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Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: Understanding Learning
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: Understanding Learning
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: Understanding Learning
Learner-Centered
Teaching
MODULE 1
Understanding Learning
MODULE 1 – UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
The term ‘learning’ including the other concepts related to it, has something to do with your
experience as future teachers.
Learning—a major function of the brain—is understood in various ways. Here are several ways
that learning can be described or defined. Before we dive into understanding the relevant science
behind the learning process, let us ground ourselves in a definition of learning that is drawn
from research.
1. Learning is an active process - process of engaging and manipulating objects,
experiences, and conversations in order to build mental models of the world (Dewey,
1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1986). Learners build knowledge as they explore the
world around them, observe and interact with phenomena, converse and engage with
others, and make connections between new ideas and prior understandings.
2. Learning is a process that builds on prior knowledge - and involves enriching,
building on, and changing existing understanding, where “one’s knowledge base is a
scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning” (Alexander, 1996, p. 89).
3. Learning occurs in a complex social environment - learning should not be limited to
being examined or perceived as something that happens on an individual level. Instead,
it is necessary to think of learning as a social activity involving people, the things they
use, the words they speak, the cultural context they’re in, and the actions they take
(Bransford, et al., 2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that knowledge is built by members in the
activity (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006).
4. Learning is situated in an authentic context - provides learners with the opportunity
to engage with specific ideas and concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-know basis
(Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006).
5. Learning requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement - to be sustained
when learning complex ideas, because considerable mental effort and persistence are
necessary.
SOURCE:
http://theelearningcoach.com/learning/10-definitions-learning/ https://teaching.berkeley.edu/resources/learn/what-learning
TYPES OF LEARNING
The following are the types of learning that are considered as basic ingredients for students’
success in school. These types of learning are the outcomes of the students’ dynamic
involvement and engagement in various classroom activities
https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/motor-learning
Below are the learner-centered psychological principles which provide the bases for
understanding better the learner, and what learning is and should be.
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process
of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor
learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning
strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use
to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility
for contributing to their own learning.
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful
representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally
relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but
over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information
and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a
variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills.
How these links are made or develop may vary in different subject areas, and among students
with varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes
integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains
isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new
situations.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor
their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem
occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate
alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal).
6. Context of learning
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the
learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many
educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of
thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.
What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in
turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits
of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure
can enhance or interfere the learner's quality of thinking and information processing. Students'
beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on
motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and
information processing as well as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such
as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety
can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular
task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related
thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment,
ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and
contribute to low performance.
The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners'
intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be
competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that
learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in
complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.
Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and
meet needs for choice and control.
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion.
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along
with persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by
strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high
standards of comprehension and understanding.
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development varies across
intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different instructional
domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness--such as reading
readiness, for example--may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable
in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual
learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture,
and community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality
of language interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can
influence these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental
differences among children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities,
can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that
respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and
collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and
reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development,
as well as self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can
increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive
climate for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-
motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative
beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role
expectations, and undue pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to
establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help
learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning
community.
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition, through
learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to
learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in
helping learners reach their learning goals.
Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners.
However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence learning.
Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for
designing and implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that
their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued,
respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and
achievement are enhanced.
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -- are integral
parts of the learning process.
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards
appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths and
weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of
instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty. On-going assessment of the learner's
understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and
teachers about progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress
and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement levels both
within and across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about the attainment of
learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students self -
appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.
* The development of each principle involved thorough discussions of the research supporting
that principle. The multidisciplinary research expertise of the Task Force and Work Group
members facilitated an examination of each principle from a number of different research
perspectives.
Any changes that ensue within an individual is complex to understand and imagine. Thus, there
is a need to learn and understand all the learning theories for us to better conceptualize what
really learning is and how it occurs among learners.
Learning theories are composed of many principles that provide explanations how individuals
acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. These theories are results of scientific studies that were
seriously intellectualized.
As theories of learning evolved over time, there were shifts of definitions from changes that
occur in the mind or individual’s behaviour to changes in individual’s or group’s identity.
Today, there is a strong advocacy for learner-centeredness in pedagogy and curriculum design.
As this happens, curriculum planning and implementation have diverted its major focus to
learners’ holistic development.
In your previous subjects, you have probably encountered the terms behaviorism, cognitivism,
and constructivism. You will probably hear these terms a lot as you will go through this
module. You may therefore want to gain a better understanding of these three main schools of
theories of learning.
KEY PLAYERS:
#Operant Conditioning
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904 – 1990)
B.F. Skinner was one of the most influential of American
psychologists. As a behaviorist, he developed the theory of
operant conditioning -- the idea that behavior is determined
by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments,
which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur
again. Skinner believed that the only scientific approach to
psychology was one that studied behaviors, not internal
(subjective) mental processes.
(https://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/famous_psychologist_and_psychologists/psychologist_famous_b_f_skinner.htm)
Skinner’s Box - The "Skinner box" device was a chamber that contained a bar or key that an
animal could press in order to receive food, water, or some other form of reinforcement.
Reinforcement - Skinner identified reinforcement as any event that strengthens the behavior it
follows. The two types of reinforcement he identified were positive reinforcement (favorable
outcomes such as reward or praise) and negative reinforcement (the removal of unfavorable
outcomes)
In his research on operant conditioning, Skinner also discovered and described schedules of
reinforcement. These schedules of reinforcement play a central role in the operant
conditioning process. The frequency with which a behavior is reinforced can help determine
how quickly a response is learned as well as how strong the response might be. Each schedule
of reinforcement has its own unique set of characteristics
CLASSROOM IMPLICATION
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html
2. Conditioning and classroom behavior: During learning process child acquire unpleasant
experiences also. This unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject and the
classroom and learner dislikes the subject and a teacher. Suitable behavioral contingencies,
atmosphere of recognition, acceptance, affection and esteem helps child in approaching
teacher and the subject. If student is not serious in study, teacher make use of negative
reinforcement like showing negligence, criticizing student etc. but if student is serious in
study, teacher make use of positive reinforcement like prize, medal, praise and smile.
3. Managing Problem Behavior: Two types of behavior are seen in the classroom via
undesired behavior and problematic behavior. Operant conditioning is a behavior therapy
technique that shape students behavior. For this teacher should admit positive contingencies
like praise, encouragement etc. for learning. One should not admit negative contingencies.
Example punishment (student will run away from the dull and dreary classes – escape
stimulation.
5. Conditioning group behavior: Conditioning makes entire group learn and complete
change in behavior is seen due to reinforcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial behavior
too.
Example: Putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make teachers annoyed in such
circumstances students learn to keep mum in the class. Asking questions, active
participation in class discussion will make the teacher feel happy – interaction will increase
and teaching learning process becomes more effective.
6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: Reinforcement is given in different form, for the
progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When response is correct, positive
reinforcement is given. Example: A student who stands first in the class in the month of
January is rewarded in the month of December. To overcome this, programmed instruction
is used. In this subject matter is broken down into steps. Organizing in logical sequence
helps in learning. Each step is built upon the preceding step. Progress is seen in the process
of learning. Immediate reinforcement is given at each step.
EXERCISE 1
Directions: Identify what schedule of reinforcement is applied in the following situations.
___________________ 1. Call centers often offer random bonuses to employees. Workers never know
how many calls they need to make to receive the bonus, but they know that
they increase their chances the more calls or sales they make.
___________________ 2. Your psychology instructor might issue periodic pop quizzes to test your
knowledge and to make sure you are paying attention in class. While these
exams occur with some frequency, you never really know exactly when he
might give you a pop quiz. One week you might end up taking two quizzes,
but then go a full two weeks without one. Because you never know when
you might receive a pop quiz, you will probably pay attention and stay
caught up in your studies to be prepared.
___________________ 3. Dental exams also take place on a fixed-interval schedule. People who go
in for their regular six-month check-up and cleaning often take extra care
to clean their teeth right before the exam, yet they may not be as diligent
on a day-to-day basis during the six months prior to the exam.
___________________ 4. Slot machine players have no way of knowing how many times they have
to play before they win. All they know is that eventually, a play will win.
There is always the possibility that the next coin they put in will be the
winning one.
___________________ 5. Typically, you check your email at random times throughout the day instead
of checking every time a single message is delivered. The thing about e-
mail is that in most cases, you never know when you are going to receive a
message. Because of this, emails roll in sporadically at completely
unpredictable times. When you check and see that you have received a
message, it acts as a reinforcer for checking your email
#Classical Conditioning
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936)
Pavlov was an eminent Russian physiologist and
psychologist who devised the concept of the conditioned
reflex. He conducted a legendary experiment in which he
trained a hungry dog to drool at the sound of a bell, which
had previously been related to the presentation of food to
the animal.
In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate
when they heard a bell ring. In order to do this he first
showed them food, the sight of which caused them to
salivate.
Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the food out, until eventually, he could
get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without giving the dogs any food.
In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed how a reflex (salivation, a natural
bodily response) could become conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby
creating a conditioned reflex/response.
In order to have a better understanding of classical conditioning, we have to look at the various
components involved in Pavlov’s experiment;
• The unconditioned stimulus. (UCS)
• The conditioned stimulus. (CS)
• The unconditioned reflex/response. (UCR)
• The conditioned reflex/response. (CR)
Example: When a dog eats some food it causes his mouth to salivate. Therefore the food is an
unconditioned stimulus, because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and
without the dog having to learn how to salivate.
Unconditioned Stimulus– This causes an automatic reflex response.
Example: When Pavlov rang a bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was a conditioned
stimulus because the dogs learnt to associate the bell with food. If they had not learnt to associate
the bell with food, they would not have salivated when the bell was rung.
Conditioned Stimulus– You need to learn first before it creates a response. It is an
acquired power to change something.
Unconditioned Reflex – Reflex that happens automatically and you did not have to learn
how to do it.
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
1. The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a task effectively before
embarking on another one. This means that a student needs to be able to respond to a
particular stimulus (information) before he/she can be associated with a new one.
2. Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They should be versatile
with various strategies that can enhance effective participation of the students in the
teaching learning activities.
3. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning. A negative
or positive response comes through the stimulus being paired with. For example, providing
the necessary school material for primary school pupils will develop good feelings about
school and learning in them, while, punishment will discourage them from attending the
school.
EXERCISE 2
Directions: CLASSICAL OR OPERANT? Identify whether each situation depicts either
classical or operant conditioning.
___________________ 1. A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most
calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they
voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more
points.
___________________ 3. The pencil, the printed sheets, the chalkboard, and all the other
inanimate objects that surround writing a test or exam in school are
all neutral stimuli in and of themselves. It’s only because students
come to associate them, along with the dead silence of the room or
the nervously-ticking wall clock, to the stress of writing a test that
they elicit a negative response.
___________________ 5. You have been in a public area and heard a familiar notification
chime, this classical conditioning example will certainly ring true for
you. You hear that tone and instinctively reach for your smartphone,
only to realize it’s coming from someone else’s phone.
He was the first to prove that self-efficacy, our belief in our own capabilities, affects the tasks
we choose, how much effort we put into them and how we feel while doing them. He also found
that we learn not only through our own beliefs and expectations but by “modeling” or observing
others, an idea that led to the development of modern social cognition theory.
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
https://educationaltechnology.net/social-learning-theory-albert-bandura/
This theory can be used to teach positive behaviors to students. Teachers can use positive role
models to increase desired behaviors and thus change the culture of a school. Not only will
individual students benefit from positive role models in and out of the classroom, but the entire
class and student body will do so.
Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are rooted
in social learning theory. For example, if a teacher is positive with their students and they
encourage them, this positive energy and verbal encouragement, in turn, helps build self-
efficacy, the belief in one’s abilities to succeed in various situations.
#Theory of Connectionism
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
Thorndike is one major behaviourist theorist who put
forward that (1) a response to a stimulus is reinforced when
followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a response
to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition.
This view of learning is akin to the “drill-and-practice”
programmes. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/geqaf/annexes/technical-
notes/most-influential-theories-learning
The "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively
rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened.
Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not
necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not
necessarily motivate performance.
The "law of exercise" held that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated
when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance.
The "law of readiness" because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units,
in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than others.
erases a letter. If the word is erased completely, students will have to use pencil to
complete their project for the day. (Negative punishment)
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
Law of Readiness:
The law draws the attention of teacher to the motivation of the child. The teacher must consider
the psycho-biological readiness of the students to ensure successful learning experiences.
Law of Exercise
Exercise occupies an important place in learning. Teacher must repeat, give sufficient drill in
some subjects like mathematics, drawing, music or vocabulary for fixing material in the minds
of the students.
Law of Effect
This law signifies the use of reinforcement or feedback in learning. This implies that learning
trials must be associated with satisfying consequences. The teacher can use rewards to
strengthen certain responses and punishment to weaken others. However, the use of reward is
more desirable than the use of punishment in school learning. The teacher for motivating the
students for learning situations can exploit the use of reward.
processing such as generating linkages between old and new information are
much better for successful retention of material.
Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember. If a
learner links relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to
retain. (Wittrock, Marks, & Doctorow, 1975, in Good and Brophy, 1990)
Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a
list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different.
Practice Effects - Practicing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is
distributed practice. By distributing practices the learner associates the material with
many different contexts rather than the one context afforded by mass practice.
Transfer Effects- The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material.
Interference Effects - Occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of new
material.
Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input such as a grocery list, it is
easier to remember.
Levels of Processing Effects - Words may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis
of their physical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of their meaning. (Craik
and Lockhart, 1972, in Good and Brophy, 1990) The more deeply a word is process the
easier it will be to remember.
State Dependent Effects - If learning takes place within a certain context it will be
easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context.
Mnemonic Effects - Mnemonics are strategies used by learners to organize relatively
meaningless input into more meaningful images or semantic contexts. For example, the
notes of a musical scale can be remembered by the rhyme: Every Good Boy Deserves
Fruit.
Schema Effects - If information does not fit a person's schema it may be more difficult
for them to remember and what they remember or how they conceive of it may also be
affected by their prior schema.
Advance Organizers – Ausebel’s advance organizers prepare the learner for the
material they are about to learn. They are not simply outlines of the material, but are
material that will enable the student to make sense out of the lesson.
KEY PLAYERS:
#Dual Coding Theory
. https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/dual-coding/
Many experiments reported by Paivio and others support the importance of imagery in
cognitive operations. In one experiment, participants saw pairs of items that differed in
roundness (e.g., tomato, goblet) and were asked to indicate which member of the pair
was rounder. The objects were presented as words, pictures, or word-picture pairs. The
response times were slowest for word-word pairs, intermediate for the picture-word pairs,
and fastest for the picture-picture pairs.
CLASSROOM APPLICATION
Dual coding theory has been applied to many cognitive phenomena including:
mnemonics, problem-solving, concept learning and language. Dual coding theory
accounts for the significance of spatial abilities in theories of intelligence.
#Taxonomy of Learning
Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999)
Bloom was an American educational psychologist who became
one of the most influential theorists to promote mastery learning
and higher level thinking. The embodiment of Bloom’s work was
intentionally focused on organizing educational objectives
according to their cognitive complexity.
He discovered that the higher order thinking was dependent on the level that preceded it. In
other words, students needed to be able to recall information to then comprehend, to analyze,
then to apply it, and so on.
Bloom discovered that the goal of teaching needed to be geared toward the designing of tasks
so students were led to the realization of the objectives vs. given the objectives for recall.
Recently, Bloom's Taxonomy has been revisited and revised after determining that Synthesis
was a higher thinking process than evaluation. It was also revised to show "verbs" instead of
"nouns."
CLASSROOM APPLICATION
1. Use every level - the more ‘immediate access’ a student has to information, the more
naturally they can not only apply that information at higher-levels of thinking, but also
can initiate these kinds of actions on their own, making their own connections,
identifying their own misunderstandings, and more fluidly transferring understanding to
new and unfamiliar situations on their own.
2. Apply Bloom’s spiraling - Bloom’s Spiraling is the process of starting first at lower
levels of Bloom’s–recalling, defining, explaining, etc.–and then progressively
increasing the level of thinking. In that way, Bloom’s Taxonomy becomes a kind of
pathway to guide the learning process itself.
3. Use technology to emphasize specific levels - use digital technology and social media
to enable asynchronous collaboration using apps, social media, or digital communities.
Here, students can access different strands of a given assignment at their own pace,
adding their own thinking, and being able to observe, sit back, internalize, and then
offer strategic input according to their own readiness, background knowledge, and
relative expertise.
4. Let students lead - let students bring their ideas to the Bloom’s framework.
6. Give points per level - To encourage students to move from lower levels of Bloom’s to
higher levels (and again, lower levels of bloom’s aren’t necessarily ‘bad’ and higher
levels aren’t necessarily ‘good’), you can give fewer points for students if they ‘stay too
long’ in the lower levels
Source: https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1791/Bloom-B-S-1913-1999.html
https://sites.google.com/a/nau.edu/educationallearningtheories/home/benjamin-bloom
https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/using-blooms-taxonomy-21st-century-4-strategies-
for-teaching/
#Multiple Intelligences
He contends that each person’s level of intelligence actually consists of many distinct
“intelligences”. These include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2) linguistic, (3) spatial, (4) musical,
(5) bodily-kinaesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and (7) intrapersonal.
CLASSROOM APPLICATION
If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student in the more traditional linguistic or logical
ways of instruction, the theory of multiple intelligences suggests several other ways in
which the material might be presented to facilitate effective learning:
Words (linguistic intelligence).
Numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence).
Pictures (spatial intelligence).
Music (musical intelligence).
Self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence).
A physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence).
A social experience (interpersonal intelligence).
An experience in the natural world (naturalist intelligence).
Source: The Office of Learning and Teaching, 2004. Melbourne: Department of Education and
Training; OECD, 2010. Nature of Learning, Paris: Author; http://www.p21.org/
https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/what-are-multiple-intelligences-and-how-do-they-affect-
learning/
The central idea of constructivism's is that human learning is constructed, that learners build
new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.
Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not simply recording given information but
interpreting it. This view of learning led to the shift from the “knowledge-acquisition” to
“knowledge-construction” metaphor.
KEY CONTRIBUTORS:
#Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who developed
a theory regarding the developmental stages of children from
birth to around age fifteen. His theory of cognitive
development focuses on the fact that children do not
necessarily learn in a linear process; rather, they go through
different stages throughout their early lives in which they
obtain certain learning abilities. The theory can be incorporated
into the classroom. For educators, understanding Piaget's
theory of cognitive development can be an important part of
improving the teaching process.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is
said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental) balance.
Stages of Development
Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go through 4 universal
stages of cognitive development.
These different levels is that they are qualitatively different. In other words, at each successive
stage, it's not just a matter of doing something better, but of doing a different thing altogether.
#Socio-Cultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
Vygotsky is an important founder of Constructivist
Theory. Vygotsky believed that learning is a
collaborative process, and that social interaction is
fundamental for cognitive development.
CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS
SOURCE: https://sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/practice.html
#Discovery Learning
Jerome Bruner (1915-2016)
Bruner is one of the best known and influential psychologists
of the twentieth century. He was one of the key figures in the
so called ‘cognitive revolution.’
Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new
propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.
CLASSROOM APPLICATION
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in
problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and
existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned.
Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with
questions and controversies, or performing experiments. As a result, students may be more
likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (in contrast to a
transmissionist model). Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided
discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental
learning, among others.
SYNTHESIS:
Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism –
The Fundamentals (Schuman, 1996)
a. Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses
on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.
Key Takeaway
The best and most effective teachers can cater to each students’ strengths,
ensuring that they are truly grasping the information, and that, they are capable
of converting concepts into skills. Therefore, part of your responsibility as
future educators is to adjust all your lessons to the unique group of students
you are working with at any given time.
- Callie Malvik (2020)
EXERCISE 3
Directions: Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the
classroom. Identify what theory is applied in each learning activity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aquino, A. M. (2015). Facilitating Human Learning, 2nd Edition. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex
Book Store, Inc. .
Combs, B. (2000). Assessing the Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching and
Learning Process: A Learner-Centered Perspective. Retrieved from
http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/techconf00/mccombs_paper.html]
Lucas, Maria Rita D. & Corpuz, Brenda B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive
Process, 4th Edition OBE and Kto12 Outcomes-based and Kto12-based. Cubao, Quezon City,
Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Padgett, D. (2020). Learning Theories: Understanding the 4 Major Ones for the Classroom.
Leader in Me.
Online References:
* Please refer to the attached links to each topic lifted from online sources