English For Medical Research - Coursebook

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In loving memory of a very dear friend and colleague
Natalia Kuchumova
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Reviewers:
V.V. Chopyak – DSc in Medicine, Professor, Honoured doctor of Ukraine, Honoured

professor of Danylo Halytsky LNMU, Head of the department of clinical
immunology and allergology, Danylo Halytsky LNMU
R. B. Lesyk – DSc in Pharmacy, Professor, Head of the department of Pharmaceutical,

organic and bioorganic chemistry, Danylo Halytsky LNMU
B. I. Shunevych – DSc in Pedagogy, Professor, Department of Foreign languages, Lviv

National Agrarian University
M. P. Dilai – PhD in Philology, Associate Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics,

Lviv National Polytechnic University
English for Medical Research: Textbook / P. A. Sodomora, L. V. Gutor,

A. O. Syvak. – Danylo Halytsky LNMU, 2020. – 168 p.
Discussed and approved by the Department of the Latin and Foreign Languages, Danylo Halytsky
Lviv National Medical University (Minutes No 6, dated 5 February, 2020).
Approved by the Methodical Board of the Faculty of Foreign Students, Danylo Halytsky Lviv
National Medical University (Minutes No 2, dated 31 March, 2020).
English for Medical Research is designed for students, postgraduate students and
health care professionals with the aim of meeting the requirement for improving the
knowledge of English academic vocabulary for health care. The textbook primarily intends
to fulfill the learning purposes of the postgraduate students at Danylo Halytsky LNMU and
can be incorporated within curriculum subjects in particular “English for professional
purposes (Academic English)” or other relevant disciplines.
English for Medical Research covers the most useful and frequently used academic
vocabulary encountered in scientific medical articles, proceedings of conferences, scientific
reports, academic textbooks, lectures, etc. It includes explanatory notes and tasks to
facilitate learning and encourage memorizing both academic vocabulary and professional
terminology of health care. New words and expressions are presented in real-life academic
contexts including extracts from scientific papers and presentations.
UDC 811.111 : 61] (07)
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CONTENTS
1. Cultural and linguistic features of English in the academic context
1.1. Academic English........................................................................................ 9

1.2. Everyday vs Academic Use......................................................................... 9
1.3. Academic vocabulary.................................................................................. 10
1.4. Noun phrases............................................................................................... 10
Exercises............................................................................................................. 11
2. Academic English: Ethical issues. Lexical evolution. Key nouns
2.1. Academic English: Ethical issues................................................................ 13

2.2. Academic English: Lexical evolution......................................................... 13
2.3. General nouns referring to ideas................................................................. 14
2.4. More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena....................... 14
2.5. Nouns referring to ways of thinking, processes, and activities................... 15
2.6. Nouns and words they combine with.......................................................... 15
Exercises............................................................................................................. 16
3. Academic English grammar: Key adjectives & adverbs16
3.1. Introduction to academic English grammar................................................ 18

3.2. Key adjectives............................................................................................. 18
3.3. Adjectives and prepositions........................................................................ 19
3.4. Adjectives and their opposites.................................................................... 19
3.5. Other important, frequent adjectives and typical combinations with 19
nouns..................................................................................................................
3.6. Key adverbs................................................................................................. 20
3.7. Adverbs that relate to numbers or time....................................................... 20
3.8. Adverbs that relate to how things are stated................................................ 20
3.9. Adverbs that restrict or limit........................................................................ 20
Exercises............................................................................................................. 21
4. Academic English grammar: Tenses. Key verbs. Phrasal verbs
4.1. Tenses.......................................................................................................... 23
4.2. Key verbs..................................................................................................... 24

4.3. Verbs for structuring academic assignments............................................... 24
4.4. More key verbs............................................................................................ 25
4.5. Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs.................................. 25
4.6. Phrasal verbs in academic English.............................................................. 26
4.7 Carrying out research................................................................................... 26
Exercises............................................................................................................. 27
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5. Academic English grammar: Articles. Nouns. Plurals. Word order
5.1. Articles........................................................................................................ 30
5.2. Nouns.......................................................................................................... 31
5.3. Word order................................................................................................... 32
5.4. Nouns and the words they combine with.................................................... 33
5.5. Noun + verb................................................................................................. 34
Exercises............................................................................................................. 35
6. Academic English: Key quantifying expressions. Numbers and statistics
6.1. Key quantifying expressions....................................................................... 37

6.2. Other nouns relating to quantity.................................................................. 38
6.3. Comparing numbers and quantities............................................................. 38
6.4. Numbers. Types of numbers........................................................................ 39
6.5. Expressing numbers.................................................................................... 39
6.6. Statistics...................................................................................................... 40
Exercises............................................................................................................. 41
7. Academic writing: Punctuation. Facts, evidence, and data
7.1. Punctuation.................................................................................................. 43
7.2. Facts, evidence, and data............................................................................. 45
7.3. Words often used with facts, evidence, and data......................................... 45
Exercises............................................................................................................. 46
8. Academic writing: Research paper types. Types of journal articles. Sources

Expressing cause and effect
8.1. Research paper types................................................................................... 49

8.2. Types of journal articles.............................................................................. 50
8.3. Sources. Referring to source materials........................................................ 50
8.4. Cause and effect: relating verbs.................................................................. 51
8.5. Cause and effect: relating nouns................................................................. 52
Exercises............................................................................................................. 53
9. Academic writing: Hedging. Presenting an argument. Linking words.

Metaphors and idioms
9.1. Hedging....................................................................................................... 55
9.2. Presenting and developing an argument..................................................... 56
9.3. Linking words............................................................................................. 56
9.4. Metaphors and idioms................................................................................. 57
Exercises............................................................................................................. 58
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10. Academic writing: Title and abstract. Time expressions
10.1. Title and abstract....................................................................................... 60

10.2. Important Tips on Writing a Research Paper Title.................................... 61
10.3. Time expressions....................................................................................... 62
Exercises............................................................................................................. 63
11. Journal article: Structure. Graphs and diagrams.

Facts, evidence, and data in medical research
11.1. Journal article: Structure........................................................................... 65
11.2. Graphs and diagrams................................................................................. 67
Exercises............................................................................................................. 68
12. Journal article: Talking about ideas. Reporting what others say
12.1. Some useful nouns relating to ideas.......................................................... 71

12.2. Talking about ideas.................................................................................... 71
12.3. Reporting what others say......................................................................... 72
12.4. Reporting nouns........................................................................................ 73
Exercises............................................................................................................. 74
13. Journal article: Analysis of results and discussion. Talking about meaning
13.1. Analysis of results. Discussion.................................................................. 76

13.2. Talking about meaning. The importance of meaning................................ 77
13.3. The power of words................................................................................... 77
Exercises............................................................................................................. 78
14. Research aims and statement. Expressing a point of view
14.1. Expressing aims......................................................................................... 81

14.2. An example of a research statement.......................................................... 82
14.3. Talking about points of view. Commenting on others’ views................... 83
14.4. Word combinations relating to points of view........................................... 84
Exercises............................................................................................................. 85
15. Summary and conclusion. Making a presentation
15.1. Summary and conclusion.......................................................................... 89

15.2. Making a presentation............................................................................... 91
Exercises............................................................................................................. 93
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16. Pharmacology: Branches and basic terms. Drug forms and classes
16.1. Pharmacology and its branches................................................................. 97

16.2. Pharmacology: basic terms........................................................................ 97
16.3. Drug Forms............................................................................................... 98
16.4. Drug classes............................................................................................... 99
Exercises............................................................................................................. 100
17. Pharmacology: Administration of drugs. Combining forms and abbreviations
17.1. Pharmacology: Administration of drugs................................................. 104

17.2. Pharmacology: Combining forms and abbreviations.............................. 105
Exercises.......................................................................................................... 107
18. Pharmacological terms: Dermatology. Cardiology and Hematology.

Neurology. Ophthalmology.
Otorhinolaryngology. Pulmonology
18.1. Pharmacological terms in dermatology................................................... 112

18.2. Cardiovascular pharmacology................................................................. 113
18.3. Pharmacological terms in haematology................................................... 114
18.4. Pharmacological terms in neurology........................................................ 114
18.5. Pharmacological terms in ophthalmology and otology........................... 114
18.6. Pharmacological terms in otorhinolaryngology and pulmonology........... 114
Exercises............................................................................................................. 115
19. Pharmacological terms: Orthopedics. Gastroenterology

Immunology. Endocrinology.
Urology. Gynecology
19.1. Pharmacological terms in orthopedics..................................................... 124

19.2. Pharmacological terms in gastroenterology............................................. 124
19.3. Pharmacological terms in gynecology..................................................... 124
19.4. Pharmacological terms in urology........................................................... 124
19.5. Immunopharmacology............................................................................ 125
19.6. Pharmacological terms in endocrinology.................................................. 125
Exercises............................................................................................................. 126
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20. Terms in Oncology
20.1. Types of tumors......................................................................................... 129

20.2. Causes of Cancer....................................................................................... 129
20.3. Combining forms....................................................................................... 130
20.4. Abbreviations............................................................................................ 130
20.5. Diagnostic terms........................................................................................ 131
20.6. Grading...................................................................................................... 131
20.7. Treatment................................................................................................... 132
20.8. Surgical Terms........................................................................................... 132
20.9. Pharmacological Terms............................................................................. 132
Exercises............................................................................................................. 133
21. Terms in Dental Practice (1)
21.1. Dental practice.......................................................................................... 136

21.2. Dental anatomy......................................................................................... 136
21.3. Types of teeth............................................................................................ 137
21.4. Common combining forms and abbreviations.......................................... 137
21.5. Prevention of dental problems................................................................... 138
21.6. Diagnostic procedures............................................................................... 138
Exercises............................................................................................................. 139
22. Terms in Dental Practice (2)

22.1. Dental restorations..................................................................................... 149
22.2. Periodontal treatment................................................................................ 150
22.3. Orthodontics.............................................................................................. 150
22.4. Cosmetic dentistry..................................................................................... 151
22.5. Common dental problems......................................................................... 151
22.6. Pharmacological terms 151
Exercises............................................................................................................. 152
References.................................................................................................................... 164
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1
Cultural and linguistic features of
English in the academic context
1.1. Academic English

Academic English is the genre of
English used in the world of research, study,
teaching, and universities. If you read an
article in an academic journal or listen to
someone giving a presentation or a talk
about an academic subject in an academic environment, Academic English is probably
being used.
Academic English is different from other types of English and it often has features
like these: the texts are well structured; there are well-developed paragraphs which often
start with a strong topic sentence; there are lots of references to other writers; there are
linking words; it uses formal academic language and avoids collocations, idioms, slang, and
etc.
There is a kind of opposition between two important components of academic
English: an intellect and the language. Academic English is a mixture of the English
language and a scientific thought. In addition to your level of English, your scientific paper
shows the knowledge of the subject you discuss in your research. Academic English is
closely connected with other disciplines.
Academic English includes academic writing and academic speaking. Both are
equally important: the first is used to write about/reflect the results of your research and the
second is used to present your research results to the specialized audience.
1.2. Everyday vs Academic Use

Many words in academic English are the same as everyday vocabulary, but they are
often also used with a slightly different meaning, which may be specialized.
Everyday or Meaning Academic use Meaning

academic use
Standards of ability to control Bioengineering is a area of study
discipline in medical oneself or other relatively new
schools have people discipline.
declined.
Underline your
draw a line under The research gives emphasis to
family name on the it underlines the
form. importance of
microRNA application
as biomarkers for renal
cell carcinoma.
The CT scan not liquid or gas We have no solid certain or safe; of
demonstrates a solid evidence that radiation a good standard
neoformation. has caused the
problem.
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1.3. Academic vocabulary
In writing, academics use many expressions that are neutral, but they also use rather
formal expressions which are not common in everyday language. Knowing whether an
expression is formal or just neutral is important.
Neutral More formal Neutral More formal

in short, briefly, in sum, to sum up try attempt
basically
only sole(ly) mainly/ mostly primarily
almost/ more or less virtually typical of characteristic of
However, very informal vocabulary may be used in spoken academic styles in classes
and lectures. Learn to understand such language when you hear it but be careful not to use it
in essays and written assignments. Here are some examples of teachers using informal
language.
Informal More formal

OK. Have a shot at doing task number 3. Try/Attempt to do
There’s no way schools can be held responsible for failures Schools cannot in any way
of government policy. be held
Academic language tries to be clear and precise, so it is important to keep a

vocabulary notebook and learn the differences between similar words, as well as typical
word combinations.
e. g. The building is a prime example* of 1920s architecture. *excellent in quality or value
The group’s primary concern* is to protect human rights. *main/most important
1.4. Noun phrases
Academic language puts a lot of information into noun phrases rather than spreading
it out over a whole sentence. For example, instead of saying Radiation was accidentally
released over a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area for a long time, an academic might
say The accidental release of radiation over a 24-hour period caused widespread long-
term damage. It is therefore important to learn the different forms of a word, for example:
Noun Verb Adjective(s) Adverb(s)

accident - accidental accidentally
quantity/quantification quantify quantitative/quantifiable quantitatively/
quantifiably
Finally, be aware of “chunks” or phrases which occur frequently, and learn them as
whole units. Examples: in terms of, in addition, for the most part, in the case of, etc.
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EXERCISES
Task 1. Choose the word which can be used in both sentences:
1. I called the airline and ___ my reservation.
The data ___ my hypothesis that animal-lovers enjoy better health.
 turned
 underlined
 confirmed
 focused
 posed
2. The power plant ___ electricity for the whole region.
This issue always ___ a great deal of debate among academics.
 contributes
 turns
 generates
 poses
 focuses
3. The murderer was ___ from fingerprints discovered at the scene.
In this theory of history, progress is closely ___ with technology.
 confirmed
 identified
 posed
 focused
 underlined
4. He always ___ every new word when he’s reading.
The study ___ the fact that very little research exists.
 identifies
 underlines
 poses
 confirms
 focuses
5. Jim’s a very interesting ___ ! I hope you meet him.
The book attempts to explain the fundamental ___ of social life.
 plot
 character
 article
 research
 report
5. The liquid became ___ as the temperature was lowered.
The study lacks ___ evidence and therefore its conclusions are doubtful.
 solid
 hard
 serious
 important
 stiff
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Task 2. Use more formal alternatives to the words in inverted commas:
1. The book is “mainly” concerned with the problem of policing the internet.
 initially
 firstly
 primarily
 secondly
 consequently
2. “Almost” every school in the country had reported problems with the new system.
 generally
 virtually
 fortunately
 unfortunately
 presumably
3. The work of the Institute is not “only” devoted to cancer research.
 the one
 completely
 solely
 generally
 specifically
4. We “tried” to find a new way of understanding the data.
 attempted
 tasted
 sampled
 probed
 examined
5. The reaction is “typical” of the way large corporations keep control of their markets.
 similar
 characteristic
 uncharacteristic
 atypical
 sole
6. “Basically” we believe we have demonstrated a significant link between the two events.
 firstly
 in a nutshell
 primarily
 in summary
 secondly
7. The study is a “really good” example of the way medical scientists collect their data.
 sole
 prime
 realistic
 similar
 solely
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Academic English: Ethical issues
Lexical evolution
Key nouns
2.1. Academic English: Ethical issues

Culture, seen ethnolinguistically and
institutionally, influences not only how scholars are
expected to write and speak in the academy, but
also the ways of writing and speaking they bring
with them from their home environments. Through
repeated experiences, we develop preferred genres
and patterns of communicating which come to seem natural and automatic. We gradually
gain control of the genres and communicative practices we take part in by actually engaging
in those genres and practices, remembering what genres are best suited to achieve which
purposes and how they are set out to best say what we want to say.
There is a general feeling that the
scientific community is under a lot of pressure
for fulfilling the criteria for upward growth
and even retention of the positions held. The
noble profession of scientific research and
academics has been marred by the temptation to falsify and fabricate data, plagiarism, and
other unethical practices. Broadly speaking, the breach of ethics involves: plagiarism,
falsification of data, redundant (duplicate) publication, drawing far-fetched conclusions
without hard data, for early publicity, gift authorship (receiving as well as giving), not
giving sufficient attention and consideration to scholars and post-docs as per the norms,
self-promotion at the cost of team-members, treating colleagues (overall all juniors) in a
feudal way and Machiavellianism (cunningness and duplicity in general conduct and push to
positions of power and pelf).
2.2. Academic English: Lexical evolution
English is a very productive language. Due to its versatile nature, it can undergo
many different word formation processes to create new lexicon. Some of them are much
lexicalised – such as derivation (the process of forming a new word from an existing word,
often by adding a prefix or suffix e.g. function – malfunction, dysfunction, etc.) or
compounding (the process of combining two words to create a new word e.g.
wind+pipe=windpipe (the common name for the trachea), over+dose=overdose (a dose of
medicine which is more than recommended), ear+ache=earache (a pain in the ear), eyesight,
backbone, fingerprint, etc.).
There are minor methods of word-formation – i.e. clipping ( the reduction of a word
to one of its parts e.g. laboratory-lab, influenza-flu), blending (the process in which parts of
two or more words combine to create a new word which meaning is often a combination of
the original words e.g. hazardous+material=hazmat, smoke+fog=smog,
web+seminar=webinar) and conversion (the process in which a word of one grammatical
form becomes a word of another grammatical form without any changes to spelling or
pronunciation email – to email, shape – to shape to attack – attack). As they are recent
phenomena, they have not been much studied yet.
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2.3. General nouns referring to ideas
Of all the parts of speech, nouns are perhaps the most important. A noun is a word
that identifies a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. Here, we’ll take a closer look at what
makes a noun a noun, and we’ll provide some noun examples, along with some advice for
using nouns in your sentences.
Example Comment
She wrote an article on the subject of Thing that is being discussed, considered or
cancer treatment. studied
The theme of the article is renal Main subject of a talk, book, etc.
insufficiency.
The PhD students were given a list of essay Used to refer to what one is studying or
topics. writing about
There was a lively debate on the issue of Subject/problem which people are
physician-assisted suicide in the seminar thinking/talking about
yesterday.
Fermentation theory is a popular Statement of the rules on which a subject of
undergraduate subject. study is based or, more generally, an
Bardeen-Copper-Schrieffer theory of opinion or explanation
superconductivity has been questioned
recently.
The medical model of disability presented A representation of something as a simple
in the Stern Review seems to be becoming description which might be used in
a reality. calculations
The book is called “The Nature of Clinical Main characteristic of something
Medicine”.
Human behaviour is based on the principle Basic idea or rule that explains how
of least effort. something happens or works
*Adapted from Academic Vocabulary in Use, Michael McCarthy, Felicity O’Dell, 2016.
2.4. More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena
Examples Comment
Repetition is an important aspect of speech One individual part of a situation, problem,
development in children. subject, etc.
Minimum susceptibility to electromagnetic A typical quality of something
interference is a feature of the new
pacemaker.
The main types of arrhythmia are beyond Range of a subject covered by a book,
the scope of this article. discussion, class, etc.
The study revealed a pattern of results Showed a regularly repeated arrangement
which could be interpreted in either of two
ways.
During 2014, the number of heart attacks Amount or level
increased to an alarming degree.
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2.5. Nouns referring to ways of thinking, processes, and activities
These are the titles of academic books and articles. Note the key nouns and their
prepositions:
1. Micro-organisms in water: their significance1 and identification2 (1 importance 2 ability
to establish the identity of something)
2. Velocimetry: a critical assessment3 of recent research (3 judgement of the amount, value,
quality or importance of)
3. The Case4 for Change: Rethinking the GP training program. Towards a New Approach5
(4 arguments, facts and reasons in support of or against something; 5 way of considering
something)
4. Perspectives 6 on health care reforms: A study of public awareness7 of water
contamination (6 different particular or individual ways of considering something;
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having special interest in or experience of something, and so being well informed
5. Citizens’ Views on Healthcare Systems in the European Union
6. Epidemiological research into8 asthma and allergic disease: establishing a standardised
methodology9 (8 research is often also used with the preposition on; 9 a system of ways
of studying something)
2.6. Nouns and the words they combine with
Nouns often combine with specific verbs and form collocations, for example carry
out research, pay attention, or with specific adjectives, for example medical research,
undivided attention
Noun Adjectives that often Example
combine with it
contact useful, valuable, personal, Colombians like personal contact
constant, close, frequent
debate considerable, heated, Students have an intense debate about
intense, public, animated globalization
energy excess, nuclear, sufficient Nuclear energy is the energy that is
stored within the nucleus of atoms
phenomenon common, isolated, natural, A third phenomenon observable in
recent, universal healing tissues is the increased flow and
accumulation of plastic materials at the
seat of injury.
results Conflicting, conclusive, Sometimes, the data isn’t as helpful and
unforeseen, preliminary, you’re left with non-conclusive results.
encouraging, interim
role decisive, challenging, She played a key role in campaigning for
conflicting, influential, key equal opportunities in the workplace.
in... terms Absolute, broad, relative, People are better off in economic terms
general, practical,
economic
way= efficient, fair, practical, There is no acceptable alternative to
alternative convenient, proper, dialogue and negotiation when
acceptable differences arise.
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EXERCISES
Task 1. Choose the most appropriate noun to complete each sentence:
1. Environmental ___ should be at the top of today’s political agenda.
 topics
 principles
 issues
 themes
 headlines
2. In the exam medical students had to choose three from a choice of ten essay ___ .
 issues
 topics
 headlines
 principles
 themes
3. There are still people who are reluctant to accept Darwin’s ___ of evolution.
 model
 principle
 theory
 theme
 topic
4. The professor decided to take the code of medical ethics as the ___ for his inaugural
lecture.
 principle
 issue
 theme
 headline
 model
5. The chapter “ ___ of cancer chemotherapy” states that the range of cancer drugs
available, the multiplicity of their actions, and their ability to cure diseases is astonishing.
 issues
 headlines
 principles
 themes
 models
Task 2. Look at these titles of academic books (A-E). Then match them to their
subject area (1-5):
1. The Nature of Disease

 surgery
 pathology
 dentistry
 pharmacy
 nutrition
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2. Complications: A Surgeon’s Notes on an Imperfect Science
 surgery
 otolaryngology
 gynaecology
 forensic science
 radiology
3. The Significance of the scaphoid tubercle of the foot as a bony landmark
 microbiology
 biochemistry
 podiatry
 radiology
 histology
4. Physical Examination and Health Assessment
 ophthalmology
 general medicine
 histology
 microbiology
 biochemistry
5. Pregnancy Approach
 radiology
 obstetrics
 general medicine
 surgery
 microbiology
Task 4. Match the beginnings and endings of the sentences:
1 The study revealed a regular a scope of your research.

2 The research focuses on one particular b awareness of the problem.
3 The writer makes a powerful c issues facing the world today.
4 The writers take an original d into the environmental effects of
nanoparticles.
5 Until recently there was little f aspect of modern society.
6 I think you should broaden the g pattern of changes in temperature.
7 To date, there has been little research e approach to their theme.
8 There are many important h case for restructuring parliament.
Task 5. Correct the mistakes in the underlined phrases:

Recent researches ( ________ ) that were carried out for a report by a government
agency showed that local police can play an important role in crime prevention. The report
makes a strong case of boosting ( ________ ) the numbers of community police officers
although it warns against increasing police presence on the streets to an alarming degree. Its
methodological ( ________ ) was based on a range of interviews asking members of the
public for their views in how best to prevent crime ( ________ ). Unfortunately, how to
implement this recommendation was out of the scope of the study ( ________ ) but at least
it serves a useful purpose in raising awareness to the issue ( ________ ).
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3
Academic English grammar:
Key adjectives & adverbs
“Ill-fitting grammar is like ill-fitting shoes.

You can get used to it for a bit,
but then one day your toes fall off
and you can’t walk to the bathroom.”
Jasper Fforde
3.1. Introduction to academic English grammar

An academic or scientific publication is a means of communicating the results of
your study or your findings and transmitting your knowledge to others. Considering the
significance of the work that researchers carry out, it is important that their work is not
misunderstood. Therefore, it is absolutely essential that your manuscript is written
appropriately in order to ensure that your audience properly understands what you are trying
to convey. Poor language quality can also lead to delay in publication of your manuscript or
in certain cases even rejection of your manuscript by the journal. Therefore, correct usage of
language and grammar is essential in academic or scientific publications.
There are seven main features of academic writing that are often discussed.
Academic writing is: complex (written language has longer words, it is lexically denser and
it has a more varied vocabulary; it uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases),
formal, objective (written language is in general objective rather than personal: it therefore
has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis
should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make,
rather than your opinion. For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and
adjectives), rather than verbs and adverbs), explicit, and responsible (you must be
responsible and able to provide evidence and justification for any claims you make). It uses
language precisely and accurately. Academic writing is well organised and planned. It
usually takes place after research and evaluation, according to a specific purpose and plan.
*Adapted from: Academic writ ing: Features of academic writing. Available at: http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/featfram.htm
3.2. Key adjectives
Academic texts depend heavily on

adjectives (which modify nouns and noun
phrases) and adverbs (which modify verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs) in order to
communicate meaning effectively. Adjectives
play a prominent role in argumentation and
have a strong interpersonal dimension: they reveal much of the speaker/writer’s attitude
toward the textual content and are widely used to persuade the reader that the topic under
study is of interest and that the demonstration and results are valuable.
For any adjective it is useful to know whether it is typically followed by a specific
preposition and whether it has any synonyms (adjectives with a similar meaning) or
antonyms (adjective of opposite meaning).
*Adapted from: Ad jectives and Adverbs in Academic Writing. Available at:
https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/twc/sites/utsc.utoronto.ca.twc/files/resource-files/xAdjsandAdvs.pdf
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3.3. Adjectives and prepositions
Here are some extracts from academic texts with adjectives followed by to or of.
Language development is conceived as Some of the responses to the questionnaire
relative1 to one’s own past performance, or were specific4 to young male respondents.
relative to that of others. Others were common to all respondents.
How can we make science relevant2 to We need to plan technologies which are
environmental policy? Poor communication appropriate6 to the needs of small farmers.
between scientists and politicians is It was typical of the farmers in the study
characteristic3 of the situation today. that they had a negative attitude to
technology.
1
True to a particular degree when it is being compared with other things 2 connected with
what is happening or being discussed 3 (rather formal) typical of 4 only found in 5 belonging
to or shared by two or more people or things 6 suitable or right for a particular situation or
occasion
3.4. Adjectives and their opposites
Look at this abstract from a dissertation on drug abuse. In most cases you can work
out the meanings of the opposites (which follow each numbered adjective), based on the
definitions.
We cannot discuss drug abuse as an abstract1 problem without considering concrete

examples of abuse and their social consequences. Abuse is rarely a simple2 issue; it usually
results from a complex set of circumstances. Both quantitative3 and qualitative research is
necessary to gain a full picture of the situation. By combining research methods, we may
obtain an accurate picture of the causes and results of abuse, in contrast with the
inaccurate assessments which often result from purely quantitative studies. A significant4
amount of fear and prejudice surrounds the notion of abuse, and the media have a role
which is also not insignificant in promoting such fears. The dissertation concludes that
rough5 estimates of the number of drug addicts need to be made more precise by properly
defining addiction.
1
Existing as an idea, not as a material object; opposite: existing in a form that can be seen or
felt 2 having or made of only one or a few part 3 based on numbers and statistics; opposite:
usually research using non-number-based methods such as interviews, focus groups, etc. 4
important or noticeable 5 fairly correct but not exact or detailed; opposite: exact and accurate
3.5. Other important, frequent adjectives and typical combinations with nouns
Adjectives are frequently used in combination with nouns:
There was an apparent1 discrepancy between two sets of results.

We noted a potential2 problem with the experimental drug which we had to deal with first.
The principal3 cause of renal failure was a sudden drop of blood pressure.
The research used rigorous4 methodology which had been tested on many occasions.
1
seeming to exist or be true 2 possible when the necessary conditions exist 3 first in order of
importance 4 careful to look at or consider every part of something to make certain it is
correct
19
3.6. Key adverbs
Adverb Meaning Example

Comparatively/ In comparison
with Our tissue sample was
relatively something else relatively/comparatively small.
Especially/particula More than usual The process data assessment was not
rly especially/particularly difficult.
Specially More than usual (spoken The evaluation procedure was specially hard
English only) for a specific this year.
purpose We used specially designed equipment.
Somewhat (Slightly formal) a little, When we tested younger patients, we
(opposite: slightly obtained somewhat/considerably different
considerably) results.
Primarily Mainly Biochemistry primarily concerned with
the chemistry of compounds and processes
occurring in organisms.
Mostly/largely Almost completely (but The research was largely/ mostly successful.
not totally so)
Directly (opposite: Without anything else The illness is (in)directly linked to poor
indirectly) being involved hygiene.
3.7. Adverbs that relate to numbers or time

There are approximately 5 000 virus species. [roughly, about]
The hospital has precisely 48 vacant beds. [exactly]
Patients suffering from diabetes frequently urinate. [often]
We eventually obtained the results we were hoping for. [in the end, after some time]
Ultimately we plan to repeat the experiment. [finally, after other things have been
completed]
3.8. Adverbs that relate to how things are stated

Hall’s latest article essentially1 differs from his earlier work in that it is explicitly2
critical of the new treatment procedure. Generally3, his disapproval of their approach was
only conveyed implicitly4 in his previous writing, but here he specifically condemns their
handling of a number of issues.
1
Referring to its main characteristics; also basically 2 openly 3 usually, also on the whole 4
not directly, suggested or implied rather than started
3.9. Adverbs that restrict or limit

Adverb Meaning Example
Merely exactly and nothing more The medication will merely make the symptoms
bearable; it will not cure the disease.
Simply plainly To put it simply, the risks of performing this
operation would seem to outweigh its advantages
easily The book presents difficult ideas simply, in a way
appropriate for the layman.
absolutely, without doubt The death toll was simply dreadful.
Hardly ever almost never In mental health, research trials can hardly ever be
considered exact.
20
EXERCISES
Task 1. Use the correct preposition:

1. A lengthy discussion of the advantages of Oseltamivir is not relevant ___ an essay that
required you to focus on antivirals.
 with
 in
 to
 at
 on
2. It is typical ___ the disease for it to start with an itchy rash.
 for
 with
 of
 to
 in
3. This methodology is not appropriate ___ the kind of research you are planning.
 in
 with
 behind
 to
 through
4. Fever, cough and shortness of breath are common ___ all patients suffering from
COVID-19.
 to
 in
 with
 at
 through
5. Pneumonia affecting both lungs and organ failure are characteristic ___ COVID-19
patients.
 for
 to
 in
 of
 with
Task 2. Match the adjectives in the box with the noun in order to make
collocations:
discrepancy methodology cause problem strategy option scenario
1. apparent
2. rigorous
3. principal
4. potential
5. innovative
6. alternative
7. possible
21
Task 3. Choose the best adjective to complete the sentence:
1. The virus needs very ___ conditions to survive in a harsh climate.

 complex
 qualitative
 specific
 potential
 rigorous
2. A ___ set of circumstances led to the outbreak of plague in England.
 rigorous
 specific
 complex
 potential
 rigorous
 qualitative
3. This last aspect highlighted the importance of developing a ___ methodology to collect
impact data.
 specific
 qualitative
 potential
 complex
4. ___ research is a scientific method of observation to gather non-numerical data.
 rigorous
 complex
 qualitative
 specific
 potential
5. ___ complications of bacterial pneumonia include fibrosis and scarring of lung
parenchyma.
 specific
 complex
 qualitative
 potential
 rigorous
Task 4. Change the sentences using adverbs which mean the opposite of the
ones in brackets:
approximately eventually generally

precisely indirectly
1. There were (roughly) 12 469 people who died of H1N1 in the USA.
2. We investigated the problem and (initially) found some small errors in the calculations.
3. The disease is (directly) linked to environmental factors.
4. The temperature was (exactly) half a degree lower than the average.
5. The paper is targeted (specifically) at young people.
22
4
Academic English grammar: Tenses
Key verbs
Phrasal verbs
4.1. Tenses
According to the corpus research, the three tenses are used the most often are, in
academic writing, namely:
Tense/Explanation Purpose Example
1) To frame a paper: it is used in Little is known about HPS systems,
introductions to state what is which are the subject of the
already known about the topic, following chapter.
and in conclusions to say what is
now known
Present Simple is the 2) To point out the focus, main This paper analyses the impact of
most common tense in argument, or aim of the current high temperatures on certain
academic writing, and paper species.
it is usually considered 3) To make general statements, K2 tends to increase the natural
as the “default” unless generalizations, truths that are frequencies of the forward and
there is a certain reason not affected by the passage of backward waves.
to choose another time, and conclusions, and Professor Smith suggests
tense. interpretations about findings of that…(You agree with this
current or previous research. It suggestion)
focuses on what is known now.
One of its important uses is to
show strong agreement with
someone.
4) To refer to findings from Children roughly ingest 50-200 mg
previous studies without soil/day.
mentioning the author’s name
5) To refer to tables or figures Figure 1 presents the structural
units.
Past Simple is used to 1) To report specific findings of a Zimbardo researched many
refer to actions previous study (usually with the aspects of social psychology.
completed in the past. authors’ names in the sentence)
It is used for referring to support a general statement
to specific tasks carried 2) To describe the methods or Statistical analyses were used to
out or presenting your data from a completed determine relationships between
results and conclusions experiment variables.
from the particular 3) To report the results of the The uniaxial curve was calculated
piece of work. current empirical study using Eq. 51.
Present Perfect 1) To introduce a new topic or a There has been a large body of
is usually used to new report research regarding the effect of
indicate an action that carbon emissions on climate
occurred at a change.
nonspecific time in the 2) To summarize previous Some studies have found that girls
past. This action has research (the findings are have significantly higher fears than
relevance in the relevant today) boys after trauma.
present.
23
Present Perfect places 3) To point out a “gap” in While these measures have
emphasis on what has existing research: to make a proved to be reliable and valid
been done rather than connection between the past predictors of what they are
on what is known to be (what has been found) and the measuring, there is little data on
true (present simple). present (how will you add more how they relate to each other.
to the field).
4) To describe previous findings It has been shown that biodiversity
without referring directly to the is not evenly distributed throughout
original paper the world.
Future Simple is not used so frequently as the present and past tenses. You should use it when
explaining how you intend to present information, give examples, or describe visuals. It also
indicates future events or parts of your work that come later. For example: We will consider the
operating environment.
* Adapted from: The Three Common Tenses Used in Academic Writing. Available at: https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/the-three-common-tenses-
used-in-academic-writing
4.2. Key verbs
A verb is the action word in the sentence.

They can be classified as formal and informal.
Academic writing tends to use rather formal
verbs to express the writer’s meaning accurately.
For example: In the last decade the pace of
change accelerated. Could Darwin have
envisaged the controversy his work has caused?
In spoken English, we are more likely to use “speed up” and “imagined”.
The table below lists useful verbs that are very common in academic texts:
Showing change or Increase: broaden, enlarge, exceed, expand, generate, improve,
difference maximize, optimize
Decrease: decline, deteriorate, erode, minimize, narrow, reduce,
worsen
Difference or alter, contrast, convert, deviate, differ, differentiate,
varying: distinguish, diverge, evolve, modify, revise, transform
Showing in-depth analyze, examine, investigate, observe, survey
study
Stating acknowledge, argue, attribute, comment, propose, establish, identify,
mention, note, observe, state
Showing components comprise, consist, constitute, incorporate,
Describing data approximate, demonstrate, indicate, levels off, reflect
*Adapted from: Verbs in Academic Writing. Available at: https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/twc/sites/utsc.utoronto.ca.twc/files/resource-files/xVerbs.pdf
4.3. Verbs for structuring academic assignments

The examples of tasks given in the table below demonstrate the usage of some key
academic verbs:
Discuss some of the problems involved (which are part of/included in) in investigating attitudes
to diet and health. Write a critical review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an
investigation you could conduct (organise and do). Consider the advantages and disadvantages
of different methods.
The doctor illustrated (draw something in order to explain something) the results of the clinical
trial with a diagram on the blackboard.
24
Assuming (accepting something to be true) patients enroll, clinical trials face disruptions to
protocol schedules for treatment and follow-up visits.
The study found5 (discover by calculating) that men who took an aspirin a day have
fewer heart attacks.
Only responses of >2 were used to calculate (judge the number or amount of something and
adding, multiplying, subtracting, or dividing numbers) the frequency of symptoms.
I can show you studies which de monstrate (show, make clear) that some forms of alternative
medicine are extremely effective.
Small babies can identify (recognise someone or something and say or prove who or what they
are) their mothers.
The blood samples were sent to the lab to be analysed in order to support or challenge
(questions whether it is true) the statement.
Examine (look at or consider carefully and in detail) how industrial growth has affected any two
developing countries. Provide (give) statistical evidence where necessary and include a
discussion of likely future trends.
4.4. More key verbs

These extracts from academic books contain other key verbs:
In developi ng methods to explain the significance of health status measures, one can cl assify (divide
things into groups according to their type ) ways of establishing (discover or get proof of ) quality of
life into two main types.
The length of time spent on the tasks may account for (explain) the decrease in motivation which
was seen (see is often used in the passive in academic style) in many of the participants.
The data presented (given) in Chapter 3 showed (proved) that the age of the subjects was not the
main factor.
Countries around the world have taken drastic measures, including border closures, in an
attempt (formal try) to curb COVID-19.
4.5. Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs

Often in academic style, a verb+noun form of the key verb is used:
Verb Verb + Noun Example
Explain Give/provide/offer an The model provides an explanation for the
explanation (of/for) differences between the two sets of data.
Explore Carry out an exploration We need to carry out a full exploration of all
(of) the alternatives.
Emphasise Place/put emphasis (on) The hospital puts a lot of emphasis on training
nurses.
Describe Give/provide a description There is at times no reference to the source of the
(of) data and the descriptions provide d are inaccurate.
25
4.6. Phrasal verbs in academic English
Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms. These are usually of Latin origin and
sound more formal than their phrasal verb equivalent but both are appropriate when writing
or talking about academic subjects. Vary your language by using both.
Although phrasal verbs occur most frequently in more informal spoken and written
English, they are also not uncommon in an academic context. You will hear them used in
lectures and will read them in serious journals. From this unit only go/look back over and
work out are not appropriate for a formal written assignment.
Phrasal verb Synonym Example

Put forward (an Present In the latest article, Kaufmann puts forward a
idea/view/opinion/ theory which is likely to prove controversial.
theory/plan)
Carry out (an experiment/ Conduct I intend to carry out a series of experiments.
research)
Make up Constitute The group of patients aged 20-54 makes up
38 percent of the hospitalizations.
Be made up of Consist of The myocardium is mainly made up of two
types of cells: cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts.
Point out Observe Grenne points out that the increase in life
expectancy has led to some economic
problems.
Point up Highlight The study points up the weaknesses in the
healthcare system.
Set out (to do something) Aim In his article Losanov sets out to prove that...
Set out Describe The diagnostic criteria set out in DSM-III will
be examined in Chapter 5.
Go into Discuss In this book, Marsh goes into the causes of the
brain tumours.
Go/look back over Revise, Please go/look back over the articles.
review
Go through Check Go through your calculations carefully.
4.7 Carrying out research
After completing her first degree in medicine Lisa went on to (do something after
doing something else) apply to graduate school. She wanted to work on (study, work in the
field of) cardiovascular diseases at a well-known University of Massachusetts. She set up
(prepared, arranged) a series of experiments investigating how CV diseases influence
human life. She has noticed some curious patterns but has not yet worked out (come to a
conclusion about) the reason why they appear. What she has observed seems to go against
(not be in agreement with) current theories. When she has completed all her research she
will have to write it all up (of an important document write in a final form).
26
EXERCISES
Task 1. Choose the best verb to complete these sentences:
1. As can ___ from Table 3, participation figures have been steadily falling since 2017.
 be classified
 be seen
 be accounted
 be developed
 be established
2. Bacteria are ___ into 5 groups according to their basic shapes: spherical (cocci), rod
(bacilli), spiral (spirilla), comma (vibrios) or corkscrew (spirochaetes).
 attempted
 developed
 classified
 accounted
 established
3. Data from China ___ that the majority of people with Covid-19 only suffer mild
symptoms, then recover.
 see
 establish
 show
 account
 develop
4. When the vaccine was administered to the mice, their bodies ___ antibodies that removed
the abnormal tau protein from the part of the brain associated with learning and memory.
 established
 developed
 attempted
 accounted
 classified
5. Scientists advocate taking the next steps to ___ an educational evidence base to guide the
academic medical centers of the 21st century.
 see
 establish
 attempt
 account
 classify
6. Scientific theories do not ___ to explain everything at once.
 see
 attempt
 classify
 establish
 account
27
Task 2. Match the appropriate noun phrases to the following verbs:
1 Emphasise a Give/offer/provide an explanation for

2 Classify b Carry out an exploration of
3 Attempt c Give/provide a description of
4 Investigate d Place/put emphasis on
5 Illustrate e Carry out/conduct an investigation into/of
6 Explain f Provide an illustration of
7 Analyse g Provide/carry out an analysis of
8 Affect h Have an effect on
9 Describe i Make an attempt to/at
10 Explore j Make/provide a classification of
Task 3. Rewrite the sentences replacing the underlined word in each sentence
with a phrasal verb:
1. We conducted a series of experiments to test out our hypothesis.
 put forward
 set out
 carried out
 went through
 made up
2. Before the test, you should revise Chapters 7 and 8 of your textbooks.
 carry out
 make up
 go back over
 set out
 put forward
3. The later chapters discuss the effects on the environment.
 go into
 go back over
 set out
 make up
 carry out
4. Cole presents some fascinating theories on the development of speaking skills in his latest
book.
 carries out
 puts forward
 sets out
 goes back over
 makes up
5. The psychologist observed that it was very unusual for a young child to behave in this
way.
 carried out
 put forward
 pointed out
 set out
28
Task 4. Match each verb in the box with its synonym:
1 account for a compute
2 affect b explain
3 attempt c distinguish
4 calculate d give
5 challenge e influence
6 demonstrate f involve
7 identify g question
8 include h show
9 investigate i study
10 provide j try
Task 5. Match each verb in the box with its synonym:
1. Match the verb “account for” with its synonym:

 give
 influence
 explain
 question
 study
2. Match the verb “affect” with its synonym:
 compute
 question
 study
 influence
 explain
3. Match the verb “attempt” with its synonym:
 try
 show
 involve
 influence
 distinguish
4. Match the verb “calculate” with its synonym:
 compute
 explain
 try
 distinguish
 show
5. Match the verb “challenge” with its synonym:
 distinguish
 explain
 show
 compute
 question
29
5
Academic English grammar: Articles. Nouns
Plurals. Word order
5.1. Articles
“A”, “an”, and “the” are the articles used in English. “A” and “an” are considered to
be indefinite, whereas “the” is defined as a definite article. Unless they are uncountable, all
nouns need an article when used in the singular.
1) Research is an important activity in In (1) research, which is usually uncountable, is
universities. being used in a general sense.
2) The research begun by Dr Mathews In (2) a specific piece of research is identified.
was continued by Professor Brown.
3) An interesting piece of research In (3) the research is being mentioned for the
was conducted among 200 patients. first time, “piece” is used to “count” the research.
We use “a/an”
1) with singular countable nouns when I want to publish an article.
we talk about them in general
2) with the verbs “to be” and “have He had a deep wound in his arm and had lost a
(got)” lot of blood.
3) to show frequency You have to dress the wound twice a day.
4) before an adjective when it is He suffered an awful injury in the crash.
followed by a noun She underwent a six-hour open-heart surgery.
We do not use “a/an”
1) with uncountable nouns or plural The appeal for people to donate blood was very
countable nouns successful. (blood - uncountable noun)
He died from multiple stab wounds to the neck a
nd upper body.(wounds – plural countable noun)
2) before an adjective if it is not The surgeon was exhausted.
followed by a noun
*Adapted from: Grammarway 4 / Academic writing: a handbook for international students
We use “the”
1) to talk about something specific; We will know in a couple of days if the
when the noun is mentioned for a operation to restore her sight was successful.
second time or is already known
2) with adjectives/adverbs in the This cardiac surgeon is the most respected
superlative forms doctor in hospital.
3) with the names of organizations, The World Health Organization, the British
newspapers, magazines, hotels, Medical Journal, the Plaza, the Anatomical
museums Museum
4) with the names of the countries The United Kingdom, the United States of
which include such words as states, America
republic, Kingdom
5) with the words only, last, first The first surgery on the heart itself was
performed by Axel Cappelen.
30
We do not use “the”
1) With proper nouns Henry Marsh lives in Britain.
2) With the names of sports, days, I speak English (but I speak the English
months, celebrations, drinks, meals language).
and languages (when they are not
followed by the word “language”)
3) With the names of countries, Italy, Oxford Street, Trafalgar Square, Tower
streets, squares, bridges, parks, Bridge, Central Park, Palawan, Europe
individual islands, continents
4) With the words hospital, school, He worked as a nurse in psychiatric hospital.
university when we refer to the
purpose for which they exist
5) With the names of illnesses. But: He’s got malaria.
flu/the flu, measles/the measles,
mumps/the mumps
5.2. Nouns
Nouns are divided into abstract (knowledge), group (family, team, stuff) or
common (head, heart, tooth). The following words in bold are nouns: Scientists do a lot of
research in order to find cures for various diseases. A lot of money is spent on equipment
every year, but the information collected is invaluable.
Nouns are subdivided into countable and uncountable nouns:
Countable nouns
Countable are nouns that we can count. They have singular and plural forms: device –
devices, syringe – syringes.
Plurals
1) we usually form the plural by adding –s: heart – hearts, skeleton – skeletons, bone –
bones, symptom – symptoms, patient – patients, nurse – nurses, injection – injections.
2) if a noun ends in –s, -ss, -ch, -sh, -x, and -o take –es: process - processes, crutch –
crutches. But: kilo – kilos, video – videos, studio – studios, etc.
3) nouns ending in a vowel and – y, take only – s in the plural: X-ray – X-rays, key –
keys.
4) nouns ending in a consonant and – y, drop the – y and take– ies in the plural: therapy –
therapies, biopsy – biopsies, allergy – allergies, deficiency – deficiencies, study – studies.
5) nouns ending in – f, - fe drop the – f, - fe and take – ves: half – halves, life – lives.
Irregular plurals include:
Man – men, woman – women, foot – feet, louse – lice, mouse – mice, child – children,
and etc.
Uncountable nouns
Uncountable are nouns that we cannot count. They do not have different plural
forms and are followed by a verb in the singular.
1) many types of food: meat, cheese, rice, sugar, etc.
2) liquids: coffee, oil, water, etc.
3) materials: wood, silver, glass, etc.
4) abstract nouns: knowledge, help, justice, education, etc.
5) others: research, behavior, advice, news, information, equipment, money, etc.
31
Plural forms of medical terms
Many medical terms are derived from Greek and Latin words. Forming the plurals of
medical terms is somewhat different from forming the plurals of regular nouns.
1) Change – a to – ae Vertebra – vertebrae, pleura – pleurae, formula – formulae
2) Change – um to – Bacterium – bacteria, ovum – ova, diverticulum – diverticula
a
3) Change – us to – i Fungus – fungi, streptococcus – streptococci, bacillus – bacilli.
4) Change – is to – es Diagnosis – diagnoses, analysis – analyses
5) Change – x to – ces Apex – apices, thorax – thoraces, appendix – appendices
6) Change – oma to – Stoma – stomata, carcinoma – carcinomata (but carcinomas is also
omata possible)
7) Change – o to – a Ganglion – ganglia, phenomenon – phenomena
* Adapted from: Grammar and Writing Skills for the Health Professional by Lorraine Villemaire, Doreen Villemaire
5.3. Word order

Word order refers to the way words are arranged in a sentence. In academic writing,
every sentence you write must be grammatically complete.
A grammatically complete sentence
consists of a complete thought and can make
sense on its own. It consists of a subject, a
verb, and a complement if required. A
subject (i.e. a noun phrase, which can be a
single word or group of words) tells you who
or what the sentence is about. A verb (i.e. a
verb phrase, which can be a single word or group of words) tells you about the subject. A
complement (a group of words) provides more information about the verb.
The sentence below is a simple sentence. It consists of only one clause (i.e. any group
of words that contains a subject and a verb, which may or may not be a complete sentence):
The result of the study subject
confirmed verb
the writer’s hypothesis. complement
All subjects in English sentences are either singular or plural. A singular subject
needs a singular verb, and a plural subject needs a plural verb. Ignore words (within the
commas) that come between the subject and verb.
The textbook, as well as these journal articles, is essential for the assignment.
These journal articles, along with the textbook, are essential for the assignment.
When the subject consists of two or more nouns joined by and, a plural verb is used.
Phrases like as well as, in addition to, and along with are not the same as and; they do not
change the number of the subject.
Single subjects joined by or, nor, either…or, or neither…nor take a singular verb.
Neither the textbook nor the journal article is of any relevance to the assignment.
If one subject is singular and the other is plural, the verb used should agree with the
closest subject when two or more nouns are joined by or, nor, either…or, or neither…nor.
Neither the textbook nor these journal articles are of any relevance to the assignment.
Neither these journal articles nor the textbook is of any relevance to the assignment.
*Adapted from: UTS: HELPS. Academic writing: sentence level. Available at:https://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/article/downloads/sentence.pdf
32
5.4. Nouns and the words they combine with
Nouns often combine with specific verbs, for example carry out research, pay
attention, or with specific adjectives, for example medical research, undivided attention.
Adjective + noun
Noun Adjectives Example

(that often combine with it)
Contact useful, valuable, personal, I made some useful contacts at the
constant, close, frequent, conference ().
intermittent (=from time to
time)
Debate considerable, heated (=strong, After the lecture, there was a heated
often angry), intense, public, debate.
animated (=lively)
Element crucial, decisive, fundamental Timing is a crucial element of the
[= factor] experiment.
Elements conflicting, contrasting, There are conflicting elements in the
[= parts] constituent (=that combine to research.
make something)
Energy excess, sufficient, nuclear Molecules must collide with sufficient
energy so that chemical bonds can
break.
Phenomenon common, isolated, natural, Such anti-social behaviour is a recent
recent, universal phenomenon.
Results conflicting, (in)condusive, Our preliminary results were
unforeseen (=not expected), encouraging.
preliminary (=first),
encouraging, interim
(=temporary)
Role decisive, challenging, Lack of physical activity plays a pivotal
conflicting, influential, key, role in the development of obesity.
pivotal (=important)
Sample random, representative A representative sample of the
population was surveyed.
In ... terms absolute, broad, relative, Ranges for normal and abnormal are not
general, practical, economic well established for these methods and,
in practical terms, knowing them will
not change current recommendations to
help patients achieve sustained weight
loss.
Way alternative, efficient, fair, It is important to treat your research
practical, convenient, proper, subjects in a fair way.
acceptable
33
5.5. Noun + verb
Most of the nouns in the table above are also strongly associated with specific verbs.
Contact You can come into contact with someone or something or you can
establish, maintain, break off, or lose contact.
Debate Academics may engage in debate or contribute to a debate. You talk
about the debate surrounding an issue.
Element You can combine, differentiate, or discern (recognise) the elements of a
chemical compound.
Energy You consume (use), conserve, generate (create), save, or waste energy.
Phenomenon Phenomena emerge or occur and researchers will try to observe,

phenomena investigate, and then explain those phenomena.
Result Academics collect, collate (organise) and publish their results.
Sometimes results are questioned or invalidated (shown to be wrong).
Occasionally they are even falsified!
Role Roles may be defined or strengthened. People or factors can play a role
or take on a role.
Sample You can take or provide or analyse a sample.
Way You can discover, devise (think up), work out, or develop a way to do
something.
Noun phrases:
e.g. Radiation was accidentally released → The accidental release of radiation occurred
Verb Verb + noun
explain Provide/give/offer an explanation (of/for)
explore Carry out an explanation (of)
emphasize Place/put emphasis (on)
describe Give/provide a description (of)
Remember:
A large / great / amount of money / interest / influence
considerable / substantial / (uncountable nouns)
significant / enormous /
total / surprising / excessive
A large / considerable / number of articles / books
substantial / significant / (plural noun)
enormous / total / surprising
/ excessive
Other useful nouns:

Theme /subject /issue /theory /mature /principle /aspect /feature /scope /branch of
Research is uncountable: NOT: Interesting researches, BUT: studies, research studies,
pieces of research
34
EXERCISES
Task 1. Use the articles “a”, “an” and “the” where necessary:
According to 1) ___ World Health Organization over 2) ___ billion adults around the
world suffer from 3) ___ high blood pressure. It is now taking steps to fight against what is
called 4) __ silent killer. High blood pressure can lead to strokes and 5) ___ heart attack.
Almost 10 million people die of these two diseases every year. They are 6) ___
number one causes of death globally. High blood pressure also leads to 7) ___ kidney
failure, 8) ___ blindness, and other illnesses. It often goes hand in hand with 9) ___
diabetes and 10) ____ obesity, which increase health risks even further.
As 11) ___ WHO reports, people in developing countries in Africa suffer more from
high blood pressure than people in developed countries. 12) ___ reason is that health care in
13) ___ developed world is much better organized and people go to 14) ___ doctor soon
enough.
High blood pressure should never be ignored and always taken seriously. It is 15)___
warning sign from your body that something is malfunctioning.
*Adapted from: https://www.english-online.at/health_medicine/high-blood-pressure/high-blood-pressure-silent-killer.htm
Task 2. Form the plurals of the following words:

ovum nucleus
embolus sarcoma
woman foot
aponeurosis thrombus
deficiency septum
tooth diagnosis
focus bronchus
X-ray gurus
Task 3. Form the plurals of the words in brackets:

1. Maslow arranges human needs into five _____ (category).
2. Many written _____ (form) are required before admission into the hospital.
3. The _____ (diagnosis) were negative.
4. Congenital _____ (anomaly) are physical abnormalities at birth.
5. There are seven cervical _____ (vertebra).
Task 4. Fill in the gaps with a word from the box in the right tense:
investigate play invalidate come consume
1. I first ___ into contact with Dr. Ellerkmann when I started my doctoral research in 1987.
2. The heart-lung machines ___ so much energy that we don’t generate enough to meet all
needs of the hospital.
3. Early diagnosis ___ a pivotal role in providing care at the earliest possible stage and is,
therefore, an important public health strategy in all settings.
4. In her research project Diana ___ the phenomenon of extra-sensory perception but she
was not able to come to any significant conclusions.
5. Although Hans’s rivals attempted to ___ his results, they met with no success.
35
Task 5. Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending:
1 It took the team a long time to devise a) surrounding the issue of in vitro
fertilization.
2 There has been a lot of heated debate b) to the debate on cloning.
3 Part of my role was to collate c) the key elements in a graph.
4 The doctor wanted me to provide d) seems to be emerging.
5 Scientists all over the world e) the results of our experiments.
contributed
6 A new and unexpected phenomenon f) a way to solve their problem.
7 Using shading helps to differentiate g) a blood sample for analysis.
Task 6. Choose the best word from the box to fill each of the gaps:
representative natural random proper

nuclear decisive conflicting crucial
1. She obtained her results by taking a ___ sample of the population.

2. We must decide what the ___ way to proceed is.
3. Professor Powell was able to discern some ___ elements in different accounts of the
accident.
4. Mary’s compassion was the ___ element in her decision to become a volunteer doctor in
Africa.
5. Plutonium is a fuel used to produce ___ energy.
6. A scientific hypothesis is a proposed explanation of some ___ phenomenon.
7. Theoretically, the change in any neurotransmitter component could play a ___ role in
the micturition problems of older people.
8. The present study used a ____ sample to examine the relationship between parental
bonding experiences and psychopathology in both men and women.
Task 7. Choose the best word from the box to fill each of the gaps:
engaging maintaining publish define
1. The group succeeded in ___ contact long after they had all left college.
2. Specialists in the field of bio-engineering have been ___ in heated debate on this issue
for some time.
3. Before we go any further we must ___ each of our roles more precisely.
4. I am told that Sam is about to ___ some interim results.
Task 8. Choose the correct item:
1. Neither Peter nor Paul discern/discerns the chemical elements.

2. Either day suits/suit me.
3. Both scientists and researches work/works side by side trying to develop the vaccine.
4. All of them have/has to pass the exam.
5. Either Anna or Emily know/knows the answer.
36
6
Academic English: Key quantifying expressions
Numbers and statistics
6.1. Key quantifying expressions
Quantifying expressions are important in

academic English as it is often necessary to comment
on figures or trends. Learners of English often choose
the wrong noun relating to quantity.
Countable nouns are used with: Uncountable nouns are used with:
We use a large number of with countable We use a great (not large) deal (informal)
nouns such as articles, books, or words. or a large/great amount with uncountable
nouns such as money, interest, progress, or
influence.
We can also use a couple of, several, a few, We can also use (too) much, a little, a
many, a (large, great, good) number of, great/good deal of, and a large/small
and both with countable nouns. amount/quantity of with uncountable
nouns.
We use a lot of, lots of, hardly any, some, no, and plenty of with both countable and
uncountable nouns.
Both number and amount can be used with the following adjectives: small,
considerable, substantial, significant, enormous, total, surprising, excessive [too
much/many], fair [quite a lot], and reasonable [acceptable].
Although the accurate use of numbers is vital, too much data can make texts difficult to
read. If the actual number is not important, words such as various, dozens or scores may
be used with countable nouns instead:
The government closed 47 schools due to the coronavirus outbreak.
The government closed dozens of schools due to the coronavirus outbreak.
few less than expected
a few approximately 3–6 depending on the context
several approximately 3–4
various approximately 4–6
dozens of approximately 30–60
scores of approximately 60–100
a tiny/ small minority 5–20 per cent
a minority 21–39 per cent
a substantial/ significant minority 40–49 per cent
a small majority 51–55 per cent
a majority 56–79 per cent
a large majority 80 per cent +
37
The expressions listed below can also be used to present and simplify statistical
information:
Numerical phrases
The anatomy course fees rose from $1,200 to $2,500 in two years. This sentence can be
written in a different way for the purpose of simplification: The course fees doubled in
two years. If appropriate, roughly/ approximately can be added: The course fees roughly
doubled in two years.
one in three One in three patients survives.
twice/ three times as many Twice as many women as men study
nursing.
a five/ tenfold increase There was a fivefold increase in the
number of heart attacks.
to double/ halve the rate of The rate of infection halved after 2001
a quarter/ fifth A fifth of all essential employees leave
every year.
the majority/ minority The majority of births are in hospital.
on average, the average On average, each surgeon working here
has two operations per day.
6.2. Other nouns relating to quantity
The size of our survey was relatively small-scale. We sent out 2,500 questionnaires in
total (=in all). Although a couple (=two or three, a few) of people did not respond, the bulk
(=the majority) of those sent questionnaires have completed them. The survey shows that,
as a whole (=considered as a group rather than individually), the population is becoming
more aware of the importance of annual physical checkups. Only one of our respondents
said that he used to go to the doctor even more often*.
6.3. Comparing numbers and quantities
Expression Example Comment
exceeding Results exceeding 5 cm were (formal) means higher than
eliminated from the survey.
in excess of The energy value of dried fruits is means over, used mainly in
considerably in excess of that of fresh official or legal writing
items.
fewer and fewer/ Fewer and fewer people are smoking a steadily declining/
less and less these days than used to. Young people decreasing number of,
are becoming less and less interested decreasingly
in unhealthy lifestyle.
more and more There is more and more interest in the a steadily increasing
topic. People are becoming more and amount of, increasingly
more aware of the potential threat.
more or less The experiment was more or less a (slightly informal) means
success. mostly or approximately
no fewer than No fewer than 200 patients were used to suggest the number
examined. was unexpectedly large
38
6.4. Numbers. Types of numbers
Numbers in a group together may be called a series or set of numbers. If the order in
which they occur is significant then they may be called a sequence of numbers.
The highest number in a group is the The thermometer should be reset daily and
maximum and the lowest is the minimum. the maximum and minimum temperatures
recorded.
An approximate number is one which is Look at the figures and work out in your
roughly correct but is not the precise or head what the approximate number is
exact number. likely to be. Then use a calculator to find
the exact number of casualties.
An aggregate is a number reached by A number of data sources within the health
totalling a set of numbers = the total. facility or hospital setting can provide
aggregate data on drug utilization.
A constant number or quantity is one that In the experiment, we varied
does not change. [changed] the amount of water in the beaker
but kept the amount of salt added constant.
A random number is one chosen by The survey used a random sample of two
chance, i.e. it is not predictable. thousand people across England and Wales.
Values and variables are also useful terms American Family Physician includes NNT
when working with numbers. Values are values in our articles to help readers gauge
individual numbers in a set of data. the relative benefits of various
interventions.
Variables are characteristics that can take The characteristics such as age, sex, height,
on different values for different members of weight, body temperature, blood glucose
a level, blood pressure, heart rate, severity of
group or set being studied. disease (mild, moderate, severe) etc. are
some of the examples for biological
variables in research.
The incidence of something refers to how The incidence of twins in the population is
frequently it occurs. growing.
Verbs that are frequently used with the word number include calculate a number,
estimate a number (=make a rough guess at), round a number up/down (=make a
fraction), total (=add up) a set of numbers. Numbers can also tally (=match, agree) My
figures don’t seem to tally with yours. You can also deduct (=take away, subtract) one
number from another number.
6.5. Expressing numbers
The word figure is often used to refer to the symbol used for a number. Figures and
numbers are both used to talk about statistical data in a general sense:
The figures/ numbers in the report need to be read critically.
Digits are individual numbers: 4,539 – a four-digit number.
Both fractions (1/2) and decimals (0.975) may be used.
Rates are normally expressed as percentages (e.g. the literacy rate rose to 75%). We say
10 per cent (NOT “the 10 per cents” or “10 percentage”) of students got an A for their
biochemistry exam but the percentage of students achieving an A has increased.
39
6.6. Statistics
It is essential to support your arguments with
8 statistics. Visual devices such as graphs and tables
6
are a convenient way of displaying large quantities
of information in a form that is easy to understand.
4 A normal distribution of data means that
2 most of the examples in a set of data close to the
average, while relatively few examples tend to one
0 extreme or the other. Normally distributed data
0 2 4 6 8
shown on a chart will typically show a bell curve
Figure 1. Bell curve
(Fig. 1). It will often be necessary to work out the
extent to which individuals deviate1 from the
norm2 and to calculate the figures that represent standard deviation3.
Six patients are 7, 8, 8, 8, 11, and 12 years old. Their average age is 9 years old (=the
sum of their ages divided by six). The mode (=the most frequent value) is 8. The median
is 9.5 (the halfway point between the two extremes of the range).
Statisticians are often concerned with working
out correlations4 – the extent to which, say, left-
handedness correlates with intelligence. They must
ensure that any data they collect is valid, i.e. that it is
measuring what it claims to measure – all the
subjects in the sample5 must be appropriately and
accurately assessed as left- or right-handed, for
example. The figures must also be reliable, i.e. they would be consistent6 if the
measurements were repeated. Usually, statisticians hope that their calculations will
show/indicate a tendency, e.g. that left-handed people will be shown to be significantly7
more intelligent than right-handed people.
1
differ; 2 the average; 3 average difference from the norm; 4 connections, often as cause
and effect; 5 the subjects of the experiment or group representing the total population
measured; 6 the same; 7 noticeably
Although visuals do largely speak for themselves, it is common to help the
reader interpret them by briefly commenting on their main features:
The graph shows the changes in the price of syringes since 1990.
The map illustrates the main sources of copper in Africa.
The diagram displays the organisation of both companies.
Verb Adverb Verb Adjective + noun

grow (grew) slightly drop (dropped) a slight drop
rise (rose) gradually fall (fell) a gradual fall
increase (increased) steadily decrease (decreased) a sharp decrease
climb (climbed) sharply decline (declined) a steady decline
Average temperatures rose steadily until 2006 and then dropped slightly.
There was a sharp decrease in the number of hay-fever sufferers in winter and then a
gradual rise.
40
EXERCISES
Task 1. Underline the expressions which can be used with the nouns:
1. The nurse took a couple of, several, too much, a few, a little, lots of blood samples.
2. He has got a little, a lot of, hardly any, several, a few experience in neurosurgery.
3. He drank two, both, some, several, too much glasses of water.
4. She applied several, too many, hardly any, too much, no ointment.
5. Since he is a surgeon, he has a little, hardly any, several, a couple of, plenty of
experience in death pronouncement.
6. I have been examining patients for two hours and I have got no, a few, a little, hardly
any, too many time for lunch.
7. Professor Phillips has already made some useful contacts with too much, a little, a few,
a couple of, a great number of colleagues.
Task 2. Complete the sentences using the correct forms of the words in italics:
1. In a ___ number of cases, there was no reaction at all to the drug.
 surprising
 surprised
2. An ___ amount of radioactivity was released into the environment last month.
 exceeded
 excessive
3. There has been a ___ number of cases of the disease.
 considerable
 considerate
4. The course requires a ___ amount of prior knowledge of gastroenterology.
 reason
 reasonable
5. The survey took a ___ amount of research time and costs were high.
 substantial
 substance
6. The energy value of dried fruits is considerably in ___ of that of fresh items.
 exceeding
 excess
7. In ___, 11 310 deaths caused by Ebola were reported in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra
Leone.
 total
 totality
8. Groups ___ four people were considered too large for the experiment.
 excess
 exceeding
9. No ___ than 2000 patients were thoroughly examined.
 few
 fewer
10. In a ___ number of cases, patients suffering from Ebola begin to bleed both internally and
externally.
 signify
 significant
41
Task 3. Rewrite the following sentences using one of the following words or
phrases: few, a few, several, various, dozens of, and scores of:
1. Only three specialists attended the meeting.

__________________________________________________________________________
2. 77 students applied for the scholarship.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. He re-wrote the article three times.
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Last year 38 books were published on biogenetics.
__________________________________________________________________________
5. The scientist thought of four good topics for his project.
__________________________________________________________________________
Task 4. Use the correct form of the word in the box to complete the sentences:
distribute trend significant probable
randomly correlation outcome vary
1. Insurance companies base their calculations on the laws of ___, that is they assess the
likely ___, given the different ___ such as age, sex, lifestyle, and medical history of their
clients.
2. The premium are therefore not chosen at ___ but are carefully calculated.
3. The ___ of ages at which death occurs and causes of death are studied to see if they ___
with other factors to be taken into account in setting the premium.
4. Naturally, the companies also monitor social ___ and react to any changes which might
___ affect mortality rates.
Task 5. Use a word in the box to complete the sentences:

median mode sum average halfway extremes points range
1. The six subjects who took the test scored 24, 22, 16, 16, and 14 ___ out of 30.
2. The ___ was 16.
3. The ___ score was 19 and the ___ score was 18.
4. The ___ of all donations was $3,900.
5. The smallest donation was $10 and the largest $130.
6. Most were around the ___ point of $60.
7. Each questionnaire item asked respondents to choose one of a ___ of six options, with the
two ___ being “very dissatisfied indeed” and “completely satisfied”.
Task 6. Match the opposites:

1. grow a drop
2. increase b minimum
3. climb c fall
4. rise d decrease
5. maximum e approximate
6. exact f decline
42
7
Academic writing: Punctuation
Facts, evidence, and data
7.1. Punctuation
Accurate punctuation and use of capitals help the reader understand exactly what
the writer meant. Proper punctuation makes a text clear to understand. Wrongly placed
punctuation marks may make a sentence ambiguous or even change the meaning. Each
punctuation mark serves a purpose and conveys a signal to the reader.
Use comma (,)
 to separate some adverbs, adverbial expressions, or other introductory phrases from
the rest of the sentence: To avoid undesirable failure during the test, cover the test
stand.
 to separate linking words and phrases from the rest of the sentence: On the other
hand, the chances of success are great.
 between two independent clauses with different subjects if they are part of a series or
are joined by and, but, so and or: The diagnostic work is normally done by the
computer, but the technician must be able to understand the various computer
operating systems.
 if the subordinate clause comes before the main clause in a sentence: When the
liquid boils, a residue is formed.
 to separate a non-defining relative clause from the rest of the sentence.
Note that you have to use which or who, but not that in these sentences. Brass, which
is an alloy of copper and zinc, is used to make different tools.
That can be used in defining relative clauses, and there is no comma: The experiments
that were described in the previous section were part of a series that was conducted
over a range of mode mixes.
Use colons (:)
 to introduce a strong pause within a sentence. It separates two clauses which could
stand alone as separate sentences but are linked by some relationship in their meaning.
There are four instances in which you might use a colon:
 to introduce a list: Three aspects were identified: physiological, mental, and social.
 before a list of items, often preceded by a word like namely, such as, as follows, the
following, etc. Please send the items indicated below, namely:
(i) passport
(ii) visa application
(iii) correct fee.
 to precede a long quotation: The doctors noted: “A report from the World Health
Organization-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 Mortality on 2,114 of
55,924 coronavirus-related deaths in China stated a death rate of 21.9% in people 80
years and older (compared with 20.2% in this age-group in Italy).”
 before a clause which explains (often by way of illustration) the previous statement:
The Healthcare Information Systems degree course is highly regarded: academic
standards are high, the lecturers are pleasant and the students enjoy the modules
taught.
 to introduce explanations: The meeting was postponed: Dean was ill.
43
Use semi-colons (;)
 to divide up items in a list when they have a complex structure, as in multiple citations:
Maitland, 2006; Rosenor, 1997; New Scientist, 2006; University of Michigan, 2000
 when a second clause expands or explains the first: Neither system matched the
requirements exactly; this had to be checked with the supplier.
 to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas: Those involved in
information work hold memberships with organizations such as CILIP, UKeIG, ASIST,
BCS, and the European chapter of SLA.
Use brackets or parentheses ()[]
 round brackets are used for cross-references, abbreviations, definitions, and other
subsidiary information: Relatively few people (10–15 per cent) were literate in the
sixteenth-century.
 you can use square brackets when you want to insert a word of your own into a
quotation so that it makes good, grammatical sense and completes the meaning of the
sentence: The report stated that 'world reserves [of water] will probably last for 70
years'.
Use dash (–)
 you can use a dash in the same way as round brackets to add extra, less important
information. The dash, however, is somewhat informal, so it is not so often used in
scientific reports as commas or brackets.
Use hyphen (-)
 hyphens are used to join words so as to make new words. The rules for hyphens are
complicated and vary in different publishing houses and between individual writers.
American English uses rather fewer hyphens than British English. Hyphens are most
commonly used in the following kinds of compounds:
a. noun-adverb: hands-on applications
b. adjective compounds in -ed or -ing: problem-solving steps
c. compounds expressing numerals and fractions: two-D shapes; 8-foot length
d. compounds in which the first base is a single capital letter: U-turn
e. after certain prefixes, e.g. ex-, half- non-, quasi-, self-: half-time, non-existent
f. phrases which normally do not have any hyphen have to have it when used as an
adjective phrase before a noun: The investigation was carried out on the spot. They
carried out an on-the-spot investigation. (a phrase used as an adjective)
Use an apostrophe ( ‘ )
 when referring to other scientists’ work. When referring to two or more people
together, the apostrophe goes after the last name. When you refer to a famous or
generally accepted discovery, the apostrophe is not needed.
Other scientists: Hartmann’s operation; Jaboulay’s pyloroplasty
Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Two scientists together: Iwan and Moeller’s (1976) work appears to be the first
publication on this subject.
Famous discovery: the Curie point
Use quotations marks/ inverted commas (‘_’ ;“_”)
 to emphasize a word: The term ‘x-ray’ was first used in 1895.
 to give quotations from other writers: Goodwin’s (1977) analysis of habit indicates
that, in general, ‘it will be more difficult to reverse a trend than to accentuate it’.
Do not use exclamation marks (!) and question marks (?)
44
 use exclamation marks as little as possible in formal work. They give the work a
juvenile and over-excited tone.
 it is unlikely that you should use the question mark in the work you submit. After all,
you are meant to be answering the question, not posing any new ones.
*Adapted from: Academic writing: a handbook for international students and Writing in English: a pro fessional handbook for scientific and technical
writers. Available at: https://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0013287/Subjects/academic-writing-handbook -international-students-3rd-ed%20(2).pdf
7.2. Facts, evidence, and data

Fact is a countable noun and evidence is uncountable – you can refer to one piece of
evidence or the body of evidence [large amount of evidence].
Some people consider data as a plural noun - these data show an unexpected trend –
while others consider it as uncountable – this data differs from last year’s. This is a
particularly interesting piece/item of data. The tendency is increasingly to use data as an
uncountable noun but you will see both forms and may use whichever you prefer yourself.
You often need to give or provide an example to illustrate the facts you’re presenting. A good
example can be described as striking, clear, vivid, illuminating, or telling. Sometimes, particularly in
written English, the word instance is used as an alternative to example.
7.3. Words often used with facts, evidence, and data

Researchers try to establish the facts. They hope that the facts will bear out1 or
support their hypothesis. Most carefully check their facts before presenting them to
others although there are, of course, dishonest people prepared to distort2 the facts in
order to claim that their facts are interesting, relevant3, undeniable or little-known.
1
confirm; 2 change; 3 connected to the topic being discussed
It is hard to account for the fact that4 share prices rose over this period.
The problem stems from the fact that5 there is a basic conflict of interests.
The lecturer drew attention to the fact that6 the economy was starting to improve.
4
explain why; 5 has arisen because; 6 emphasised that
Researchers may look for, collect, examine, and consider evidence. The evidence they
collect may point to or suggest a conclusion. If the evidence is growing or widespread it may
serve to support a theory.
In their research, they aim to provide or offer sufficient evidence to support their theories.
They are happy if the evidence they find is convincing or powerful and are less happy if the
evidence is flimsy7 or conflicting 8. They are pleased if new evidence comes to light9 or
emerges and if they find abundant10 evidence. They may talk about finding hard
evidence".
7
not strong; 8 contradictory; 9 becomes known; 1 0 plenty of; 1 1 evidence which is reliable and can
be proven, used mainly in spoken in English
The reliable12. You obtain data. Data suggests something
data is comprehensive13. organize reflects
accurate. analyze indicates
empirical14. interpret shows
record demonstrates
12 13 14
can be trusted; full, complete; based on observation rather than theory
EXERCISES
45
Task 1. Find the synonyms to the words in bold:
1. The data show that the drug education project has been successful.
 Distort
 Establish
 Suggest
 Check
 Convince
2. The data in the latest study are more complete than in the earlier one.
 Interesting
 Little-knowing
 Hard
 Flimsy
 Comprehensive
3. This is the most interesting piece of data in the whole thesis.
 Part
 Item
 Segment
 Section
 Chapter
4. What a clear example this is of the power of the human mind!
 Empirical
 Clean
 Reliable
 Striking
 Accurate
5. Unfortunately, the facts do not bear out the hypothesis.
 Support
 Check
 Present
 Stem from
 Distort
6. We cannot explain the fact that attitudes are more negative now than five years ago.
 Account for
 Look for
 Examine
 Consider
 Collect
7. The problem arises from the fact that the software was poorly designed.
 Supports
 Suggests
 Establishes
 Stems
8. The article gives examples of different methods that have been used over the years.
46
 Accounts for
 Considers
 Provides
 Distorts
 Collects
9. New evidence has emerged that the cabinet was not informed of the Minister’s decision.
 Gone to light
 Supported
 Come to light
 Provided
 Suggested
10. We need to examine the evidence before we can reach a conclusion.
 Supported
 Accounted for
 Considered
 Suggested
 Provided
11. The evidence suggesting that sanctions do not work is plentiful and very strong.
 Widespread
 Abundant
 Flimsy
 Conflicting
 Powerless
12. A considerable amount of evidence now exists, but we always try to get more.
 Chapter
 Face
 Part
 Body
 Section
13. We have a lot of observed data which suggest the problem is on the increase.
 Theoretical
 Flimsy
 Empirical
 Undeniable
 Little-known
14. This is a clear example of how conservation can benefit local people.
 Amount
 Data
 Instance
 Evidence
 Fact
Task 2. Which of the words does not fit the sentence:
47
1. Thorsen’s aim was to ______________ the facts.
 check
 establish
 bear out
 present
2. The evidence ______________ a different conclusion.

 points to
 supports
 suggests
 emerges
3. Lopez ______________ some fascinating data.

 reflected
 collected
 obtained
 recorded
4. The writer provides some ______________ examples.

 telling
 striking
 growing
 illuminating
5. The evidence Phillip presents is ______________ .

 flimsy
 convincing
 vivid
 conflicting
Task 3. Match the synonyms:
1. demonstrate a confirm
2. distort b emphasise
3. conflicting c offer
4. plentiful d emerge
5. come to light e abundant
6. provide f flimsy
7. draw attention to the fact g change
8. bear out h show
9. account for i accurate
10. clear j widespread
11. growing k vivid
12. reliable l explain
48
8
Academic writing: Research paper types. Types of journal articles.
Sources. Expressing cause and effect
A research paper is your own thoughts

based on your thorough analysis
of what you previously knew and
what you managed to research about your topic.
8.1. Research paper types

There are seven different research paper types:
1. Argumentative papers present two sides of a
controversial issue in the one paper. A
good argumentative paper will include in-text
citations from researchers that present logical facts
from both sides of an issue, and will conclude with
the author analyzing the pros and cons of each
argument.
2. Analytical papers also include information from a range of sources but the focus on
this type of research paper is in analyzing the different viewpoints represented from a
factual rather than opinionated standpoint. The author of an analytical paper may focus on
the findings, methodology, or conclusions of other researchers and will conclude such a
paper with a summation of the findings and a suggested framework for further study on the
issue.
3. Definition papers are relatively self-explanatory. They describe a topic from a
factual standpoint that is usually devoid of emotion or the opinion of the author. Although
the definition research paper will include facts from a variety of sources, this information
is left unanalyzed and contains only actual facts found in another's research paper findings.
4. Compare and contrast papers are often used to compare two different theoretical
viewpoints. The important part of a compare and contrast paper is that while both elements
in the paper need to be described succinctly, the main part of the paper will be the
comparison and contrasting examples provided by the author to support a thesis.
5. Cause and effect papers trace the probable or expected results from a particular
action or policy in a logical progression that is easily followed by the reader. Used in the
fields of public health and education, in particular, a good cause and effect paper will not
only outline the predicted results from the action/situation specified but also where
applicable show the range of results that could arise from this one situation through to its
logical conclusion.
6. Reports, and are often written to outline a case study situation. The report would
include a summary of the situation to date; an identification of the main issue or concern; a
breakdown of the elements of this main issue and then recommendations on how to address
the issue based on research on the topic.
7. Interpretive papers require the use of theoretical knowledge in a particular case
study example. The key element of an interpretive paper is evidence that the paper is written
based on an established theoretical framework and supporting data to back up the thesis
statement and findings of the paper have been used.
*Adapted from 7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers. Available at: http://www.personal -writer.com/blog/7-most-popular-types-of-
research-papers
49
8.2. Types of journal articles
Although it may appear there are a large number of types of articles published due to
the wide variety of names they are published under, most articles published are one of the
following types; Original Research, Review Articles, Short Reports or Letters, Case Studies,
Methodologies.
Original Research is the most common type of journal manuscript used to publish
full reports of data from research. It may be called an Original Article, Research Article,
Research, or just Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research format is suitable
for many different fields and different types of studies. It includes full Introduction,
Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion sections.
Short reports or Letters communicate brief reports of data from original research
that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and that will likely stimulate
further research in the field. As they are relatively short the format is useful for scientists
with results that are time-sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-
changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental
details may not be published until the authors write a full Original Research manuscript.
These papers are also sometimes called Brief communications.
Review Articles provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic,
and a perspective on the state of the field and where it is heading. They are often written by
leaders in a particular discipline after an invitation from the editors of a journal. Reviews are
often widely read (for example, by researchers looking for a full introduction to a field) and
highly cited. Reviews commonly cite approximately 100 primary research articles.
Case Studies report specific instances of interesting phenomena. A goal of Case
Studies is to make other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon
might occur. This type of study is often used in medicine to report the occurrence of
previously unknown or emerging pathologies.
Methodologies or Methods present a new experimental method, test, or procedure.
The method described may either be completely new or may offer a better version of an
existing method. The article should describe a demonstrable advance on what is currently
available.
*Adapted from: Types of Journal Articles. Available at: https://www.springer.com/gp/authors-editors/authorandreviewertutorials/writing-
a-journal-manuscript/types-of-journal-articles/10285504
8.3. Sources. Referring to source materials

In these extracts, the writers are talking about their sources. Although these writers
occasionally use “I”, many academic departments advise against doing this in writing if
possible:
This paper begins with a review of the literature on (= a summary and evaluation of all
the important works written on a particular subject) patient communication. The medical
literature suggests that patients with serious illnesses tend to communicate poorly,
especially if the disease is not considered by the patient to be particularly threatening.
This essay draws its data from the most important primary source (an original
document or set of documents giving information about a subject) of information on
manufacturing in Nigeria: the Central Bank of Nigeria. I shall make reference (slightly
more formal alternative to refer to) to this source throughout this essay. Several recent
secondary sources (books or articles about a subject, not original documents) were also
consulted.
50
For this project, I consulted the county archives (=a collection of documents of
historical importance) in an attempt to explain why there were so many deaths in 1846
and 1847. These proved a valuable resource. I also surveyed the literature on
(=searched for all the important works, summarized and evaluated them) agricultural
production during the 1840s. However, I only directly cite (=refer to for illustration or
proof) those works which are particularly relevant in the present study.
An extensive body of literature (also ‘body of knowledge’; note how it combines with
extensive and exist) exists on the effects of wildfires. Wildfires have burned across the
western United States for centuries, but their effects are not fully known or
documented (=written about). The present study draws primarily on (=uses
information mainly from) the work of Gordon (1996).
As noted (=given special mention) in a recent report, Australia has been at the forefront
of developments in e-learning. This success is often attributed to (=people often say
that this is the cause) Australia’s geographical position, but the factors catalogued
(=recorded, listed) in the report reveal a more complex picture.
Beeching’s seminal (=important and original work from which other works grow)
work laid the foundation (=created the first ideas from which a major set of ideas
grew) for the field of functional analysis. Keynes’s ideas were set out (=gave all the
details of his ideas or explained them clearly) in his book, The General Theory of
Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936. This work changed the way we
look at how economies function. Elsewhere (=in another work by him), Keynes
claimed to be developing classical economic theory.
8.4. Cause and effect: relating verbs

Much academic study is concerned with establishing cause and effect or the
relationship that exists between events, objects, variables, or states of affairs. Cause and
effect are often described using conjunctions like because, prepositions like due to and
because of and adverbs like therefore, and consequently.
Noun Meaning/Comment Example

chain reaction set of related events in which The incident set off a chain
each one causes the next one reaction which affected us all.
consequence results The war had major consequences.
effect, impact influence The effect/impact of the film on
the audience was very powerful.
origin/source beginning or cause The accident was the origin/source
of her later problems.
We hope for a positive outcome of
outcome result or effect of an action the discussions.
precedent something that already happened There are several precedents for
and provides a reason for doing taking such a decision.
the same
51
8.5. Cause and effect: relating nouns
While cause can be both a noun and a verb, effect is usually a noun. The equivalent
verb is affect. e.g. Her father’s problems affected her deeply. Her father’s problems had a
profound effect on her. Note the formal and infrequent verb effect [= achieve], mainly used
in the phrase to effect a change.
These verbs relating to cause and effect: make, cause,
create, do, produce, force.
Verb Meaning Example
influence / to have an effect Her grandmother influenced/ had a considerable
have a on the way that influence on Sarah’s choice of career.
considerable somebody
influence on behaves or thinks,
especially by
giving them an
example to follow
determine to be an affecting Parental attitude largely determines how well a
factor child adapts to school.
facilitate make easier The flow of traffic through the town is facilitated
by the one-way system.
provoke caused, usually The speech provoked an angry response.
something
negative
trigger start, usually The explosion was triggered by the heat.
something sudden
and negative
account for explain The tilting of the earth on its axis accounts for the
change in the seasons.
spring/stem be the result of Sid’s determination springs/stems from his desire
to improve the world.
contribute be an influencing The mobile phone contributed to the information
factor revolution.
stimulate cause something The child was given drugs to stimulate growth.
to develop or
function
generate aroused, caused The exhibition generated a lot of interest.
to exist
induce cause, often used The drugs may induce nausea.
in a medical
context
inhibit prevented it from The teacher’s presence inhibited the teenagers’
being as free as discussion.
it might otherwise
have been
derived from gained as a result A number of benefits can be derived from this
situation.
52
EXERCISES
Task 1. Match the beginning of the sentence with the most appropriate ending:
Beginning Ending
1. The letters proved to be a valuable a) study, which focuses on metals only.
2. An extensive body of literature b) body of the book; they are in the
appendix.
3. Newspapers are a good primary c) the literature on intellectual property
rights.
4. The data are not given in the main d) exists on the human to animal
communication.
5. Plastics are not dealt with in the present e) source for the period 1980-1985.
6. The thesis begins with a review of f) resource for the study of the poet’s life.
Task 2. Choose the phrase which means exactly the same as:
1. A summary and evaluation of all the important works on a particular subject
 an introduction
 the methodology of the research
 a review of the literature on a particular subject
 citing
2. An original document or set of documents giving information about a subject
 secondary sources
 primary source
 archives
 seminal work
3. Books or articles about a subject, not original documents
 primary source
 secondary sources
 original source
 seminal work
4. A collection of documents of historical importance
 primary source
 original source
 archives
 seminal work
5. Refer to for illustration or proof
 document
 catalogue
 cite
 illustrate
6. Written about
 catalogued
 documented
 listed
 illustrated
53
7. Recorded, listed
 documented
 catalogued
 illustrated
 demonstrated
8. Important and original work from which other works grow
 archives
 primary source
 seminal work
 secondary source
Task 3. Replace the underlined words with a more precise verb of cause or effect:
1. Researchers are investigating why chocolate causes headaches in certain people.
 motivates
 contributes
 inhibits
 induces
 facilitates
2. Wilson’s most recent paper has caused a great deal of interest among sociologists.
 motivated
 facilitated
 generated
 inhibited
 influenced
3. The drug caused headaches and dizziness among a number of subjects in the test.
 influenced
 achieved
 triggered
 inhibited
 facilitated
4. Dieticians believe that people’s lives are largely affected by proper nutrition.
 provoked
 accounted for
 inhibited
 determined
 facilitated
5. The Minister has commenced a reform in an attempt to affect Health Care, which was
performing poorly.
 increase
 contribute
 stimulate
 reach
 focus
54
9
Academic writing: Hedging. Presenting an argument.
Linking words. Metaphors and idioms
9.1. Hedging
In academic writing, it
is prudent to be cautious in
one’s statements so as to
distinguish between facts and
claims. This is commonly
known as “hedging.” Hedging
is the use of linguistic devices
to express hesitation or
uncertainty as well as to
demonstrate politeness and
indirectness.
It is a common mistake for students to present something as a proven fact when it is
actually an opinion. In a serious piece of academic writing, you should not write Girls are
better at learning languages than boys; you could write, instead, There is some evidence to
suggest that girls may be better at learning languages than boys.
Here are some other expressions that are useful when presenting ideas that may be
true but are not proven facts.
 We can presume* that all humans have the ability to learn a second language (*believe
something to be true because it seems very likely)
 There appears/seems to be some evidence linking diet with language ability.
 There is some evidence that previous studies are unreliable.
 We can draw the tentative conclusion* that early language skills determine how
successful a child will be at school (*possible, not yet certain)
 It is evident* that girls and boys develop at slightly different rates. (*obvious, clear)
 The best age for language learning is, apparently, the teenage years.
 The research is likely to lead to some interesting results. = The research will probably
lead to some interesting results.
 Boys tend to* have better practical skills than girls. (*are likely to)
 There is every likelihood* that the research will be completed by June. (*it is probable)
 The situation is liable to change*. (*may change, is likely to change)
 The research has allegedly* come to some very significant conclusions. (*it is claimed;
the use of this adverb suggests that the writer does not believe the claims are true)
 Boys are considered to be* more inclined to take risks than girls. (people think that -
the implication is that the writer may not agree)
 The perception of boys as poor language learners can be shown to be false. (common
view, often one which the writer feels is inappropriate in some way)
 The article is reportedly an excellent piece of work. (it is reported that; the use of the
adverb makes it clear the writer has not seen the article)
 In the absence of evidence to the contrary, we can assume that Laing is correct. (as
there is no evidence to suggest the opposite)
55
9.2. Presenting and developing an argument
The following phrases will help you to develop an argument. Study the examples:
 The arguments I shall put forward are relevant to our understanding of the problem.
 For the purposes of this essay, two opposing theories will be scrutinised. I shall
refer to Ashbach’s and Linn’s work, respectively.
 Many articles have been published on the subject of laboratory nature of
coronaviruses.
 The political arguments concerning epidemiological control are beyond the scope of
this research. The first section reviews recent literature, with reference to the
arguments concerning health policy.
 It’s very difficult to interpret these data. Be that as it may (a typical academic way of
saying although), there is some evidence of a decline in frequency. For this reason,
we decided to repeat the experiment.
The following linking words and phrases will be helpful in case of adding some
additional points to the argument: As well as..., In addition to..., A further argument in...,
Moreover/ Furthermore..., For example/ For instance...
 Bad diet and high stress levels, as well as lack of exercise, are key factors in causing
heart disease.
 In addition to the questionnaire, we also conducted interviews.
 A further argument in support of raising the retirement age is that life expectancy
is increasing. Moreover/ Furthermore (Moreover is much more frequently used in
academic style than furthermore), many people enjoy working; for example/ for
instance (For example is much more frequently used in academic style than for
instance), in a recent survey, 68% of people said they would like to work till they
were at least 70.
 *Adapted from Academic Vocabulary in Use, Michael McCarthy, Felicity O’Dell, 2016.
9.3. Linking words

A table below presents some common linking words classified according to your
writing purpose:
to introduce additional and, as well as, moreover, furthermore, in addition
information
to compare and contrast whereas, on the other hand, although, thus, however,
but, yet, in spite of, in contrast, instead, likewise,
compared to, similarly, as… as, and
to give explanation because, since, as, in fact
to express consequences owing to, due to, as a result of, consequently, thus
to give examples for example, in general, generally, for instance, in
particular, specifically
to show chronology before, after, next, since, first, second, while, when
to express cause and therefore, so, thus, as a result, since, because
effect/consequences
to conclude the idea in conclusion, in summary, finally, therefore, to
conclude, to summarize, to sum up
56
9.4. Metaphors and idioms
A metaphor is a way of using language which describes something by indirectly

comparing it to something else with similar characteristics. For example, you might say an
academic ‘attacks’ or ‘demolishes’ someone’s theory or argument, just as an army can attack
an enemy or workers can demolish a building. If a metaphor is used so often that the
original force of the comparison is lost then it may be called an idiom. For example, people
often use the idiom ‘I’m snowed under with work at the moment’. Originally this was a
metaphor based on the idea of a great deal of work having the characteristics of ‘snow’
(deep, overwhelming everything else and making movement difficult). However, this
expression has been used so frequently that it no longer gives people a mental picture of
snow.
Some of the most common idioms used in academic writing are presented in the table
below:
Idiom Meaning
to shed light on to provide an explanation
in the light of because of
to shine a light on focus on
to remain in the dark continue in the state of not knowing something
to illuminate to show more clearly
Analyze the sentences with metaphors and idioms referring to light and darkness:
 The present experimental data may shed (new) light on (provide an explanation for it
which makes it easier to understand. We can also say cast or throw light on) the nature
of a disease.
 Views on depression have changed in (the) light of (because of) recent studies of the
brain.
 Psychologists often use patient’s histories to illuminate (show more clearly something
that is difficult to understand) their understanding of human behaviour.
 The paper provides an illuminating discussion of how medicine changes.
 Animal models can be used to elucidate (explain or make clear) basic principles of the
developmental origins of adult diseases.
 The report revealed the glaring (something bad that is very obvious) discrepancy
between patients’ needs and what the health service can offer them and highlighted
(emphasised something important) the need for a new approach.
 The report shines a light on (focuses on) the questions surrounding child care and
provides crucial data.
 Substance abuse continues to destroy individuals and communities, and researchers
remain in the dark (continue in a state of not knowing something) about what can
ensure successful recovery from addiction.
57
EXERCISES
Task 1. Match the beginning of the sentence with the most appropriate ending:
Beginning Ending
We may argued that conflict was inevitable after the events of recent
years.
We can certainly well discover that the problem was caused by overheating.
Of course it is true that not all factories cause huge amounts of pollution.
It may well turn out not to be the case that all the questions were answered honestly.
It could be assume that the exchange rate will continue to fluctuate.
It would seem to appear from all the findings that the test is reliable.
Task 2. Which word comes next in these phrases?

1. as well ________________________________
2. In addition _____________________________
3. on the other ____________________________
4. in ____________________________________
5. in spite ________________________________
6. for ____________________________________
7. the pros and ____________________________
8. at the same _____________________________
9. and so on and so _________________________
10. that’s all very well _______________________
11. the extent to ____________________________
Task 3. Choose the correct word or phrase to complete each sentence.
1. The arguments I shall put forward are _____ our understanding of the problem.
A. relevant with B. relevant to C. relevant on
2. _____ of this essay, two opposing theories will be scrutinised.

A. For the purposes B. In the purposes C. To the purposes
3. Many articles have been published _____ of laboratory nature of coronaviruses.

A. by the subject B. on the subject C. with the subject
4. The political arguments concerning epidemiological control are _____ this research.
A. beyond the interest of B. beyond the scope of C. beyond the theme of
5. Bad diet and high stress levels, _____ lack of exercise, are key factors in causing heart
disease.
A. as well as B and C. in addition to
6. _____ the questionnaire, we also conducted interviews.

A. Furthermore B. On the contrast C. In addition to
58
Task 4. Choose the best expression to complete each sentence:
13
1. __________ our discussion, I’d like to focus on the US context.

A. For the purposes of В.In the sense that C. From the point of view of
2. There is some evidence of an improvement in the economy but __________, there
is unlikely to be much change before next year.
A. for this reason В. as a rule C. be that as it may
3. I’d like to consider education__________ industry.
A. in the case of В. from the point of view of C with the exception of
4. I’m not sure __________ you agree with Qian’s theory.
A. by means of which В. to what extent C. as regards
5. We will now discuss the development of the Surrealist Movement __________.
A. on the whole В. to some extent C. in more detail
Task 5. Choose the proper word to complete each sentence:

1. Until recently, scientists have _________ in the dark as to the causes of the disease.
 remained
 shed
 light
 shadow
2. Recent breakthrough promises to _________ new light on the problem.
 shed
 highlight
 spread
 light
3. Our whole notion of time has changed in the _________ of recent developments.
 light
 shadow
 focus
 shed
4. These communities have lived for decades in the _________ of poverty.
 shadow
 light
 focus
 shed
5. The professor found some _________ errors in calculations.
 glaring
 highlighted
 light
 remained
59
10
Academic writing: Title and abstract.
Time expressions
10.1. Title and abstract

The “title” and the “abstract” are the “initial
impressions” of a research article, and hence they need
to be drafted correctly, accurately, carefully, and
meticulously. Often both of these are drafted after the
full manuscript is ready. Most readers read only the title
and the abstract of a research paper and very few will
go on to read the full paper. The title and the abstract
are the most important parts of a research paper and
should be pleasant to read.
The “title” should be descriptive, direct, accurate, appropriate, interesting, concise,
precise, unique, and should not be misleading. The “abstract” needs to be simple, specific,
clear, unbiased, honest, concise, precise, stand-alone, complete, scholarly, structured, and
should not be misrepresentative. The abstract should be consistent with the main text of the
paper, especially after a revision is made to the paper and should include the key message
prominently. It is very important to include the most important words and terms (the
“keywords”) in the title and the abstract for appropriate indexing purposes and retrieval
from the search engines and scientific databases. Such keywords should be listed after the
abstract. One must adhere to the instructions laid down by the target journal with regard to
the style and number of words permitted for the title and the abstract.
Titles can be descriptive, declarative, or interrogative. A descriptive or neutral title
has the essential elements of the research theme but does not reveal the main result or the
conclusion. A declarative title states the main finding of the study. It reduces the curiosity
of the reader and hence is best avoided. An interrogative title has a query or the research
question in the title.
A stepwise process can be followed to draft the appropriate title. The author should
describe the paper in about three sentences, avoiding the results and ensuring that these
sentences contain keywords that describe the main contents and subject of the paper. Then
the author should join the sentences to form a single sentence, shorten the length (by
removing redundant words or adjectives or phrases), and finally edit the title to make it
more accurate, concise, and precise.
The abstracts can be structured or unstructured, descriptive, or informative.
Structured abstracts include specific subsections which usually include
context/background, objectives, design, setting, participants, interventions, main outcome
measures, results, and conclusions. Unstructured abstracts are free-flowing, do not have
predefined subheadings. Descriptive abstracts are short, only portray what the paper
contains without providing any more details. Informative abstracts (structured or
unstructured) give a complete detailed summary of the article contents and truly reflect the
actual research done.
It is important to religiously stick to the instructions to authors provided by the
journal for which the abstract and the paper are being written. It is important to ensure that
the key message, focus, and novelty of the paper are not compromised; and the rationale of
the study and the basis of the conclusions are clear.
60
The abstract can be described as the “elevator pitch” for a possible publication:
imagine you’re stuck in the elevator at the ASA Annual Meeting with one of the editors of
the ASR. You need to provide an overview that hits the high points in about one minute and
convinces the editor that it’s worthy of further consideration. It should very concisely
summarize the topic, how it fits into the broader literature, the contribution, the research
strategy, the key findings, and the broader implications.
Things You Should Do Things You Should Not Do:
 Draft the abstract AFTER you have finished the article  Write the abstract BEFORE the
 Construct a simple, descriptive and accurate title, containin g article
all the important key terms and phrases that relate to the  Construct an ambiguous and
topic, theme, or argument elaborate title
 Repeat key phrases and incorporate them smoothly –  Provide general facts - be sure to
remember that the primary audience is a potential reader and focus on the core
not a search engine discussions/findings
 Use synonyms or related key phrases  Write in the first person
 Provide a clear and concise summary of the content of the  Forget to proof-read for typos
chapter  Review the entire literature
 Describe your methodology and/or data  Write in the past or future tense
 Employ undefined abbreviations or
 Write in the third-person present tense
acronyms
 Review and revise the abstract before you submit your article
 Include citations or references
for review
 Use overly technical language
 Revise the abstract every time you revise your article
 Use speculative phraseology
*Adapted from: 1) Writing the title and abstract for a research paper: Being concise, precise, and meticulous is the key. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6398294/. 2) Writing an Effective Abstract. Available at:
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/information/writing-an-effective-abstract
10.2. Important Tips on Writing a Research Paper Title

When you are searching for a research study on a particular topic, you probably
notice that articles with interesting, descriptive research titles draw you in. By contrast,
research paper titles that are not descriptive are usually passed over, even though they may
be good research papers with interesting content. This shows the importance of coming up
with a good title for your research paper when drafting your own manuscript.
Imagine that you are researching meditation and nursing, and you want to find out if
any studies have shown that meditation makes nurses better communicators. You conduct a
keyword search using the keywords “nursing”, “communication”, and “meditation.” You
come up with results that have the following titles:
1 Benefits of Meditation for the Nursing Describes the topic and the method of the study
Profession: A Quantitative Investigation but is not particularly catchy.
2 Why Mindful Nurses Make the Best Partly describes the topic, but does not give any
Communicators information about the method of the study.
3 Meditation Gurus It is somewhat catchier but gives almost no
information at all about the article.
4 Nurses on the Move: A Quantitative Report This one begins with a catchy main title and is
on How Meditation Can Improve Nurse followed by a subtitle that gives information
Performance about the content and method of the study.
This title has all the characteristics of a good
research title.
Thus, if you want to check whether your paper title is good enough, make sure
that the answers for the following four questions are “Yes”: 1) Does it predict content? 2) Is
it interesting? 3) Does it reflect the tone? 4) Does it include important keywords?
*Adapted from: 4.Tips on Writing a Research Paper Title. Available at: https://www.enago.com/academy/write-irresistible-research-paper-title/
61
10.3. Time expressions
In English, we often refer to periods of time as nouns. Centuries, years, months,

weeks, hours, and times of day can all be specific nouns.
Nouns and noun Meaning
phrases
century 100 years
decade 10 years
annual conference one that happens every year
quarterly journal one that comes out four times a year
era is a particular period of time that is marked by special events or
developments, e.g. the post-war era, an era of rapid social change
phase* any stage in a series of events or process of development
*A phase or stage can be initial (beginning), intermediate (middle) or final. It may
also be described as preceding (happening before now), current (happening now), critical
(particularly important) or transitional (in the process of change).
Analyse the following passage with expressions demonstrating time change:
In recent times – particularly the last 20 years – society has gone through a period of
considerable change. Prior to the 1990s, very few people had access to a home
computer. Nowadays the majority of homes have at least one computer. This expansion
in home computing has coincided with the emergence of e-patients*. At the moment
the situation is challenging. However, subsequent generations of patients and physicians
will need to communicate in a different way taking into account the developing Internet
tools. We do not know exactly how things will develop over the next few years, in the
near future, or, least of all, in the distant future.
* health consumer who participates fully in his/her medical care, primarily by gathering
information about medical conditions that impact them and their families, using the Internet and
other digital tools
The table below presents some adjectives relating to time:

Adjectives Examples and Meaning
concurrent There were concurrent (occurring at the same time) studies in this branch of
research.
contemporary I studied all the contemporary (dating from the same period existing now)
evidence I could find.
eventual The eventual (happening or existing later, after effort or problems) cost of
the project is likely to exceed €10 million.
forthcoming My article will be published in the forthcoming (happening soon) issue.
ongoing Helen has a number of ongoing (happening now) projects.
simultaneous There were simultaneous (at the same time) surveys in several hospitals.
subsequent The paper examines the pandemic and the subsequent (happening after
something else) social changes.
successive Successive (happening immediately after something else) governments
would face similar problems.
temporary Georgia got a temporary (not for a long period; not permanent) position at
the laboratory.
62
EXERCISES
Task 1. Which of the following things should be avoided in writing an abstract?
1)
 draft the abstract after you have finished the article
 repeat key phrases and incorporate them
 write the abstract before the article
 use synonyms or related key phrases
 provide a clear and concise summary of the content of the chapter
2)
 describe your methodology and/or data
 write in the third-person present tense
 review and revise the abstract before you submit your article for review
 construct an ambiguous and elaborate title
 revise the abstract every time you revise your article
Task 2. Which of the following things should be done while writing an abstract?
1)
 provide general facts
 write in the first person
 write in the third-person present tense
 write in the past or future tense
 employ undefined abbreviations or acronyms
2)
 draft the abstract after you have finished the article
 provide general facts
 write in the first person
 write in the past or future tense
 employ undefined abbreviations or acronyms
Task 3. Choose the proper word:
1) _____ can be descriptive, declarative, or interrogative.
 Abstract
 Title
 Sentence
 Paper
2) The ______ can be structured or unstructured, descriptive, or informative.
 titles
 abstracts
 sentences
 terms
3) _____ include specific subsections
 Informative
 Structured abstracts
 Unstructured
 Descriptive
 Declarative
63
Task 4. Choose the correct word to complete the sentences:
1. ______ the moment, I’m writing up my thesis.

 In
 On
 At
 For
 From
9
2. I hope to finish my research in the _____ future.

 tomorrow
 near
 next
 ongoing
 by
3. Our research is at an _______ stage - we now need to analyse our data.

 close
 intermediate
 ongoing
 distant
 near
4. The ______ of internet technology has transformed the health industry.

 emerge
 emergence
 emergency
 mergence
 merging
5. The university has gone through a period of great change in the _____ decade.
 latest
 far
 farthest
 last
 temporary
6. In the _____ future, scientists may be able to cure almost all common diseases.
 distant
 far
 ongoing
 immediate
 next
7. In _____ years, two new diseases appeared.

 consequent
 subsequent
 temporary
 ongoing
 concurrent
64
11
Journal article: Structure. Graphs and diagrams.
Facts, evidence, and data in medical research
11.1. Journal article: Structure

Most journal-style scientific papers are subdivided into the following sections: Title,
Authors and Affiliation, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion,
Acknowledgments, and Literature Cited, which parallel the experimental process:
Section of Paper Experimental process

Abstract What did I do in a nutshell?
Introduction What is the problem?
Materials and Methods How did I solve the problem?
Results What did I find out?
Discussion What does it mean?
Acknowledgments (optional) Who helped me out?
Literature Cited Whose work did I refer to?
Steps to organizing your manuscript

1. Prepare the figures and tables.
2. Write the Methods.
3. Write up the Results.
4. Write the Discussion. Finalize the Results
and Discussion before writing the
introduction. If the discussion is
insufficient, how can you objectively
demonstrate the scientific significance of
your work in the introduction?
5. Write a clear Conclusion.

6. Write a compelling introduction.
7. Write the Abstract.
8. Compose a concise descriptive title.
9. Select Keywords for indexing.
10. Write the Acknowledgements.
11. Write up the References.
Introduction
In this section, you have to convince readers that you know why your work is useful.
The introduction must be organized from the global to the particular point of view, guiding
the readers to your objectives. State the purpose of the paper and adopted research strategy.
Hypothesis and objectives must be clearly remarked at the end of the Introduction Use the
Active Voice as much as possible. Some use of first person is okay, but do not overdo it.
Expressions such as "novel," "first time," "first ever," and "paradigm-changing" are not
preferred.
65
Methods
In this section, you explain clearly how you carried out your study. Organize your
presentation so your reader will understand the logical flow of the experiment(s);
subheadings work well for this purpose. In Methods, avoid adding comments, results, and
discussion, which is a common error. You may use the Active Voice to a certain extent,
although this section requires more use of third person, passive constructions than others.
Avoid the use of first person in this section. Remember to use the past tense throughout –
the work being reported is done, and was performed in the past, not the future.
Results
The function of the Results section is to objectively present your key results, without
interpretation, in an orderly and logical sequence using both text and illustrative materials
(Tables and Figures).
Write the text of the Results section concisely and objectively. The Passive Voice
will likely dominate here but use the active voice as much as possible. Use the past tense.
Avoid repetitive paragraph structures. Do not interpret the data here. The transition into the
interpretive language can be a slippery slope.
Discussion
The function of the Discussion is to interpret your results in light of what was already
known about the subject of the investigation and to explain our new understanding of the
problem after taking your results into consideration. Use the Active Voice whenever
possible in this section. Watch out for wordy phrases; be concise and make your points
clear. The use of the first person is okay, but too much use of the first person may actually
distract the reader from the main points.
Conclusion
This section shows how the work advances the field from the present state of
knowledge. In some journals, it's a separate section; in others, it's the last paragraph of the
Discussion section. Whatever the case, without a clear conclusion section, reviewers and
readers will find it difficult to judge your work and whether it merits publication in the
journal. A common error in this section is repeating the abstract, or just listing experimental
results. Trivial statements of your results are unacceptable in this section.
Acknowledgments (include as needed)
If, in your experiment, you received any significant help in thinking up, designing, or
carrying out the work, or received materials from someone who did you a favor by
supplying them, you must acknowledge their assistance and the service or material
provided.
References
In the text, you must cite all the scientific publications on which your work is based.
But do not over-inflate the manuscript with too many references. In general, you should
minimize personal communications, and be mindful as to how you include unpublished
observations. Make the reference list and the in-text citation conform strictly to the style
given in the Guide for Authors. Remember to check: 1) spelling of author names; 2) year of
publications; 3) usages of "et al."; 4) punctuation; 5) whether all references are included.
Adapted from:
The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Available at:
https://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWsections.html
11 steps to structuring a science paper editors will take seriously. Available at: https://www.elsevier.com/connect/11-steps-to-structuring-a-science-
paper-editors-will-take-seriously
11.2. Graphs and diagrams
66
In medical research “A figure is
worth a thousand words.” The eye-
tracking study methods prove that most
scientists do not read every word of the
paper, but scan the various sections with a
varying degree of attention and thus
decide whether they are interested in
reading the whole thing. Intuitively
scientists employ the scanning method
and their eyes most commonly stop at
figures. This is one of the reasons why graphical abstracts have become such a common
part of research papers and why they are so favored by publishers.
Diagrams often also called figures are usually labelled Fig. 1, Fig. 2, etc. and are
divided as the following:
Pie chart a circle divided into segments to show how the total is divided up
Key/legend shows what each segment represents
Bar chart a diagram in which different amounts are represented by thin vertical or
horizontal bars which have the same width but vary in height or length
Histogram a bar chart but the bar width also varies to indicate different values
Table a grid with columns and rows of numbers.
Cross-section a model of something, cut across the middle so that you can see the
inside. Cross-section can also be used to mean a small group within the
total group (The survey looked at a cross-section of elderly population).
Label gives the name of each part of the cross-section.
Flowchart a diagram which indicates the stages of a process.
Analyze the following fragment of the survey:
The graphs present data relating to elderly population and the amount of money they
spend on drugs. A random sample of 1,000 elderly individuals was surveyed and the
average amount of money has been plotted on the graph. The x-axis or horizontal axis
indicates the age and the у axis or vertical axis shows the amount of money spent per
week. The graph shows that 75-year-olds spend twice as much money on drugs than 65-
year-olds. From the graph we can see that the amount spent reaches a peak at the age of
80 and then starts to decline. This decline can perhaps be explained by governmental
benefit covering the expense of drugs for the population at this age.
Graphs are drawn by plotting points on them and then drawing a line to join
adjacent points. If there are two lines on a graph then the lines would probably cross or
intersect at various points or run parallel to one another. Graphs show how numbers
increase or decrease. Numbers can also be said to rise or grow and fall, drop or decline.
The nouns rise, growth, fall, drop, decline, increase, and decrease are followed by in
or of. Other verbs used about growth include double (=grow to twice the size; opposite
=halve), soar (=rapid movement upwards; opposite = plummet), multiply (=grow rapidly
to a very large number), appreciate (=used about the value of something; opposite =
depreciate) and exceed (=go over, expresses a number in relation to another number;
opposite = fall below).
67
EXERCISES
Task 1. Complete the sentences. Choose one word from the list:
1. In _______ you explain clearly how you carried out your study.
 introduction
 results
 methods
 discussion
 conclusion
2. _______ shows how the work advances the field from the present state of knowledge.
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 Results
 Methods
 Introduction
3. The function of the _______ section is to objectively present your key results, without
interpretation.
 methods
 introduction
 discussion
 results
 conclusion
4. If, in your experiment, you received any significant help in designing, or carrying out the
work mention these people in _______.
 acknowledgements
 introduction
 references
 discussion
 conclusion
5. The function of the _______ is to interpret your results in light of what was already
known about the subject of the investigation
 results
 methods
 introduction
 discussion
 conclusion
6. The purpose of the paper, adopted research strategy, hypothesis and objectives should be
stated in ______:
 methods
 results
 introduction
 discussion
 conclusion
68
Task 2. Make the words in brackets sound more precise and academic:
1. The different (bits) of the pie chart show the numbers of people in each age group.
 stages
 intersections
 segments
 rows
 pieces
2. She kept a record by (marking) the midday temperature on a graph for a month.
 indexing
 plotting
 fixing
 taking
3. People’s salaries usually reach their (highest point) when they are in their late 40s.
 increase
 decline
 peak
 decrease
 default
4. This flowchart shows the different (bits) of our project over the next five years.
 rows
 segments
 lines
 stages
 parts
5. The two lines on the graph (cross each other) at point A.

 increase
 cross-sect
 intersect
 describe
6. The government’s popularity in the opinion polls is beginning to (fall).

 enlarge
 decline
 improve
 increase
 grow
7. If you look along the top (line) of the table you can see the figures for the 1950s.
 stage
 horizon
 dash
 row
 point
69
Task 3. Change the words in brackets using words with the same meanings:
1. The number of cases of death by poisoning has (increased) sharply.

 decreased
 risen
 failed
 declined
 improved
2. In 2007 the child mortality rate (was lower than) 60 deaths per 1,000.
 increased
 improved
 fell below
 fell down
 fell backwards
3. The average family expense in the UK (goes down in value) by 20% per year.
 appreciates
 congratulates
 depreciates
 investigates
4. A typical piece of land on the edge of the city will (go up in value) by 15% per year.
 depreciate
 decrease
 decline
 appreciate
 diminish
5. Drug prices have (gone up rapidly) in the last six months.

 soared
 remained
 decreased
 improved
 declined
6. The temperature (was higher than) 45°C in some parts of the country.
 accelerated
 concentrated
 remained
 exceeded
 soared
7. The number of volunteers attending infection units is (becoming smaller) each year.
 deforming
 declining
 defaulting
 deriving
70
12
Journal article: Talking about ideas.
Reporting what others say
12.1. Some useful nouns relating to ideas
Word Meaning Example
Concept principle, idea Experimental psychology explores basic concepts,
such as memory and motivation, in many areas, such
as child, social and educational psychology.
Framework system of rules, beliefs The purpose of the article is to help nurses improve
or ideas used as the healthcare delivery by using the PP Model as a
basis for something theoretical framework to guide CVD risk reduction
efforts for women.
Model simple description Model surgery has become an essential procedure
useful for discussing for planning surgical outcomes for patients
ideas requiring the correction of a dentofacial deformity.
Notion belief, idea The notion of health – whether physical or mental –
is traditionally defined as the absence of disease.
Perception belief, opinion, held by This study was conducted to explore the knowledge,
many people attitude, and perception of non-radiation oncology
physicians toward this specialty.
Stance way of thinking, often The doctor's stance on the issue of abortion is well
publicly stated known.
Viewpoint opinion, way of The article provides a different viewpoint on this
looking at an issue difficult topic.
12.2. Talking about ideas
The article brings together some recent historical depictions of struggles for universal health
care and emphasises (=shows that sth is very important) the role of immunization. The
emphasis (=the particular importance or attention) on health reform shifted during the 1920s
as medical care became both more effective and more expensive. Nevertheless, there has been
a mixed reaction to the changes.
The psychiatric survivors movement (=group of people sharing aims or beliefs) is a diverse
association of individuals who either currently access mental health services, or who are
survivors of interventions by psychiatry, or who are ex-patients of mental health services.
In general, the work of some psychiatrists, as well as the lack of criticism by the psychiatric
establishment, was interpreted (=described the meaning of sth) as an abandonment of a
moral commitment to do no harm. There were anger and resentment toward a profession that
had the authority to label people as mentally disabled and was perceived (=thought of sth in
a particular way) as infantilizing them and disregarding (=ignoring sth) their wishes.
Many co-counsellors take the view (=think about the effects that sth will have in the future)
that co-counselling is not psychotherapy. In the beginning, this was because Re-evaluation
Counseling decided not to draw on any discipline (=subject) of psychotherapy for its theory
and practice, although RC did incorporate (=included sth as part of sth larger) some ideas
from psycho-analysis such as "unconscious promptings".
For anyone privileged to look after patients, at whatever stage of the human life cycle, the
duty to uphold, protect, and restore the dignity of those who seek our care embraces the very
essence (=the most important quality or characteristics) of medicine.
In medicine, an indication is a valid (=appropriate) reason to use a certain test or medication.
* Adapted from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447696/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1934489/
71
12.3. Reporting what others say
Advance/ Used with idea, theory, Varmus put forward an idea for
Propose/ hypothesis international scientific collaboration called
Put forward the Global Science Corps (GSC).
Argue The use of this verb Blackburn argues the misrepresentation
suggests he gives reasons that undercuts the leadership roles women
for his view scientists are seeking.
Assert/ To say sth is true directly Ignarro claims that nitric oxide has
Claim/ and firmly, often used when signalling properties.
Contend/ others disagree
Maintain
Cast doubt To suggest it is inaccurate Davidson casts doubt on previous research
on in the field.
Demonstrate To show sth and explain Greengard demonstrated that electrical
/ how it works and chemical signaling worked in tandem
Show in the brain.
Describe To give a written Evans described how to culture the
or spoken report of how sth embryonic stem cells of mice and cultivate
is done or of what someone them in a lab.
or sth is like
Emphasise/ To give particular Hunt emphasises the importance of the
Stress/ importance to discovery of protein molecules that control
Highlight the division of cells.
Explain To make something clear or Horwich explained the practice of protein
easy to understand folding.
Imply To suggest indirectly In his article Gurdon implies that the
cytoplasmic factor inducing DNA synthesis
includes DNA polymerase.
Mention To refer to someone In the book Marsh mentions some new
research in the field.
Note/ To state but do not develop Weatherall noted that patients with sickle-
Observe/ at length cell and HbC thalassaemia could fall into
Point out two clear-cut groups.
Pinpoint To focus in on Maniatis pinpointed the key features of
DNA sequences.
Prove To show that something Avery proved that DNA affects hereditary
must be true traits.
Question To express doubts about Greengard questions how Prozac and
similar drugs act in the brain.
State To say directly Sulston stated that the “working draft” of
the human genome sequence was
completed in 2000.
Suggest Say indirectly or tentatively Sheetz suggests that the depletion of
rigidity-sensing modules enables cancer
cell growth on soft surfaces, which is an
enabling factor for cancer progression.
72
12.4. Reporting nouns
Blackburn’s argument that misrepresentation undercuts the leadership roles women
scientists are seeking is convincing.
Ignarro’s claim that nitric oxide has signalling properties is worth considering in some
depth.
Greengard’s demonstration of electrical and chemical signalling in the brain is
fascinating.
Hunt’s emphasis on the importance of the discovery of protein molecules that control
the division of cells is not new.
Evans gives a description of culturing the embryonic stem cells of mice and
cultivating them in a lab.
Gurdon’s implication that the cytoplasmic factor inducing DNA synthesis includes
DNA polymerase has caused some controversy.
Weatherall’s observation that patients with sickle-cell and HbC thalassaemia can fall
into two clear-cut groups has been supported by a number of other scholars.
Avery’s proof of the link between DNA and hereditary traits is of considerable
interest.
Horwich provides an explanation for the practice of protein folding.
Sulston’s statement that the “working draft” of the human genome sequence was
completed has been challenged.
Sheetz’s suggestion that the depletion of rigidity-sensing modules enables cancer cell
growth on soft surfaces is uncontroversial.
Note: A number of words that are useful for talking about ideas have irregular plurals:
criterion → criteria
phenomenon → phenomena
hypothesis → hypotheses
analysis → analyses
thesis → theses
In many types of articles, you are expected to make your own viewpoint on a topic
clear – this is often done through a thesis statement. But, how can you express your
opinion without using “I” or “my”? Here are some suggestions:
1. Use a passive structure
Don’t Do
“We should invest more money in “More money should be invested in
healthcare” healthcare”
“Many people claim that children are ”It is widely claimed that children are
spending less time exercising these days, spending less time exercising these days,
but recent research suggests…” but recent research suggests…”
2. Use a noun phrase
Don’t Do
“If we banned the use of amphetamine, this “A ban on the sale of amphetamine would
would help fight drug abuse worldwide.” help fight drug abuse worldwide.”
3. Use “It is” + ADJECTIVE and “There is/are” + NOUN
Don’t Do
“I cannot understand why this decision was “It is difficult to understand why this
taken.” decision was taken.”
73
EXERCISES
Task 1. Replace the words in brackets with synonyms:
1. The samples varied in quality but were equally (acceptable).
 invalid
 valid
 unacceptable
 emphasised
 interpreted
2. In the UK a medical university faculty is a unit where similar (subjects) are grouped
together.
 emphases
 data
 disciplines
 notions
 perceptions
3. The psychiatric survivors (association of individuals) represents those who either
currently access mental health services, or who are survivors of interventions by
psychiatry.
 framework
 stance
 criterion
 movement
 viewpoint
4. Researchers spend much of their time trying to (understand) the meaning of their data.
 interpret
 emphasise
 perceive
 incorporate
 claim
5. One type of immune (response) is due to the production of antibodies called IgE
specific to the drug.
 discipline
 reaction
 emphasis
 concept
 framework
6. Harvey (2003) (stresses) that the findings of the study cannot be said to be always
true.
 incorporates
 claims
 emphasises
 interprets
 perceives
74
Task 2. Change the words in bold from singular to plural:
1. There’s an interesting PhD thesis on the link between Helicobacter pylori and ulcers in
the library.
2. What was your main criterion in designing your survey?
3. She was interested in a strange phenomenon.
4. The hypothesis was never proved, as the data were incomplete.
5. Chemical analysis revealed a high content of copper.
Task 3. Match the beginning of a sentence with the most appropriate ending:
1 Quantitative and qualitative methods a framework is an important stage in any
were used to capture perceptions research.
2 The book expresses H. Marsh’s b on the relation of neurosurgery to
viewpoint neuroscience.
3 Barack Obama has always made his c on U.S. healthcare based on income,
stance type of employment, and pre-existing
medical conditions very clear.
4 The task of choosing an analytical d of study participants.
5 The report laid out a new model e of family healthcare which changed
everything.
6 Dermatologists developed the f of applying the radiation at the level of
concept the basic pathologic process.
7 In the present work, we exploit these g brain tumours and results in several
new notions of ways.
Task 4. Fill in the missing word:
Noun Verb Noun Verb
argue emphasis
assert explanation
claim imply
contention prove
demonstrate statement
description suggest
Task 5. In each sentence two of the options in italics are possible and one is not.
Which is not?
1. The author notes/ observes/ pinpoints how cells adapt to changes in levels of oxygen.
2. Grey puts forward/ proves/ advances a controversial theory to explain that brain cells
keep growing after the age of 20.
3. Warren and Marshall claimed/ questioned/ challenged the accuracy of the expression that
ulcers were caused by stress and diet.
4. The NFL declared/ cast doubt/ maintained that there was a link between its players’
concussions and brain damage.
5. Trakov stresses/ emphasises/ asserts the importance of pilot testing before carrying out a
survey.
6. Hausen’s assertion/ contention/ description that human papillomavirus causes cervical
cancer was correct.
7. Ripoll advances/ demonstrates/ shows how the development of large-scale data
collection has permitted the development of an 'early warning system' in relation to low-
incidence medical complications.
75
13
Journal article: Analysis of results & discussion
Talking about meaning
13.1. Analysis of results and discussion

No matter how well presented your work is, to write a decent article you must answer
the questions set. The work that you present should be relevant to the discussion. The
degree of analytical thoroughness is valued by those marking the work. This might be
described as the "So what?" factor of your work. You will be rewarded for linking ideas
together to draw conclusions or discussing the implications of what you have described.
You will be rewarded for questioning the material that you have researched for preparing
your assignment. You will not be rewarded for simply listing everything that you have
discovered on a topic. Analytical ability assumes greater importance.
Academic texts often include sections which deal with the analysis of data. In
analysing a social or political issue, the writer may need to come to/ reach a conclusion
about the advantages and disadvantages of a particular course of action (way of doing
something). The writer may, for instance, conclude that the benefits outweigh (are of more
importance than) the drawbacks (disadvantages) or vice versa. An analysis may be a
matter of weighing up (think carefully) both sides of an argument, taking into account all
the relevant aspects (of a problem or situation) parts, features) of the issue and discussing
all the points (idea, opinion or piece of information that has been presented in relation to
the topic) raised by the research.
When analysing the results of a scientific experiment,
the writer is likely to need to take account of a range of
variables (=number, amount or aspect of a situation which
can change). In their analysis scientists try to deduce (=reach
an answer by thinking carefully about the known facts) as
much as they can from their data, drawing conclusions that
are soundly (completely, firmly) based on their results.
*Adapted from: RULES AN D CONVENTIONS OF ACADEMIC WRITING. Available at:
https://drhazelhall.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/2013_hall_rules-conventions_ac_writing.pdf
Noticing how language can be used metaphorically may help you to extend the use of
the words you know
Expression Example Meaning
To weigh up Before doing this weigh up the to think carefully about the
advantages and disadvantages of advantages or disadvantages of
each type. a situation before making
a decision
To outweigh Advantages outweigh to be greater or more important
disadvantages. than something else
To tip the scales A particularly strong argument may to cause a change, esp. in
tip the scales in favour of one side. making something more likely
to happen
To come down on The Texas Medical Board then has to make a decision between
one side or the other to come down on one side or the two opposing points of view
other.
To place on each Arguments are placed on each side To be treated or judged about
side of the scale of the scales. separately
76
Sentences relating to analyses:
The survey provided some useful insights into (=points that help us to understand more
clearly) the problem.
The results point to (=show, indicate) an interesting trend.
On the basis of (=say something will happen in the future) the data collected on 1,622
patients diagnosed with incurable diseases, the vast majority of patients have less time than
doctors predict.
Neuropsychiatric casualties constitute (=account for) an important portion of combat
casualties, the percentage varying with the intensity and duration of combat.
We began with a critical (=giving opinions) review of the literature in the field.
Many conventional doctors are critical of (=not pleased with, negative about) complementary
and alternative medicine.
Haiti is about to reach a critical (=expressing an opinion when you think something
is wrong or bad) point of COVID cases.
The findings suggest that the critical (=very important) period for learning language is much
longer than cognitive scientists had previously thought.
The patient is in a critical (=serious) / deeply critical (=very negative)/ absolutely critical
(=extremely important) condition.
13.2. Talking about meaning. The importance of meaning
Academic study in any subject inevitably requires precision with regard to the
meanings of the terms (=words or expressions used in relation to a specific context) used.
Many textbooks provide a glossary (=list of words with explanations of their meanings) of
the terminology (=special words or expressions used in relation to a specific subject) of the
subject and this should be referred to frequently, whenever the meaning of some new term is
not transparent (= clear, often used when referring to meaning).
Often there are subtle distinctions (=small differences) between the way in which a
word is used in a non-academic context and the way in which it is used in a specific
academic discipline and the student needs to be able to distinguish between these different
senses (=meanings) of the same word.
When writing an article it is often appropriate to begin by defining (=explaining the
meaning of) the key words relating to the topic. This is done to avoid ambiguity (=having
more than one possible meaning) and may misinterpret (=understand in the wrong way)
the text. In lectures, the audience will require the lecturer to clarify what they are saying by
providing a definition of any unfamiliar terms and to communicate their meaning in a clear
and coherent (=carefully organised and making sense) way.
13.3. The power of words
Authors may use words to express ideas or to
convey a message (=key idea e.g. in a book or article) or to
evoke (=make someone feel something) an atmosphere
(=feeling or mood). In scientific discourse (=written or
spoken text), if words are not used precisely, then it is hard
for the reader to comprehend (=understand) what the
writer is trying to say. In literature, the connotations (=associations) that words have may
be at least as important if not more important than what those words denote (=mean). The
reader has to infer (=form an opinion on the basis of indirect evidence) the meaning and this
may involve sensitivity to nuances of meaning (=small differences in meaning) and the
ability to see things from the author’s perspective (=point of view).
77
EXERCISES
Task 1. Complete the expressions with a word from the box below:
Critical To weigh up A conclusion Side(s) of an argume nt
1) _____  Review
 Comment
 Period
 Condition
2) _____  Options
 Chances
 The advantages and disadvantages
 Come to 3) _____
 Reach
 Draw
 Come down on one 4) _____
 Be in favour of one
 See both
Task 2. Complete the text with words from the box below:
weighing outweigh insights constitute
conclusion disadvantages variables points
Sleep patterns of students have been extensively studied and have revealed
considerable variations between college nights and non-college nights of rest.
Which is better at college? To study longer and get less sleep or to study less and
sleep longer? After 1) _____ up the evidence scientists have come to the 2) _____ that the
advantages of getting more sleep 3) _____ the 4)_____. Research has provided 5) _____
into the link between sleep and memory development, suggesting that sleep is essential for
memory. But there are many 6) _____ to take account of in sleep and memory research,
such as dreaming, phases of sleep and types of memories. Dreams 7) _____ about 25% of a
typical eight-hour sleep, but research 8) _____ to a connection between memory
development and non-dreaming sleep time.
Task 3. Complete the text with a word from the box below:
define terms terminology conveying glossary ambiguous
distinguish differences transparent coherent senses misunderstand
Tips for writing a dissertation
 In the first chapter, you need a section where you 1) _____ your 2) _____.
 You explain your 3) _____, the special technical words or phrases you’re going to use, and
what precise meaning they have so that your text is 4) _____, and every reader knows
exactly what you mean when you use a word or phrase.
 Alternatively, you can provide an alphabetical 5) _____ at the back of the dissertation
where readers can look up the meaning. If you’re using different 6) _____ of the same
word you must explain each one.
 Sometimes, it is difficult to 7) _____ between the different meanings. There are so many
subtle 8) _____ between words and between the different meanings of the same words.
 A dissertation is all about 9) _____ your ideas in a clear, 10) _____ manner. If you use
words which are 11) _____ your readers might 12) _____ your text. So it’s always
important to clarify what you intend to say.
78
Task 4. Complete the text with words from the box below:
take into course evidence way

relevant data basis predict
Scientists 1)_____ account such 2) _____ factors as self-reported shortened sleep

time, erratic sleep/wake schedules, and poor sleep quality that have been found to be
negatively associated with school performance for adolescents.
But how do we relate a particular 3)_____ of action to its outcome?
Lawrence Epstein claims that there are 4)_____ that sleep loss leads to learning and
memory impairment, as well as decreased attention and vigilance. There is ample evidence
to indicate that the lack of adequate nighttime sleep can lead to disturbances in brain
function, which in turn, can lead to poor academic performance.
What can we deduce from the 5)_____?
On the 6)_____ of research data it is stated that students with symptoms of sleep
disorders receive poor grades in classes such as math, reading and writing than peers
without symptoms of sleep disorders.
It is discovered that starving the body of sleep also robs neurons of the ability to
function properly. This paves the 7)_____ for cognitive lapses in how we perceive and react
to the world around us. Sleep deprivation dampens brain cell activity and the neurons
respond slowly. This phenomenon suggests that select regions of the students' brains are
dozing, causing mental lapses, while the rest of the brain is awake and running as usual.
Scientists also 8)_____ that college students with insomnia will have significantly
more mental health problems than college students without insomnia.
Task 5. Match the words to make collocations:
express comprehend medical distinguish ambiguous provide convey

nuances perspective subtle meaning communicate explain define
1. _____ ideas
2. subtle _____
3. _____ discourse
4. see from the _____ of
5. difficult to _____
6. _____ distinctions
7. _____ between the different senses of the same word
8. _____ the key words
9. _____ words
10. _____ terminology
11. _____ a definition of an unfamiliar term
12. _____ the meaning in a coherent way
13. _____ a message
14. nuances of _____
79
Task 6. Add negative prefixes to the words in bold:
1. However, the …understanding about the quantitative method can be quite serious and
can also get tied up with problems concerning statistical significance testing.
 Dis
 Im
 Mis
 Ir
 Non
2. Some of the totals had evidently been …calculated, so the results were unreliable.
 In
 Un
 Mis
 Non
 Dis
3. Existing methods of production are expensive and …efficient.

 Ir
 In
 Un
 Im
 Dis
4. We hope our work will help to change popular misconceptions about …abled people.
 Mis
 In
 Dis
 Anti
 Non
5. The talk she gave was …coherent and badly prepared.

 In
 Non
 Ir
 Dis
 Anti
6. The research proved a significant ...balance in a number of female and male patients.
 In
 Ir
 Un
 Im
 Dis
80
14
Research aims and statement
Expressing a point of view
14.1. Expressing aims
Word + Example + meaning Collocations
derivatives
Deliberate adj A do-not-resuscitate order is frequently a deliberate attack/
Deliberate v used to withhold CPR in the event of decision/ action/
Deliberately adv cardiopulmonary arrest, which occurs movement
too suddenly for deliberate (intentional;
is often used for something negative)
decision-making.
Goal n The definitions of health and value the main/primary/ultimate
suggest that health care should focus on goal; set a goal; have
four major health-related goals something as a goal;
(aims or purposes). achieve (NOT reach)your
goal
Intention n People in Asia have no intention (sth with the intention of –ing;
Intend v + inf that you want and plan to do) of have no intention of –ing
participating in clinical trials because of
persecution, discrimination, and
minorities’ social norms regarding
healthcare influence.
Motivation n Kusurkar and her colleagues the chief/main/primary
Motive n divided medical students into four motivation; a motivation
Motivate v groups based on their intrinsic and behind sth
extrinsic motivation (the reason for
doing something) in medical school.
Objective (n) Learning objectives (what you plan to do meet/achieve objectives
Objective (adj.) or achieve) are a required component in
all medical education curricula.
Priority n Ensuring a worthy life for each top priority, take priority
Prioritize v individual is now an accepted priority over
(implies a list of important things) for
governments as well as for doctors.
Purpose n The purpose (why you do something) on purpose (deliberately)
was to test our theory.
Strategy n All healthcare marketers are requested to a strategy for doing sth; a
Strategic adj improvise their current marketing strategy of doing sth;
strategies (detailed plan for success) and develop/ design/ produce
help people find support and a strategy; pursue/follow
encouragement in this difficult time. a strategy
Target n Targeted therapy is a type of cancer reach/achieve/attain a
Target v treatment that uses drugs designed to target
“target” (to choose sth for a particular
type of treatment) cancer cells without
affecting normal cells.
81
14.2. An example of a research statement
“Research is an organized method of trying to find out what you are going to do after you
cannot do what you are doing now.” Charles F. Kettering
Current aims and findings, as well as future goals, can be expressed in a research
statement which is a summary of past research achievements and a proposal for upcoming
research. In other words, a research statement is a short document that provides a brief
history of your past research experience, the current state of your research, and the future
work you intend to complete.
The research statement often assists in the identification of appropriate applicants. It
is a common component of a potential candidate’s application for post-undergraduate study,
graduate programs, post-doctoral fellowships, or faculty positions. The research statement is
often the primary way that a committee determines if a candidate’s interests and past
experience make them a good fit for their program/institution.
Rules Example
Your statement should I seek to improve patient outcomes by improving the tools
instigate by articulating of science and medicine. Applications include image-guided
the broader field that you interventions and computer-aided diagnosis, computer-
are working within and the vision for tracking ultrasound probes, and innovative
larger question or questions scientific instruments to further fundamental biomedical
that you are interested in knowledge bases.
answering.
 You should explore and OCT and ultrasound are some of the safest and most
challenge traditional affordable biomedical imaging modalities, but they suffer
hypothesis-based and from substantial noise and limited anatomical context.
critical-analytical research Improving the usefulness of these modalities directly
methodologies. improves biomedical science and patient care.

To establish new I have made numerous contributions to the Insight
understandings of the key Toolkit, funded by the National Library of Medicine. My
concepts, the body of your visiting student developed malignancy classification
statement should include a methods for whole-slide digital microscopy of the prostate.
brief history of your past I have collaborated on algorithms that simultaneously
research. segment an image while extracting its medial structure.
It should also address I apply novel computer vision algorithms and optics to the
your present research. real-time analysis of biomedical imaging modalities such as
OCT, ultrasound, and camera/microscope imaging.
Finally, it should describe This work is expected to lead to new fundamental

the future trajectory on knowledge and quantal leaps in multiple major research
which you intend to take areas. My long-term goal is to invent fundamentally new
your research. optical imaging modalities to see things that have never
been seen before, with corresponding breakthroughs in the
analysis and visualization of such images.
82
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS:
To intend to to have as a plan or purpose

To instigate to cause an event or situation to happen
To articulate the broader field
to define the field of study clearly
To seek to improve to try or attempt
To further to move forward, advance
Knowledge bases the basic knowledge shared by everyone working in
the areas
To challenge to question
Hypothesis-based an idea or explanation for something that
is based on known facts but has not yet been proved
Research methodology the specific procedures or techniques used to identify,
select, process, and analyze information about a topic
To establish new to encourage people to accept new knowledge about
understandings a subject
To make numerous something that you do to help produce or
contributions to achieve something together with other people
To develop methods to change the existing methods into more advanced
ones
To collaborate on to work with someone else for a special purpose
Novel (or fundamentally new) new and original
Long-term goal something you want to accomplish in the future
Breakthrough in an important discovery that helps to improve a situatio
n
*Adapted from: Research Statement: John M. Galeott. Available at: http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~galeotti/Galeotti-Research_Statement.pdf
Graduate School Applications: Writing a Research Statement. . Available at:
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/graduate_school_applications/writing_a_research_statement.html
14.3. Talking about points of view. Commenting on others’ views
No one can be completely objective (=not influenced by personal beliefs, based only on
facts) in their point of view. Inevitably, we all see things to some extent subjectively
(=influenced by personal beliefs). It is impossible to be truly impartial (=uninfluenced by
personal beliefs). We tend to be biased in favour of (=showing an unreasonable liking
for something based on personal opinions; opposite: biased against) things we are
familiar with and prejudiced against (=showing an unreasonable dislike for, based on
personal beliefs or opinions (=stronger and more pejorative than biased) things we have
little experience of. Of course, everyone believes their own views are totally rational
(=based only on reason; opposite = irrational).
Scientists’ views tend to change as they grow older and begin looking at life from a
different standpoint (=set of principles or beliefs on the basis of which opinions are
formed). Young specialists are more likely to be radical (=believing that there should be
extreme political or social change) but then become more reactionary (=disapproving)
opposed to political or social change or new ideas) or conservative (=not inclined to
trust change, especially if it is sudden) with age, considering their younger opinions
immature (=lacking in experience; opposite: mature).
83
14.4. Word combinations relating to points of view
There are three different points of view that can be used in writing: first person,
second person, and third person. In academic writing, the third person point of view is
usually clearer and allows a writer to come across as more credible. Third-person point of
view identifies people by a proper noun (a given name such as Ella Clark) or noun (such as
students, doctors) and uses the pronouns he, she, and they. Third person also includes the
use of one, everyone, and anyone.
In the past, it was common to use the masculine pronoun to refer to one unnamed
person. Today, the automatic use of the masculine pronoun should be avoided because it is
considered the sexist language. It is also recommended to avoid perpetuating gender
stereotypes by assigning a particular gendered pronoun: A doctor should listen to his
patients or A nurse should listen to her patients. These examples make assumptions that
doctors are men and nurses are women, which is a sexist stereotype. Using “he or she” is a
possible solution, but not if the phrase comes several times in a row. Another strategy is to
use they or them. However, they or them must refer to a plural: If physicians are well paid,
they will have the possibilities to participate in conferences worldwide.
Adapted from: POIN T OF VIEW IN ACADEMIC WRITIN G. Available at : https://www.stlcc.edu/docs/student-support/academic-
support/college-writing-cen ter/point-of-view-in-academic-writing.pdf
Word Meaning Example

combination
relating to points
of view
to hold views have opinions Dr. Jane C. Wright held some surprisingly
progressive views on cancer treatment and
played a major role in elevating
chemotherapy from a last-resort treatment
to the treatment that has the best shot of
containing the disease.
to adopt/take a take a position It is important that the university should
stance adopt a principled stance towards
research.
to change/shift change the point of view Luisa was initially totally opposed to the
your position a little idea but she has slightly shifted her
position.
have ethical dislike for reasons Strong believers have ethical objections
objections to relating to morality to euthanasia that may be termed
the objection from the sanctity of life.
the principles basic idea lying behind Immunity becomes the fundamental
underlying principle underlying all treatment of
viral infections.
to encounter experienced Sometimes healthcare providers
prejudice unreasonable negative encounter prejudice based on
behaviour defensiveness and mistrust.
deep-rooted strong, unreasonably Everyone knows that mercury in all its
prejudice negative views forms continues to be an object of deep-
rooted prejudices in many parts of the
USA.
84
EXERCISES
1 deliberate a motivation
2 ultimate b a target
3 chief c goal
4 to achieve d a strategy
5 top e decision
6 to pursue f priority
Task 2. Fill in the gaps with the right word:

1. None of this can prove whether Xi made a _____ decision to withhold information in
order to imperil (to put sth or someone at risk or in danger of being harmed or destroyed)
others.
 chief
 top
 deliberate
 primary
 sharp
2. The _____ goals of medicine encompass the relief of pain and suffering, the promotion of
health and the prevention of disease.
 deliberate
 ultimate
 chief
 analytical
 critical
3. It is clear that significant portions of the Republican Party have no _____ of actually
repealing Obamacare.
 goal
 objective
 strategy
 intention
 priority
4. A _____ motivation for the development of managed care was to: contain costs and
expenditures of health care.
 deliberate
 novel
 primary
 hypothesis-based
 long-term
5. The ______ goal of the Global Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP) was to achieve the global
and regional elimination targets.
 deliberate
 main
 top
 numerous
 affordable
85
6. Incorporating tetanus vaccination into VMMC programmes should be seen as a _____
priority.
 deliberate
 top
 hypothesis-based
 critical
 long-term
7. The traditional strategy _____ in clinical development of cytotoxic agents may not be
appropriate for these novel agents.
 achieved
 met
 intended
 pursued
 instigated
Task 3. Fill in the gaps with the right word:
1. If an individual is motivated to _____ vaccination or advice on vaccination, it should –

ideally – be as simple as possible for them to do so.
 follow
 meet
 achieve
 seek
 further
2. Innovative scientific instruments should be used to _____ fundamental biomedical

knowledge bases.
 meet
 instigate
 achieve
 further
 intend
3. As new medicines are used more widely, we _____ new understandings of their
effectiveness in different circumstances.
 collaborate
 establish
 articulate
 challenge
 contribute
4. Teamwork and _____ lead to better medical care in hospital settings.

 target
 strategy
 intention
 collaboration
 goal
86
5. Many companies are _____ non-invasive methods to substitute finger pricking.
 contributing
 establishing
 developing
 collaborating
 instigating
6. _____ drugs are often innovative products that serve previously unmet medical needs or
otherwise significantly help to advance patient care and public health.
 Novel
 Deliberate
 Objective
 Strategic
 Numerous
7. Researchers at the University of Nottingham in England reported another important

_____ in cancer research: they created a blood test that could potentially detect breast
cancer up to five years before a lump or other symptoms appear.
 strategy
 breakthrough
 intention
 knowledge
 collaboration
Task 4. Change the words in bold to words which mean the opposite:
1. The views she expressed were totally rational.

irrational unrational disrational non-rational antirational
2. The committee seemed to be biased against applications from young general practitioners.
in favour of behind towards in with
3. The book is a subjective account of the case that happened in 2011 when two people died
in Hong Kong after contracting a strain of scarlet fever that was tolerant to certain
antibiotics.
objective prejudiced radical reactionary immature
4. The campaign aims to dispel the prejudice in favour of the common misconception about
AIDS that is confined to the homosexual community.
against for with towards in
5. In 2006, Shinya Yamanaka discovered a method to convert immature body cells back
into stem cells.
mature subjective conservative objective radical
6. Some futurists think even more reactionary changes are coming, including medical
treatments that could slow, stop or reverse the aging process.
radical conservative immature subjective impartial
87
Task 5. Fill in the gaps with the correct words:
1. The _____ principles of Asian and European healthcare systems are very different.
 irrational
 immature
 mature
 underlying
 minor
2. People tend to _____ a more conservative stance as they get older.

 challenge
 hold
 adopt
 shift
 adopting
3. Osteopaths in this study _____ differing views, identities and conceptions in relation to
their practice of osteopathy.
 held
 shifted
 encountered
 took
 challenged
4. “Ethics for A-level” by Mark considers the ethical _____ to euthanasia (sometimes
labelled as “mercy killing”).
 stances
 positions
 views
 objections
 codex
5. The idea that pain is a problem distinct from problems of disease was a revolutionary idea
challenging many _____ prejudices in the 1960s.
 reactionary
 deep-rooted
 impartial
 prejudiced
 rational
6. It is important that the university should adopt a principled ______ towards research.
 objection
 position
 stance
 view
 post
88
15
Summary and conclusion. Making a presentation
15.1. Summary and conclusion

Making oral summaries is a common
activity, for example when describing a film
or a book. In academic writing it is a vital
skill, allowing the writer to condense lengthy
sources into a concise form. Like most skills,
it becomes easier with practice, and this unit
explains the basic steps needed to achieve an
accurate summary.
Summarising is a flexible tool. You can use it to give a one-sentence synopsis of an
article or to provide much more detail, depending on your writing needs. But in every case
the same basic steps need to be followed:
 Read the original text carefully and check any new or difficult vocabulary;
 Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting;
 Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible;
 Write the summary from your notes, re-organising the structure if needed;
 Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been
changed or lost.
Each summary Example

should include
A statement showing This study has clearly illustrated the drawbacks of treatment of
how your aim has pregnant women with tetracyclines.
been achieved.
A short review of the Research demonstrates that lack of sleep affects mood, and a
main points of your depressed mood can lead to lack of sleep. To combat this vicious
study. cycle, sleep experts recommend that teens prioritize sleep and
focus on healthy sleep habits.
Some suggestions for Another line of research worth pursuing further is to confirm
further research. these findings and studies so as to prove the possible effects of
other tetracyclines.
The limitations of As always, this investigation has a number of limitations to be
your study. considered in evaluating its findings.
Comparison with the These results of the Colombia study reported here are consistent
results of similar with other similar studies conducted in other countries (Baron
studies. and Norman, 1992).
Summarising is concerned with expressing the most important facts or ideas about
something or someone in a short and clear form while concluding is concerned with (a)
stating your position or opinion after considering all the information about something, or (b)
stating that you have come to the end of something. Recapitulating is concerned with
briefly repeating your main points.
89
The following openings of the final paragraphs in academic articles contain some
useful expressions for effective summarising:
As we have seen, the data are consistent across the three separate tests.
To conclude / In conclusion, it seems that women’s greater risk of depression is a
consequence of gender differences in social roles.
To recapitulate (a less formal alternative is the short form to recap) the findings of the
present experiments: mothers’ speech to young children was simpler than their normal
speech.
From these comparisons, we may draw the following conclusions. As was expected,
there are large differences between Russia and the two Nordic countries (Finland and
Sweden).
To sum up / To summarise / In summary (more formal) can also be in sum), in the case
of high achievers in all professions, emotional competence is twice as important as purely
mental abilities.
In short (used before describing something in as few words and as directly as possible),
emotional competence is the key.
To bring the paper to a close (or bring to an end), I summarise the main points (or
summarise the key point) here: siblings influence the development of behaviour, and
problems among siblings are linked to other problems.
*Adapted from: Academic writing: a handbook for international students. Available at: https://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0013287/Subjects/academic-
writing-handbook -international-students-3rd-ed%20(2).pdf
The table below presents other useful words and expressions for summarising and
concluding:
To summarise in a few words
We may summarise the findings in a few words: in adults with CHD, major depression
is associated with impaired functional status, heart failure, systemic inflammation, and
increased risk for adverse outcomes.
The final point to stress
The final point to stress is that treatment options for end stage heart failure have improved
in recent years and include a combination of drugs, mechanical devices and surgical
procedures which may improve symptoms and survival.
To put it briefly/ stated briefly
To put it briefly / Stated briefly, our results suggest that the plasma EGFR mutation test
will be useful when the archived tissue is not available, and archived plasma can serve as
an alternative source under certain circumstances in NSCLC patients.
Provides/ gives a (brief) summary of
M. Essa provides/gives a (brief) summary of mutations in cancer-related genes.
In the abstract of - shortened form of an article, book, etc., giving only the most
important facts or arguments, usually printed at the beginning of the book or article
In the abstract of the article, the authors claim to have made a breakthrough in cancer
research.
To attempt to review concisely - in academic style it is common to say that you have
attempted/tried to argue or demonstrate something instead of directly saying you did it;
concisely means in a short and clear way, without unnecessary words
In this article, I have attempted to review concisely the data concerning the frequency of
pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) germline mutations in cancer-related genes among
children with cancer in highly consanguineous countries.
90
On balance, the overall picture seems to be - after thinking about the different facts or
opinions; general rather than in particular
On balance, the overall picture seems to be that ultrasound-guided percutaneous MWA
is a valuable technique for the treatment of BBLs.
In the final/ last analysis - said when talking about what is most important or true in a
situation. Final is more formal than last.
In the final/last analysis, the scientists suggest that selectively blocking the SGLT-1
receptor could provide a way to slow down glucose uptake to prevent or treat
cardiometabolic disease and its consequences.
Commonly confused expressions

Expression Meaning
In the end finally, after something has been thought about or discussed a lot
At the end is usually followed by “of (something)”, and refers to the final point of a
thing or time or place, e.g. at the end of the month, at the end of the
street
Lastly refers to the final point or item in a list or a series of points being
discussed, and is similar to finally
At last refers to something which happens after people have been waiting for
it for a long time
Eventually in the end, especially after a long time or a lot of effort, problems, etc.
15.2. Making a presentation

Presentations are brief discussions of a focused topic
delivered to a group of listeners in order to impart knowledge
or to stimulate discussion. The language of presentations often
contains less formal vocabulary than that of academic writing.
Preparation is the key to giving an effective
presentation and controlling your nervousness. However,
remember that presentation is primarily for the benefit of the
audience. The aim of your slides is to illustrate and expand what you are going to say to
your audience. Visual aids (maps, photos, film clips, graphs, diagrams, and charts) can
enhance a presentation, while handouts provide structure, supplemental material,
references, a glossary of terms, and serve as a record of the presentation.
Open your presentation with something surprising or intriguing, something that will
get your audience to sit up and take notice. Use colour, video or audio well. But, be
cautious with images as there are two schools of thought about images in presentations.
Some say they add visual interest and keep audiences engaged; others say images are an
unnecessary distraction. Both arguments have some merit, so the best option is to split the
difference and use images only when they add important information.
The key to success is to practice giving your presentation to yourself. Speak out
loud and time yourself. Practice using your visual aids. It is absolutely important that you
adhere to your time limit.
*Adapted from: Guidelines for Oral Presentations. Available at: http://go.owu.edu/~dapeople/ggpresnt.html
91
The following expressions can be used in order to introduce the presenter:
Let’s welcome Carmen Gori, who’s going to talk to us today on the subject of
“Healthcare in Paraguay”.
OK, thank you everybody. Now, Dr Ulla Fensel is going to present her research to us.
Now I’d like to call on Robert to make/give her presentation. Robert, thank you.
I’d like to introduce Dr Li Meiju, who’s going to address the topic of “Palliative
medicine”.
The table below presents some ideas to start the presentation:

“In this presentation I’d like to focus on the nature of pain experienced by patients with
fibromyalgia and how clinicians can treat it. I’ll speak for about 45 minutes, to allow
time for questions and comments. Feel free to (an informal way of giving permission)
interrupt if you have any questions or want to make a comment.”
“First I’ll give a brief overview of the current situation with regard to high drug prices,
then I’d like to raise a few issues concerning the “American Patient First” Plan
introduced by President Trump. I’ll try to leave (less formal than allow) time for
questions at the end.”
“I’d like to begin by looking at some previous studies of palliative care. There’s a
handout going round (a more formal version would be “which is being distributed”), and
there are some spare (extra) copies here if you want them.”
“In this talk I’ll present the results of a study I did (more formal carried out/ conducted)
for my dissertation. I’ll try not to go over time and keep to 20 minutes.”
The following expression would be helpful during the presentation and closing
it:
Now let’s turn to (=begin to examine or talk about) the problem of workplace stress.
Moving on (=going on to the next point), I’d like to look at the questionnaire results in
more detail (=less formal than in greater detail).
I also want to talk about the supply of heart-lung machines, but I’ll come back to
(=return to) that later.
I’d just like to go back to (=return to) the graph on the previous slide.
Anyway, getting back to / to return to (=getting back to is less formal than to return to)
the question of immunization, let’s look at the Thai healthcare system.
The results were not very clear. Having said that (=a less formal way of saying
nevertheless), I feel the experiment was worthwhile.
I’ll skip (informal: leave out/ omit) the next slide as time is (running) short.
To sum up, intensive insulin therapy increased the risk of hypoglycemia but provided no
overall benefit on mortality in critically ill patients. That’s all I have to say. Thank you
for listening.
Well, I’ll stop there as I’ve run out of time (=have no time left). Thank you.
Dr Smith will now take questions (= accept and answer questions, rather formal). Are
there any questions or comments?
92
EXERCISES
Task 1. Choose a word to complete each sentence:

1. On _____ it would seem that more people are against the suggestion than for it.
 balance
 conclusion
 point
 summary
 analysis
2. Authors submitting an article for the journal are requested to provide a brief _____
outlining the contents of their article.
 summary
 conclusion
 analysis
 point
 balance
3. To _____ it briefly, his attempts to manipulate the situation to his own advantage
eventually led to his own downfall.
 come to
 draw
 conclude
 put
 recapitulate
4. Most theses _____ a summary of the literature in the field in their opening chapter.
 conclude
 summarise
 provide
 state
 close
5. In the final _____ no one can be completely certain as to what caused the failure.
 analysis
 conclusion
 summary
 recapitulating
 balance
6. To summarise the problem in a few _____: a steady decline in the number of Ebola cases
in the Congo outbreak was observed last week.
 conclusions
 points
 analyses
 words
 summaries
93
7. Let us now recap the main _____ in the argument.
 words
 summaries
 conclusions
 points
 analyses
8. Before bringing this paper to a _____, I should like to suggest some areas requiring
further research.
 beginning
 end
 close
 standstill
 final
Task 2. Choose the correct expression for each sentence (at last or lastly):
1. I've finished my essay ____.

2. _____ the scientists discovered the cause that triggered anaphylaxis.
3. _____, they did a randomized Trial for GVHD.
4. She decided not to apply to Harvard Medical University. First and foremost, her marks
were not likely to be good enough but also her parents did not want her to apply there.
_____, none of her friends were considering going there.
Task 3. Choose the correct expression for each sentence (at the beginning or in the
beginning):
1. ___ the beginning of the book there's a quotation from Hippocrates.

2. Public health experts around the globe are scrambling to understand, track, and contain
a new virus that appeared in Wuhan, China, ___ the beginning of December 2019.
3. The company was very small ___ the beginning, but it eventually became a giant
corporation.
4. ___ the beginning, the number of people in the US who filed claims for jobless benefits
since the start of coronavirus-related lockdowns rose to more than 30 million.
1. To present a results
2. To make b a presentation
3. To Raise c issues
4. To give d an overview, a comment
94
Task 5. Fill in the missing prepositions:
1. I’d like to begin ___ asking you all to fill in a detailed questionnaire.
 for
 in
 by
 on
 to
2. The chief factor ___ regard ___ the subject of infection is susceptibility.
 beyond, to
 for, with
 with, to
 on, for
 behind, on
3. I’d now like to turn ___ a problem of bacterial contamination.

 for
 on
 in
 to
 with
4. I always find it difficult to keep ___ just 30 minutes, so please tell me when I have five
minutes left.
 with
 to
 for
 up
 in
5. I’d like to focus ___ waterborne diseases in this presentation.

 in
 at
 to
 on
 for
Task 6. Substitute the formal words in bold with less formal ones given in the box
below:
run out go back that’s all I have to say go over time move spare
1. I’ll finish there as my time has come to an end.
2. I’d like to return to a point I made earlier about Salmonella.
3. So, I believe our experiments have been successful. I shall end there. Thank you.
4. I’ll try not to exceed my time, so I’ll speak for 30 minutes.
5. So, to proceed to the next point, I’ll omit item 4 on the handout.
6. I have some further copies too if anyone wants them.
95
Task 7. Fill in the missing words in these introductions to presentations:
1. Dr Robert Hart will now _____ his research on diagnostic criteria of the Cryptogenic
Stroke.
 call
 welcome
 present
 draw
 introduce
2. I’d now like to _____ on our next speaker, Mason Freeman, to give his presentation.
 welcome
 present
 come
 call
 return
3. Ladies and gentlemen, let’s _____ our next speaker, Professor Williams from Oregon
Health & Science University.
 present
 omit
 proceed
 welcome
 address
4. Thanks, everybody. So, Masanori is going to talk to us now _____ the subject of “Mental
health issues in Japan”.
 with
 on
 in
 at
 for
5. I’d like to _____ today’s speaker, Dr Georg Noll, who is going to address the topic of the
effect of mental stress on platelet function.
 come
 focus
 keep
 introduce
 turn
6. Now, Dr Ulla Fensel is going _______ her research to us.

 presenting
 to present
 have presented
 present
 will present
96
16
Pharmacology: Branches and basic terms
Drug forms and classes
16.1. Pharmacology and its branches
Pharmacology is related to
pharmacy but it is a separate discipline
in the health sciences. Pharmacy is
the science and art concerned with the
preparation and standardization of
drugs, while pharmacology is the study
of how a drug affects a biological
system and how the body responds to
the drug. The discipline encompasses
the sources, chemical properties,
biological effects, and therapeutic uses of drugs. Pharmacologists are often interested in
therapeutics, which focuses on the effects of drugs and other chemical agents that
minimize disease. Both pharmacology and pharmacy also encompass toxicology (the study
of the effects of poisonings and drug overdoses as well as their detection and treatment) and
posology (the study of drug dosages).
Pharmacology has two major branches:
 Pharmacokinetics, which refers to the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
excretion of drugs (=what the body does to the drug); and
 Pharmacodynamics, which refers to the molecular, biochemical, and physiological
effects of drugs, including drug mechanism of action (=what the drug does to the body)
The principal difference between pharmacology and therapeutics is that the first is
based on the properties of drugs from which are deduced their clinical uses and
contraindications, whereas the second is based on the patient and the disease to be treated
and looks for the best means for reaching that point: drugs and other means, surgery,
psychotherapy, radiotherapy, functional rehabilitation, pacemaker, angioplasties.
*Adapted from: Pharmacology Archives. Availab le at: https://explorehealthcareers.org/field/pharmacology/;
Pharmacy. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/science/pharmacy
16.2. Pharmacology: basic terms

Agonist Drug that attaches to a receptor and initiates an action; drug that binds to a
receptor and activates a physiologic response or drug action
Antagonists Drug that attaches to a receptor, does not initiate an action, but blocks an
agonist from producing an effect; drug that binds to a receptor and interferes
with other drugs or substances from producing a drug effect
Affinity Drugs work by binding to specific receptors and activating them, causing a
downstream effect. Affinity is how avidly a drug binds its receptor or how
the chemical forces that cause a substance to bind its receptor. Affinity is
like a drug's desire to connect to an open receptor.
Potency Amount of a drug that is needed to produce a given effect
Efficacy Maximum effect that a drug can produce regardless of dose
*Adapted from: Pharmacology: Basic Terminology. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0GHaLExHEo
Pharmacology Terms: Affinity, Efficacy & Potency. Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/pharmacology-terms-affinity-efficacy-
potency.html
97
16.3. Drug Forms
Some drugs are available over-the-counter (OTC), sold without a doctor’s
prescription, which is an order for medication with the dosages, directions, route, and
timing of administration included. Drugs usually come with instructions a listing of the
potential side effects (=adverse effects). Sometimes other drugs or even foods are
contraindicated (=advised against) to be taken along with the medication being given.
Therapeutic drugs are used to cure, alleviate, diagnose, treat, or prevent illness.
(=medicines, medications)
Addictive drugs are used in unregulated and excessive quantities to stimulate
(=habit-forming) or depress someone’s moods.
Vitamins organic substances found in food, are also a form of drugs
Drugs can have several different names. First is a chemical name that describes the
chemical formula of the drug. Second is a generic name that is the official name of the
drug. Third is a trade, brand, or proprietary name that is given and copyrighted by the
manufacturer for a specific drug. E.g. Generic n. – Acetaminophen; Trade n. – Tylenol.
Drugs appear as liquids, semiliquids, solids, semisolids, and gases.
All drugs come in many forms – pills (usually stored in a small bottle called a vial),
tablets, capsules (enteric-coated), emulsions, suspensions, suppositories, foams, lotions,
creams, powders, transdermal patches, sprays, or gases – depending on how the drug is
to be administered to the patient.
Pill = Tablet a small flat round piece of medicine that you swallow whole,
without biting it
Capsule a small container that has a measured amount of a medicine inside
and that dissolves (= becomes part of a liquid) when you swallow it
(= make it go down your throat into your stomach)
Suppository a small piece of solid medicine that is placed in the rectum or vagina
and left to dissolve gradually
Foam a chemical substance that forms or produces a soft mass of very
small bubbles, used for washing, shaving (= cutting hair from the
skin), or putting out fires
Lotion a liquid used for cleaning, protecting or treating the skin
Cream a soft substance used on your skin to protect it or make it feel soft
Powder a dry mass of very small fine pieces
Transdermal a medicated adhesive patch that is placed on the skin to deliver a
Patch dose of medication through the skin and into the bloodstream
Spray a substance that is forced out of a container such as an aerosol, in
very small drops
Emulsion any mixture of liquids that do not normally mix together, such as oil
and water
Suspension a liquid with very small pieces of solid matter floating in it; the state
of such a liquid
Elixir oral liquid dissolved in alcohol
Tincture topical liquid dissolved in alcohol
Solution drug dissolved in liquid
Lozenge drug in a candy-like base, dissolves slowly and coats the oropharynx
Syrup oral liquid drug in a thick solution, coats the oral pharynx
98
16.4. Drug classes
Drugs are classified by their use in the body:
Drug Class Purpose
Analgesic relieves pain without causing loss of consciousness
Anesthetic produces a lack of feeling either locally or generally
Antacid neutralizes stomach acid
Antianemic replaces iron
Antianginal dilates coronary arteries to increase blood flow and reduce
angina
Antianxiety relieves anxiety
Antiarrhythmic controls cardiac arrhythmias
Antibiotic, destroys or inhibits the growth of harmful microorganisms
Anti-Infective,
Antibacterial
Anticholinergic blocks certain nerve impulses and muscular reactions, as in
the movements of Parkinson’s disease, or in cases of nausea
Anticoagulant prevents blood clotting
Anticonvulsant inhibits convulsions
Antidepressant prevents or relieves symptoms of depression
Antidiabetic lowers blood sugar or increases insulin sensitivity
Antidiarrheal prevents or slows diarrhea
Antiemetic prevents or relieves nausea and vomiting
Antifungal destroys or inhibits fungal growth
Antihistamine slows allergic reactions by counteracting histamines
Antihypertensive controls high blood pressure
Anti-Inflammatory, counteracts inflammations
Nonsteroidal
Antiinflammatory
Drug (Nsaid)
Antineoplastic destroys malignant cells
Antiparkinson controls symptoms of Parkinson’s disease
Antipsychotic controls symptoms of schizophrenia and some psychoses
Antipyretic reduces fever
Antitubercular decreases growth of microorganisms that cause tuberculosis
Antitussive, Expectorant prevents or relieves coughing
Antiulcer relieves and heals ulcers
Antiviral controls the growth of viral microorganisms
Barbiturate controls epileptic seizures
Bronchodilator dilates bronchial passages
Decongestant reduces nasal congestion and/or swelling
Diuretic increases excretion of urine
Hemostatic controls or stops bleeding
Hypnotic, Sedative produces sleep or a hypnotic state
Hypoglycemic lowers blood glucose levels
Laxative loosens stool and promotes normal bowel elimination
Vasodilator decreases blood pressure by relaxing blood vessels
*Adapted from: Medical terminology: language for healthcare/Nina Thierer . . . [et al.]. —3rd ed.
99
EXERCISES
Task 1. Choose proper terms to the definitions:
1. The science and art concerned with the preparation and standardization of drugs.
 Toxicology
 Posology
 Pharmacokinetics
 Pharmacy
 Pharmacodynamics
2. The study of how a drug affects a biological system and how the body responds to the
drug.
 Pharmacy
 Pharmacology
 Toxicology
 Posology
3. The study of the effects of poisonings and drug overdoses as well as their detection and
treatment.
 Toxicology
 Posology
 Pharmacology
4. The study of drug dosages

 Pharmacology
 Posology
 Toxicology
5. A branch of pharmacology which refers to the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and

excretion of drugs (=what the body does to the drug)
 Posology
 Pharmacy
 Toxicology
6. A branch of pharmacology which refers to the molecular, biochemical, and physiological

effects of drugs, including drug mechanism of action
 Pharmacy
 Toxicology
 Posology
100
7. The drug that attaches to a receptor and initiates an action; the drug that binds to a
receptor and activates a physiologic response or drug action
 Antagonists
 Affinity
 Agonist
 Potency
 Efficacy
8. The drug that attaches to a receptor, does not initiate an action, but blocks an agonist
from producing an effect; the drug that binds to a receptor and interferes with other drugs
or substances from producing a drug effect
 Atom
 Potent
 Efficacy
 Agonist
 Antagonist
9. Drugs work by binding to specific receptors and activating them, causing a downstream
effect. Affinity is how avidly a drug binds its receptor or how the chemical forces that
cause a substance to bind its receptor. Affinity is like a drug's desire to connect to an open
receptor.
 Medicines
 Diuretics
 Efficacy
 Agonists
 Antagonists
10. Amount of a drug that is needed to produce a given effect

 Potency
 Efficacy
 Affinity
 Agonist
 Antagonist
11. Maximum effect that a drug can produce regardless of dose

 Efficacy
 Agony
 Strength
 Affinity
 Potency
101
Task 2. Give the class (not the name) of a drug that does the following:
1. Stops diarrhea antidiarrheal
2. Prevents/stops angina: ____________
3. Increases excretion of urine: ____________
4. Reduces blood pressure: ____________
5. Corrects abnormal heart rhythms: _____________
6. Relieves symptoms of depression: _____________
7. Prevents blood clotting: _____________
8. Promotes vomiting: _____________
9. Relieves pain: ____________
10. Neutralizes stomach acid: ____________
Task 2. Circle “T” for true or “F” for false:

1. All medications require a prescription. TF
2. Trade name and brand name are the same. TF
3. A capsule is a small solid tablet. TF
4. A tablet used sublingually is inserted under the tongue. TF
5. A capsule is a small solid tablet. TF
6. A suppository can only be used rectally. TF
7. You should never swallow a suppository. TF
Task 3. Choose the correct definition for the terms:
1. Analgesic 3. Antipyretic
 relieves bouts of loose bowels  relieves indigestion
 reduces fever  reduces fever
 relieves pain  relieves bouts of loose bowels
 works on a mood disorder  relieves pain
 relieves indigestion  reduces fever
2. Antidiarrheal 4. Antidepressant
 reduces fever  normalizes heart rhythm
 relieves bouts of loose bowels  works on a mood disorder
 relieves pain  reduces fever
 relieves indigestion  relieves bouts of loose bowels
 works on a mood disorder  relieves pain
102
5. Antacid
 works on a mood disorder 11. Diuretic
 reduces fever  prevents or relieves coughing
 relieves bouts of loose bowels  relieves nervousness and feelings
 relieves indigestion of dread
 normalizes heart rhythm  increase excretion of urine
 relieves heart pain
6. Antiarrhythmic  replaces iron
 reduces fever
 normalizes heart rhythm 12. Hypoglycemic
 relieves indigestion  relieves heart pain
 works on a mood disorder  lowers blood glucose
 relieves bouts of loose bowels  increase excretion of urine
 prevents or relieves coughing
7. Antianemic  relieves nervousness and feelings
 relieves bouts of loose bowels of dread
 replaces iron
 relieves indigestion 13. Laxative
 works on a mood disorder  prevents or relieves coughing
 reduces fever  loosens stool and promotes bowel
elimination
8. Antianginal
 lowers blood glucose
 increase excretion of urine
 replaces iron  relieves nervousness and feelings
 relieves indigestion
of dread
 works on a mood disorder
 reduces fever 14. Generic
 trade name
9. Antianxiety
 proprietary name
 official drug name
 replaces iron
 nickname
 surname
 relieves nervousness
 works on a mood disorder
15. Brand Name
 official drug name
10. Antitussive
 trade name
 prevents or relieves coughing
 proprietary name
 lowers blood glucose
 trade name
 nickname
 replaces iron
103
17
Pharmacology: Administration of drugs
Combining forms and abbreviations
17.1. Pharmacology: Administration of drugs
Oral administration is
the most common method for
giving pills and some liquids.
Liquids can be swallowed,
sprayed, or injected. Tablets
and some liquids can also be
placed sublingually, under the
tongue, or buccally, inside the
cheek, where they are left to
dissolve.
Suppositories, drugs mixed with a semisolid melting substance, are inserted into the
vagina, rectum, or urethra are either topical or systemic drugs.
Foams are generally inserted into the vagina.
Lotions and creams are applied topically to the surface of the skin.
Powders may be inserted into a gelatin capsule or mixed with a liquid.
Liquids or gases can be administered in inhalation form in which tiny droplets are
inhaled through an inhaler, nebulizer, or spray.
Inhalants are usually given in metered doses.
Sprays can be applied topically to the skin, into the nose (intranasal), or into the mouth.
Suppositories, drugs mixed with a semisolid melting substance, are inserted into the
Injection of a drug is called parenteral administration. Some parenteral

administration is topical, for example:
Intradermal or intracutaneous administration is the injection of a needle or syringe just

beneath the outer layer of the skin to check for local reactions.
Subcutaneous administration is the injection of the substance into the fatty layer of tissue
below the outer portion of the skin.
Intramuscular administration is the injection of drugs deep into the muscles.
Intravenous administration is the injection of drugs through an intravenous (IV) tube.
There are other types of the parenteral injection that can only be performed by a
physician. These types of injection are: intracardiac (directly into heart muscle), intra-
arterial (directly into an artery), intraspinal or intrathecal (directly into spinal spaces as in
a case of severe pain or cancer), and intraosseous (directly into bone). For steroids and
anesthetics, injections are done intra-articularly, or directly into a joint.
104
17.2. Pharmacology: Combining forms and abbreviations
The following combining forms and abbreviations relate specifically to
pharmacology.
COMBINING FORM MEANING EXAMPLE
chem(o) chemical chemotherapy, treatment of
a disease with chemical
substances
pyret(o) fever pyretogenous, causing fever
tox(o), toxi, toxico poison toxicogenic, caused by a
poison
ABBREVIATION MEANING ABBREVIATION MEANING

a.c. before meals (Latin BID, b.i.d twice a day (Latin
ante cibum), usually bis in die)
one-half hour
preceding a meal
a.u., AU each ear (Latin auris a.d., AD right ear (Latin
uterque) auris dexter)
ad up to c with
ad lib freely (Latin ad cap., caps. capsule
libitum), as often
as desired
AM, a.m., A morning (Latin ante cc., cc cubic centimeter
meridiem)
a.s., AS left ear (Latin auris cx contraindicated
sinister)
DAW dispense as written ml milliliter
dil. dilute n., noct. night (Latin nocte)
disc, DC, dc discontinue non rep. do not repeat
disp. dispense NPO nothing by mouth
div. divide NPO p MN nothing by mouth
after midnight
DW distilled water N.S., NS normal saline
D5W dextrose 5% in water dx, Dx diagnosis
NSAID nonsteroidal anti- N&V nausea and
inflammatory vomiting
drug
elix. elixir o.d., OD right eye (Latin

oculus dexter)
e.m.p. as directed (Latin ex oint., ung. ointment, unguent
modo
praescripto)
ex aq. in water o.l. left eye
ext. extract o.s. left eye (Latin
oculus sinister)
105
FDA Food and Drug OTC over the counter
Administration
fld. ext. fluid extract o.u. each eye
g, gm gram p post, after
gr grain, gram p.c. after meals (Latin
post cibum),
one-half hour after a
meal
gtt drop PDR Physician’s Desk
Reference
H hypodermic PM, p.m., P afternoon (Latin
post meridiem)
h. every hour (Latin p.o. by mouth (Latin per
hora) os)
h.s. at bedtime (Latin PRN, p.r.n. repeat as needed
hora somni, hour of (Latin pro re nata)
sleep)
IM intramuscular pulv., pwdr powder
inj injection qam every morning
IV intravenous q.d. every day (Latin
quaque dies)
mcg microgram q.h. every hour
mEq milliequivalent q.i.d. four times a day
mg milligram QNS quantity not
sufficient
q.o.d. every other day susp. suspension
q.s. sufficient quantity sym, Sym, Sx symptom
R rectal syr. syrup
Rx prescription tab. tablet
s without tbsp. tablespoonful
Sig. patient directions t.i.d. three times a day
such as route
and timing of
medication (Latin
signa, inscription)
SL sublingual tinct., tr. tincture
sol., soln. solution TPN total parenteral
nutrition
s.o.s. if there is need TPR temperature, pulse,
respirations
sp. spirit tsp. teaspoonful
ss one-half U, u unit
subc, subq, s.c. subcutaneously ung. ointment
supp., suppos suppository U.S.P. United States
Pharmacopeia
stat immediately u.d. as directed
106
EXERCISES
Task 1. Name the route of drug administration from its description:
1. Drug is administered via a semisolid into the rectum: ____________
 Inhalation
 Sublingually
 Topically
 Rectally
 Parenteral
 Vaginally
2. Drug is administered via vapor or gas into the nose or mouth: ____________
 Rectally
 Sublingually
 Topically
 Inhalation
 Parenteral
 Ocular route
3. Drug is administered under the tongue: ____________
 Parenteral
 Sublingually
 Inhalation
 Rectally
 Topically
 Ocular route
4. Drug is applied locally on skin or mucous membrane: ____________
 Parenteral
 Topically
 Sublingually
 Inhalation
 Rectally
5. Drug is injected through a syringe under the skin, into a vein, into a muscle, or into a
body cavity: ___________
 Oral administration
 Parenteral
 Topically
 Sublingually
 Inhalation
 Rectally
6. Drug is given by mouth and absorbed through the stomach or intestinal wall: _________
 Rectally
 Oral administration
 Parenteral
 Topically
 Sublingually
 Inhalation
107
Task 2. Fill in proper words from the lists:
1. ________ are drugs mixed with a semisolid melting substance, are inserted into the
 Lotions
 Powders
 Suppositories
 Inhalants
2. ________ are generally inserted into the vagina.
 Sprays
 Foams
 Lotions
 Inhalants
3. ________ and creams are applied topically to the surface of the skin.
 Inhalants
 Lotions
 Sprays
 Suppositories
4. ________ may be inserted into a gelatin capsule or mixed with a liquid.
 Sprays
 Inhalants
 Powders
 Suppositories
5. ________ or gases can be administered in inhalation form in which tiny droplets are
inhaled through an inhaler, nebulizer, or spray.
 Suppositories
 Lotions
 Liquids
 Powders
7. ________ can be applied topically to the skin, into the nose (intranasal), or into the
mouth.
 Lotions
 Sprays
 Liquids
 Suppositories
8. ________ administration is the injection of a needle or syringe just beneath the outer
layer of skin to check for local reactions.
 Subcutaneous
 Intramuscular
 Intradermal
 Intravenous
108
9. ________ administration is the injection of the substance into the fatty layer of tissue
below the outer portion of the skin.
 Intradermal
 Intramuscular
 Subcutaneous
 Intravenous
10. ________ administration is the injection of drugs deep into the muscles.
 Intravenous
 Intramuscular
 Intradermal
 Subcutaneous
11. ________ administration is the injection of drugs through an intravenous (IV) tube.
 Intradermal
 Subcutaneous
 Intravenous
 Intramuscular
Task 3. Circle “T” for true or “F” for false:

1. IM medications go into an IV. T F
2. IM medications go into an IV. T F
3. The most common method of drug administration is oral. T F
4. A parenteral administration is the injection of a medication. T F
Task 4. Add the combining form to complete the word:
1. Resistance to the effects of chemicals: 3. The scientific discipline involved with

____________ resistance elements and compounds composed of
 toxo- atoms, molecules, and ions: ____istry
 chemo-  toxo-
 toxico-  toxico-
 nitro-  chem-
 vaso-  nitro-
 vaso-
2. Treatment of fever: _____________
therapy 4. Study of poisons: _____________ logy
 chemo-  veno-
 toxo-  toxico-
 pyreto-  toxo-
 vaso-  chemo-
 bio-  bio-
109
Task 5. Give abbreviations for the following:
1. Three times a day ____________ 8. Every hour ____________
 c.  c.
 b.i.d.  b.i.d.
 t.i.d.  q.h.
 p.c.  p.c.
 q.h.  h.s.
2. Before meals ____________ 9. Every morning ____________

 b.i.d.  c.
 p.c.  b.i.d.
 c.  Qam
 q.h.  p.c.
 h.s.  q.h.
3. Intramuscular ____________ 10. At bedtime _____________
 IV  c.
 NPO  b.i.d.
 IM  h.s.
 N&V  p.c.
 AD  q.h.
4. Two times a day ____________
11. Four times a day _____________
 c.
 c.
 p.c.
 b.i.d.
 b.i.d.
 q.i.d.
 q.h.
 p.c.
 q.i.d.
 q.h.
5. Intravenous ____________
 IM 12. When requested ____________
 NPO  q.i.d.
 c.
 IV
 ad lib
 N&V
 b.i.d.
 AD
 p.c.
6. Nothing by mouth ____________ 13. Every day ____________
 IM  q.i.d.
 IV  c.
 NPO  q.d.
 N&V  b.i.d.
 p.c.
7. After meals ____________
 c. 14. Drops _____________
 b.i.d.  q.i.d.
 p.c.  c.
 gtt
 p.c.
 b.i.d.
 q.h.
 p.c.
110
15. Sufficient quantity _____________
 s.q.
 q.q.
 s.s.
 q.s.
 q.
16. Prescription _____________

 X
 Rx
 P
 P.r.
 P.c.
17. Afternoon (Latin post meridiem) _____________

 a.m.
 M
 p.m.
 A.f.
 AFT
18. Morning (Latin ante meridiem) _____________

 p.m.
 a.
 a.m.
 m.
 mor.
19. Sublingual _____________

 S.b.
 L.g.
 SL
 Lin.
 Ling.
20. Teaspoonful _____________

 tbsp.
 Sp.
 Spf.
 tsp.
 Ts.
21. Tablespoonful _____________

 tbsp.
 tsp.
 Sp.
 Spf.
 T.s.
111
18
Pharmacological terms: Dermatology. Cardiology and Hematology.
Neurology. Ophthalmology. Otorhinolaryngology. Pulmonology
18.1. Pharmacological terms in dermatology

Treatment of skin disorders involves the
use of various medications. A wide variety of
topical preparations can relieve symptoms and
even kill agents that cause disease. Other
treatments involve heat, light, and radiation.
The sun is beneficial in healing certain skin problems.

Some lesions are treated with ultraviolet light, which imitates
some of the sun’s rays. On the other hand, sunlight may also be
the cause of many skin problems, such as certain carcinomas.
Cancer of the skin is sometimes successfully treated by
chemotherapy (uses chemicals to treat the malignant cells
systematically) and/or radiation therapy (uses high-energy
radiation to bombard malignant cells in order to destroy them),
most of the time successfully.
Antihistamines are medications used to control allergic skin reactions. They do so
by blocking the effects of histamines, chemicals present in tissues that heighten allergic
reactions. Other skin conditions are controlled by different medications. For example,
antibiotics, antibacterials, parasiticides, anti-inflammatory, corticosteroids, and
antipruritics.
Antibiotics kill or slow the growth of microorganisms on the skin

Antiseptics kill or slow the growth of microorganisms on the skin
Antibacterials kill or slow the growth of bacteria
Antifungals kill or slow the growth of fungal infections
Parasiticides destroy insect parasites, such as lice and mites, that cause
some skin conditions
Anti-inflammatory drugs reduce inflammation
(particularly corticosteroids)
Antipruritics control itching
Some skin conditions are painful because of nerve conduction near the skin surface.
An anesthetic (especially, in the case of surface pain, a topical anesthetic) can relieve
some of the pain associated with such conditions.
Some skin conditions result in either oversecretion of oils or extreme dryness:
 Emollients are agents that soothe or soften skin by moistening it or adding oils to it.
 Astringents temporarily lessen the formation of oily material on the surface of the skin.
Vitamin-based products to control skin aging (often containing Vitamins A and C)

are often available over the counter.
 Keratolytics remove warts and corns from the skin surface.
 Alphahydroxy acids are fruit acids added to cosmetics to improve the skin’s appearance.
112
18.2. Cardiovascular pharmacology
Drug therapy for the cardiovascular system
generally treats the following conditions: angina, heart
attack, high blood pressure, high cholesterol,
congestive heart failure, rhythm disorders, and vascular
problems. Many of the pharmacological agents treat
several problems at once. The tables below present
some of the medications commonly used to treat the
cardiovascular system. These are just a sample of the
many cardiovascular medications available.
Antianginals relieve the pain and prevent attacks of angina. Three categories of drugs –
nitrates, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers – are used as antianginals.
Thrombolytics are used to dissolve blood clots in heart-attack victims.
Tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA or TPA) is an agent used to prevent the
formation of a thrombus.
Nitrates and beta blockers are used to treat myocardial infarctions.
High blood pressure may require treatment with one drug or a combination of
drugs. Such drugs are called antihypertensives.
 Beta blockers and calcium channel blockers are used along with a number of agents
that affect the control centers in the brain that regulate blood pressure.
 Vasodilators relax the walls of the blood vessels.
Other treatments for high blood pressure include:
 diuretics, to relieve edema (swelling) and increase kidney function;
 angiotensin converting enzyme ( ACE ) inhibitors, which dilate arteries thus making
it easier for blood to flow out of the heart;
 agents that affect the nerves of the body.
Congestive heart failure is treated with ACE inhibitors, diuretics, and
cardiotonics, which increase myocardial contractions.
In certain situations, vasoconstrictors may be needed to narrow blood vessels.
Rhythm disorders are treated with a number of medications (some are called
antiarrhythmics) that normalize heart rate by affecting the nervous system that controls
the heart rate. Beta blockers and calcium channel blockers may also be used for rhythm
disorders.
Cholesterol is a substance the body needs in certain quantities. Excesses of certain
kinds of cholesterol such as LDL can cause fatty deposits or plaque to form on blood
vessels.
 Lipid-lowering drugs work to help the body excrete unwanted cholesterol. The most
common types of lipid-lowering drugs are statins.
 Anticoagulants, anticlotting and antiplatelet medications (such as heparin) inhibit the
ability of the blood to clot.
Other medications used for vascular problems may include drugs that decrease the
thickness of the blood, or drugs that increase the amount of blood the heart is able to pump.
113
18.3. Pharmacological terms in haematology
Medications that directly affect the work of the blood system are anticoagulants (to
prevent blood clotting); thrombolytics (to dissolve blood clots); coagulants or clotting
agents (to aid in blood clotting); and hemostatics (to stop bleeding, such as vitamin K).
Anticoagulants are administered before most types of surgeries to prevent emboli. Blood
flow is affected by vasoconstrictors and vasodilators, two medications given for
cardiovascular problems.
Chemotherapy, the therapy that uses drugs, is used to cause a remission
(disappearance of the disease) in leukemia. Sometimes more treatment is needed when a
relapse (recurrence of the disease) occurs.
18.4. Pharmacological terms in neurology

The nervous system can be the site of severe pain. Analgesics relieve pain. Other
problems of the nervous system may be associated with diseases such as epilepsy.
Anticonvulsants are often used to treat epilepsy and other disorders to lessen or
prevent convulsions. Narcotics relieve pain by inducing a stuporous or euphoric state.
Sedatives and hypnotics relax the nerves and sometimes induce sleep. Anesthetics block
feelings or sensation and are used in surgery. Anesthetics can be given locally (to numb
sensation to one section of the body) or generally (to numb sensation to the entire body).
18.5. Pharmacological terms in ophthalmology and otology

Eyes and ears can both be treated with the instillation of drops:
 an antibiotic ophthalmic solution is an antibacterial agent used to treat eye infections,
such as conjunctivitis.
 a mydriatic solution dilates the pupil during an eye examination.
 a miotic solution causes the pupil to contract.
The eye and the ear can both be irrigated, flushed with water, or solution to remove
foreign objects. Antibiotics, antihistamines, anti-inflammatories, and decongestants are used
to relieve ear infections, allergies, inflammations, and congestion.
Ear irrigation (lavage) is the irrigation of the ear canal to remove excessive
cerumen buildup.
18.6. Pharmacological terms in otorhinolaryngology and pulmonology
Antibiotics, antihistamines, and anticoagulants are used for respiratory system
disorders just as with other system disorders. Specific to respiratory problems are:
bronchodilators dilate the walls of the bronchi (as during an asthmatic attack)
expectorants promote coughing and the expulsion of mucus
antitussives relieve coughing
decongestants help congestion of the upper respiratory tract
Two mechanical devices aid in respiration:
 mechanical ventilators actually serve as a breathing substitute for patients who cannot
breathe on their own.
 nebulizers deliver medication through the nose or mouth to ease breathing problems.
Some nebulizers are MDI (metered dose inhalers) that deliver a specific amount of spray
with each puff of the inhaler.
114
EXERCISES
1. Medications used to control allergic skin reactions by blocking the effects of histamines.
 Antiseptics
 Antifungals
 Parasiticides
 Antihistamines
 Corticosteroids
2. Medications used to kill or slow the growth of microorganisms on the skin.
 Antihistamines
 Antifungals
 Parasiticides
 Corticosteroids
 Antibiotics
3. Medications used to kill or slow the growth of microorganisms on the skin.
 Corticosteroids
 Antiseptics
 Antihistamines
 Antifungals
 Parasiticides
4. Medications used to kill or slow the growth of fungal infections.
 Parasiticides
 Corticosteroids
 Antipruritics
 Antiseptics
 Antifungals
5. Medications used to destroy insect parasites, such as lice and mites that cause some skin
conditions.
 Antiseptics
 Antihistamines
 Parasiticides
 Corticosteroids
 Antipruritics
6. Medications used to reduce inflammation
 Antiseptics
 Antihistamines
 Corticosteroids
 Parasiticides
 Antipruritics
7. Medications used to control itching
 Antiseptics
 Antihistamines
 Analgesics
 Antipruritics
 Sedatives
115
Task 2. Define the following terms:
1. Antiseptic:
 Medications used to control itching
 Medications used to kill or slow the growth of microorganisms on the skin
 Medications used to reduce inflammation
 Medications used to kill or slow the growth of fungal infections
 Medications used to control allergic skin reactions by blocking the effects of
histamines
2. Antipruritics
 Medications used to reduce inflammation
 Medications used to kill or slow the growth of fungal infections
 Medications used to kill or slow the growth of microorganisms on the skin
 Medications used to control itching
 Medications used to control allergic skin reactions by blocking the effects of
histamines
3. Chemotherapy:
 Use of chemicals to treat fungal infections
 Use of chemicals to treat the malignant cells systematically
 Use of radiation to treat the malignant cells systematically
 Use of chemicals to treat the benign cells systematically
 Use of chemicals to treat skin conditions
4. Fungicide:
 Killing bacteria
 Killing lice
 Killing fungi
 Killing viruses
 Killing microorganisms
5. Mycocide:
 Killing bacteria
 Killing germs
 Killing fungi
 Killing viruses
 Killing mites
6. Keratolysis:
 Softening of horny tissue
 Hardening of horny tissue
 Incision in horny tissue
 Destruction of horny tissue
 Removal of horny tissue
Task 3. Are the following statements True or False?
1. Chemotherapy is the use of radiation to treat cancer. True False
2. Antibiotics are used to treat acne. True False
3. Histamines are always present in the body. True False
4. Astringents control pruritus. True False
5. Emollients can contain oils. True False
116
Task 4. Choose a proper cardiovascular pharmacological classification for its
correct definition:
1. Increase urine production, relieve edema
 ACE inhibitors
 Calcium channel blockers
 Vasodilators
 Diuretics
 Beta blockers
2. Ease heart pumping, lower blood pressure

 Diuretics
 ACE inhibitors
 Vasodilators
 Beta blockers
3. Reduce heart rate, lower squeezing strength of heart contraction, lower blood pressure by
inhibiting calcium from entering heart muscle
 Diuretics
 ACE inhibitors
 Vasodilators
 Beta blockers
4. Dilate veins and arteries, used to treat angina

 Diuretics
 Vasodilators
 ACE inhibitors
 Beta blockers
5. Reduce contraction of heart, slow heartbeat

 Hemorrheologic agents
 Beta blockers
 Antiplatelet medication
 Anticoagulants
 Antiarrhythmics
6. Reduce the ability of blood platelets to clot
 Beta blockers
 Anticoagulants
 Antiarrhythmics
7. Reduce blood clotting
 Beta blockers
 Anticoagulants
 Antiarrhythmics
117
8. Decrease viscosity of blood
 Beta blockers
 Anticoagulants
 Antiarrhythmics
9. Alter electrical flow through the heart

 Beta blockers
 Anticoagulants
 Antiarrhythmics
10. Dissolve blood clots

 Beta blockers
 Anticoagulants
 Thrombolytics
 Antiarrhythmics
Task 5. Choose the suffix (used in cardiovascular terms) belonging to the

following definitions.
1. pertaining to __________ 5. pain __________
 -sclerosis  -ac
 -pheresis  -sclerosis
 -ac  -pheresis
 -penia  -algia
 -itis  -penia
2. hardening __________ 6. disease __________

 -pheresis  -ac
 -penia  -sclerosis
 -sclerosis  -pheresis
 -pathy  -pathy
 -cyte  -penia
3. removal __________ 7. cell __________

 -lysis  -lysis
 -osis  -osis
 -phonia  -phonia
 -pheresis  -cyte
 -cytosis  -cytosis
4. abnormal decrease __________ 8. destroying __________

 -ac  -pathy
 -sclerosis  -ac
 -pheresis  -sclerosis
 -penia  -lysis
 -itis  -pheresis
118
9. condition, state of __________ 12. relating to blood __________
 -pathy  -osis
 -ac  -ac
 -sclerosis  -itis
 -osis  -emic
 -pheresis  -ic
10. sound __________ 13. inflammation __________

 -cytosis  -osis
 -cardia  -ac
 -itis  -itis
 -phonia  -ic
 -lexia  -ac
11. condition of cells __________ 14. enlargement __________

 -phonia  -sclerosis
 -emic  -pheresis
 -itis  -megaly
 -cytosis  -pathy
 -megaly  -lysis
Task 6. Choose the prefix (used in cardiovascular terms) belonging to the

following definitions.
1. blood clot __________ 4. slow __________

 echo-  peri-
 thrombo-  tachy-
 brady-  brady-
 peri-  endo-
 tachy-  hypo-
2. half __________ 5. surround __________

 brady-  tachy-
 peri-  endo-
 semi-  peri-
 echo-  hypo-
 tachy-  myo-
3. reflected sound __________ 6. rapid, fast __________

 brady-  semi-
 peri-  echo-
 tachy-  tachy-
 echo-  brady-
 endo-  peri-
119
7. inner __________ 14. above normal __________
 endo-  multi-
 echo-  post-
 brady-  hyper-
 semi-  macro-
 peri-  hypo-
8. below normal __________ 15. many __________

 hyper-  bi-
 echo-  multi-
 brady-  post-
 hypo-  macro-
 peri-  intra-
9. muscle __________ 16. after __________

 cyto-  poly-
 histo-  post-
 neuro-  pre-
 myo-  intra-
 osteo-  extra-
10. small __________ 17. large __________

 peri-  micro-
 micro-  macro-
 macro-  mini-
 mega-  extra-
 poly-  intra-
11. before __________ 18. within __________

 post-  exo-
 echo-  intra-
 brady-  post-
 pre-  macro-
 peri-  extra-
12. against __________ 19. three __________

 peri-  multi-
 anti-  bi-
 intra-  tri-
 bi-  poly-
 tri-  intra-
13. two __________ 20. more than one __________

 multi-  tri-
 bi-  poly-
 poly-  multi-
 macro-  bi-
 intra-  intra-
120
Task 7. Complete the sentences by filling in the blanks:
1. Coughing can be controlled with ____________.

 bronchodilators
 expectorants
 nebulizer
 antitussives
 ventilator
2. Insufficiently dilated bronchi can be treated with ____________.

 antitussives
 expectorants
 bronchodilators
 nebulizer
 ventilator
3. Productive coughing is helped with ____________.

 antitussives
 bronchodilators
 expectorants
 nebulizer
 ventilator
4. Medication is delivered in a fine spray by means of a ____________.

 antitussives
 bronchodilators
 expectorants
 nebulizer
 ventilator
5. A person who cannot breathe on his or her own may be kept alive on a ____________.
 hypnotic
 anesthetic
 anticonvulsant
 ventilator
 analgesic
6. An agent that induces sleep is called a(n) ___________ .

 ventilator
 anesthetic
 anticonvulsant
 hypnotic
 analgesic
121
7. An agent that causes loss of feeling is called a(n) ___________.
 hypnotic
 anticonvulsant
 analgesic
 anesthetic
 sedative
8. An agent that relieves nervousness is called a(n) ___________.

 hypnotic
 anesthetic
 anticonvulsant
 sedative
 analgesic
9. A drug prescribed for epilepsy is probably a(n) ___________.

 hypnotic
 sedative
 anesthetic
 anticonvulsant
 analgesic
10. Pain is relieved with a(n) ___________ .

 antibiotic
 hypnotic
 sedative
 analgesic
 anesthetic
11. A pain reliever that induces a euphoric state is a(n) ___________ .

 analgesic
 antibiotic
 narcotic
 hypnotic
 sedative
12. Hemophiliacs require __________ and __________ to control bleeding.

 nitrates; beta blockers
 coagulants; hemostatics
 antianginals; beta blockers
 coagulants; antianginals
 hemostatics; antianginals
122
13. A prescription for someone with coronary artery disease might include a(n) _________.
 antianginals
 beta blockers
 nitrates
 anticoagulant
 vasoconstrictors
14. If medication is not taken regularly, a(n) _____________ of a disease might occur.
 remission
 onset
 recovery
 relapse
 treatment
15. Sometimes the temporary disappearance of a disease, called a(n) ____________, is

unexplained.
 relapse
 onset
 remission
 recovery
 treatment
Task 8. What medication might be prescribed for the following conditions?
1. Bursitis _____________ 4. Arthritis _____________

 Antihistamines  Anti-inflammatory
 Parasiticides  Diuretics
 Anti-inflammatory  Vasodilators
 Sedatives  Anticoagulants
 Antiseptics  Antiarrhythmics
2. Myalgia _____________ 5. Arthralgia _____________
 Antibiotic
 Vasodilators
 Sedatives
 Diuretics
 Antiseptics
 Anticoagulants
 Analgesic
 Analgesic
 Antihistamines
 Antiarrhythmics
3. Otitis media _____________
6. Conjunctivitis _____________
 Decongestant  Antibiotic ophthalmic solution
 Antibiotic
 Mydriatic solution
 Antibiotic ophthalmic solution
 Chamomile extract
 Ear irrigation
 Miotic solution
 Lavage  Tea bag
123
19
Pharmacological terms: Orthopedics. Gastroenterology
Gynecology. Urology
Immunology. Endocrinology
19.1. Pharmacological terms in orthopedics

Most medications for the treatment of the musculoskeletal system treat symptoms,
not causes. Pain medications, such as analgesics, narcotics, anti-inflammatories
(corticosteroids), muscle relaxants, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs), all relieve or relax the area of pain either by numbing the area or by reducing the
inflammation.
19.2. Pharmacological terms in gastroenterology

Aside from treatments for cancer, medications for the digestive tract counteract
situations that occur in various parts of the tract:
Antacids* neutralize stomach acid.
*Many antacids are taken before meals to prevent the building up of
excess stomach acids. Others are taken after symptoms appear.
Antiemetics prevent vomiting.
Antispasmodics relieve spasms in the gastrointestinal tract.
A laxative stimulates the movement of bowels.
A cathartic induces vomiting.
An antidiarrheal helps to control loose, watery stools.
19.3. Pharmacological terms in gynecology

Various forms of birth control are pharmacological agents. Spermicides destroy
sperm in the vagina; birth control pills (or oral contraceptives, OCPs), hormonal patches,
vaginal rings, and implants control the flow of hormones to block ovulation; and
abortifacients or morning-after pills (or emergency contraception) prevent implantation of
an ovum.
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is used during and after menopause to
alleviate symptoms, such as hot flashes. Oxytocin, another hormone, is used to induce
labor. A tocolytic agent stops labor contractions.
19.4. Pharmacological terms in urology

Medications for the urinary tract can relieve pain (analgesics), relieve spasms
(antispasmodics), or inhibit the growth of microorganisms (antibiotics). They may also
increase (diuretics) or decrease (antidiuretics) the secretion of urine.
Males are sometimes treated with hormone replacement therapy (usually,
testosterone). Such treatment can help with sexual problems and with some of the signs of
aging. Medications for impotence may help some men restore sexual function. It may also
be treated surgically or with mechanical devices. Some erectile dysfunction is a vascular
problem and may be treated with transient vasoconstrictors – medications that cause
temporary constriction of the blood vessels in the penis.
124
19.5. Immunopharmacology
Diseases of the lymph and immune systems are often treated with relatively high
doses of chemotherapy and/or radiation. Advances in AIDS research have made it
possible to manage this disease (i.e., to prolong a patient’s life) once thought fatal. A
“cocktail” of anti-HIV drugs (antivirals, antimicroorganism agents, antihistamines), a
potential HIV/AIDS vaccine, and other newer drug compounds are bringing hope for long-
term vitality to people with AIDS. Other drug compounds have been developed to fight
opportunistic infections.
Genetic research is focusing on all the major chronic diseases. While diseases of the
lymphatic and immune systems do not currently have specific genetic therapies, many
researchers believe that advances in genetic therapies will bring relief for many of these
diseases.
19.6. Pharmacological terms in endocrinology

Hormonal deficiencies are sometimes treated by hormone replacement therapy
(HRT). However, the experts say that HRT is not a panacea for disease prevention, even in
situations where it was found to be helpful, such as the reduction in hip fractures. Moreover,
if hormone replacement therapy must be used to control menopause symptoms, the lowest
possible dose for the shortest possible duration is recommended.
Common types of hormone therapy include synthetic thyroid, estrogen, and
testosterone. Other medications include those that regulate levels of substances in the
body, such as glucose levels in diabetics. An antihypoglycemic raises blood sugar. An
antihyperglycemic or hypoglycemic lowers blood sugar. Instead of or in addition to using
drugs to regulate blood sugar, many diabetics are now treated with medications that increase
sensitivity to their own insulin.
Human growth a synthetic version of HGH is given to promote growth
hormone
(somatotropin)
Steroids are used in controlling various symptoms and treating many diseases
within and outside the endocrine system. Steroids can also be abused
for muscle growth.
Endocrine therapy drugs
Tamoxifen is used in the treatment of breast cancer

(orally estrogen)
Anastrozole is indicated in the treatment of breast cancer in post-menopausal
women. It has proven effective in reducing estradiol in men
Anastrozole is used to reduce and prevent symptoms of excess estrogens
Carbimazole is used to treat hyperthyroidism by reducing the production of the
thyroid hormones T3 and T4 (thyroxine)
Letrozole is approved for the treatment of local or metastatic breast cancer
that is hormone receptor positive or has an unknown receptor status
in postmenopausal women
Levothyroxine is used to treat hypothyroidism, congenital hypothyroidism
(thyroid hormone) (cretinism) and goiter (enlarged thyroid gland).
125
EXERCISES
Task 1. Fill in the blanks:
1. To help relieve edema, a(n) ____________ may be prescribed.
 analgesic
 antibiotic
 antispasmodic
 diuretic
 laxative
2. For dysuria, a(n) _____________ may be prescribed.

 diuretic
 analgesic
 antibiotic
 antispasmodic
 laxative
3. For cystitis a(n) ____________ may be prescribed.

 diuretic
 analgesic
 antispasmodic
 antibiotic
 laxative
4. Sudden contractions may lead to urinary incontinence and, therefore, a(n) _______ may
be prescribed.
 diuretic
 analgesic
 antispasmodic
 antibiotic
 laxative
5. Male hormone replacement therapy usually involves the hormone ______________ .

 estrogen
 antidiuretic hormone
 thyroxin
 testosterone
 gonadotropin
6. Inability to maintain an erection can be treated with ______________ .

 medications for impotence
 estrogen
 antibiotic
 testosterone
 analgesic
7. Weight trainers and sports figures sometimes illegally use ______________ .

 anabolic steroids
 anastrozole
 anastrozole
 tamoxifen
 carbimazole
126
8. AIDS patients often have to take many medications, including some to avoid _________
infections.
 common
 opportunistic
 skin
 respiratory
 eye
9. Lymphomas are generally treatable with ____________ and ____________.

 antibiotics, analgesics
 radiation, chemotherapy
 antiemetics, antispasmodics
 antacides, cathartics
 interferon, immunotherapy
10. One body substance manufactured and given in high doses in immune disorders is
________.
 blood
 interferon
 semen
 cerebrospinal fluid
 pleural fluid,
Task 2. True or False?

1. An abortifacient is a birth control medication. True False
2. Hormone replacement therapy is generally used around menopause. True False
3. It is never appropriate to induce labor. True False
4. Birth control pills are used to control hormones. True False
5. Tocolytic agents stop labor. True False
Task 3. Match the pharmacological agents with their uses:
1. Antacid 4. Antispasmodic
 relieves burning sensation  prevents regurgitation
 causes vomiting  calms spasms
 controls loose, watery stools  prevents nausea
 prevents regurgitation  controls loose, watery stools
 calms spasms  relieves constipation
2. Antidiarrheal 5. Cathartic
 prevents vomiting  causes vomiting
 controls loose, watery stools  prevents nausea
 prevents regurgitation  calms spasms
 prevents nausea  prevents regurgitation
 controls loose, watery stools  controls loose, watery stools
3. Antiemetic 6. Laxative
 prevents nausea  prevents diarrhea
 prevents regurgitation  relieves constipation
 controls loose, watery stools  calms spasms
 calms spasms  prevents regurgitation
 causes vomiting  controls loose, watery stool
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Task 4. Choose the names of the glands from which a hormone is needed to
relieve symptoms of the diseases:
1. Addison’s disease: _____________ 4. Myxedema: ____________

 Pancreas  Gonads
 Pituitary  Thyroid
 Thyroid  Adrenal
 Adrenal  Pancreas
 Gonads  Pituitary
2. Hyperglycemia: _____________ 5. Panhypopituitarism: _____________

 Adrenal  Gonads
 Pituitary  Pituitary
 Thyroid  Adrenal
 Pancreas  Pancreas
 Gonads  Thyroid
3. Diabetes insipidus: ____________ 6. Goiter

 Thyroid  Pancreas
 Pituitary  Thyroid
 Adrenal  Pituitary
 Pancreas  Adrenal
 Gonads  Gonads
Task 5. Define the terms:

1. Lymphangiogram: _________ 5. Splenorrhagia: _________
 disease of the lymph glands  hardening of the spleen
 imaging of lymph vessels  bursting forth of the spleen
 softening of the spleen  softening of the spleen
 imaging of blood vessels  disease of the spleen
2. Thymopathy: _________ 6. Lymphadenectomy: _________

 disease of the pituitary gland  incision into a lymph node
 disease of the thymus gland  removal of a lymph node
 imaging of the thymus gland  removal of the thymus gland
 removal of the thymus gland  removal of a thyroid
3. Lymphadenopathy: _________ 7. Lymphadenotomy: _________

 disease of the thymus gland  removal of a lymph node
 disease of the lymph glands  removal of the thymus gland
 disease of the pituitary gland  incision into a lymph node
 Inflammation of the lymph glands  incision into a thyroid
4. Splenomalacia: _________ 8. Thymectomy: _________

 softening of the thyroid  removal of a lymph node
 softening of the spleen  incision into a lymph node
 hardening of the spleen  removal of the thymus gland
 disease of the spleen  incision into a thymus gland
128
20
Terms in Oncology
20.1. Types of tumors
Oncology is the study, diagnosis, and treatment of
tumors. Tumors or neoplasms are growths made up of
cells that miss the mechanism telling them either to stop
reproducing or to die. The death of normal cells in a
normal time cycle is called apoptosis.
Tumors can be benign (=containing cells that
resemble the site of origin) or malignant (=consisting of
abnormal or mutated cells). Tumors can be encapsulated
or they may reproduce in uncontrolled patterns.
Carcinoma The most common type of cancer. It originates from epithelial tissue.
Also called solid tumors, carcinomas make up about 90 percent of all
tumors. Common sites are in the skin, lungs, breasts, colon, stomach,
mouth, and uterus. Carcinomas spread by way of the lymphatic system.
Sarcoma It is a fairly rare type of tumour which originates in muscle or
connective tissue and lymph.
Teratoma A mixed-tissue tumor derives from tissue that is capable of separating
into either epithelial or connective tissue because it is composed of
several types of cells. Such a tumor can be found in the kidneys, ovaries,
or testes. Mixed-tissue tumors which can be, growths containing bone,
muscle, skin, and glandular tissue as well as other types of cells.
Benign tumors are made up of differentiated cells that reproduce abnormally. Some
benign tumors can cause pain from pressure exerted on an organ or tissue. Often, removal
cures the problem. Malignant tumors are invasive, extending beyond the tissue to infiltrate
other organs. They can be life-threatening. These tumors are made up of dedifferentiated
cells, which lack the normal orderly arrangement of the cells from which they arise. This
loss of cell differentiation is called anaplasia.
Any abnormal tissue development is known as dysplasia or heteroplasia. The first
stages of cancer development may be classified as dysplasia because they represent the
beginning of abnormal tissue development. The next stage may be a carcinoma in situ, a
tumor in one place that affects all layers of tissue. Finally, a malignancy occurs when the
cells break loose and become invasive to surrounding tissue. The spread of a malignancy to
other areas of the body is called metastasis. While homeostasis, the maintaining of balance
throughout the body, metastasis is a state of imbalance, with cells spreading uncontrollably.
20.2. Causes of Cancer
Tumors appear under a number of different circumstances or a combination of
circumstances. One such is the exposure to carcinogens, cancer-causing agents. Another
cause of cancer is from an inherited defect transmitted from parent(s) to child in the genetic
material of the cell, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Breast cancer and ovarian cancer are
examples of largely inherited cancers. People with a family history of cancers are more
likely to develop cancer.
Viruses heighten cancer risk (such as Kaposi’s sarcoma from HIV). A virus that
causes cancer is known as an oncogenic agent. An oncogene is a DNA fragment that
converts normal cells into malignancies.
129
20.3. Combining forms
COMBINING MEANING EXAMPLE
FORM
blast(o) immature cell blastoma, tumor arising from an immature cell
carcin(o) cancer carcinogen, cancer-causing agent
muta genetic change mutation, process of genetic change
mutagen(o) genetic change mutagenic, causing genetic change
onc(o) tumor oncology, treatment and study of tumors
radi(o) radiation, X rays radiation, process of exposure to or treatment
with above-normal levels of radiation
-blast immature cell leukoblast, immature
-oma tumor fibroma, benign tumor arising from connective
(pl., -omata) tissue
-plasia formation dysplasia, abnormal tissue development
(as of cells)
-plasm formation neoplasm, abnormal tissue formed by
(as of cells) abnormal cell growth
-plastic formative neoplastic, growing abnormally (as a
neoplasm)
20.4. Abbreviations
ALL acute lymphocytic ER estrogen receptor

leukemia
AML acute myelogenous METS, mets metastases
leukemia
bx biopsy NHL non-Hodgkin’s
lymphoma
CA carcinoma PSA prostate-specific
antigen
CEA carcinogenic rad radiation absorbed
embryonic dose
antigen
chemo chemotherapy RNA ribonucleic acid
CLL chronic lymphocytic RT radiation therapy
leukemia
CML chronic myelogenous TNM tumor, nodes,
leukemia metastasis
DES diethylstilbestrol Tx treatment
DNA deoxyribonucleic XRT x-ray or radiation
acid therapy
130
20.5. Diagnostic terms
Normal adult checkups usually include auscultation of the lungs, palpation of the
abdomen, an inspection of the rectum and an occult stool test, and a discussion of any
symptoms that may need further investigation. Routine medical checkups often include:
Pap smear Adult females usually have this test for cervical and
uterine cancer, along with a breast examination,
including palpation of the breasts for lumps.
PSA Adult males usually have this blood test that can detect
(prostate-specific antigen) prostate cancer.
Digital rectal exam (DRE) a prostate cancer screening method.
Some blood tests indicate a particular type of cancer. Imaging techniques now
provide a detailed picture of various parts of the body. MRIs, CAT scans, mammograms,
and the insertion of lighted instruments to view various body parts have advanced
diagnostic techniques.
20.6. Grading
Tumors are categorized by grade, the maturity of the tumor, and stage, the degree of
spread or metastasis of the tumor. A common method for grading is the TNM system
(tumor, node, metastasis), which numbers the extent of the tumor, the extent of lymph nodes
affected, and the degree of metastasis.
Some of the classifications of tumors are:
Alveolar forming small sacs shaped like alveoli
Anaplastic reverting to a more immature form
Carcinoma in situ contained at a site without spreading
Diffuse spreading evenly
Dysplastic abnormal in cell appearance
Epidermoid resembling epithelial cells
Follicular containing glandlike sacs
Hyperchromatic intensely colored
Hyperplastic excessive in development (of cells)
Hypoplastic underdeveloped as tissue
Nodular formed in tight cell clusters
Papillary having small papillae projecting from cells
Pleomorphic having many types of cells
Scirrhous made up of hard, densely packed cells
Undifferentiated lacking a defined cell structure
Tumors can be described as:
 cystic, filled with fluid
 fungating, projecting from a surface in a mushroomlike pattern
 inflammatory, having an inflamed appearance (swollen and red)
 medullary, large and fleshy
 necrotic, containing dead tissue
 polypoid, containing polyps
 ulcerating, having open wounds
 verrucous, having wartlike, irregular growths
131
20.7. Treatment
Once a tumor is confirmed as malignant, a doctor and patient discuss and agree on a
protocol, a course of treatment. One of the possible treatments is radiation, the bombarding
of the tumor with rays that damage the DNA of the tumor cells. Radiation can cause many
unpleasant side effects, such as hair loss, nausea, and skin damage. Some cancerous tumors
will respond to radiation better than others. A radiosensitive tumor will absorb the
damaging radiation and respond by dying or shrinking. With a radioresistant tumor, the
radiation has little effect on the growth of the tumor. The use of a drug called a
radiosensitizer prior to the radiation treatments will increase the radiosensitivity of the
tumor.
Among the other possible treatments are the use of drugs (=chemotherapy) and
surgery.
20.8. Surgical Terms
Many cancers can be diagnosed and treated with surgery. First, however, the tissue is
usually examined in a biopsy, the removal of a small amount of living tissue for diagnosis.
There are many types of biopsies depending on the type of cancer suspected:
An incisional biopsy is the removal of a part of a tumor for examination.
An excisional biopsy is one in which the tumor is removed and surrounding tissue is
examined for the spread of the tumor.
A brush biopsy is the passing of a catheter with bristles on it into the ureter or other areas
to remove cells for examination.
A needle biopsy is any biopsy in which cells are aspirated through a needle.
An exfoliative biopsy is one in which cells are scraped off of the skin for examination.
If a tumor is found to be malignant, the tumor is usually removed to an established
surgical margin or to the point where it abuts normal tissue. A localized tumor can be
removed in a lumpectomy or tylectomy. Some surgeries involve resectioning, removal of
the tumor and a large amount of the surrounding tissue, including lymph nodes; others
involve exenteration, removal of an organ, tumor, and surrounding tissue. Other surgical
procedures are cryosurgery, destruction by freezing; electrocauterization, destruction by
burning; or fulguration, destruction by high-frequency electrical current.
20.9. Pharmacological Terms

Aside from surgery and radiation, cancer treatment includes three other modalities:
Chemotherapy use of drugs to treat cancer
Biological therapy use of agents that enhance the body’s own immune response in
fighting tumor growth
Gene therapy use of cells from a laboratory to change the course of a disease
(much of this is still experimental)
Both chemotherapy and biological therapy have side effects, such as hair loss,
nausea, and so on. Gene therapy is just in its beginning stages and long-term results are not
known yet. The four cancer treatments may be used together or separately during the course
of a protocol.
There are many researchers working on new cancer therapies, such as the inhibition
of angiogenesis, the process in the body of supplying blood to tumors.
132
EXERCISES
Task 1. Write the word from this list that matches each statement:
benign deoxyribonucleic acid teratoma carcinogen metastasis

differentiated malignant invasive sarcoma oncogene
1. Lacking in normal orderly cell arrangement _____________
2. Encapsulated, not malignant ____________
3. Infiltrating other organs; spreading ____________
4. Growing uncontrollably ____________
5. Genetic material of a cell ____________
6. DNA fragment that causes malignancies _____________
7. Growth containing several types of tissue and various types of cells ____________
8. Tumor that originates in muscle, connective tissue, and lymph; fairly rare
____________
9. Spread of malignant cells _____________
10. Cancer-causing agent _____________
Task 2. Match the terms describing tumor appearance with definitions:
1 verrucous a filled with fluid

2 polypoid b wartlike in appearance
3 inflammatory c containing glandular sacs
4 cystic d having open wounds
5 follicular e large and fleshy
6 ulcerating f containing dead tissue
7 medullary g containing polyps
8 necrotic h having a red and swollen appearance
Task 3. Using the combining forms and suffixes write a term for each definition:
1. Therapy using radiation _____________ radiotherapy

2. Bone tumor _____________ osteoma
3. Immature red blood cell _____________ erythroblast
4. Fluid-filled glandular carcinoma _____________ cystoadenocarcinoma
5. Tumor of the meninges _____________ meningioma
6. Cancer of the lymph system _____________ lymphoma
Task 4. Use the combining forms to complete the following words:
1. tumor consisting of immature cells: _____________ oma

2. treatment of tumors: _____________ therapy
3. agent that promotes a genetic change: _____________ gen
4. impenetrable by radiation: _____________ opaque
5. destructive to cancer cells: _____________ lytic
133
Task 5. Give the definitions of the words:
Androblastoma ____________ Adenocarcinoma _____________
Arcinogenesis ____________ Oncologist __________________
Mutagenesis ______________ Oncocyte ___________________
Oncogene ________________ Adenoma ___________________
Radiotherapy ______________ Astrocytoma ________________
Radionecrosis ______________ Chondrosarcoma _____________
Hypernephroma ____________ Liposarcoma _________________
Leiomyosarcoma ____________ Lymphoma ________________
Task 6. Write the body part being tested for cancer by each of the following
procedures:
1. mammogram: ____________
2. DRE: ____________
3. PSA: ____________
4. pap smear: ____________
Task 7. Complete the sentences by filling in the blanks:

1. A tumor filled with liquid is referred to as _____________ .
2. Some melanomas are _____________ , or intensely colored.
3. Chemotherapy is one ____________ for treatment of cancer.
4. Tissue that is dead is referred to as _____________ .
5. Some cancers are ____________, or wartlike in appearance.
Task 8. Define the following terms:
Carcinogenic _______________ Radiologist ___________________

Carcinolytic _______________ Radiometer ___________________
Carcinoma ________________ Radiopaque ___________________
Carcinophobia _____________ Radiopathology _______________
Mutagen _________________ Radioresistant ________________
Oncogenesis ______________ Radiopharmaceutical ___________
Oncogenic ________________ Radiosensitive ________________
Oncogenous ______________ Radiotoxiemia ________________
Oncofetal ________________ Genoblast ___________________
Oncology ________________ Glioblastoma ________________
Oncolysis ________________ Glioma _____________________
Oncosis _________________ Fibrosarcoma ________________
Radioactive _______________ Medulloblastoma _____________
Radiodiagnosis ____________ Melanoma ___________________
Radiograph _______________ Nephrosarcoma _______________
Radiographer ______________ Neuroblastoma _______________
Radiographic ______________ Osteosarcoma ________________
Radiogram ________________ Retinoblastoma _______________
Radiography ______________ Rhabdomyosarcoma ___________
Radiology _________________ Sarcoma _____________________
134
Task 9. Match the correct term in the right-hand column with its definition in
the left-hand column:
1 ____ removal of part of a tumor for a fulguration

examination
2 ____ removal of a tumor and b cryosurgery
surrounding tissue for examination
3 ____ form of surgery using freezing c electrocauterization
4 ____ form of surgery using burning d incisional biopsy
5 ____ form of surgery using high- e excisional biopsy
frequency current
Task 10. Choose the term that best describes the italicized description of the
correct answer:
1. The patient was treated with a bombarding of tumors with rays that damage the DNA of
cells and had a positive result after the treatment was completed.
 chemotherapy
 protocol
 radiation
2. The physician remarked that the lesion appeared to be formed in tight clusters and was
found to be abnormal.
 necrotic
 nodular
 verrucous
3. A biopsy revealed that the tumor was hard and densely packed just as the pathologist
suspected.
 scirrhous
 papillary
 pleomorphic
4. Dr. Jacobs noted that the dysplastic lesion appeared intensely colored and this concern
warranted further evaluation.
 hyperplastic
 hypoplastic
 hyperchromatic
5. One of the purposes of the TNM system of categorizing tumors is to determine the degree
of tumor spread within the body.
 carcinoma in situ
 stage
 grade
135
21
Terms in Dental Practice (1)
21.1. Dental practice

Dental practice (dentistry or odontology) is the profession that studies, diagnoses,
and treats the teeth and gums and any other parts of the oral cavity and facial structure that
interact with teeth and gums. Dental practice includes prevention, diagnosis, and treatment,
including both reconstructive and cosmetic surgery.
Dentists are trained practitioners generally assisted by dental hygienists, dental
assistants, and dental laboratory technicians.
Dental hygienists licensed health care professionals who have completed extensive
educational and clinical preparation in preventive oral health care
Dental assistants take x-rays, assist the dentist in providing treatment, and perform
general office tasks
Dental laboratory work in the dental lab creating fixed or removable prosthetic
technicians devices such as crowns or bridges
The oral cavity is part of the digestive
system. Teeth and gums help masticate or
chew food at the beginning of the digestive
process. They are also important to speech
and general appearance. The gums or
gingivae surround the bony sockets that hold
the teeth in place. The gingivae are dense
fibrous tissues that attach to and surround the
necks of the teeth and adjacent alveolar bone
of the jaw (upper jaw = maxilla, lower jaw =
mandible) inside the oral cavity.
21.2. Dental anatomy

Each tooth has a crown, the part projecting above the jawline, and a root, the part
below the jawline. The crown consists of an outer layer of glossy, hard, white enamel, and
an inner layer of a hard bony substance called dentin surrounding the central portion of the
tooth, the pulp cavity. The pulp cavity contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves
called the pulp, the life source of the tooth. The pulp extends down into the root of the
tooth. Root canals are tubular structures that carry the blood vessels and nerves from the
bottom of the jaw up into the pulp cavity. The root of the tooth is held in place by
cementum, a bony material surrounding the root, and a periodontal ligament, fibrous
material that connects the cementum to the jawbone.
In dental care, the outer surfaces of teeth are referred to in special terms:
Labial surface part of the tooth nearest the inner lip which meets with the lip
when the mouth is closed
Buccal surface part of the tooth on the side of teeth nearest the cheek
Lingual surface the inside surface of tooth nearest the tongue
Mesial surface the short side of the tooth nearest the midline of the jawline
Distal surface the short side of the tooth farthest from the midline of the jawline
136
21.3. Types of teeth
Infants are born with no visible teeth but they usually have 20 primary teeth that have
formed inside the gums. Primary teeth or deciduous teeth begin to erupt through the gum
tissue at regular intervals at about six months. The twenty primary teeth, ten in the upper
jaw and ten in the lower jaw, are usually all in place by age three.
Pedodontists are dentists who specialize in treating children. Early good dental
hygiene can also affect the development of the hard palate and facial structure. Then, at
about age six, the secondary or permanent teeth begin to develop and push the primary
teeth out of their sockets at regular intervals. Ultimately, by as late as the mid-twenties,
most people have gone through the teething process, and all thirty-two permanent teeth have
developed. Permanent teeth are not replaced by the body if they are lost.
The average human has three types of primary and four types of secondary teeth.
Primary teeth include incisors, cuspids,
and molars. Incisors are the cutting teeth on
either side of the center line of the jaw. The
central incisors are the teeth on either side of
the center line – two on top and two on the
bottom. Next, are the lateral incisors or
second incisors. The cuspid (=canine or
eyetooth), a tooth with a sharp-pointed
projection called a cusp sits next to the lateral
incisor. There are three molars
(=premolars). The first molar sits next to
the cuspid, and the second molar sits at the
back of a child’s jaw.
The types of secondary teeth include incisors, cuspids, and molars, as well as
bicuspids. The secondary teeth also have central and lateral incisors, followed by one
cuspid tooth. Next to each cuspid tooth is a first bicuspid, followed by a second bicuspid.
Bicuspids are so named because they each have two cusps. Permanent teeth include a first,
second, and third molar on each side of the jaw, both top and bottom. The third molar is
popularly known as a wisdom tooth because it usually appears after a person is fully grown.
21.4. Common combining forms and abbreviations
COMBINING MEANING EXAMPLE
FORM
dent(o), denti tooth dentilabial, relating to both teeth and lips
gingiv(o) gum gingivitis, inflammation of the gums
odont(o) tooth odontorrhagia, profuse bleeding after an extraction
ABBREVIATION MEANING ABBREVIATION MEANING
CDA certified dental dmf decayed, missing, or filled
assistant (primary teeth)
DDS doctor of dental DMF decayed, missing, or filled
surgery (permanent teeth)
def decayed, DEF decayed, extracted, or filled
extracted, or filled (permanent teeth)
(primary teeth)
RDH registered dental TMJ temporomandibular joint
hygienist
137
21.5. Prevention of dental problems
Most dental work begins with the prevention of tooth
decay, cavities, or caries, gradual decay and
disintegration of teeth, and gingivitis or gum disease.
Preventive measures include:
Brushing teeth and gums twice daily to remove plaque, the sticky, colorless layer of
bacteria that forms on the crowns and root surfaces of teeth causing tooth decay and
periodontal (gum) disease
Flossing, using a thin dental tape or string to clean between the teeth and under the gum
line helps to remove plaque and food particles.
Using antimicrobial mouth rinses and toothpastes reduce the bacterial count and inhibit
bacterial activity in dental plaque.
Using fluoride mouth rinse and fluoride toothpaste provides extra protection against
tooth decay.
Applying sealants*
*a plastic resin is applied to the depressions and grooves (pits and fissures) on chewing
surfaces of molars and bicuspids. The sealant acts as a barrier, protecting enamel from
plaque and acids.
21.6. Diagnostic procedures
Tooth decay in infants or toddlers can be caused by going to sleep with bottles in
their mouths. As soon as a baby’s first teeth appear – usually by age six months or so – the
child is susceptible to decay. This condition is often referred to as baby bottle tooth decay
or early childhood caries. In some unfortunate cases, infants and toddlers may experience
severe tooth decay that requires dental restorations or extractions.
Once tooth decay (caries) has begun, the earlier it is caught the better the outcome.
Dental x-rays reveal the beginnings of decay at and below the surface of teeth. They can
also reveal any problems with the normal growth of permanent teeth, such as an impacted
wisdom tooth (=third molar) so tightly wedged into the jawbone that it is unable to erupt or
break through the surface of the gums thoroughly.
Dental cone beam computed tomography (CT) is a special type of x-ray machine
used in situations where regular dental or facial x-rays are not sufficient. This type of CT
scanner generates 3-D images of dental structures, soft tissues, nerve paths, and bone in
the craniofacial region in a single scan. It is commonly used for treatment planning of
orthodontic issues.
Dental cone beam CT is also useful for more complex cases that involve:
 surgical planning for impacted teeth;
 diagnosing TMJ disorder;
 accurate placement of dental implants;
 evaluation of the jaw, sinuses, nerve canals and
nasal cavity;
 detecting, measuring and treating jaw tumors;
 determining bone structure and tooth orientation;
 locating the origin of pain or pathology;
 cephalometric analysis;
 reconstructive surgery.
138
EXERCISES
Dental practice
1. The profession that studies, diagnoses, and treats the teeth and gums and any other parts
of the oral cavity as well as facial structures that interact with teeth and gums.
 Pedodontics
 Endodontics
 Dentistry
 Oral surgery
 Cosmetic dentistry
2. A profession which includes prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of oral conditions,

including both reconstructive and cosmetic surgery.
 Surgery
 Dental practice
 Medicine
 Pediatrics
 Pharmacy
3. A trained practitioner generally assisted by dental hygienists, dental assistants, and dental
laboratory technicians.
 Oculist
 Pharmacist
 Dental technician
 Dentist
 Cosmetic dentist
4. Licensed health care professionals who have completed extensive educational and clinical
preparation in preventive oral health care
 Dentists
 Dental hygienists
 Oral surgeon
 Endodontists
 Periodontologists
5. They take x-rays, assist the dentist in providing treatment, and perform general office
tasks
 Dentists
 Dental assistants
 Radiologists
 Oral surgeons
6. They work in the dental lab creating fixed or removable prosthetic devices such as
crowns or bridges
 Dental laboratory technicians
 Dental assistants
 Radiologists
 Dentists
139
7. A part of the digestive system, the space from the lips to the end of the hard palate
 Pharynx
 Oral cavity
 Palate
 Mandible
 Maxilla
8. Dense fibrous tissue that attaches to and surrounds the necks of the teeth and adjacent
alveolar bone of the jaw inside the oral cavity.
 Palate
 Mandible
 Gingivae
 Maxilla
 Pharynx
9. Any of the hard white structures in the mouth used for biting food
 Palate
 Mandible
 Maxilla
 Tooth
 Pharynx
10. It holds the tooth in place

 Gingivae
 Palate
 Mandible
 Socket
 Maxilla
11. Either of the areas of flesh in the mouth to which the teeth are attached
 Socket
 Palate
 Gum
 Mandible
 Maxilla
12. Either of the two bones at the bottom of the face that contain the teeth and move when
you talk or eat
 Socket
 Palate
 Jaw
 Parietal
 Temporal
13. Upper jaw

 mandible
 palate
 maxilla
 jaw
 TMJ
140
Task 2. Fill in the blank spaces with proper words:
1. Odontology is the profession that studies, diagnoses, and treats the teeth and gums and
any other parts of the oral cavity and _______ structures.
 Buccal
 Artificial
 Facial
 Glossal
 Labial
2. Dental practice includes prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, including both _________
surgery.
 Preventive and plastic
 Reconstructive and cosmetic
 Reconstructive and bypass
 Oral and cardiovascular
 Oral and bowel cavity
3. Dentists are trained practitioners generally assisted by ________, dental assistants, and
dental laboratory technicians.
 Radiologists
 Oral surgeons
 Periodontologists
 Security guys
4. Dental hygienists are licensed health care professionals who have completed extensive
educational and clinical preparation in ______ oral health care
 Reconstructive
 Cosmetic
 Plastic
 Preventive
 Cardiovascular
5. Dental assistants take______, assist the dentist in providing treatment.

 Pictures
 X-rays
 Images
 Care
 Breaks
6. Dental laboratory technicians work in the dental lab creating fixed or removable
prosthetic devices such as ______.
 Crowns and implants
 Crowns or bridges
 Crowns and fillings
 Fillings and veneers
 Implants and veneers
141
7. ________ help masticate or chew food at the beginning of the digestive process.
 Hard and soft palate
 Teeth and gums
 Lips and tongue
 Head and neck
 Hands and feet
8. The gingivae are _______ tissue that attach to and surround the necks of the teeth and
adjacent alveolar bone of the jaw inside the oral cavity.
 Epithelial
 Muscle
 Dense fibrous
 Cardiac
 Loose fibrous
Common combining forms and abbreviations

Task 3:
a) Provide the term for the definition: b) Define the following abbreviations:
1. Relating to teeth and lips 5. def

 Dental  Decayed, extracted, or filled
 Dentilabial (permanent teeth)
 Labial  Decayed, extracted, or filled
 Gingivolabial (primary teeth)
 Glossal  Decayed, extracted, or filled
(molar)
2. Inflammation of the gums  Decayed, extracted, or filled
 Stomatitis (premolar)
 Periodontitis  Decayed, extracted, or filled
 Halitosis (incisor)
 Gingivitis
 Glossitis
6. TMJ
 Temporal mandibular joint
 Temporomandibular joint
3. Profuse bleeding after an extraction
 Trained medical journalist
 Diarrhea
 Temporomandibular jaw
 Salivation
 Tomato and mandarin jam
 Hemorrhage
 Odontorrhagia 7. DMF
 Bleeding  Decayed, missing, or filled
 Logorrhea (primary teeth)
 Ecayed, extracted, or filled (molar)
4. Gingivectomy  Decayed, extracted, or filled
 Incision in gingivae (premolar)
 Removal of a tongue  Decayed, missing, or filled
 Removal of gums (permanent teeth)
 Plastic repair of the gingiva  Decayed, extracted, or filled
 removal of a tooth (incisor)
142
Dental anatomy
1. Each tooth has a_______, the part projecting above the jawline.
 enamel
 dentin
 crown
 pulp cavity
 cementum
2. Each tooth has a _____, the part below the jawline.
 enamel
 dentin
 root
 pulp cavity
 cementum
3. The crown consists of an outer layer of glossy, hard, white______.
 root
 dentin
 pulp cavity
 enamel
 cementum
4. The crown consists of an inner layer of a hard bony substance called _______
surrounding the pulp cavity.
 root
 enamel
 pulp cavity
 dentin
 cementum
5. The ______ contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves called the pulp.
 root
 pulp cavity
 enamel
 dentin
 cementum
6. The pulp extends down into the ______ of the tooth.

 enamel
 root
 dentin
 pulp cavity
 cementum
7. Root canals are tubular structures that carry the blood vessels and nerves from the bottom
of the jaw up into the ________.
 root
 enamel
 pulp cavity
 dentin
 cementum
143
8. The root of the tooth is held in place by________.
 root
 enamel
 dentin
 cementum
 pulp cavity
9. Cementum is a _______ material surrounding the root, and a periodontal ligament.

 fibrous
 muscular
 connective
 bony
 loose
Task 5. Choose a proper term to the definition:

1. The hard white outer layer of a tooth
 Pulp
 Root
 Dentin
 Enamel
 Cementum
2. A part of the tooth nearest the inner lip which meets with the lip when the mouth is closed
 Buccal surface
 Lingual surface
 Labial surface
 Mesial surface
 Distal surface
3. A part of the tooth on the side of teeth nearest the cheek

 Lingual surface
 Buccal surface
 Labial surface
 Mesial surface
 Distal surface
4. The inside surface of a tooth nearest the tongue

 Distal surface
 Lingual surface
 Labial surface
 Buccal surface
 Mesial surface
5. The short side of the tooth nearest the midline of the jawline
 Distal surface
 Labial surface
 Buccal surface
 Mesial surface
 Lingual surface
144
6. The short side of the tooth farthest from the midline of the jawline
 Mesial surface
 Distal surface
 Labial surface
 Buccal surface
 Lingual surface
Task 6. Match the definitions with correct terms:

1. Tooth disease
 Odontology
 Odontalgia
 Gingivitis
 Odontopathy
 Periodontosis
2. Tooth-shaped
 Vermiform
 Dentiform
 Cone-shaped
 Teething
 Pear-shaped
3. Dentistry
 Periodontology
 Pedodontics
 Endodontics
 Odontology
 Dentalgia
 Dentist
4. Toothache
 Pathology
 Myalgia
 Dentopathy
 Adenopathy
5. Surgical resectioning of the gums

 Gingivotomy
 Gingivitis
 Gingival
 Gingivectomy
 Dentalgia
6. Inflammation of gums and deeper periodontal structures

 Glossitis
 Gingivitis
 Dentalgia
 Periodontitis
 Stomatitis
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Types of teeth
Task 7. Choose a proper synonym to the word:
1 dentistry a permanent tooth
2 mouth b cuspid
3 gums c dental practitioner
4 primary tooth d mandible
5 secondary tooth e oral cavity
6 pedodontist f maxilla
7 canine g deciduous tooth
8 dentist h odontology
9 upper jaw i pediatric dentist
10 lower jaw j gingivae
Task 8. Circle T for true or F for false:
1. Wisdom teeth are only secondary teeth. T F
2. The pulp of a tooth is the gum. T F
3. Primary teeth erupt through the gums all at once. T F
4. The outer layer of a tooth is the enamel. T F
5. The buccal surface is the side nearest the lip. T F
1. Primary teeth or _______ begin to erupt through the gum tissue at about six months.
 permanent teeth
 cuspids
 deciduous teeth
 deciding teeth
2. ________ are dentists who specialize in treating children.

 Dentists
 Endodontists
 Pedodontists
 Oral surgeons
3. At about age six, the secondary or _______ begin to develop.
 lifelong teeth
 cuspids
 permanent teeth
 constant teeth
4. _______ are the cutting teeth on either side of the center line of the jaw.
 Cuspids
 Incisors
 Molars
 Premolars
5. The______, a tooth with a sharp-pointed projection sits next to the lateral incisor.
 cuspid
 molar
 premolar
 incisor
146
Prevention and diagnosis of dental problems
Task 10. Match the definitions with correct terms:
1. The act of stopping something bad from happening
 treatment
 diagnosing
 prevention
 grading
 evaluation
2. Act of removing or trying to remove something from a place or surface with a brush
 Cleaning
 Brushing
 Flossing
 Drilling
 Irrigating
3. A soft substance that forms on teeth and encourages the growth of harmful bacteria
 Calculus
 Decay
 Plaque
 Caries
 Dust
4. Cleaning between your teeth with dental floss

 Brushing
 Cleaning
 Flossing
 Drilling
 Irrigating
5. A plastic resin applied to the depressions and grooves on chewing surfaces of molars.
 Filling
 Veneer
 Sealant
 Bridge
 Crown
6. A special type of x-ray machine generating 3-D images used in situations where regular
dental or facial x-rays are not sufficient
 MRI
 Dental cone beam computed tomography
 X-ray generator
 X-ray detector
 Radiograph
7. A disorder where the third molars are prevented from erupting into the mouth
 Unerupted wisdom teeth
 Impacted wisdom teeth
 Erupted wisdom teeth
 Exposed wisdom teeth
 Filled wisdom teeth
147
Task 11. Write the letter of the answer in the space provided:
1. ___ number of primary teeth a. lingual
2. ___ number of secondary teeth b. near the cheek
3. ___ buccal c. near the lip
4. ___ near the tongue d. mesial
5. ___ labial e. 32
6. ___ nearest the midline of the jawline f. 20

1. It is recommended to brush teeth and gums twice daily to remove _______.
 calculus
 caries
 fillings
 plaque
 dentures
2. ____ between the teeth and under the gum line helps to remove plaque and food particles.
 Rinsing
 Flossing
 Brushing
 Filling
 Drilling
3. Using _______ reduces the bacterial count and inhibits bacterial activity in dental plaque.
 dental floss
 antimicrobial mouth rinse
 fluoride mouth rinse
 fluoride toothpaste
 interdental brushes
4. Using fluoride toothpaste provides extra protection against tooth _________.

 plaque
 calculus
 decay
 caries
 fillings
5. Tooth decay in infants can be ______ by going to sleep with bottles in their mouth.
 prevented
 recommended
 stopped
 caused
 treated
6. Dental ______ reveal the beginnings of decay at and below the surface of teeth.
 CT scan
 MRI
 hygienists
 x-rays
 assistants
148
22
Terms in Dental Practice (2)
22.1. Dental restorations

Tooth decay can cause toothaches
(=odontalgia). Early tooth decay that has not
invaded the central portion of the tooth usually
receives a filling which includes: drilling, cutting
away some of the tooth structure, removing the
decayed area, and placing into the space medication
and restoration material.
There are several dental filling options:
Dental amalgam is a mixture of metal alloys. It is durable, easy to use, highly resistant to
wear, and relatively inexpensive in comparison to other materials.
Composite fillings are a mixture of glass or quartz filler in a resin medium that produces a
tooth-colored filling.
Glass ionomers are translucent, tooth-colored materials made of a mixture of acrylic acids
and fine glass powders that are used to fill cavities, particularly on the root surfaces of teeth.
All-porcelain (ceramic) dental materials include porcelain, ceramic or glasslike fillings,
crowns or veneers.
Porcelain-fused-to-metal provides strength to a crown or bridge. These restorations are very
strong and durable.
Gold alloys contain gold, copper, and other metals that result in a strong, effective filling,
crown, or bridge.
If decay is deeper within the tooth, affecting the nerve tissue, an abscess, infection,
and swelling of the soft tissue of the jaw, may result. In some cases, the tooth must be
removed partially or totally. If nerve tissue must be removed, root canal work is
performed. Root canal work is the removal of pulp tissue and affected nerves in the root
canals. Medication is applied and the affected canals are sealed off. Endodontists are
dentists who specialize in root canal work.
When teeth are damaged by severe trauma or decayed to the extent that they cannot
be restored, replacement or artificial teeth are used. Prosthodontics deals with the
construction of artificial devices for replacing missing teeth or other structures in the mouth
and jaw. The prosthodontist specializes in the practice of prosthodontics.
Dentures are dental prostheses that can be permanently held in place or can be removable.
They are either partial, replacing one or more but not all teeth, or full, replacing a whole set
of teeth.
A bridge is a restoration which replaces or spans the space where one or more teeth have
been lost. There are two types of bridges, fixed bridges (bonded into place and can only be
removed by the dentist) and removable bridges (can be taken out for cleaning).
Missing teeth may also be replaced with dental implants, artificial teeth that have extensions
set into bone. Implants are expensive and, while some people will have an entire mouth filled
with implants, they are more commonly used for just a few teeth.
Dentists use a process of impressions, molding, shaping, and color-matching
substances that are then made into dentures or bridges in a dental laboratory before being
placed into the patient’s mouth.
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22.2. Periodontal treatment
Gum disease (periodontal disease) is classified according to the severity of the
disease. The two major stages are gingivitis and periodontitis. Gingivitis is a milder and
reversible form of periodontal disease that only affects the gums. Gingivitis may lead to
more serious, destructive forms of periodontal disease called periodontitis. Gingivitis and
periodontitis can result from too much plaque, other medical conditions, or general poor
dental hygiene and health. Periodontists are specialists who treat gum disease, often by
surgically removing diseased tissue and calcified plaque in a process called scaling.
Common signs and symptoms of
periodontal disease include:
 Gums that bleed easily
 Red, swollen, tender gums
 Gums that have pulled away from the teeth
 Persistent bad breath or bad taste
 Loose or separating permanent teeth
 Any change in the way your teeth fit
together when you bite or in the fit of
partial dentures
It is possible to have periodontal disease and have no warning signs. That is one
reason why regular dental checkups and periodontal examinations are very important.
Good oral hygiene is essential to help keep periodontal disease from becoming more
serious or recurring.
22.3. Orthodontics
Orthodontists are dentists who specialize in orthodontics, the correction and
prevention of irregularities in the alignment and appearance of teeth. They can correct
malocclusions, abnormal closure of the top teeth in relation to the bottom teeth, such as an
overbite.
Malocclusions may be corrected with surgical removal of any teeth that are crowding
other teeth or with braces, appliances that put pressure on the teeth to move them slowly
into place.
Some dentists also treat temporomandibular joint (TMJ) dysfunction, pain in the
jawline due to dislocation or joint problems that prevent this complex system of muscles,
ligaments, discs, and bones from working together properly. Treatments for this pain may
include stress reducing exercises, muscle relaxants, or wearing a mouth protector to
prevent teeth grinding (bruxism).
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22.4. Cosmetic dentistry
Some dentists perform cosmetic dentistry by replacing and manipulating broken,
discolored, or disfigured teeth. Still, others treat discolored teeth with bleaching products to
whiten them. Most dental stains are caused by age, tobacco, coffee or tea, antibiotics, such
as tetracycline, or excess fluoride.
Cosmetic treatment may include:
Bleaching Chairside bleaching involves several sessions. A bleaching agent
is applied to the teeth, and a special light may be used to enhance
the action of the agent. At-home bleaching may involve the use
of mouth trays and a peroxide containing gel.
Bonding Composite resin is molded onto the teeth to change their color
and to reshape them.
Porcelain veneers Shell-like facings can be bonded onto stained teeth
Whitening Some whitening toothpastes effectively keep the teeth cleaner
toothpastes and, therefore, looking whiter, but some are rather abrasive.
22.5. Common dental problems

The most common dental problems include*:
1. Bad breath (=halitosis)
2. Tooth decay (=dental caries,
dental cavities)
3. Gum (periodontal) disease
4. Oral cancer
5. Mouth sores
 Canker sores or
aphthous ulcers
 Fever blisters or cold
sores
 Thrush or candidiasis
6. Tooth erosion
7. Tooth sensitivity
8. Toothaches and dental
emergencies
9. Unattractive smile
*Adapted from: The most common dental problems include. Available at: https://www.verywellhealth.com/top-common-dental-problems-1059461
22.6. Pharmacological terms

Dentists provide local anesthetics during certain treatments, such as drilling. The
most commonly used are:
Novocaine which is injected near the site being treated
Nitrous oxide a gas inhaled by the patient, also known as laughing gas because
it produces laughing in some patients.
Antibiotics or after a dental procedure if there is a need. However, there are
Painkillers/analgesics limitations to the number and strengths they can prescribe.
151
EXERCISES
Dental restorations
1. A process which includes: drilling, cutting away some of the tooth structure, removing
the decayed area, and placing into the space medication and restoration material.
 Implanting
 Restoration
 Filling
 Repair
 Bleaching
2. A dentist who specializes in root canal work
 Periodontist
 Orthodontist
 Pedodontist
 Endodontist
 Oral surgeon
3. Specialty dealing with the construction of artificial devices for replacing missing teeth.
 Endodontics
 Periodontology
 Prosthodontics
 Pedodontics
 Oral surgery
4. Dental prostheses that can be permanently held in place or can be removable.
 Filling
 Implant
 Denture
 Sealant
 Veneer
5. A restoration which replaces or spans the space where one or more teeth have been lost.
 Denture
 Filling
 Bridge
 Implant
 Sealant
6. Artificial teeth that have extensions set into bone.
 Implant
 Denture
 Bridge
 Filling
 Sealant
7. A mark that is left when an object is pressed hard into a surface of a tooth
 Mark
 Impression
 Molding
 Bleaching
 Filling
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Task 2. Match the beginnings and the endings of the sentences:
Dental amalgam include porcelain, ceramic or glasslike fillings, crowns or veneers.
Composite provides strength to a crown or bridge. These restorations are very
fillings strong and durable.
Glass ionomers contain gold, copper, and other metals that result in a strong, effective
filling, crown, or bridge.
All-porcelain are a mixture of glass or quartz filler in a resin medium that produces a
dental materials tooth-colored filling.
Porcelain-fused- is a mixture of metal alloys. It is durable, easy to use, highly resistant to
to-metal wear, and relatively inexpensive in comparison to other materials.
Gold alloys are translucent, tooth-colored materials made of a mixture of acrylic
acids and fine glass powders.
Task 3. Fill in the blanks with proper words:
1. Deep tooth decay affecting the nerve 5. _______ bridges are bonded into place
tissue may result in an infection or and can only be removed by the dentist.
_______.  Partial
 caries  Fixed
 abscess  Full
 cavity  Removable
 plague  Movable
 calculus
2. _______ teeth are used when teeth 6. _______ bridges can be taken out for
cannot be restored. cleaning.
 Porcelain  Fixed
 Removable
 Artificial
 Partial
 Natural
 Full
 Healthy
 Attached
 New
7. _______ deals with the construction of

3. _______ dentures replace one or more
artificial devices for replacing missing
but not all teeth.
 Full
structures in the mouth and jaw.
 Endodontics
 Fixed
 Partial  Periodontology
 Removable  Pedodontics
 Movable  Prosthodontics
 Oral surgery
4. _______ dentures replace a whole set of
teeth. 8. The _______ specializes in the practice
 Partial of construction of artificial dental devices.
 Fixed  orthodontist
 Full  prosthodontist
 Removable  endodontist
 Movable  periodontist
 pedodontist
153
Periodontal treatment
1. Gingivitis is a milder form of _______ 7. The goal of periodontal treatment is to
disease that only affects the gums. thoroughly clean the ______ around teeth.
 gingival
 pockets
 tooth
 pits
 periodontal
 cavities
 dental
 sockets
 oral
 fissures
2. Gingivitis and periodontitis can result 8. _____ removes tartar and bacteria from
from too much_______. the tooth surfaces and beneath your gums.
 calculus
 Bleaching
 crown
 Filling
 teeth
 Removing
 plaque
 Scaling
 hygiene
 Drilling
3. Gingivitis and periodontitis can result 9. Dental _______ refers to the practice of
from _______ dental hygiene. keeping the mouth, teeth, and gums clean
 rich
and healthy to prevent disease.
 proper
 health
 sufficient
 treatment
 poor
 hygiene
 terrific
 care
4. A periodontal exam involves taking six  restorations
measurements around each _______ to
measure the depth of the space between 10. _______ is an infection caused by
the tooth and gums. bacteria that destroy the gums and bone.
 gum  Gingivitis
 root  Periodontal disease
 tooth  Stomatitis
 crown  Glossitis
 denture  Caries
5. _______ oral hygiene is essential to 11. Proper tooth brushing is critically

help keep periodontal disease from important to good dental _______.
becoming more serious.  health
 Bad  treatment
 Improper  care
 Balanced  hygiene
 Good  restorations
 Poor 12. Brushing after meals helps to keep the
6. Proper oral hygiene is essential to help _______ bacteria from reproducing in
keep periodontal disease from _______. your mouth.
 returning  non-pathogenic
 coming back  disease causing
 recurring  lacto-
 coming again  bifida-
 coming soon  microscopic
154
1. A mild form of gum disease that causes irritation, redness, and swelling of gums.
 Periodontitis
 Gingivitis
 Caries
 Bruxism
 Halitosis
2. An inflammation of the periodontium.

 Gingivitis
 Caries
 Periodontitis
 Bruxism
 Halitosis
3. A biofilm or mass of bacteria that grows on surfaces within the mouth.

 Calculus
 Tartar
 Caries
 Plaque
 Stone
4. A form of hardened dental plaque.

 Plaque
 Caries
 Stone
 Calculus
 Cavity
5. Bad breath.
 Periodontitis
 Halitosis
 Gingivitis
 Caries
 Bruxism
6. This word has the same meaning as “calculus”.

 Plaque
 Caries
 Stone
 Tartar
 Cavity
7. A dentist who specializes in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of periodontal

disease.
 Stomatologist
 Pedodontist
 Periodontist
 Endodontist
 Surgeon
155
Orthodontics
1. Orthodontists are dentists who specialize in the correction and prevention of irregularities
in the _______ and appearance of teeth.
 overbite
 crowding
 bruxism
 alignment
 malocclusion
2. Orthodontists can correct abnormal closure of the top teeth in relation to the bottom teeth,
such as an _______.
 alignment
 crowding
 overbite
 bruxism
 malocclusion
3. Malocclusions may be corrected with removal of any teeth that are _______ other teeth.
 alignment
 overbite
 bruxism
 crowding
 malocclusion
4. _______ are appliances that put pressure on the teeth to move them slowly into place.
 Bridges
 Fillings
 Braces
 Dentures
 Veneers
5. TMJ _______ is pain in the jawline.
 malocclusion
 dysfunction
 overbite
 crowding
 bruxism
6. Treatments for TMJ dysfunction may include wearing a mouth protector to prevent ___.
 alignment
 occlusion
 crowding
 denture
 bruxism
7. _______ can be caused by a genetic imbalance between jaw and tooth size.
 Alignment
 Occlusion
 Filling
 Denture
 Crowding
156
8. Excessive spacing between teeth is called ______.
 crowding
 diastema
 alignment
 overbite
 malocclusion
9. Abnormal closure of the top teeth in relation to the bottom teeth is called ______.
 crowding
 alignment
 malocclusion
 occlusion
 filling
10. The dental specialist concerned with correcting the alignment of teeth is _______.
 endodontist
 pedodontist
 periodontist
 orthodontist
 oral surgeon
11. You would visit a(n) ____________ for braces.

 endodontist
 pedodontist
 periodontist
 orthodontist
 oral surgeon
Task 7. Match the beginnings and the endings of the sentences:

1 Crowding a This is a type of orthodontic malocclusion which has no
vertical overlap or contact between the anterior incisors.
2 Diastema b The condition in which the buccal cusps of canine,
premolar and molar of upper teeth occlude lingually to
the buccal cusps of canine, premolar and molar of lower
teeth.
3 Open bite c This condition occurs when there is disharmony in
the tooth-to-jaw size relationship or when the teeth are
larger than the available space
4 Anterior crossbite d This condition refers to a gap or space between the
teeth. These spaces can form anywhere in the mouth but
are sometimes noticeable between the two upper front
teeth.
5 Overbite e This condition refers to the extent of vertical (superior-
inferior) overlap of the maxillary central incisors over
the mandibular central incisors, measured relative to the
incisal ridges.
6 Posterior crossbite f This condition involves displacement of either
maxillary central or lateral incisors lingual to their
original erupting positions.
157
Cosmetic dentistry
Task 8. Fill in the blanks with proper words related to cosmetic dentistry:
1. _______ refers to any dental work that improves the appearance of teeth, gums and/or
bite.
 Cosmetic dentistry
 Oral surgery
 Orthodontics
 Endodontics
 Pedodontics
2. Cosmetic dentistry primarily focuses on improvement in overall ______ appearance.

 face
 smile
 facial
 head
 lips
3. The most common types of cosmetic dentistry include composite bonding, dental
implants, whitening, inlays and _______ and veneers.
 inlays
 lays
 onlays
 withinlays
 crowns
4. One of the types of cosmetic dentistry is _______ bonding.

 porcelain
 composite
 amalgam
 ceramic
 resin
5. Bonding is one of the most _______ cosmetic procedures.

 ineffective
 time-effective
 demanded
 cost-effective
 common
6. Bonding is used to ____ minor issues ranging from tooth decay to chipped teeth.
 recover
 improve
 fill
 whiten
 repair
158
7. Cosmetic dentistry is _______ primarily on improving a person’s smile.
 focusing
 having focused
 being focused
 focus
 focused
8. Cosmetic procedures may also offer some type _______ as well.

 restorative drawback
 restorative disadvantage
 restorative benefit
 filling benefit
 restorative pleasure
9. Some of the common _______ procedures can be performed by most dentists.

 cosmetological
 mouth
 pediatric
 cosmetic
 dentist
10. Dental implants are typically used to replace _______ teeth.

 missed
 disappeared
 erupted
 impacted
 missing
11. For the implant procedure, your dentist will surgically insert a small screw into the____.
 maxilla
 mandible
 gums
 gingivae
 jawbone
12. Dental implants are said to be _______ from person’s other teeth.
 natural
 indistinguishable
 distinguishable
 different
 alike
13. Having the teeth _______ is one of the most common of all cosmetic procedures.
 whitening
 whiten
 white
 whitened
 whited
159
14. _______ can be used to achieve shades that are even lighter than the natural tooth color.
 Brushing
 Whitening
 Procedure
 Filling
 Veneering
15. _______ and onlays are also known as an indirect filling.

 Onlays
 Withinlays
 Outlays
 Inlays
 Bylays
16. Inlays and onlays are _______ in a lab and are shaped to match the teeth perfectly.
 mold
 have molded
 molding
 molded
 having molded
17. Indirect ______ are typically used when there is not enough tooth to support a crowns
 traditional filling.
 fillings
 bridges
 dentures
 lays
18. Dental veneers are designed to closely _______ a person’s natural teeth.
 restore
 resemble
 like
 repair
 whiten
19. Veneers are usually made from a super-strong medical-grade ______.

 filling
 resin
 amalgam
 ceramic
 ionomer
20. Veneers can be used to fill in a minor ______ between teeth.

 overbite
 gap
 crowding
 overlap
 fissure
160
Common dental problems. Pharmacological terms
Task 8. Fill in the blanks with proper words related to common dental problems
and pharmacological terms:
1. Halitosis is commonly known as _______.

 bad smell
 bad touch
 poor breath
 bad breath
 poor smell
2. Other term for tooth decay is _______.

 abscess
 caries
 halitosis
 mouth
 pain
3. Periodontal disease is commonly known as _______.

 halitosis
 gum disease
 tongue disease
 caries
 abscess
4. _____ cancer refers to cancer that develops in any of the parts that make up the mouth.
 Palate
 Oral
 Stomach
 Lip
 Tongue
5. Canker sores or aphthous ulcers, fever blisters or cold sores are referred to as ________.
 halitosis
 mouth sores
 gum disease
 tongue disease
 caries
6. Candidiasis is commonly known as _______.

 halitosis
 thrush
 mouth sores
 gum disease
 tongue disease
161
7. _______ is injected near the site being treated.
 Antibiotic
 Tranquilizer
 Sedative
 Novocaine
 Nitrous oxide
8. _______ is also known as laughing gas because it produces laughing in some patients.
 Carbon dioxide
 CO2
 Oxygen
 Nitrous oxide
 Nitrous dioxide
9. _______ can be prescribed after a dental procedure if there is a need.

 Sedatives and analgesics
 Sedatives and tranquilizers
 Antibiotics and sedatives
 Antibiotics or analgesics
 Antibiotics and anesthetics
10. Two types of dental prostheses are _____________ and _____________.

 dentures, fillings
 dentures, crowns
 veneers, implants
 dentures, implants
 crowns, implants
11. Amalgam is a material used to ____________ teeth.

 remove
 extract
 whiten
 fill
 bleach
12. Microorganisms that cause decay form _____________ around the teeth and gums.
 calculus
 tartar
 amalgam
 plaque
 thrush
13. A fixed dental appliance that replaces one or more teeth is a(n) ____________.
 crown
 bridge
 denture
 implant
 braces
162
14. DEF is the abbreviation for _____________.
 diseased, extracted, or filled
 decayed, examined, or filled
 decayed, extracted, or filled
 damaged, extracted, or filled
 decayed, extracted, or finished
15. A specialist in the treatment of gum disease is a ____________.

 orthodontist
 pedodontists
 periodontist
 prosthodontist
 hygienist
16. A(n) ____________ treats gum disease.

 pedodontists
 periodontist
 othodontist
 prosthodontist
 hygienist
Task 9. Fill in the sentences with the words from the box:
endodontist hygienist periodontist prosthodontist

orthodontist pedodontists
1. You would visit a(n) ____________ for braces.

2. Root canals are performed by ____________ .
3. ____________ specialize in dental treatment for children.
4. Gingivitis would be treated by a(n) ____________.
5. A dental specialist in the replacement of missing teeth is a(n) ____________.
6. The dental ____________ is a licensed member of the dental health team who may
perform extensive preventive treatment for patients.
Task 10. Write the correct spelling in the blank to the right of any misspelled
words. If the word is already correctly spelled, write “Correct”:
temparomandibuler ____________ bridge ____________

dicidous ____________ inplant ____________
bycusped ____________ seelant ____________
moler ____________ composit ____________
inciser ____________ permanent ____________
flourid ____________ hygeinest ____________
vener ____________ prosthadontist ____________
gingevas ____________ Novicain ____________
amalgum ____________ enamel ____________
163
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NOTES
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V.V. Chopyak – DSc in Medicine, Professor, Honoured doctor of Ukraine, Honoured

R. B. Lesyk – DSc in Pharmacy, Professor, Head of the department of Pharmaceutical,

B. I. Shunevych – DSc in Pedagogy, Professor, Department of Foreign languages, Lviv

M. P. Dilai – PhD in Philology, Associate Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics,

English for Medical Research: Textbook / P. A. Sodomora, L. V. Gutor,

1. Cultural and linguistic features of English in the academic context

1.1. Academic English........................................................................................ 9

2. Academic English: Ethical issues. Lexical evolution. Key nouns

2.1. Academic English: Ethical issues................................................................ 13

3. Academic English grammar: Key adjectives & adverbs16

3.1. Introduction to academic English grammar................................................ 18

4. Academic English grammar: Tenses. Key verbs. Phrasal verbs

4.2. Key verbs..................................................................................................... 24

6. Academic English: Key quantifying expressions. Numbers and statistics

6.1. Key quantifying expressions....................................................................... 37

7. Academic writing: Punctuation. Facts, evidence, and data

8. Academic writing: Research paper types. Types of journal articles. Sources

8.1. Research paper types................................................................................... 49

9. Academic writing: Hedging. Presenting an argument. Linking words.

10.1. Title and abstract....................................................................................... 60

11. Journal article: Structure. Graphs and diagrams.

12.1. Some useful nouns relating to ideas.......................................................... 71

13.1. Analysis of results. Discussion.................................................................. 76

14. Research aims and statement. Expressing a point of view

14.1. Expressing aims......................................................................................... 81

15. Summary and conclusion. Making a presentation

15.1. Summary and conclusion.......................................................................... 89

16.1. Pharmacology and its branches................................................................. 97

17. Pharmacology: Administration of drugs. Combining forms and abbreviations

17.1. Pharmacology: Administration of drugs................................................. 104

18. Pharmacological terms: Dermatology. Cardiology and Hematology.

18.1. Pharmacological terms in dermatology................................................... 112

19. Pharmacological terms: Orthopedics. Gastroenterology

19.1. Pharmacological terms in orthopedics..................................................... 124

20.1. Types of tumors......................................................................................... 129

21. Terms in Dental Practice (1)

21.1. Dental practice.......................................................................................... 136

22. Terms in Dental Practice (2)

1.1. Academic English

1.2. Everyday vs Academic Use

Everyday or Meaning Academic use Meaning

Neutral More formal Neutral More formal

Informal More formal

Academic language tries to be clear and precise, so it is important to keep a

1.4. Noun phrases

Noun Verb Adjective(s) Adverb(s)

2.1. Academic English: Ethical issues

2.2. Academic English: Lexical evolution

2.4. More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena

2.6. Nouns and the words they combine with

1. The Nature of Disease

Task 4. Match the beginnings and endings of the sentences:

1 The study revealed a regular a scope of your research.

Task 5. Correct the mistakes in the underlined phrases:

“Ill-fitting grammar is like ill-fitting shoes.

3.1. Introduction to academic English grammar

3.2. Key adjectives

Academic texts depend heavily on

We cannot discuss drug abuse as an abstract1 problem without considering concrete

Adjectives are frequently used in combination with nouns:

There was an apparent1 discrepancy between two sets of results.

Adverb Meaning Example