ductile-brittle deformation. However, unlike most sensu stricto IOCG
deposits, the controlling structures are relatively low angle reverse faults rather than high
angle shear zones. The deposit lacks abundant breccias, a hallmark feature of most
sensu stricto IOCG deposits. Although structure is a major control on the location of the
Guelb Moghrein deposit, mineralization appears to have been restricted to within or
adjacent to a specific rock unit, the ankerite-siderite metacarbonate body. Mineralization
may have been focused in and adjacent to this unit both due to its rheological properties
and its chemical potential. The abundance of graphite in the metacarbonate body
resulting from siderite breakdown during metamorphism appears to have provided a
redox trap for oxidized metal-bearing hydrothermal-metamorphic fluids.

While pre-mineralization sodic alteration is recognized at Guelb Moghrein it is

unclear if it is regional in extent as in many IOCG deposits. Sulfide mineralization at
Guelb Moghrein was spatially and apparently at least in part temporally associated with
potassic (biotite) alteration, typical of many sensu stricto IOCG deposits, particularly
those of the Carajás district (Hitzman, 2000; Groves et al., 2010). Like many IOCG
deposits Guelb Moghrein lacks abundant quartz veins and silicification.

The Guelb Moghrein area does not contain abundant intermediate to felsic
intrusive rocks that are present in most sensu stricto IOCG districts. There is little
evidence of a direct magmatic influence on mineralization at Guelb Moghrein besides
the homogeneous sulfur isotopic values of sulfides of around 0 per mil. Guelb Moghrein
was probably formed from oxidized metamorphic-hydrothermal fluids similar in terms of
oxidation state, temperature, and possibly salinity to those responsible for many sensu
stricto IOCG deposits. At Guelb Moghrein these fluids were channeled along major
structures to a graphitic trap rock formed by metamorphic breakdown of iron-rich
carbonates. No other IOCG deposits have similar, iron carbonate-rich host rocks. Guelb
Moghrein may represent a true outlier of the IOCG class of deposits.

82
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