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Abs Alg
Abs Alg
T. Shaska
October 9, 2018
Contents
1 Fundamentals 1
1.1 Algebraic operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Congruences modulo n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Symmetries of a regular n-gon, dihedral groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5 Linear groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.6 Complex numbers and groups associated to them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.7 The group of points in an algebraic curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5 Sylow theorem 91
5.1 Groups acting on themselves by conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 p-groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3 Automorphisms of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.4 Sylow theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.5 Simple groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3
7 Solvable Groups 125
7.1 Normal series and the Schreier theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.2 Solvable groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3 Nilpotent Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
24 Solutions 343
Chapter 1
Fundamentals
Groups are fundamental objects in algebra. The first examples of groups appeared in the study of the symmetries
of roots of polynomial equations. The study of group theory became one of the major areas of mathematics
during the XX century, culminating with the classification of finite simple groups in 1970’s. Groups as structures
appear in many branches of mathematics and applications including chemistry, physics, digital communications,
cryptography, etc.
In this chapter we will introduce the basic definition of a group and describe some classical examples of
groups such as congruences, symmetries of a regular n-gon, linear groups, the group of points in the unit circle,
permutations, and the group of points of algebraic curves. Each one of these examples leads to beautiful branches
of mathematics and will be used extensively throughout this book.
ϕ : An −→ A
If n = 2 then we say a binary operation. In this book we will focus on binary operations. Hence, a binary operation
? on a set G is called a function
? : G × G → G.
For every a, b ∈ G we write a ? b instead of ?(a, b). A binary operation ? is called associative if for every a, b, c ∈ G we
have
a ? (b ? c) = (a ? b) ? c
Exercise 1.1. For any (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) ∈ R2 define
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
between three elements A, B, and C, where [A,B] is the commutator as in Eq. (3.1). It can be generalized to any
operation.
Exercise 1.3. Prove that Jacobi identity for the cross product of vectors in Rn .
1.1.1 Groups
A set G together with a binary operation, which satisfies certain properties is called a group. We make this definition
more precise below.
Definition 1.1. Let G be a nonempty set and ? a binary operation on it. Then, the ordered pair (G, ?) is called a group if the
following hold:
The element e, sometimes denoted by eG , is called identity of the group G. For every a ∈ G, the element b of 3) is
called inverse of a and is denoted by a−1 . A group G is called Abelian if When the defined operation in a group is
the usual addition "+ ", the group is called an additive group. The identity of this group is denoted by e = 0 and the
inverse of an element a is denoted by −a. We usually call it the opposite of a.
Example 1.1. The following (R, +), (Q, +), where + and × is the usual operation of addition, are Abelian groups.
Example 1.2. The pair (Z, +) is an Abelian group, but (Z∗ , ×) is not a group because there is no multiplicative inverse for an
integer.
The cardinality of G is called the order of the group G and denoted by |G|. When the set G is finite we say that
the group has finite order, otherwise we say that the group has infinite order.
Lemma 1.1. Let G be a group. Then, the following are true:
a) the identity is unique,
b) for every element a ∈ G, the inverse a−1 is unique.
Proof. a) Assume that there exist e, e0 such that ae = ea = a and ae0 = e0 a = a for every a ∈ G. Then, we have ee0 = e0
which implies that e0 = e.
b) Let a ∈ G. Assume that there exist b, b0 ∈ G such that ab = ba = e and ab0 = b0 a = e. Then,
Thus, b0 = b.
From now on, we will refer to the element e as the identity element of G and a−1 as the inverse of a.
Lemma 1.2. In a group G the cancellation property from the left and from the right holds true. Thus, ba = ca implies b = c
and ab = ac implies b = c.
Proof. Assume that ba = ca. Let a−1 be the inverse of a. Then, multiplying from the right with a−1 we have
and from the associativity we have b (aa−1 ) = c (aa−1 ). Then, be = ce and thus b = c. Similarly, multiplying from the
left with a−1 , we prove that the equality ab = ac implies b = c.
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Proof. Assume that there is an element g ∈ G such that a−1 g = ga−1 = e and this element is unique. Then, g = a and
(a−1 )−1 = a.
We use the exponential symbols for multiplicative groups. If G is group and g ∈ G, then define g0 = e. For n ∈ N,
define
gn = g · g · · · g
| {z }
n− times
and
g−n = g−1 · g−1 · · · g−1 .
| {z }
n− times
We leave the proof of the Lemma as an exercise. Notice that in general (gh)n , gn · hn , since the group is not
necessarily Abelian.
Lemma 1.4. Suppose that a finite set G is closed under an associative multiplication and both cancelation properties hold.
Prove that G must be a group.
Proof. Exercise.
Definition 1.2. Let G a group. The order of an element g ∈ G is called the smallest positive integer n (if it exists) such that
gn = e. If such number does not exist we say that the element g has infinite order.
The order of an element is denoted by |g|. When the operation of the group is addition then the order of an
element g is the smallest positive integer such that n g = 0.
Thus, to find the order of an element g it is enough to find the sequence of powers g, g2 , g3 , · · · until we arrive at
the identity. If we never arrive at the identity we say that element g has infinite order.
Example 1.3. Find the order of the elements of the group (Z, +).
Solution: Since for every m from Z (not zero) and for every n from N we have that m · n is different from zero, we get that the
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We also have the symmetry which is obtained by rotation first around the
vertical axis and then around the horizontal axis,
C αβ : A → C, C → A, B → D, D → B
Figure 1.1: Symmetries of the rhombus Verify that all the symmetries of the rhombus are obtained by any of these
movements. Then,
α1 = e, β2 = e, (αβ)2 = e.
The set V = {e, α, β, αβ} forms a group under the composition of symmetries. The above group is called the Klein
4-group or Viergrouppe and denoted by V4 . Every element has order 2 other than the identity e. It was first
discovered by Felix Klein in 1884.
It is sometimes convenient to use tables to present the multipli- ∗ e α β γ
cation of elements in a given group. Such tables were first used by
Cayley and are called Cayley’s tables. e e α β γ
In the case of the Klein 4-group the multiplication can be repre- α α e γ β
sented by the following Cayley’s table in Table 1.1. In this table, the β β γ e α
product xi y j of any two elements gives the element in the position γ γ β α e
(i, j). The reader can prove that this multiplication in the above set
forms a group. Cayley’s table can be constructed for any finite group. Table 1.1: Cayley’s table for V4
The idea of the symmetries of an n-gon will be explored further in Section 1.3.
Exercises:
1.2 (Jacobi identity). If x, y, z ∈ G, denote [x, [y, z]] by [x, y, z]. Prove the Jacobi identity
1.1.2 Rings
One of the very first things that every human learns in his/her education is the set of integers Z and two basic
operations; addition and multiplication. This triple (Z, +, ?) is basically our playground from kindergarten until
very late in life. This is the first example of a ring even though nobody ever told us that in elementary school.
The set R with two algebraic operations (R, +, ?) (addition and multiplication) that satisfies the following
conditions is called a ring.
(a ? b) ? c = a ? (b ? c), ∀a, b, c ∈ R
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
(a + b) ? c = a ? c + b ? c
a ? (b + c) = a ? b + a ? c
A ring R in which multiplication is commutative is called commutative ring or Abelian ring. The ring R has
identity when there exists the element eR ∈ R such that
∀a ∈ R, a ? eR = a.
The identity of the group (R, +) is called the zero of the ring and denoted by 0R or simply 0. The symbol R× will
always denote R× = R \ {0R }.
Exercise 1.4. Let (Z, +, ?) be the set of integers with the usual addition and multiplication. Prove that (Z, +, ?) is a ring.
Exercise 1.5. Let Mat2 (Z) be the set 2 by 2 matrices with coefficients in Z. Is Mat2 (Z) together with addition and
multiplication of matrices a ring? Justify your answer.
Exercise 1.6. Consider the sets Z, Q, R, C together with the usual addition and scalar multiplication. Are they rings? Justify
your answer.
Let us consider another example from linear algebra. In [10] we have shown that Mat2 (R) together with addition
of matrices and multiplication by scalars is a vector space.
Exercise 1.7. Is Mat2 (Z) together with addition of matrices and multiplication by scalars a vector space?
1.1.3 Fields
A ring R with identity (eR , 0) in which every element a ∈ R \ {0} has inverse with multiplication is called a division
ring. An Abelian ring which is also a division ring is called a field .
A field is a triple (F, +, ?) such that (F, +) is an Abelian group and (F× , ?) is also an Abelian group (F× is is F \ {0}).
Exercise 1.8. Let (Q, +, ?) be the set of integers with the usual addition and multiplication. Prove that (Q, +, ?) is a field.
Exercise 1.9. Let Mat2 (Q) be the set 2 by 2 matrices with coefficients in Z. Is Mat2 (Q) together with addition and
multiplication of matrices a field? Justify your answer. What about Mat2 (R)?
Exercise 1.10. Consider the sets Z, Q, R, C together with the usual addition and scalar multiplication. Are they fields?
Justify your answer.
Exercise 1.11. Let k be one of the following Q, R, C. Is Mat2 (k) together with addition of matrices and multiplication by
scalars a vector space? Justify your answers.
We will denote a field of q elements by Fq . In ?? we will see that q must be a power of a prime. Fields are studied
in detail in the last part of this book.
Exercises:
1.3. Prove that R× = R \ {0} and Q× = Q \ {0} form groups with multiplication of numbers.
1.4. Let (V, +, ·) be a vector space with scalars from R; see [10, Chap. 2]. Prove that (V, +) is an Abelian group.
1.5. Let the groups (R× , ·) and (Z, +) be given and denote with G the set G = R× × Z. Define the operation ◦ in G such that
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
a ∗ b = a + b + ab.
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a ± c ≡ (b ± d) mod n
(1.2)
ac ≡ bc mod n
a ≡ b mod mn.
Proof. i) Let a ∈ Z. Then, [a] contains all integers x ∈ Z such that n | a − x. In other words, a − x = kn, for some k ∈ Z.
Hence, a = x + kn for some k ∈ Z. Then, we have the following characterization of the equivalence class of a;
where y is the remainder of the division by n. Hence, y ∼ a and 0 ≤ y < a. We usually pick y as a representative of
the equivalence class [a]. There are n − 1 such remainders and therefore n − 1 equivalence classes, namely
ii) Suppose a ≡ b mod n, i.e., a − b is divisible by n. Then a = b + sn for some integer s. Similarly, c ≡ d mod n means
c = d + tn for some integer t. Then a + c = (b + d) + (s + t)n so that a + c ≡ b + d mod n, which shows that the sum of
residue classes is independent of the representatives chosen.
Similarly, ac = (b + sn)(d + tn) = bd + (bt + ds + stn)n shows that ac ≡ bd mod n and so the product of the residue
classes is also independent of the representatives chosen.
iii) Suppose ab ≡ ac mod n, i.e., ab − ac is divisible by n. Then, ab = ac + rn for some integer r. So, we have
ab − ac = rn ⇒ a(b − c) = rn. Since a is relatively prime to n we get that b − c is divisible by n, which shows that
b ≡ c mod n.
We leave parts iv) and v) as exercises.
As described above, the equivalence classes for the congruence modulo n are:
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
[a] + [b] = [a + b]
[a] · [b] = [a · b]
Exercise 1.13. Prove that the addition modulo n and the multiplication modulo n are well defined binary operations.
Lemma 1.6. The following properties hold:
2. [a][b] = [b][a]
7. [1][a] = [a]
Proof. Exercise.
Exercise 1.14 (The group of integers modulo n). Verify that the set Zn , for n ≥ 1, forms a group under addition mod n.
This group is called the group of integers mod n and denoted by (Zn , +) or simply Zn . Usually the symbol
Z/nZ is also used for this group.
Its multiplication is given by Table 1.2, which is Cayley’s table for U (8).
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For example, [2] ∈ Z6 , but [2] does not have a multiplicative inverse. We check the product of [2] with all other
elements
[0] · [2] = [0], [1] · [2] = [2],
[2] · [2] = [4], [3] · [2] = [0],
[4] · [2] = [2], [5] · [2] = [4].
Remark 1.1. It is very important, at this point, that we warn the reader about the use of notation for the elements of Zn or
U (n). An element of Zn or U (n) is an equivalence class. Therefore, it must be denoted by the symbol [x]. However, many
times in literature the brackets are dropped and simply the symbol x is used.
Let n be a positive integer and [x] ∈ Zn . What are the necessary and sufficient conditions that [x] has a
multiplicative inverse?
Lemma 1.8. Every nonzero element [k] has inverse in Zn if and only if k is relatively prime with n.
Proof. Suppose [k] ∈ Zn has a multiplicative inverse. This means that there exists [x] ∈ Zn such that [k] · [x] = [1].
Hence, kx ≡ 1 mod n which implies that n | kx − 1. In other words, there exists a ∈ Z such that na = kx − 1. Thus,
kx − na = 1. Since −a ∈ Z, then we have kx + n(−a) = 1. Therefore, (k, n) = 1.
Conversely, suppose that k and n are relatively prime. This implies that exist a, b ∈ Z such that 1 = ak + bn. Then,
ka − 1 = n(−b). Hence, n | ka − 1 which implies that ak ≡ 1 mod n. Therefore, [a] is the multiplicative inverse of
[k].
Exercise 1.15. a) Using the result of Lemma 1.4, prove that the nonzero integers modulo p, p a prime number, form a group
under multiplication mod p.
b) Do part a) for the nonzero integers relatively prime to n under multiplication mod n.
Example 1.5. The set Z/nZ together with addition and multiplication modulo n is a ring. The reader should check that all
the properties in the definition are satisfied. Is it a field?
72 = 4 mod 15
7 3
= 13 mod 15
74 = 1 mod 15.
111 = 11 mod 15
11 2
= 1 mod 15.
Thus, |11| = 2. Similarly we prove that |1| = 1, |2| = 4, |4| = 2, |8| = 4, |13| = 4 and |14| = 2.
Exercise 1.16. Let p be a prime. Prove that (Z/pZ, + mod n, ? mod n) is a field.
The field above will be denoted by the symbol Fp . Every field of p elements is algebraically the same as Fp ; we
will make this precise when we talk about homomorphisms. Hence, from now on we will say the finite field of p
elements.
A natural question is; are there finite fields with the number of elements not a prime number? In ?? we will
show that every finite field has pn elements, where p is a prime.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Zrp = Zn × · · · Zn
where ai + bi denotes the addition in Zn . Prove that Zrn forms a group with this operation.
Next we see a classical result known in the math folklore as the Chinese Remainder Theorem.
x ≡ a1 mod n1
x ≡ a2 mod n2
(1.3)
·········
x ≡ a mod n
r r
We assume that al ni ’s are pairwise coprime (i.e., (ni , n j ) = 1 for each i , j).
Theorem 1.1 (Chinese Remainder Theorem). There is a solution x to the above system of equations, and any two solutions
are congruent modulo N = n1 · n2 · · · nr .
Proof. Let N := n1 · n2 · · · nr and Ni := nN , for all i = 1, . . . , r. For each i we have gcd (ni , Ni ) = 1, since (ni , n j ) = 1 for each
i
j , i. Hence, there exists Pi such that
Ni Pi ≡ 1 mod ni .
Let
r
X
x= ai Ni Pi ,
i=1
x ≡ ai Ni Pi mod ni
and
x ≡ ai mod ni ,
since Ni Pi ≡ 1 mod ni .
Let y and z be two solutions of the system and x = y − z. By Lemma 1.5 we have
x≡1 mod 2
x ≡ 2 mod 3
(1.4)
x≡1 mod 5
x ≡ 4 mod 7
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N1 = 105 N2 = 70 N3 = 42 N4 = 30
P1 = 1 P2 = 1 P3 = 3 P4 = 4
Hence,
x = 105 + 2 · 70 + 42 · 3 + 4 · 30 · 4 = 851
Then, x ≡ 11 mod 210.
Exercises:
1.14. Find the smallest non-negative solution for the following system of congruences
x≡1 mod 3
x ≡ 3 mod 4
x≡4 mod 5
x ≡ 5 mod 7
ϕ(n) := | {0 ≤ x ≤ n | (x, n) = 1} |
i) ϕ(1) = 1
ii) ϕ(p) = p − 1
iii) ϕ(pα ) = pα 1 − p1
Proof. We will comment only on iii). Notice that the numbers between 0 and pα − 1 which are not relatively prime
to pα are exactly the multiples of p. There are exactly pα−1 of such numbers. Hence,
!
α α α−1 α 1
ϕ(p ) = p − p = p 1− .
p
Corollary 1.2. The Euler φ-function is multiplicative. In other words, if (m, n) = 1 then
Proof. We want to compute ϕ(mn) which is the number of integers between 0 and mn − 1 which have no common
factors with mn. For each 0 ≤ j ≤ mn − 1 let j1 , j2 denote the residues of j mod m and mod n respectively. So we
have (
j ≡ j1 mod m
(1.5)
j ≡ j2 mod n
From the Chinese Remainder Theorem we have that for each pair (j1 , j2 ) there is only one 0 ≤ j ≤ mn − 1 such that
system is satisfied. j has no common factors with mn iff has no common factors with m and with n. j has no common
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
factors with m (resp., n) iff j1 has no common factors with m (resp., n). Thus we have ϕ(m) (resp., ϕ(n)) choices for
j1 (resp., j2 ). Hence, there are ϕ(m) · ϕ(n) choices for (j1 , j2 ). This completes the proof.
Let n be any integer which is factored as a product of powers of primes as follows:
α
n = p1 1 · · · pαr r .
Then,
! ! !
α α 1 1 1
ϕ(p1 1 ) · · · ϕ(pαr r ) αr
Y
ϕ(n) = = p1 1 1− · · · pr 1 − =n 1− (1.6)
p1 pr p
p|n
Theorem 1.2 (Euler’s theorem). Let a and n be positive integers, such that gcd (a, n) = 1. Then, aϕ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).
Proof. From Corollary 2.4 the order of U (n) is ϕ(n). Hence, aϕ(n) = 1 for all a ∈ U (n) or aϕ(n) − 1 is divisible by n.
Thus, aϕ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).
Consider the special case for the Euler’s theorem, when n = p is a prime number and recall that ϕ(p) = p − 1, we
get the following result discovered by Pierre de Fermat.
Theorem 1.3 (Fermat’s Little Theorem). Let p be a prime number, a ∈ Z an integer, and assume that p6 | a. Then,
an ≡ am mod p
n0 ≡ n mod ϕ(m),
then
0
an ≡ an mod m
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Proof. Let X
f (n) := ϕ(d)
d|n
Let d | mn. Then d = d1 d2 such that d1 | m and d2 | n. We have gcd (d1 , d2 ) = 1 since gcd (m, n) = 1. Hence,
ϕ(d1 · d2 ) = ϕ(d1 ) · ϕ(d2 ). Thus,
X X X X
f (mn) = ϕ(d1 )ϕ(d2 ) = ϕ(d1 ) ϕ(d2 ) = f (m) f (n)
d1 |m d2 |n d1 |m d2 |n
α
Now let n = p1 1 · · · pαr r . Then
α α
f (n) = f (p1 1 ) · · · f (pαr r ) = p1 1 · · · pαr r = n.
This completes the proof.
Exercises:
1.15. Use Fermat’s Little Theorem to prove that if p = 4n + 3 is prime, then the equation x2 ≡ −1 (mod p) does not have a
solution.
1.16. Find ϕ(n) for the following n = 12, 13, 15, 23, 34, 36, 16, 18.
1.17. Find all ϕ(n) for all n between 100 and 110.
1.18. Give an example of a group G with elements g, h ∈ G such that (gh)n , gn hn .
1.19. Let a and b be elements of the group G. Prove that abn a−1 = (aba−1 )n .
1.20. Prove that if G is a finite group with even order, then there is an element a ∈ G different from identity and a2 = e.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
1.21. Prove that if n > 2 then there is an element k ∈ U (n) such that k2 = 1 and k , 1.
1.22. Let G be a group and assume that (ab)2 = a2 b2 for every a and b in G. Prove that G is Abelian.
1.23. If we have that xy = x−1 y−1 for every x and y in G prove that G is Abelian.
1.24. Let a and b any two elements of G. Prove that ab = ba if and only if a−1 b−1 = b−1 a−1 .
1.25. Prove that (Zp , +) does not have proper subgroups if p is prime.
1.26. If g and h have orders respectively 15 and 16 in a group G what is the order of hgi ∩ hhi?
1.27. Let a be an element of a group G. What is the generator of the subgroup ham i ∩ han i?
1.28. Prove that Zn for n > 2 has an even number of generators.
1.29. Let G be a group and a, b ∈ G. Prove that if |a| = m and |b| = n and gcd (m, n) = 1, then we have hai ∩ hbi = {e}.
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1. Do nothing
5. Flip about the symmetry axis through the lower left-hand vertex
6. Flip about the symmetry axis through the lower right-hand vertex
There are other motions but they are "equivalent" to those listed above. For example rotating the triangle 360
degrees is "equivalent" to doing nothing since the basic orientation of the triangle is unchanged.
We’ve labelled the vertices A, B and C and have shown the 6 symmetry motions in Fig. 1.2. The symmetries of
a regular triangle form a non Abelian group. This group will be denoted by S3 or D3 , see Fig. 1.2. Its Cayley’s table
is given in Table 1.3.
∗ e σ1 σ2 τ1 τ2 τ3
e e σ1 σ2 τ1 τ2 τ3
σ1 σ1 σ2 e τ2 τ3 τ1
σ2 σ2 e σ1 τ3 τ1 τ2
τ1 τ1 τ3 τ2 e σ2 σ1
τ2 τ2 τ1 τ3 σ1 e σ2
τ3 τ3 τ2 τ1 σ2 σ1 e
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
σ1 τ1 = τ2 , σ21 τ1 = τ3 .
Hence,
D3 = {e, σ1 , σ21 , τ1 , σ1 τ1 , σ21 τ1 .}
Another way to write this fact is that
Before we attempt to generalize this for every n ≥ 3, let us check out the case when n = 4.
Symmetries of a square
Next we try to figure out the symmetries of the square. Let us have a square ABCD on a plane and denote its
vertices as below. We perform the following movements:
a) σ : rotation with +900 around the center, clockwise, which gives
A→B→C→D
A D
b) σ2 : rotation with +1800 which gives
A → C → A and B → D → B
B C
c) σ3 : rotation with +2700 which gives
A→D→C→B→A
d) e : rotation with +3600 which fixes every point.
e) τ : rotation around the vertical axis which gives
A → D → A and B → C → B
Exercise 1.18. Prove that the set of these symmetries with the composition forms a group.
The above group is called the groups of symmetries of the square and denoted by D4 or sometimes with D8 .
Remark 1.2. Notice that operations are performed from left to right. In other words, σ2 τ means that we rotate twice by 90
degrees and then flip around the vertical axis. The orientation of the rotation does not matter as long as we are consistent.
Then, the elements of the dihedral group D4 are
D4 = {e, σ, σ2 , σ3 , τ, στ, σ2 τ, σ3 τ}
Thus, all symmetries of the square are generated by the elements σ and τ. Below are all elements of D4 presented
visually where the vertices are labeled by numbers 1 through 4.
Exercise 1.19. Construct the Cayley’s table for the group D4 .
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Proof. Possible symmetries of a regular n-gon are rotations and reflections. We have exactly n rotations with angles
2π 2π 2π
id, ,2· , . . . , (n − 1) · .
n n n
2π
The rotation with angle n we denote it with r. This rotation generates all the other ones. In other words,
2π
rk = k · .
n
We label n reflections with s1 , s2 , . . . , sn , where sk is the reflection that fixes the vertex k. There are two cases,
depending if n is even or odd.
If n is even there are two vertices fixed by the reflection, namely k and k + n2 . Hence, if n = 2m for some integer
m, then si = si+m for 1 ≤ i < m. Then, |sk | = 2. Let s = s1 . Then s2 = id and rn = id.
Since every symmetry t of a regular n-gon replaces the k-th vertex with vertex k + 1 or k − 1 then t = rk or t = rk s.
Hence, r and s generate Dn . In other words, Dn contains all products of r and s. It is easy to check that srs = r−1 .
If n is odd, then there is only the vertex k fixed by the reflection sk . This reflection can be obtained by sk = rk−1 · s1 .
Let s = s1 . It can be easily checked that srs = r−1 .
The following is an immediate consequence of the above theorem.
Corollary 1.4. The dihedral group Dn , is a subgroup of Sn with order 2n. Moreover,
The elements r and s are called the generators of the group Dn and relations rn = s2 = 1 and srs = r−1 are called
relations.
Exercises:
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
1.4 Permutations
The reader must have seen an introduction to permutations in an introductory course on discrete mathematics.
However, no primary knowledge is assumed here. We will define permutations and permutation groups. As the
reader will hopefully realize later is that the concept of a permutation group is a main concept of abstract algebra.
This is due to a theorem of Cayley that every group can be represented as a permutation group.
Recall that a permutation of a set X is called a bijective function f : X → X. The set of permutations of X, which
is denoted by SX , together with composition of functions forms a group, which is called the symmetric group of X.
Exercise 1.20. Let X be a set and SX the set of all bijections f : X → X. Show that SX is a group together with composition of
functions.
We will focus mainly on permutations of finite sets. We label the elements of X as {1, 2, 3, · · · , n}, where n = card (X).
Permutations of finite sets are given in an explicit way by listing the value of the function for every element x ∈ X.
For example, take a permutation α over the set {1, 2, 3, 4}, which is given as follows
or by !
1 2 3 4 5 6
β= .
5 3 1 6 2 4
Composition of permutations is found as the composition of any functions. For example, if we have:
! !
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
σ= and γ =
2 4 3 5 1 5 4 1 2 3
then
1 2 3 4 5
σ
2 4 3 5 1 γ◦σ
γ
~
4 2 1 3 5
Thus, ! ! !
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
γ ◦ σ = γσ = = .
5 4 1 2 3 5 4 1 2 3 4 2 1 3 5
The following theorem says that Sn is a group, it is called the symmetric group in n letters.
Theorem 1.5. The symmetric group in n letters, Sn , is a group with n! elements, where binary operation is the composition
of functions.
Proof. The identity of Sn is the identity function id : x 7→ x. If f : Sn → Sn is a permutation, then f −1 exists, because
f is bijective. Composition of functions is associative, hence even binary operation is associative.
The elements of Sn have the form: !
1 2 ··· n
α= .
α(1) α(2) · · · α(n)
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
It is easy to determine the order of symmetric group Sn . The element α(1) can take values from 1 to n. Once
α(1) has been determined then we have n − 1 options for α(2) (since α is bijective function we have α(1) , α(2)
) and so on α(n − 1) we have 2 options and to determine α(n) we have only one possibility. Hence, Sn has
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1 = n! elements.
Symmetric groups have many subgroups. For example the group S4 has 30 subgroups and S5 has over 100
subgroups. A subgroup of Sn is called a permutation group.
.
Remark 1.3. Notice that in the literature the composition above is called multiplication from the right, but both multi-
plication from the left and right are used. It is very important that we are aware if we are using multiplication from the
left or from the right since the results are different. However, the fact that Sn is a group and all its algebraic properties are
independent from the way we multiply.
In this book we will always use the multiplication from the right. Hence the symbol αβ always means
αβ = α ◦ β = α(β)
Then, ! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
στ = , however, τσ = .
1 4 3 2 3 2 1 4
σ(a1 ) = a2
σ(a2 ) = a3
..
.
σ(ak ) = a1
and σ(x) = x for all other elements x ∈ X. We will use (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) to present σ.
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
This permutation contains a cycle with length 2 and a cycle with length 4.
Example 1.12. Let σ and τ be given as follows
! !
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
σ= , τ=
6 4 3 1 5 2 3 2 1 5 6 4
Example 1.13. The group D4 of symmetries of a square contains 8 elements. We label vertices with 1, 2, 3, 4. Then, rotations
are
r = (1234), r2 = (13)(24), r3 = (1432), r4 = id
and reflections are
s1 = (24), s2 = (13).
The order of D4 is 8. Two elements which are left are
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Exercise 1.21. Can you find in D3 , D4 an element that commutes with all elements of the group? Can you generalize this for
any Dn , n > 4? The geometry of the regular n-gon should provide some clues for the general case.
Exercises:
ξ
" # " #
1 0 0
x= , y= n
0 −1 0 ξn
2π
where ξn = e n is the n-th primitive root of unity.
A = {a1 , a2 , · · · , ak , b1 , b2 , · · · , bm , c1 , c2 , · · · , cn }
where c are elements of A that are fixed from two permutations α, β. To prove that αβ = βα we must prove that for
every x ∈ A we have that (αβ)(x) = (βα)(x). First we assume that x = ai , then we have
since β fixes all the elements ai we have that β(ai ) = ai . Similarly we have:
Thus, for all the elements a ∈ A we have that αβ = βα. Similarly we can prove that for every b ∈ A we have that
αβ = βα. Then, since α and β fix all the elements c we have
and
(βα)(ci ) = β(α(ci )) = β(ci ) = ci
This completes the proof.
Let α be a permutation. Composing α several times with itself will give again a permutation for some positive
integer i. We can write
αi = αα · · · α
| {z }
i− times
and for every two positive numbers m, n we have:
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Theorem 1.6. Every permutation in Sn can be written as a unique product (up to permutation of cycles) of disjoint cycles.
α = (1)(2)(3) · · · (n),
hence as a product of n disjoint cycles. Next, assume that α moves k objects. Without loss of generality we assume
that α moves the first k objects. Hence we have,
k +1 ··· n
!
1 2 3 ··· k
.
α(1) α(2) α(3) · · · α(k) k + 1 · · · n
Since α is a bijection on the set {1, 2, · · · , k}, then for any i ∈ {1, . . . , n} the element α(i) will never appear twice in the
second row. For example when we start writing the cycles (1, α(1) . . . , we know that α(1) will not appear again in
another cycle since in that case α would not be a bijection. Hence, in the cycle decomposition of α no element will
appear twice. That concludes the proof.
Definition 1.5. Let α ∈ Sn . The smallest positive integer m such that αm = 1 is called order of permutation α.
Theorem 1.7. Let α ∈ Sn , which is written as product of disjoint cycles. Then, the order of α is the least common multiple of
the lengths of its cycles.
α j = (a1 a2 · · · am ) j (b1 b2 · · · br ) j ,
since (a1 a2 · · · am ) commutes with (b1 b2 · · · br ). If α j = e then we have that (a1 a2 · · · am ) j = e and also and (b1 b2 · · · br ) j = e
since all (b1 b2 · · · br ) j fix all the elements ai and (a1 a2 · · · am ) j fix all the elements bi . This happens if and only if m | j and
r | j and lcm (m, r) is a divisor of j. The smallest number which has this property is lcm (m, r).
Example 1.15. The permutation (1537)(284) has order 12 in S8 however the permutation (153)(284697) has order 6 in S9 .
Proof. First notice that if a permutation is the identity then it can be written as (12)(12), hence is the product of
transpositions. Otherwise, from Theorem 1.7 we know that every permutation can be written in the form:
(a1 ak )(a1 ak−1 ) · · · (a1 a2 )(b1 bt )(b1 bt−1 ) · · · (b1 b2 )(c1 cs )(c1 cs−1 ) · · · (c1 c2 ).
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
id = τ1 τ2 · · · τr ,
Proof. We will use induction on r. A transposition can not be identity. Thus, r > 1. If r = 2, then the lemma is true.
Assume that r > 2. In this case the product of last two transpositions τr−1 τr , can be one of the following
(ab)(ab) = id
(bc)(ab) = (ab)(ac)
(cd)(ab) = (ab)(cd)
(bc)(ac) = (ab)(bc).
The first equation shows that a transposition is equal to its inverse. In this case we delete τr−1 τr from the product
and we have
id = τ1 τ2 · · · τr−3 τr−2 .
From the induction hypothesis r − 2 is even, hence r is even.
In each of the other three cases, we can substitute τr−1 τr with the right side of the equation to obtain a new
product of r transpositions for the identity. In this new product the position of a is in the former position of the
last transposition. We continue this process with τr−2 τr−1 to obtain a product of r − 2 transpositions or a product
r transpositions, where the last position of a is in τr−2 . If identity is the product of r − 2 transpositions, then from
induction hypothesis the proof is complete. Otherwise we repeat the procedure with τr−3 τr−2 .
In some points there might be some overlaying. The last case can not happen since the identity can not fix a in
this case. Thus, the identity will be the product of r − 2 transpositions and from the induction hypothesis this is
true. This completes the proof.
Theorem 1.9 (Always even or always odd). If a permutation is written in two ways as a product of transpositions then
the number of transpositions in both cases is even or odd.
id = σσm · · · σ1 = τ1 · · · τn σm · · · σ1 ,
from Lemma 1.14 n must be even. The proof for the case where σ can be written as a number of odd transpositions
is left as an exercise for the reader.
Based on the above theorem we have the following definition.
Definition 1.6. A permutation is called even if it can be written as a product of an even number of transpositions and it is
called odd if it can be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions.
Exercise 1.22. The number of r-cycles in Sn is
n!
#r − cycles =
(n − r)! · r!
Exercises:
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
1.44. Let be given permutations σ = (1423)(352) and τ = (342)(25). Find which of the following permutations σ, τ, στ,
στ−1 are even or odd.
1.45. Let be given σ ∈ Sn . Prove that σ can be written as product of at most (n − 1) transpositions.
1.46. Let be given σ ∈ Sn . If σ is not a cycle, prove that σ can be written as product of at most (n − 2) transpositions.
1.47. If σ is a cycle with odd length, prove that σ2 is also a cycle of odd length.
1.48. Prove that a 3-cycle is an even permutation.
1.49. Prove that An is the only subgroups of Sn of index 2.
1.50. The alternating group A4 has no subgroups of order 6.
1.51. Prove that Sn is non Abelian for n ≥ 3.
1.52. Prove that An is non Abelian for n ≥ 4.
1.53. Prove that Dn is non Abelian for n ≥ 3.
1.54. Prove that in An , for n ≥ 3, every permutation is a product of cycles with length 3.
1.55. Prove that:
a) Sn is generated from (1 2), (1 3), . . . (1 n).
b) Sn is generated from (1 2), (2 3), . . . , (i i + 1), . . . , (n − 1, n).
1.60. Let be given α ∈ Sn for n ≥ 3. If αβ = βα for every β ∈ Sn , prove that α is the identity permutation. Thus, the center of
Sn is the trivial subgroup.
1.61. If α is even, prove that α−1 is also even. Is it true that the same holds if α is odd?
1.62. Prove that α−1 β−1 αβ is even for α, β ∈ Sn .
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
The special orthogonal linear group SOn (R) is the group of all orthogonal matrices with determinant 1. In other
words,
SOn (R) = {M ∈ On (R) | det M = 1}
The reader should prove that GLn (R), SLn (R), On (R), and SOn (R) are groups for any n ≥ 2.
The reader must be familiar with all these linear groups from [10]. Next we recall the following elementary
example.
Example 1.18. Let Mat2 (R) denote the set of all 2!× 2 matrices with entries from R. Let GL2 (R) be the subset of Mat2 (R) of
a b
all invertible matrices. Thus, a matrix A = is in GL2 (R) if there is a matrix A−1 such that
c d
AA−1 = A−1 A = I,
where I is the 2 × 2 identity matrix. In order for a matrix A to have an inverse the determinant det(A) = ad − bc , 0. The
identity of this group is the identity matrix !
1 0
I= .
0 1
The inverse of A ∈ GL2 (R) is !
1 d −b
A −1
= .
ad − bc −c a
The product of two matrices which have inverses is an invertible matrix. We know from linear algebra that the multiplication
of matrices is associative. However, the multiplication of matrices is not commutative. In general AB , BA. Thus, GL2 (R) is
non Abelian group.
A permutation matrix is a matrix obtained by permuting the columns (rows) of the identity matrix. Such
matrices are also called elementary matrices.
Let the set of all n × n permutation matrices with entries in a field k be denoted by P(n, k).
Exercise 1.23. Show that
i) P(n, k) is a subgroup of GLn (k).
ii) P(n, k) Sn .
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Theorem 1.10 (Dickson). Let G be a finite subgroup of PGL2 (C). Then G is isomorphic to one of the following:
Zn , Dn , A4 , S4 , A5 .
Exercise 1.24. Prove that Matn (Fp ) is a vector space over Fp . Prove that this vector space has
2
| Matn (Fp )| = pn
elements.
Exercise 1.25. Find the order of GLn (Fp ) and SLn (Fp ) are given by the formulas
and
i=n
n(n−1) Y
|SLn (Fp )| = p 2 (pi − 1).
i=2
Exercise 1.26. Sometimes in cryptography we use matrices which are invertible. We pick randomly a matrix A and use a
transformation x 7→ Ax to encrypt the message. The receiver knows A−1 and therefore decrypt the message by A−1 · (Ax) = x.
This is an elementary private key crypto-system.
If the matrix A is picked from Matn (R) then the probability that A is not invertible is zero. However, in cryptography we
normally use matrices from Matn (Fp ), where p is the size of the alphabet in use. What is the probability that A has an inverse
when picked from Matn (Fp )?
Next we consider the case when n is not necessarily a prime. Let us denote again by Matn (Z/nZ) the set of all n
by n matrices with entries in Z/nZ. Is Matn (Z/nZ) a vector space in this case?
From linear algebra you are probably aware that the answer is "No". What are such spaces? We will discuss
such question when we study the module theory.
Exercise 1.27. Prove that the following are groups under multiplication of matrices.
b) The set
SLn (Z/nZ) = {M ∈ Matn (Z/nZ) | det M = 1},
for any integer n ≥ 2.
Linear groups are some of the most important objects of mathematics. We will revisit them again and again in
the coming chapters. We suggest the reader do all the following problems.
Exercises:
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Moreover, show that the set Q8 = {±1, ±I, ±J, ±K} is a group. This is called the quaternion group. Notice that Q8 is not
Abelian.
forms a group with the multiplication of matrices. This group is known as the Heisenberg group, and it is important in
quantum physics.
1.65. Give an example of two elements A and B in GL2 (R) such that AB , BA.
1.66. Let G be the set of matrices
G = M ∈ GL2 (R) | det M ∈ Q×
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Lemma 1.15. Let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) and w = s cos φ + isinφ be two complex numbers different from zero. Then,
zw = rs cos(θ + φ) + i sin(θ + φ) .
In the literature, the following elementary result is known as the De Moivre’s formula.
Lemma 1.16 (De Moivre). Let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) be a nonzero complex number. Then,
zn = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ)
for all n ∈ Z+ .
Proof. We will use induction over n. For n = 1 the theorem is true. Assume that theorem is true for all k such that
1 ≤ k ≤ n. Then,
zn+1 = zn · z
= rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) · r (cos θ + i sin θ)
= rn+1 (cos nθ cos θ − sin nθ sin θ) + i (sin nθ cos θ + cos nθ sin θ)
= rn+1 cos (nθ + θ) + i sin (nθ + θ)
= rn+1 cos(n + 1)θ + i sin(n + 1)θ .
Numbers z are different since numbers 2kπ/n are all different and are ≥ 0
but ≤ 2π.
The fact that these numbers are the only roots of zn = 1 comes from Funda-
mental Theorem of Algebra ?? which says that a polynomial with degree n
can have at most n roots. We leave as an exercise to prove that n-th roots of
unity form a cyclic group.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
A generator of the group of n -th roots of unity is called n -th primitive root of unity and usually denoted by
ξn . The group of n-th roots of unity will be denoted by µn .
Exercise 1.31. Find all the 8-th roots of unity and draw them in the complex plane. Find all the subgroups of µ8 and color
them with different colors. Do you see any pattern?
Ĉ = C ∪ {∞}
az + b
f (z) =
cz + d
where a, b, c, d are any complex numbers satisfying ad − bc , 0. If ad = bc, the rational function defined above is a
constant since
az + b a(cz + d) ad − bc a
f (z) = = − =
cz + d c(cz + d) c(cz + d) c
and this is not a Möbius transformation.
In case c , 0, this definition is extended to the whole Riemann sphere by defining
!
−d a
f = ∞ and f (∞) = .
c c
If c = 0, we define
f (∞) = ∞.
Thus a Möbius transformation is always a bijective holomorphic function from the Riemann sphere to the Riemann
sphere.
Lemma 1.18. The set of all Möbius transformations forms a group under composition.
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
cα2 − (a − d)α − b = 0
Exercises:
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
x2 + y2 = 1
or a planar curve. Loosely speaking an algebraic curve is the set of points on the graph
f (x, y) = 0,
for some polynomial f with coefficients from some field k.
We saw that the unit circle was group (under the complex multiplication). Here is a natural question: what
other curves can be made into a group?
It might sound as an innocent question, but it has this question and its implications have occupied some of the
greatest minds of science for the last 200 years. In this lecture we will give some examples of algebraic curves which
can be made into groups.
1.7.1 Conics
A conic section is technically the curve obtained by cutting a double cone by a plane. A general conic has equation
λ1 X2 + λ2 Y2 = D,
where λ1 , λ2 are the eigenvalues of M. Moreover, from [10, Lem. 7.5] we have that the curve
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Write this quadratic in the diagonal form p(x1 , x2 , x3 ). Sketch the surface
p(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 1
Conics as groups
Can conics be made into groups? Let us just attempt the following procedure to define an operation on a conic C.
• Fix a point O on the conic C. This will be our identity of the group.
• For any two points P, Q ∈ C, draw the line parallel to PQ and going through O. This line will intersect the
conic on a second point R.
• Define P ⊕ Q := R.
We have to check if the above procedure defines a group operation on any conic.
The reader should, at this point investigate if the above procedure would work for all conics. The next two
examples show that at least it works for some conics. The following is due to F. Lemmermeyer.
Example 1.21. Consider the conic
C : Y2 − ∆X2 = 4,
and put N = (2, 0). Prove that the group law on C with neutral element N is given by
rt + ∆su ru + st
(r, s) + (t, u) = , .
2 2
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
y2 = x3 + ax2 + bx + c
Define the following operation on E(R). Given any two points P, Q ∈ E, we find the third point of intersection of the line PQ
with E. From this point of intersection we drop the perpendicular line to the x-axis. Since E(R) is symmetric with respect
to the x-axis then this vertical line will intersect this graph in a second point. This point is denoted by P⊕Q. Prove the following:
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Exercises:
1 1 x x−1
α(x) = x, , 1 − x, , ,
x 1−x x−1 x
form a group under composition of functions.
b) Write a multiplication table for this group.
c) Show that this group is isomorphic to S3 .
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Niels Henrik Abel, (born August 5, 1802, island of Finney, near Sta-
vanger, Norway–died April 6, 1829, Froland), Norwegian mathematician,
a pioneer in the development of several branches of modern mathematics.
Abel’s father was a poor Lutheran minister who moved his family to the
parish of Gjerstad, near the town of Risor in southeast Norway, soon after
Niels Henrik was born. In 1815 Niels entered the cathedral school in Oslo,
where his mathematical talent was recognized in 1817 with the arrival of
a new mathematics teacher, Bernt Michael Holmboe, who introduced him
to the classics in mathematical literature and proposed original problems
for him to solve. Abel studied the mathematical works of the 17th-century
Englishman Sir Isaac Newton, the 18th-century German Leonhard Euler,
and his contemporaries the Frenchman Joseph-Louis Lagrange and the
German Carl Friedrich Gauss in preparation for his own research.
Abel’s father died in 1820, leaving the family in straitened circumstances, but Holmboe contributed and raised
funds that enabled Abel to enter the University of Christiania (Oslo) in 1821. Abel obtained a preliminary degree
from the university in 1822 and continued his studies independently with further subsidies obtained by Holmboe.
Abel’s first papers, published in 1823, were on functional equations and integrals; he was the first person to
formulate and solve an integral equation. His friends urged the Norwegian government to grant him a fellowship
for study in Germany and France. In 1824, while waiting for a royal decree to be issued, he published at his own
expense his proof of the impossibility of solving algebraically the general equation of the fifth degree, which he
hoped would bring him recognition. He sent the pamphlet to Gauss, who dismissed it, failing to recognize that the
famous problem had indeed been settled.
Abel spent the winter of 1825–26 with Norwegian friends in Berlin, where he met August Leopold Crelle,
civil engineer and self-taught enthusiast of mathematics, who became his close friend and mentor. With Abel’s
warm encouragement, Crelle founded the Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik ("Journal for Pure and
Applied Mathematics"), commonly known as Crelle’s Journal. The first volume (1826) contains papers by Abel,
including a more elaborate version of his work on the quintic equation. Other papers dealt with equation theory,
calculus, and theoretical mechanics. Later volumes presented Abel’s theory of elliptic functions, which are complex
functions (see complex number) that generalize the usual trigonometric functions.
In 1826 Abel went to Paris, then the world centre for mathematics, where he called on the foremost mathe-
maticians and completed a major paper on the theory of integrals of algebraic functions. His central result, known
as Abel’s theorem, is the basis for the later theory of Abelian integrals and Abelian functions, a generalization of
elliptic function theory to functions of several variables. However, Abel’s visit to Paris was unsuccessful in securing
him an appointment, and the memoir he submitted to the French Academy of Sciences was lost.
Abel returned to Norway heavily in debt and suffering from tuberculosis. He subsisted by tutoring, supple-
mented by a small grant from the University of Christiania and, beginning in 1828, by a temporary teaching position.
His poverty and ill health did not decrease his production; he wrote a great number of papers during this period,
principally on equation theory and elliptic functions. Among them are the theory of polynomial equations with
Abelian groups. He rapidly developed the theory of elliptic functions in competition with the German Carl Gustav
Jacobi. By this time Abel’s fame had spread to all mathematical centres, and strong efforts were made to secure a
suitable position for him by a group from the French Academy, who addressed King Bernadotte of Norway-Sweden;
Crelle also worked to secure a professorship for him in Berlin.
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (10 December 1804 – 18 February 1851) was
a German mathematician, who made fundamental contributions to elliptic
functions, algebraic geometry, dynamics, differential equations, and num-
ber theory. His name is occasionally written as Carolus Gustavus Iacobus
Iacobi in his Latin books, and his first name is sometimes given as Karl.
One of Jacobi’s greatest accomplishments was his theory of elliptic func-
tions and their relation to the elliptic theta function. This was developed
in his great treatise Fundamenta nova theoriae functionum ellipticarum
(1829), and in later papers in Crelle’s Journal. Theta functions are of great
importance in mathematical physics because of their role in the inverse
problem for periodic and quasi-periodic flows. The equations of motion are
integrable in terms of Jacobi’s elliptic functions in the well-known cases of
the pendulum, the Euler top, the symmetric Lagrange top in a gravitational
field and the Kepler problem (planetary motion in a central gravitational
field).
He also made fundamental contributions in the study of differential
equations and to rational mechanics, notably the Hamilton–Jacobi theory.
It was in algebraic development that Jacobi’s peculiar power mainly lay, and he made important contributions
of this kind to many areas of mathematics, as shown by his long list of papers in Crelle’s Journal and elsewhere
from 1826 onwards. One of his maxims was: ’Invert, always invert’ (’man muss immer umkehren’), expressing his
belief that the solution of many hard problems can be clarified by re-expressing them in inverse form.
In his 1835 paper, Jacobi proved the following basic result classifying periodic (including elliptic) functions: If
a univariate single-valued function is multiply periodic, then such a function cannot have more than two periods,
and the ratio of the periods cannot be a real number. He discovered many of the fundamental properties of theta
functions, including the functional equation and the Jacobi triple product formula, as well as many other results on
q-series and hypergeometric series.
The solution of the Jacobi inversion problem for the hyperelliptic Abel map by Weierstrass in 1854 required the
introduction of the hyperelliptic theta function and later the general Riemann theta function for algebraic curves
of arbitrary genus. The complex torus associated to a genus g algebraic curve, obtained by quotienting C g by the
lattice of periods is referred to as the Jacobian variety. This method of inversion, and its subsequent extension by
Weierstrass and Riemann to arbitrary algebraic curves, may be seen as a higher genus generalization of the relation
between elliptic integrals and the Jacobi, or Weierstrass elliptic functions
Jacobi was the first to apply elliptic functions to number theory, for example proving of Fermat’s two-square
theorem and Lagrange’s four-square theorem, and similar results for 6 and 8 squares. His other work in number
theory continued the work of Gauss: new proofs of quadratic reciprocity and introduction of the Jacobi symbol;
contributions to higher reciprocity laws, investigations of continued fractions, and the invention of Jacobi sums.
He was also one of the early founders of the theory of determinants; in particular, he invented the Jacobian
determinant formed from the n2 differential coefficients of n given functions of n independent variables, and which
has played an important part in many analytical investigations. In 1841 he reintroduced the partial derivative ∂
notation of Legendre, which was to become standard. Students of vector fields and Lie theory often encounter the
Jacobi identity, the analog of associativity for the Lie bracket operation.
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42
Chapter 2
2.1 Subgroups
In this section we will develop criteria when a subset of a group G is also a group. Such subsets of G which are also
groups under the operation of G we will call them subgroups.
Definition 2.1. If a subset H of the group G forms a group with the operation of G, then we say that H is a subgroup of the
group G.
To show that H is subgroup of G we use the notation H ≤ G. When H is a proper subset of G then we say that H
is a proper subgroup of G and denoted by H < G. The subgroup {e} is called the trivial subgroup of G.
Solution: Obviously if (A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A), then A ∪ B is a subgroup. Hence, assume that (A \ B , ∅ and B \ A , ∅).
Suppose that A ∪ B is a subgroup. Let a ∈ A \ B and b ∈ B \ A. Since A ∪ B is a subgroup then
Without loss of generality assume that ab−1 ∈ A which implies that b−1 ∈ A. Hence, b ∈ A. Since b ∈ B \ A, then B ⊂ A. Thus,
the only case when A ∪ B is a subgroup is A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A.
Theorem 2.2 (Second subgroup test). A subset H of G is a subgroup if and only if it satisfies the following:
i) Identity e of G is in H.
ii) If h1 , h2 ∈ H, then h1 h2 ∈ H.
iii) If h ∈ H, then h−1 ∈ H.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Proof. First assume that H is a subgroup of G. We must show that the three conditions are satisfied. Since H is group
it has identity of eH . We want to show that eH = e where e is identity of the group G. We know that eH eH = eH and
eeH = eH e = eH . Hence, eeH = eH eH . From the left cancellation property we have that e = eH . The second condition is
true because the subgroup H is a group. To prove the third condition take h ∈ H. Since H is a group then there is an
element h0 ∈ H such that hh0 = h0 h = e. From uniqueness of the inverse in G we have that h0 = h−1 .
Conversely, if the three conditions are satisfied then H is a group since these are the group axioms.
Example 2.2. Let G the group of nonzero real numbers with multiplication and let H
H = { x ∈ G | x = 1 or x is irrational. }
Theorem 2.3 (Third subgroup test). Let H a nonempty finite subset of G. If H is closed with the operation of G then H is
subgroup of G.
Proof. Using the second test it is enough to show that for every a ∈ H there exists a−1 ∈ H. If a = e then this is true
because e−1 = e ∈ H.
Let a , e. Consider the sequence a, a2 , a3 , · · · . Since, H is closed, then all these elements are in H. However, H
is finite. Hence, not all of them are different. Thus, we have that ai = a j and i > j, for some i, j. Then, ai−j = e and
since a , e we have that i − j − 1 > 0. Thus, aai− j−1 = ai−j = e and ai− j−1 = a−1 . However, i − j − 1 ≥ 1 which implies
ai−j−1 ∈ H.
Example 2.3. The set of all matrices 2 × 2 with elements from R, denoted by Mat2 (R), forms a group with addition.
The set GL2 (R) is a subset of Mat2 (R). However, it is not a subgroup of Mat2 (R) under addition. The sum of two matrices
does not necessary have an inverse. Notice that
! ! !
1 0 −1 0 0 0
+ = ,
0 1 0 −1 0 0
Exercises:
2.1. Let G be an Abelian group with identity element e and H a subset of G such that
H = {x ∈ H | x2 = e}.
is a subgroup of Rt imes.
2.4. Recall that with C× we have denoted the group of nonzero complex numbers with multiplication. Let be given H =
{1, −1, i, −i}. Prove that H is a subgroup of C× .
2.5. Let SL2 (R) be the subset of GL2 (R) which contains all matrices with determinant 1. Prove that SL2 (R) < GL2 (R)
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Hence, Z(G) is the set of elements of G which commute with all elements of G. We call Z(G) the center of G.
Proposition 2.1. The center Z(G) of a group G is a subgroup.
Proof. We use the second subgroup test. Clearly, e ∈ Z(G) because ∀x ∈ G we have ex = xe. Thus, Z(G) is a nonempty
set. Next, we show that Z(G) is closed under the multiplication of G. Let a, b ∈ Z(G), then
Thus, ab ∈ Z(G).
Assume that a ∈ Z(G) then we have that ax = xa. Multiply both sides with a−1 and we have:
Thus, we proved that for every a ∈ Z(G) we have a−1 ∈ Z(G). Therefore, Z(G) is a subgroup of G.
Definition 2.2. Let A be any subset of G. We call the centralizer of A in G the set of elements of G which commute with all
elements a ∈ A. This is denoted by CentG (A)
Proof. Since the product of two even permutations is also even, then An is closed. The identity permutation is an
even permutation, hence it is in An . If σ is an even permutation, then
σ = σ1 σ2 · · · σr ,
where σi is a transposition and r is an even number. Since the inverse of a transpositions is equal to itself, then
σ−1 = σr σr−1 · · · σ1 ,
it is in An .
Next we determine the number of even permutations in Sn .
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Proposition 2.2. The number of even permutations in Sn , n ≥ 2, is equal with the number of odd permutations. Thus, the
order of An is n!/2.
Proof. Let An the set of even permutations in Sn and Bn the set of odd permutations. If we prove that there exists a
bijection between these sets then they have the same number of elements. Fix a transposition σ in Sn . Since n ≥ 2,
there exists such a σ. Define the map
λσ : An → Bn
such as
λσ (τ) = στ.
The reader can check that this map is well defined.
Assume that λσ (τ) = λσ (µ). Then, στ = σµ and
τ = σ−1 στ = σ−1 σµ = µ.
(ab)(ab) = id
(ab)(cd) = (acb)(acd)
(ab)(ac) = (acb).
Exercises:
Gn := {gn | g ∈ G}.
cos θ − sin θ
!
sin θ cos θ
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
2.12. Prove or disprove that SL2 (Z), the set of 2 × 2 matrices with integer entries and with determinant 1, is subgroup of
SL2 (R).
2.13. Find the subgroups of the quaternion group Q8 .
2.14. Prove that the intersection of two subgroups of a group G is also a subgroup of G.
2.15. Prove or disprove the following: if H and K are subgroups of a group G, then HK = {hk : h ∈ H and k ∈ K } is subgroup
of G. What can you say if G is Abelian?
2.16. In GL2 (R) find the centralizer of " #
1 1
0 1
2.2 Homomorphisms
One of the most important concept in algebra is that of a homomorphism. Homomorphisms are maps between
groups which preserve the algebraic structure.
Proof. i) Assume that e and e0 are respectively identities of the groups G1 and G2 , then
f −1 (H) := {g ∈ G | f (g) ∈ H}
f −1 (B) := {g ∈ G | f (g) ∈ B}
f (A) := {h ∈ H | ∃g ∈ A such that f (g) = h}
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Example 2.4. Let G be a group and g ∈ G. Define the function φ : Z → G such that φ(n) = gn . Then, φ is a group
homomorphism because
φ(m + n) = gm+n = gm gn = φ(m)φ(n).
This homomorphism maps the group Z in the cyclic subgroup of G generated by g.
Example 2.5. Let G = GL2 (R). If !
a b
A=
c d
is in G, then the determinant is nonzero. Thus, det(A) = ad − bc , 0. Also, for every two elements A and B in G,
det(AB) = det(A) det(B). Using the determinant we can define a homomorphism
φ :GL2 (R) → Z∗ ,
A → det(A).
Exercise 2.2. Let be given the sets Ω and ∆ such that |Ω| = |∆|. Prove that S∆ SΩ .
Hint: Since |Ω| = |∆| then there is a bijection θ : Ω −→ ∆. Define
φ : S∆ −→ SΩ
σ −→ θ ◦ σ ◦ θ−1
a) If H1 ≤ G1 , then φ(H1 ) ≤ G2 ;
Proof. a) The set φ(H1 ) is nonempty because identity of H2 is in φ(H1 ). Assume that H1 is subgroup of G1 and take
x and y in φ(H1 ). There exist elements a, b ∈ H1 such that φ(a) = x and φ(b) = y. Since
ker( f ) := {g ∈ G : f (g) = eH }.
The reader must be familiar with the concept of the kernel from linear algebra; see [10].
Lemma 2.4. Let f : G −→ H be a group homomorphism with K = ker( f ). Then, the following hold:
i) ker( f ) ≤ G.
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
iii) f (G) ≤ H
φ : GL2 (R) −→ R∗
A −→ det(A),
as in Example 2.5. Since 1 is the identity of R∗ , the kernel of this homomorphism contains from all 2 × 2 matrices that have
determinant 1. Thus,
ker φ = SL2 (R).
Exercises:
2.17. Let G be a finite group of even order, show that G has an odd number of elements of order 2.
2.18. Let G be a finite group of odd order. Show that
s:G→G
x → x2
φ : θ 7→ cos θ + i sin θ.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Proof. Since a belongs to hai, then hai is not empty. Let am and an be any two powers of a. Then, an , am ∈ hai and
an (am )−1 = an−m ∈ hai. Thus, from the first subgroup test, hai is subgroup of G.
The subgroup hai is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by the element a.
Definition 2.3. A group G is called cyclic if there is an element a ∈ G such that
G = {an | n ∈ Z}
and such an element (if it exists) is called generator of G and we write G = hai.
A cyclic group can have many generators. Below we give a few examples of such groups. Notice that,
ai a j = ai+j = a j+i = a j ai .
Solution: In the group Z8 with addition mod 8 the element 3 generates these elements:
Solution: First we have seen that U (10) = {1, 3, 7, 9}. Numbers 3 and 7 are generators of this group because
and also
h7i = {70 , 73 , 71 , 72 } = {1, 3, 7, 9}
Theorem 2.6. Let G a group and a ∈ G. If a has infinite order then all powers of a are distinct elements. If a has finite order,
say |a| = n, then
hai = {e, a, a2 , a3 , . . . , an−1 }
and ai = a j if and only if n | (i − j).
Proof. Assume that the element a has infinite order, so it does not exist any positive integer n such that an = e. We
have to prove that all powers of a form distinct group elements. Assume the contrary, there exist ai , a j where i , j
such that ai = a j . Then, we have that ai−j = e which is true only for i − j = 0. Hence, for i = j which is a contradiction.
Now let’s prove that if |a| = n, then we have that:
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
First let’s prove that the elements e, a, · · · , an−1 are different between them. Assume the contrary, so for i, j such that
0 ≤ j < i ≤ n − 1 we have that ai = a j . Then we have that ai−j = e for i − j < n. However, this contradicts the fact that n
is the smallest positive integer such that an is identity, which is a contradiction.
Assume that ak is any element of hai. From the division algorithm we know that there exist two integers q and r
such that
k = qn + r where 0 ≤ r < n
Then, ak = aqn+r = aqn ar = (an )q ar = ear = ar , so we have that ak ∈ {e, a, a2 , · · · , an−1 }. This proves that hai = {e, a, a2 , · · · , an−1 }.
Now we prove that if ai = a j , then n divides i − j. Assume the contrary, so n does not divide i − j. Then from
division algorithm we know that there exist two integers q and r such that
i − j = qn + r where 0 ≤ r < n.
Since n is the smallest positive integer such that an = e then we must have r = 0 and therefore n divides i − j.
Conversely, if i − j = nq then ai−j = anq = eq = e so ai = a j .
Corollary 2.1. For any element a in a group we have that |a| = |hai|.
Corollary 2.2. Let G a group and let a ∈ G such that |a| = n. If ak = e then n divides k.
Proof. Since ak = e = a0 from the above theorem we have that n divides k − 0 = k
Theorem 2.7. Let G be a finite cyclic group such that |G| = n and G = hai. Then, G = hak i if and only if k and n are relatively
prime.
Proof. First we prove that if (k, n) = 1, then the group G is generated from hak i, so G = hak i.
Since (k, n) = 1, then there exist two integers u and v that satisfy
1 = ku + nv.
which implies that a ∈ hak i. Hence, all powers of a belong to hak i. For example, ap = (aku )p = (ak )up so ap ∈ hak i. Thus,
G = hak i and hak i is generator of G.
Now let’s prove that if G = hak i then (k, n) = 1. Assume that k and n are not coprime, (k, n) = d > 1 then we have
k = td and n = sd
|ak | ≤ s < n.
This means that ak is not a generator for the group G because the order of the group G is n, but |hak i| = s where
s < n.
Above we explained that Zn has more then one generator. From the above theorem, generators of Zn are all
numbers k ∈ Zn such that (k, n) = 1.
Corollary 2.3. The number k is a generator of the group Zn if and only if (k, n) = 1.
Example 2.11. Not every group is a cyclic group. Consider the group S3 of symmetries of the regular triangle. All symmetries
are shown in Fig. 1.2.
Subgroups of S3 are shown in Figure Fig. 2.1. Notice that every subgroup is cyclic even though no single element generates
all the group.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
S3
!
! aa
! !! S aa
aa
! S
!! S aa
{id, ρ1 , ρ2 } {id, µ1 } {id, µ2 } {id, µ3 }
aa !
aa S
! !!
aa S !!
aaS !
!
{id}
The diagram above is called the lattice of subgroups of S3 . We can construct such lattice of subgroups for
any given group. As we will see in the coming lectures, knowing all the subgroups and their intersections is very
important to understand the structure of the group.
Example 2.12. Let the group U (50) be given. Find the order of this the group and other generators when we know that 3 is
already a generator.
U (50) = {1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33, 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49}.
Hence | U (50)| = 20. From the above theorem, generators are all elements of the form 3k for k such that (k, 20) = 1 hence all
elements
31 = 3, 33 = 9, 37 = 37, 39 = 49, 311 = 47, 313 = 23, 317 = 13, 319 = 17.
Keep in mind that all operations are mod 50.
Let n be a positive integer. How many integers k are that (n, k) = 1? Let ϕ(n) denote the number of such integers
k.
The Euler’s function
ϕ:N→N
is defined as ϕ(n) = 1 for n = 1 and for n > 1, ϕ(n) is the number of integers m, where 1 ≤ m < n and gcd (m, n) = 1.
Then, we have the following,
Corollary 2.4. Let U (n) be the group of unit elements in Zn . Then,
| U (n)| = ϕ(n).
Proof. Let G be cyclic group, G = hai and assume that H ≤ G. If H = {e} then H is cyclic. Assume that H contains
another element g different from identity. Then, for some integer n, the element g can be written as an . Assume that
n > 0. Let m be the smallest integer such that am ∈ H. Such number m exists from the well ordering principle.
Assume that h = am is a generator for H. We must show that every h0 ∈ H can be written as a power of h. Since
h ∈ H and H is a subgroup of G then for some integer k we have h0 = ak . Using the division algorithm we find q and
0
ak = amq+r = (am )q ar = hq ar .
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Hence, ar = ak h−q . Since ak and h−q are in H, then ar ∈ H. However m was the smallest integer such that am ∈ H and
therefore r = 0. Hence, k = mq. Finally,
h0 = ak = amq = hq
and H is generated by h.
Corollary 2.5. Subgroups of the group Z are exactly nZ for n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
Proposition 2.4. Let G be a cyclic group such that |G| = n and assume that G = hai. Then, ak = e if and only if n | k.
Proof. First assume that ak = e. From division algorithm we have k = nq + r where 0 ≤ r < n. Hence,
e = ak = anq+r = anq ar = e · ar = ar .
ak = ans = (an )s = es = e.
Proof. We want to find the smallest integer m such that bm = akm = e. However, this is the smallest integer m such
that n | km or n/d divides m · dk . Since, d is the greatest common divisor of n and k then n/d and k/d are relatively
prime. Thus, for n/d to divide m · dk it must divide m. The smallest such number m is n/d.
Theorem 2.10 (Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups). Let G = hai and |G| = n. Then for every divisor k of n, G has
n
exactly one subgroup of order k, namely ha k i.
D nE
Proof. We want to show that a k is the one and only subgroup of order k of hai. From the previous Theorem we
know that n n n
ha k i = = =k
gcd (n, nk ) (n/k)
So, this is a subgroup of order k. Let us show now that this is the only subgroup of order k. Let H = ham i be a
subgroup of G with order k. We know that m is a divisor of n and m = gcd (n, m). Thus,
n
k = am = agcd (n,m) = = n/m
gcd (n, m)
D nE
So, k = n/m, and m = n/k implying H = a k .
Exercise 2.4. If G is cyclic and has infinite order, then G (Z, +).
Solution: Let x ∈ G such that x , e. Then hxi is a subgroup of G. But hxi can not be proper. So hxi = G. Thus, G is cyclic.
If G is cyclic and has infinite order, then from the above Exercise we have that G (Z, +). But (Z, +) has many proper
subgroups. It implies that G is not isomorphic to (Z, +). Hence, G is finite.
Assume that G is not of prime order, say |G| = d1 d2 · · · dn . Then G would have proper subgroups of order d1 , d2 , · · · , dn , see
Theorem 2.10 which contradicts the assumption of the problem.
The following is an important result for cyclic groups. We leave it as an exercise for the reader.
Proposition 2.5. Let p be a prime. A group G of order |G| = pn is cyclic if and only if it is an Abelian group with a unique
subgroup of order p.
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Exercises:
2.22. Prove or disprove the following statement: if G is a group such that every proper subgroup is cyclic then G is cyclic.
2.23. Prove or disprove the following
a) The group U (8) is cyclic.
b) All generators of Z60 are prime numbers
c) A group with a finite number of subgroups is finite.
2.24. What are all cyclic subgroups of the quaternion group Q8 ?
2.25. Let G Abelian group with order pq where gcd (p, q) = 1. Show that if G contains the elements a and b with orders
respectively p and q then G is cyclic.
2.26. How many generators does a cyclic group of order n have?
2.27. Let p and q be two distinct prime numbers. How many generators has Zpq ?
2.28. Let p be a prime number and r a positive integer. How many generators has Zpr ?
2.29. Let G be a finite Abelian group in which the number of solutions in G of the equation xn = e is at most n for every positive
integer n. Prove that G must be a cyclic group.
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
2.4.1 Cosets
Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. We call a left coset of H with representative g ∈ G the set
gH := {gh : h ∈ H}.
x = h1 a = h1 h2 b = (h1 h2 )b ∈ Hb
Proof. Suppose that Ha ∩ Hb , ∅. Let x ∈ Ha ∩ Hb. Then for some h1 , h2 ∈ H we have that x = h1 a = h2 b. Hence,
a = h−1
1 2
h b and ab−1 = h−1
1 2
h ∈ H. Thus, Ha = Hb.
Corollary 2.6. Let H a subgroup of the group G. Left (resp. right) cosets of H in G partition G.
The following facts are useful when working with cosets. We leave the proof as exercise.
Lemma 2.8. Let H be a subgroup of the group G and assume that g1 , g2 ∈ G. The following statements are equivalent.
1. g1 H = g2 H
2. Hg−1
1
= Hg−1
2
3. g1 H ⊆ g2 H
4. g2 ∈ g1 H
5. g−1
1 2
g ∈ H.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Proof. Exercise.
Theorem 2.11. Let H be a subgroup of the group G. The number of left cosets of H in G is equal with the number of right
cosets of H in G.
Proof. Let’s denote with LH and RH respectively the set of left and right cosets. If we can define a bijective function
φ : LH → RH , then the theorem is proved.
If gH ∈ LH , let φ(gH) = Hg−1 . From Lemma 2.8, the map φ is well defined. Thus, if g1 H = g2 H, then Hg−1
1
= Hg−1
2
.
To prove that φ is injective assume that
Again from Lemma 2.8, g1 H = g2 H. The function φ is surjective since φ(g−1 H) = Hg.
Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. Define the index of H in G to be the number of left cosets of H in G.
The index of H in G we will denote with [G : H].
Example 2.14. Let G = Z6 and H = {0, 3}. Then, [G : H] = 3.
Example 2.15. Assume that G = S3 , H = {(1), (123), (132)} and K = {(1), (12)}. Then, [G : H] = 2 and [G : K] = 3.
If H is a subgroup of the group G, then left cosets are not always the same with right cosets. Thus, not always
gH = Hg for every g ∈ G. A subgroup H of the group G is normal in G, denoted by H C G, if
Thus, a normal subgroup of the group G is the subgroup in which left cosets and right cosets are the same.
[G : K] = [G : H][H : K].
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Proposition 2.6 (Cauchy). If G is finite Abelian group and p is prime such that p | |G|, then G contains an element with order
p.
Proof. We will prove Cauchy’s theorem by induction on |G|. Let n = |G|. Since p | n then p < n. The base case is
n = p. When |G| = p , any non-identity element of G has order p because p is prime. Now suppose n > p, p /n, and
the theorem is true for all groups with size less than n and divisible by p. Let G be a group of size n.
Since p /n and n > p, |G| is not prime. Therefore G has a proper non-trivial subgroup, say H. Since G is
abelian, G/H is a group. Since |H||(G/H)| = |G| = n, the prime p divides either |H| or |(G/H)| (we don’t know
which). Therefore, by induction, H or G/H has an element with order p. If H does, then so does G. If G/H has
an element with order p, say g, then what can we say about the order of g (in G)? Let m be the order of g. Then
gm = e ∈ G =⇒ ḡm = ē ∈ G/H =⇒ p /m. Thus, g has order divisible by p, so gm/p is an element of G with order p.
In the next chapters we will prove the following results.
Theorem 2.13. If G is an Abelian group and n divides |G|, then there is a subgroup H ≤ G such that |H| = n.
HK := {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K}
|H| · |K|
|HK| = .
|H ∩ K|
Obviously, |HK| ≤ |H| · |K| since an element in HK can be written as product of different elements in H and K it is
possible that h1 k1 = h2 k2 for h1 , h2 ∈ H and k1 , k2 ∈ K. In this case let
h2 = h1 a−1
k2 = ak1 .
Thus, let h = h1 b−1 and k = bk1 for b ∈ H ∩ K. Then, hk = h1 k1 , where h ∈ H and k ∈ K. Thus, an element hk ∈ HK
can be written in the form hi ki for hi ∈ H and ki ∈ K, as many times as elements we have in H ∩ K. Thus, |H ∩ K| times.
Thus, |HK| = (|H| · |K|)/|H ∩ K|.
Proposition 2.7. Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. HK is a subgroup of G if and only if HK = KH.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Proof. Assume first that HK = KH and let a, b ∈ HK. We prove that ab−1 ∈ HK so HK is a subgroup by the subgroup
criterion. Let a = h1 k1 and b = h2 k2 , for some h1 , h2 ∈ H and k1 , k2 ∈ K. Then, b−1 = k2−1 h−1
2
. So ab−1 = h1 k1 k2−1 h−1
2
.
Let k3 = k1 k2 ∈ K and h3 = h2 . Thus ab = h1 k3 h3 . Since HK = KH, then k3 h3 = h4 k4 , for some h4 ∈ H and k4 ∈ K.
−1 −1 −1
Exercises:
2.30. Assume that G is a finite group that has an element g with order 5 and an element h with order 7. Why do we have that
|G| ≥ 35?
2.31. Prove or disprove the following: Every subgroup of integers has finite index.
2.32. Describe left cosets of SL2 (R) in GL2 (R). What is the index of SL2 (R) in GL2 (R)?
2.33. Show that the group of integers has infinite index in the additive group of rational numbers.
2.34. Show that the additive group of real numbers has infinite index in the additive group of complex numbers.
2.35. If ghg−1 ∈ H for every g ∈ G and h ∈ H, prove that right cosets are identical with left cosets.
2.36. Let G be a group and g ∈ G such that gn = e. Show that the order of g divides n.
2.37. If |G| = 2n, prove that number of elements with order 2 is odd. Use this result to prove that G contains a subgroup with
order 2.
2.38. Let H and K be subgroups of the group G. Prove that gH ∩ gK is a coset of H ∩ K in G.
2.39. Let H and K be subgroups of the group G. Define a relation ∼ on G, where a ∼ b if there exist elements h ∈ H and k ∈ K
such that hak = b. Show that this relation is an equivalence relation. Corresponding equivalence classes are called double
cosets. Find double cosets of H = {(1), (123), (132)} in A4 .
2.40. Let G be a group and A, B subgroups of G. If x, y ∈ G define the relation ∼ as follows:
Prove that
a) The relation ∼ is an equivalence relation in G.
b) The equivalence class of x is
[x] = AxB = {axb | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
The set AxB for x ∈ G is called a double coset of A and B in G.
2.41. Prove that if G is a finite group, then the number of elements in the double coset AxB is
|A| · |B|
|A ∩ xBx−1 |
2.42. If G is a finite group and A is a subgroup of G such that all double cosets AxA have the same number of elements, show
that
gAg−1 = A,
for all g ∈ G.
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• His discussion of representations of integers by quadratic forms (1769) and by more general algebraic forms
(1770).
• His tract on the Theory of Elimination, 1770.
• Lagrange’s theorem that the order of a subgroup H of a group G must divide the order of G.
• His papers of 1770 and 1771 on the general process for solving an algebraic equation of any degree via the
Lagrange resolvents. This method fails to give a general formula for solutions of an equation of degree five
and higher, because the auxiliary equation involved has higher degree than the original one. The significance
of this method is that it exhibits the already known formulas for solving equations of second, third, and fourth
degrees as manifestations of a single principle, and was foundational in Galois theory. The complete solution
of a binomial equation of any degree is also treated in these papers.
• In 1773, Lagrange considered a functional determinant of order 3, a special case of a Jacobian. He also proved
the expression for the volume of a tetrahedron with one of the vertices at the origin as the one sixth of the
absolute value of the determinant formed by the coordinates of the other three vertices.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
60
Chapter 3
The concept of the homomorphism is a fundamental concept in algebra. In this chapter we will study in more detail
homomorphisms, isomorphisms, and the isomorphism theorems.
3.1 Isomorphisms
Let f : G1 → G2 be an homomorphism. We say that f is an isomorphism if f is bijective. Assume f : G1 → G2 is an
isomorphism. Since f : G1 → G2 is bijective, then there exists its inverse f −1 : G2 → G1 . The following lemma shows
that f −1 : G2 → G1 is a homomorphism as well.
Theorem 3.1. Let φ : G → H a isomorphism between two groups. Then, the following statements are true.
1. φ−1 : H → G is an isomorphism.
2. |G| = |H|.
Proof. Statements (1) and (2) follow from the fact that φ is a bijection and from the above Lemma. We prove
statement (3) and other parts are left as an exercise.
(3) Assume that h1 and h2 are elements of H. Since φ is surjective, there exist the elements g1 , g2 ∈ G such that
φ(g1 ) = h1 and φ(g2 ) = h2 . Thus,
The following characterizes infinite cyclic groups.
Theorem 3.2. All cyclic groups with infinite order are isomorphic to Z.
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Proof. Let G a cyclic group with infinite order. Assume that a is a generator of G. Define a map φ : Z → G such that
φ : n 7→ an . Then,
φ(m + n) = am+n = am an = φ(m)φ(n).
To prove that φ is injective, assume that m and n are two elements in Z where m , n. Let m > n. We must show that
am , an . Assume the contrary, so am = an . In this case am−n = e, where m − n > 0, which contradicts the fact that a has
infinite order. The map is surjective since every element in G can be written as an for some integer n and φ(n) = an .
Theorem 3.3. If G is a cyclic group with order n, then G is isomorphic to Zn .
Proof. Let G be a cyclic group with order n generated from a. Define φ : Zn → G such that φ : k 7→ ak where 0 ≤ k < n.
The proof that φ is an isomorphism is an exercise at the end of the chapter.
Corollary 3.1. If G is a group with order p, where p is a prime number, then G is isomorphic to Zp .
Proof. The proof follows directly from Corollary 2.8.
The main goal of the group theory is to classify all groups. As mentioned from the beginning, from the algebraic
point of view the set that holds the group is not interesting to us, instead the algebraic structure is important. As
we will see next the isomorphism of groups plays this important role.
Let S be the class of all groups. Define a relation in S as follows
f (a + bi) = a − bi.
This function is called the conjugation map. Prove that this function is an automorphism.
Let G be a group. Denote by Aut (G) the set of all automorphisms of G
Exercise 3.3. Prove that Aut (G) forms a group with composition of functions.
The group Aut (G) is called automorphism group of G. An inner automorphism of the group G,
i g : G → G,
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
3.1. Prove that the exponential function f (x) = ex is an isomorphism of groups (R, +) and (R+ , ·).
3.2. The group (Z, +) is isomorphic to the subgroup of (Q× , ·), which consists in all the elements of the form 2n .
3.3. Prove that Aut (G) is a subgroup of the group of permutations of G. Thus, Aut (G) ≤ SG .
3.4. Prove that A 7→ B−1 AB is a automorphism of SL2 (R) for every B in GL2 (R).
Thus, a normal subgroup of the group G is the subgroup in which left cosets and right cosets are the same.
Let G be an Abelian group. Every subgroup H of G is a normal subgroup. Since gh = hg for every g ∈ G and
h ∈ H, we have that gH = Hg.
The following theorem is fundamental to understand normal subgroups.
Theorem 3.4. Let G be a group and N a subgroup of G. Then, the following are equivalent.
i) The subgroup N is normal in G.
ii) For every g ∈ G, gNg−1 ⊂ N.
iii) For every g ∈ G, gNg−1 = N.
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Since N is normal in G we have that gN = Ng for every g ∈ G. Thus, for a given g ∈ G and n ∈ N,
there exists a n0 in N such that gn = n0 g. Thus, gng−1 = n0 ∈ N or gNg−1 ⊂ N.
(2) ⇒ (3). Let g ∈ G. Since gNg−1 ⊂ N, it is enough to prove that N ⊂ gNg−1 . For n ∈ N we have g−1 ng =
g n(g−1 )−1 ∈ N. Thus, g−1 ng = n0 for a n0 ∈ N. Thus, n = gn0 g−1 is in gNg−1 .
−1
(3) ⇒ (1). Assume that gNg−1 = N for every g ∈ G. Then, for every n ∈ N there exists a n0 ∈ N such that gng−1 = n0 .
Thus, gn = n0 g or gN ⊂ Ng. Similarly it can be proven that Ng ⊂ gN.
A group G is called simple group if does not have proper normal subgroups.
Lemma 3.2. Let G be a finite group, p the smallest prime divisor of |G|, and N C G such that |N| = p. Show that N ≤ Z(G).
σx :N → N
g → x−1 gx
be the conjugation by x map, i.e. x−1 Nx → N. We want to show that N ≤ Z(G) which is enough to show that σx = id.
Let x ∈ G \ N such that xm = 1. It implies that m ≥ p, where m doesn’t have any prime factor less than p. Thus
(m, p − 1) = 1, and a(p − 1) + bm = 1, for some integers a, b ∈ Z.
a(p−1)+bm (p−1) a
Then we have (σx )p−1 = id, and σxm = id which implies that (σx )m = id. Hence, σx = (σx )1 = σx = (σx ) ·
(σm
x)
b= id. Thus, σx = id and we are done.
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Proof. We must show that the operation is well-defined, hence independent from the choice of the representatives.
Let aN = bN and cN = dN. We must prove that
The other part of the theorem is simple, eN = N is the identity and g−1 N is the inverse of gN.
The group G/N is called the factor group of G and N.
Example 3.1. Consider the normal subgroup N = {(1), (123), (132)} in S3 . Cosets of N in S3 are N and (12)N. The factor
group S3 /N has multiplication table as follows.
N (12)N
N N (12)N
(12)N (12)N N
Solution: The statement is not true. Consider G = Z4 × Z2 . Let H be the isomorphic copy of Z4 in G. Then, H C G as a
subgroup of index 2.
Let K be the isomorphic copy of Z2 × Z2 in G. Also, K C G. However, G/H Z2 and G/K Z2 since all the groups of
order 2 are isomorphic to Z2 . Hence, G/K G/H even though H is not isomorphic to K.
Here is another example of a very famous group that we have seen before.
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Example 3.3 (The modular group). We have shown in Chapter 1 that SLn (Z) is a group. Of course the identity matrix I
and −I commute with all the matrices of SLn (Z). Hence {±I} is normal in SL2 (Z).
The quotient group Γ = SL2 (Z)/{±I} is called the modular group. It is probably one of the most important groups in
number theory and arithmetic geometry. We will briefly describe some of its properties and will revisit it again in Section 4.4.
Exercises:
b) H is normal in N(H).
c) If H is a normal subgroup of a subgroup K of G, then K ⊂ N(H) (that is, N(H) is the largest subgroup of G in which H
is normal).
d) H is normal in G if and only if N(H) = G
3.10. If p is a prime number, prove that any group G of order 2p must have a subgroup of order p, and that this subgroup is
normal in G.
3.11. Let G be a group in which for some integer n > 1, (ab)n = an bn for all a, b ∈ G. Show that
a) G(n) = {xn | x ∈ G} is a normal subgroup of G.
b) G(n−1) = {xn−1 | x ∈ G} is a normal subgroup of G.
! ( !)
a b 1 b
3.12. Let G be a se of all real 2 × 2 matrices where ad , 0, under matrix multiplication. Let N = . Prove that
0 d 0 1
a) N is a normal subgroup of G.
b) G/N is abelian.
3.13. Let be given the group G and Z(G) its center. Prove that Z(G) C G.
3.14. Prove that if G/Z(G) is cyclic, then G is Abelian.
3.15. Denote with GL2 (R) the group of 2 × 2 matrices with terms in R and nonzero determinant. Denote with SL2 (R) the
group of 2 × 2 matrices with terms in R and determinant 1. Prove that SL2 (R) C GL2 (R).
3.16. Let be given H and K normal subgroups of G such that H ∩ K = {e}. Prove that hk = kh for every h ∈ H and k ∈ K.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
G/ ker(ϕ) H.
Proof. Let K := ker ϕ. We know that K C G. As usual, let π : G 7→ G/K ne the natural projection. Define the function
ψ as follows:
ψ : G/K −→ H ϕ
/H
G O
gK −→ ϕ(g)
ψ
π
First we prove that ψ is a function. Assume that aK = bK. Then, b−1 a ∈ K. #
G/ ker ϕ
Since K is the kernel, then ϕ(b−1 a) = eH . We know that ϕ is a homomorphism
so
ϕ(b−1 b) = ϕ(b)−1 ϕ(a) = eH .
Hence, ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) and we have ψ(aK) = ψ(bK). Thus, ψ is a well defined map. Next we will prove that ψ is a
homomorphism. We have that
Hence, ψ is a homomorphism.
Also we must prove that ψ is a injective function. Let aK ∈ ker(ψ). Then, ψ(aK) = ϕ(a) = eH . Thus, a ∈ K and this
implies that aK = eG/K . Therefore, we have that ker(ψ) = {eG/K } and the function ψ is injective.
Finally we must prove that this function is surjective. For every ϕ(g) ∈ H there is a g ∈ G and for every g ∈ G
there is a gK ∈ G/K. This completes the proof.
Remark 3.1. Notice that in the diagram above we have that
ϕ = ψ ◦ π.
In such case we say that the diagram is commutative. We will see many cases when such diagrams are very helpful in proofs
later on in this book.
The following is a useful corollary of the above theorem.
Corollary 3.2. Any cyclic group G is isomorphic to Z or Z/nZ.
Proof. Let G = hgi. Define the function
φ:Z→G
n 7→ gn .
If the order of G is infinite, then so is the order of g. Hence, ker φ = 0 and φ is injective. Thus, G Z. If |G| = n
then for every m ∈ ker φ we have
φ(m) = gm = e.
Hence, n | m. Thus, ker φ = mZ. From the First Isomorphism Theorem we have that
G Z/ ker φ = Z/mZ
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Example 3.4. Are the groups Z and Q isomorphic under addition? The answer is obviously "no" since Z is cyclic and Q is
not.
Theorem 3.7 (Second Isomorphism Theorem). Let H ≤ G and N C G. Then, HN is a subgroup of G, H ∩ N is a normal
subgroup of H, and
H/H ∩ N HN/N.
Proof. First we prove that HN = {hn : h ∈ H, n ∈ N} is a subgroup of the group G. Assume that h1 n1 , h2 n2 ∈ HN. Since
N is normal, (h2 )−1 n1 h2 ∈ N.
Thus, G
(h1 n1 )(h2 n2 ) = h1 h2 ((h2 ) n1 h2 )n2
−1
From the First Isomorphism Theorem, the image of φ is isomorphic me H/ ker φ. Thus,
Since ker φ = {h ∈ H : h ∈ N} = H ∩ N, we have HN/N = φ(H) H/H ∩ N. This completes the proof.
As we have seen above, determining lattices of subgroups of a given group is an important tool for studying
groups (this will become more evident in the coming sections). The following theorem, sometimes called the Lattice
Theorem, is an important tool in determining such lattices.
H/K C G/K
and
(G/K)/(H/K) G/H.
Proof. First we must check that H/K C G/K. We leave this as an exercise for the reader.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
f : (G/K) → G/H
gK → gH
G G/K
We see that
1
f (g1 K · g2 K) = f (g1 g2 K)
= g1 g2 H = (g1 H) (g2 K) = f (g1 K) f (g2 K).
Now we prove that the function f is surjective. We have that for every Hg ∈ G/H there is a Kg ∈ G/K such that
f (Kg) = Hg. It can easily be shown that the function is injective.
Z/mZ (Z/mnZ)/(mZ/mnZ).
Next we see another important theorem which is called Correspondence Theorem or sometimes the Fourth
Isomorphism Theorem.
Theorem 3.9 (Correspondence Theorem). Let N be a normal subgroup of the group G. Then,
H 7→ H/N =: H
is a one to one correspondence between the set of subgroups H of G which contain N and the set of subgroups of G/N. Moreover,
normal subgroups of G correspond to normal subgroups of G/N. This correspondence has the following properties:
i) H1 ≤ H2 if and only if H1 ≤ H2
Proof. Let H a subgroup of G which contains N. Since N is normal in G, then it is normal in H. Hence, there exists
the factor group H/N. Let aN and bN be elements of H/N for a, b ∈ H. Then,
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
and h−1
1
N ∈ S. Thus, H must be a subgroup of G. It is clear that H H = H/N
H contains N. Hence, S = H/N. Thus, the function H 7→ H/H is
surjective.
Assume that H1 and H2 are subgroups of the group G that contain N eG/N
N such that H1 /N = H2 /N. If h1 ∈ H1 , then h1 N ∈ H1 /N. Thus, h1 N =
h2 N ⊂ H2 for a h2 in H2 . However, since N is contained in H2 , we
know that h1 ∈ H2 or H1 ⊂ H2 . Similarly, H2 ⊂ H1 . Since H1 = H2 , the 1
function H 7→ H/H is bijective.
Assume that H is normal in G and N is a subgroup of H. Then, it is easy to prove that the function G/N → G/H
defined by gN 7→ gH is a homomorphism. The kernel of this homomorphism is H/N, which proves that H/N is
normal in G/N.
Conversely, assume that H/N is normal in G/N. The homomorphism given by
G/N
G → G/N →
H/N
has kernel H. Thus, H must be normal in G.
Next we see an illustration of the Correspondence Theorem in construction the lattice of the dihedral group of
8 elements.
The elements σ2 and τ, both have order 2 and together they generate a Klein 4-group. The same can be said for
σ2 and στ. This completes the lattice on the right.
Exercises:
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Proof.
Remark 3.2. The proof above is due to J. McKay; see [5] for details.
Corollary 3.3. Let G be a group of order |G| = pq, where p and q are primes and p > q. If a ∈ G is an element of order p then
hai C G.
Exercises:
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
f : aG → λ
gag−1 → gH
First let’s prove that f is function. Let’s assume that gag−1 = hah−1 then we have h−1 gag−1 h = a. Hence we have
(h−1 g)a(g−1 h) = a and from this equality we can write (h−1 g)a(h−1 g)−1 = a so h−1 g ∈ H and hH = gH.
Prove that f is injective. If we have g1 H = g2 H then g−1 g ∈ H and we have that g−1
1 2 1 2
g a = ag−1
1 2
g because a is
in the centralizer. Hence we have g2 a = g1 ag1 g2 and therefore g2 ag2 = g1 ag1 . Also the function f is surjective
−1 −1 −1
gHg−1 = {ghg−1 |h ∈ H}
and denoted by H g .
Lemma 3.3. Let H ≤ G. Then, we have that gHg−1 ≤ G for every g ∈ G.
Proof. We prove that H ≤ G, so for every a, b ∈ gHg−1 we have ab−1 ∈ gHg−1 . Let
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Proof. a)Prove that NG (H) ≤ G, using the first subgroup test. The identity e ∈ NG (H) because eHe−1 = H, so NG (H) is
a nonempty set. Second, if g1 , g2 ∈ NG (H), then g2 Hg−1
2
= H and g1 Hg−1
1
= H. Thus,
2 Hg2 g1 = g1 Hg1 = H.
g1 g−1 −1 −1
Proof. Let’s denote H the set of all conjugates of H in G, N = NG (H), and with LN the set of all left cosets of N in G.
Define the map f such that
ϕ : H −→ LN
aHa−1 −→ aN
First we prove that the map ϕ is a function. Let aHa−1 = bHb−1 then b−1 aHa−1 b = H implies b−1 a ∈ N and therefore
aN = bN.
Let’s prove first that the function ϕ is injective. Let aN = bN then b−1 a ∈ N implies b−1 aHa−1 b = H. Thus,
aHa−1 = bHb−1 .
Finally, we prove that the function ϕ is surjective. Let aN ∈ λN then there is a aHa−1 ∈ H such that f (aHa−1 ) = aN.
Hence, the function ϕ is bijective.
For a given group G, we define the commutator of G as
It is easy to check that G0 is a subgroup of G which we will refer as the commutator subgroup of G.
Exercise 3.7. Let G be a group. Find an example that the set
n o
aba−1 b−1 | a, b ∈ G
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3.5.1 Conjugacy in Sn
In this section we see what it means for two permutations to be conjugate in Sn .
Theorem 3.12. If two cycles τ and µ in Sn have the same length then there exists σ ∈ Sn such that µ = στσ−1 .
σ(a1 ) = b1
σ(a2 ) = b2
..
.
σ(ak ) = bk .
Then, µ = στσ−1 .
Conversely, assume that τ = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) is a k -cycle and σ ∈ Sn . If σ(ai ) = b and σ(a(i mod k)+1 ) = b0 , then µ(b) = b0 .
Thus,
µ = (σ(a1 ), σ(a2 ), . . . , σ(ak )).
Since σ is injective and surjective, µ is a cycle that has the same length with τ.
Let α ∈ Sn such that α is a disjoint product of si , n1 -cycles for i = 1, . . . , r. We say that α is of type
s
n11 · · · nsrr .
Exercise 3.8. Let be given C, the conjugacy class in Sn of elements α. Find a formula for the number of elements in C.
Theorem 3.13. Any two permutations in Sn are conjugate if and only if they are of the same type.
Proof. Assume that σ has cycle type k1 , k2 . . . kl . Then, σ can be written as a product of disjoint cycles: σ = α1 α2 . . . αl
where αi is a ki -cycle. Let τ ∈ Sn . Then,
Conversely, let σ, µ ∈ Sn both be cycle type k1 , k2 . . . , kl . Let σ and µ be written as products of disjoint cycles as
σ = α1 α2 . . . αl and µ = β1 β2 . . . βl ,
Now define τ by τ(ai j ) = bi j for every i, j such that 1 ≤ i ≤ l and 1 ≤ j ≤ ki . Now we know that ταi τ−1 = βi and so
we have
Any two elements of Sn with the same cycle type are in the same conjugacy class.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
Exercise 3.9. Let σ ∈ Sn such that m1 , . . . , ms are the distinct integers which appear in the cycle type of σ (including 1-cycles).
For each i = 1, . . . , s assume that σ has ki cycles of length mi . Prove that the number of conjugates of σ is
n!
k
(k1 ! · m11 ) · · · (k1 ! · mks s )
Exercises:
3.27. Let H be a subgroup of the group G. Prove or disprove that normalizer of H is normal in G.
3.28. Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Prove that gN(H)g−1 = N(gHg−1 ) for every g ∈ G.
3.29. Let be given p a prime number and let C a cyclic subgroup with order p in Sp . Determine the order of NSp (C).
λa : G → G
x → ax
We prove that this function λa is a bijection and therefore λa ∈ SG . Let’s define the function Φ : G → SG such that
Φ(a) = λa
and prove that this function is injective and homomorphism. Let’s prove first that λa is an injective function. If
La = Lb then ax = bx so we have that a = b for every x ∈ G. It is easy to prove that the function is surjective. Finally,
to prove that this function is homomorphism we must prove that Φ(ab) = Φ(a)Φ(b) so Lab (x) = λa ◦ λb . This equality
is true because lambdaab (x) = (ab)x and also
Proof. Let a ∈ G and denote with λ the set of all cosets left of H in G. Then, define the function
ρa : λ → λ
gH → agH
We prove that ρa is a bijective function and therefore ρa ∈ Sn . Define the function φ such that
φ : G → Sα Sn
g → ρg
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
Now let’s prove that ker φ ≤ H. Let a ∈ ker φ then φ(a) = 1 and as a consequence ρa = e. Thus, for every g ∈ G we
have that
ρa (gH) = agH = gH so aH = H
from which is clear that a ∈ H.
Corollary 3.6. Let G be a simple group which contains a subgroup H such that [G : H] = n. Then,
G ,→ Sn
Proof. From the above theorem, we have φ : G → Sn such that ker φ ≤ G < G. But kernels are normal and G is simple,
which implies that ker phi = {1G }. Thus, φ is an embedding.
Theorem 3.16 (Index Theorem). Let G be a finite group and H ≤ G such that [G : H] = n. If |G| - n!, then G is not simple
group.
Proof. From Theorem 3.15 we know that there is a function θ : G → SX such that ker θ ≤ H. Since |G| - n! the function
θ is not injective so ker θ , {e}. Hence there is a K = ker θ ≤ H ≤ G and also K C G which implies that the group G is
not simple.
Theorem 3.17. Let H ≤ G and X be the set of conjugates of H in G. There exists a homomorphism ψ : G → SX such that
ker ψ ≤ NG (H).
ψ : G → SX
a → ψa
This function is a homomorphism. Now let’s prove that ker ψ ≤ NG (H). Let an element a ∈ ker ψ then for every g ∈ G
we have agHg−1 a−1 = gHg−1 and for g = e we have aHa−1 = H so a ∈ NG (H).
Example 3.7. Let G be a finite group, where p is the smallest prime divisor of |G| and N a subgroup of G such that [G : N] = p.
Show that N C G.
α
Solution: Let |G| = pα1 p2 2 · · · pαnn , where p < p2 < p3 < · · · pn . We want to show that N C G, where N ≤ G and [G : N] = p.
There exists a homomorphism σ such that σ : G → Sp . Then, σ(G) ≤ Sp . Therefore |σ(G)| | p!. But |σ(G)| = G/ ker σ implies
that |σ(G)| | |G|
α
Thus,
|σ(G)| | p!, and |σ(G)| | |G| = pα1 p2 2 · · · pαnn which means that |σ(G)| = 1 or p. So | G/ ker σ |= 1 or p.
If G/ ker σ = 1 then ker σ = G which can’t happen because ker σ ⊆ N and N is a proper subgroup of G. Hence, G/ ker σ = p
which implies that | ker σ| = |N|. Thus, ker σ = N. Since kernels are normal, then N C G.
Exercises:
3.30. Let be given G a finite group with order |G| = 2n · m, where m is odd. Prove that if G contains an element with order 2n ,
then the set of elements with odd order is a normal subgroup of G.
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
3.31. Find all subgroups of D4 . Which ones are normal? Which are factor groups?
3.32. Find all subgroups of the quaternion group Q8 . Which are normal? Which are factor groups of Q8 ?
3.33. Let T the group of 2 × 2 upper triangular matrices with elements from Z, i.e., matrices of the form
!
a b
,
0 c
where a, b, c ∈ Z and ac , 0. Let U be the set which contains matrices of the form:
!
1 x
,
0 1
where x ∈ Z.
a) Prove that U is a subgroup of T.
b) Prove that U is Abelian.
c) Prove that U C T.
d) Prove that T/U is Abelian.
e) Is T normal in GL2 (Z)?
3.34. If φ : G → H is a homomorphism and G is Abelian, prove that φ(G) is also Abelian.
3.35. If φ : G → H is a homomorphism and G is cyclic, prove that φ(G) is also cyclic.
3.36. If G is Abelian, prove that G/H must be also Abelian.
3.37. Let G be a finite group, N a normal subgroup of G and
φ : G → G/N
the natural projection. If H is a subgroup of G/N, prove that φ−1 (H) is subgroup in G with order |H| · |N|.
3.38. Let G1 and G2 groups, H1 C G1 , H2 C G2 , and
φ : G1 → G2
if φ(H1 ) ⊆ H2 . Define φ and prove that it is a well defined map and a homomorphism.
3.39. Find an automorphism of a group G that is not an inner automorphism.
3.40. Let G be group and i g an inner automorphism of G. Define the function
G → Aut (G)
such that
g 7→ i g .
Prove that this function is a homomorphism with image Inn(G) and kernel Z(G). Use this result to generalize that
G/Z(G) Inn(G).
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78
Chapter 4
Groups acting on sets is a fundamental concept in mathematics which is used in many areas such as geometry,
topology, etc. In this chapter, we will give the basics of group actions and some applications.
In the last two sections of the chapter we will give two exciting applications of the group action that of the
modular group acting on the complex upper-half plane and the action of the general linear group on the space of
binary forms. Both these actions have played a fundamental role in the history of mathematics and are important
in higher mathematics.
f : C×X → X
(g, x) → gx
a) ex = x for every x ∈ X
The set X is called a G-set. Notice that gx is just a symbol and has nothing to do with multiplication in G. After all,
x < G.
If G acts on the set X and x, y ∈ X, then we say that x is G-equivalent with y if there exists a g ∈ G such that
gx = y. If two elements are G-equivalent, we write x ∼G y or x ∼ y.
Proposition 4.1. Let X be a G -set. Then, G-equivalent is an equivalence relation in X.
Proof. The relation ∼ is symmetric because ex = x. To show that is well defined suppose that x ∼ y for x, y ∈ X, then
there is a g such that gx = y. In this case g−1 y = x. Thus, y ∼ x. To prove the transitive property assume that x ∼ y
and y ∼ z. Then, must exist the elements g and h such that gx = y and hy = z. Thus, z = hy = (hg)x and x is equivalent
with z.
The kernel of the action is the set of elements
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Lemma 4.1. Let X be a G -set and assume that x ∼ y. Then, the stabilizer StabG (x) is isomorphic to the stabilizer StabG (y).
Proof. Since x ∼ y, there is a g ∈ G such that y = gx. Let a ∈ StabG (x). Since
gag−1 · y = ga · g−1 y = ga · x = g · x = y,
we define the function φ : StabG (x) → StabG (y) such that φ(a) = gag−1 . The function φ is a homomorphism because
Assume that φ(a) = φ(b). Then, gag−1 = gbg−1 or a = b. Thus, the function is injective. To prove that φ is surjective,
let b in StabG (y). Then, g−1 bg is in StabG (x) since
Orb(x) = {gx ∈ X | g ∈ G}
Lemma 4.2. Let G act on a set X and x ∈ X. Then, the cardinality of the orbit Orb(x) is the index of the stabilizer
Proof. Fix x ∈ X. Let L be the family of all left cosets of H := StabG (x) in G. Define
φ : Orb(x) → L
gx → gH
XG = {x ∈ X : gx = x for every g ∈ G }.
Theorem 4.1 (Orbit counting theorem). Let G be a finite group acting on X. If N is number of orbits, then
1 X
N= |X g |.
|G|
g∈G
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Notice that x ∈ X g if and only if g ∈ StabG (x). Hence, every element x ∈ X contributes |StabG (x)| to the sum. Thus,
we have X X
|X g | = |StabG (x)| .
g∈G x∈X
Let us now compute the right hand sum by grouping elements in each orbit. Since there are N orbits O1 , . . . , ON we
have X X X X
|X g | = |StabG (x)| = |StabG (x)| + · · · + |StabG (x)|
g∈G x∈X x∈O1 x∈ON
Now, two elements x and y in the same orbit have isomorphic stabilizers; see Lem. Lemma 4.1. So each orbit Oi
contributes
|Oi | · |StabG (xi )|
X X N
X N
X
|X g | = |StabG (x)| = |Oi | · |StabG (xi )| = |G| = N · |G|
g∈G x∈X i=1 i=1
Remark 4.1. The above theorem says that the number of orbits is equal to the average number of points fixed by an element of
G.
Corollary 4.1. Let G be a finite group and X a finite set such that |X| > 1. If G acts on X transitively then there exists τ ∈ G
with no fixed points.
Proof. Let |G| = n. Since the action is transitive then there is only one G-orbit. Form the above theorem we have that
Thus, |G| > n which is a contradiction. Hence, there must be some σ ∈ G such that F(σ) = 0.
Let a group G act on the sets X and Y. A function f : X → Y is called an equivariant function if and only if
∀σ ∈ G, ∀x ∈ X : σ f (x) = f (σx).
The concept of a group acting on a set is one of the most important concepts of algebra. Below we will see some
classical examples of group actions which were studied and understood well before the concept of a group was
well established.
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4.2.1 Transformations of R2
Let R2 be the Euclidean space that we are familiar from linear algebra and G = GL2 (R). For any point P ∈ R2 with
coordinates P(x, y), consider the vector " #
−−→ x
~
v = OP =
y
Then we define the following action
GL2 (R) × R2 → R2
ax + by
" # " #! " #
a b x
, →
c d y cx + dy
Exercise 4.2. Prove that the above is a group action. What is the kernel of this action? Is it a transitive action?
Let P(a, b) and G = GL2 (R).
Exercise 4.3. Determine the stabilizer StabG (P).
In the last section of this chapter, we will revisit again this action and study it in more detail.
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X 2 Y2
+ =1
A2 B 2
for some real numbers A and B?
It can be easily verified that Eq. (4.1) can be written as
9(x − y)2 + 4(x − 5)2 = 36 Figure 4.1: The graph of Eq. (4.1)
Thus, by letting
X = x−5 and Y = x− y
we get
X 2 Y2
+ =1 (4.2)
32 22
which definitely seems nicer than Eq. (4.1). This "new" ellipse has axes of length 6 and 4 and they seem, at least
visually, to be close to the original ellipse.
Question 4.1. Can we find a methodological approach to solve this problem or similar problems like this one?
Stated a bit differently, given a degree 2 equation, can we determine a methodological approach so we can make
the right substitutions and that the equation is transformed into a nicer one?
Question 4.2. Can this be done for quadratic surfaces (degree 2 equations in space)? What about higher degree equations?
In the process, we will have to understand and answer the following three questions:
A student must have learnt to answer all of three parts of the question above in a linear algebra course. Can a
problem like this be stated in terms of group actions?
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GL2 (k) × Vd → Vd
" # !
a b
, f (x, y) → f (ax + by, cx + dy)
c d
Can you find an invariant of f ? For example a quantity in terms of the coefficients with is fixed by the SL2 (k) action.
Example 4.4. Can you generalize the results from the above exercise to degree d > 2 binary forms? Justify your answers.
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Paul Gordan
Paul Albert Gordan (27 April 1837 – 21 December 1912) was a Ger-
man mathematician, a student of Carl Gustav Jacobi at the University
of Königsberg before obtaining his Ph.D. at the University of Breslau
(1862), and a professor at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg.
He was born in Breslau, Germany (now Wroc?aw, Poland), and
died in Erlangen, Germany.
He was known as "the king of invariant theory". His most fa-
mous result is that the ring of invariants of binary forms of fixed
degree is finitely generated. He and Alfred Clebsch gave their name
to Clebsch–Gordan coefficients. Gordan computed, by hand, all 70
invariants of binary sextics. Together with F. Klein, M. Noether, et al.
they made Erlangen one of the most important mathematical centers
of the world durinf XIX century.
Gordan also served as the thesis advisor for Emmy Noether.
Figure 4.2: Paul Albert Gordan
A famous quote attributed to Gordan about David Hilbert’s proof of Hilbert’s basis theorem, a result which
vastly generalized his result on invariants, is "This is not mathematics; this is theology." The proof in question was
the (non-constructive) existence of a finite basis for invariants. It is not clear if Gordan really said this since the
earliest reference to it is 25 years after the events and after his death, and nor is it clear whether the quote was
intended as criticism, or praise, or a subtle joke. Gordan himself encouraged Hilbert and used Hilbert’s results and
methods, and the widespread story that he opposed Hilbert’s work on invariant theory is a myth (though he did
correctly point out in a referee’s report that some of the reasoning in Hilbert’s paper was incomplete).
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1 1 x x−1
α(x) = x, , 1 − x, , ,
x 1−x x−1 x
An invariant of this action is an expression in t which is fixed under all the transformations above.
Example 4.5. Show that the above is a well-defined action. Find an invariant of this action.
Exercises:
4.1. A group acts faithfully on a G -set X if identity is the only element of G which fixes every element of X. Prove that G
acts faithfully on X when there are no two elements of G acting the same way on an element of X.
4.3 Symmetries
This section is based on [7]
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The group SL2 (R) acts on H2 via linear fractional transformations. In the following lemma we prove that this action
is transitive.
Lemma 4.4. i) The group SL2 (R) preserves H2 and acts transitively on it, further for g ∈ SL2 (R) and z ∈ H2 we have
Img z
Img(gz) =
|γz + δ|2
ii) The action of SL2 (R) on P1 has three orbits, namely R ∪ ∞, the upper half plane, and the lower-half plane.
Proof. Let us first prove that H2 is preserved under an SL2 (R) action. Consider
α β αz + β
!
·z =
γ δ γz + δ
But γz + δ = γx + iγy + δ = γx + δ + γiy, therefore its conjugate is (γx + δ) − iγy = γz̄ + δ and
(γz + δ)(γz̄ + δ) = |γz + δ|2 = (γx + δ)2 + (γy)2 .
Hence,
αz + β αz + β γz̄ + δ (αz + β)(γz̄ + δ) αγzz̄ + αδz + βγz̄ + βδ
= · = =
γz + δ γz + δ γz̄ + δ |γz + δ|2 |γz + δ|2
αγ|z|2 + βδ + αδx + αδiy + βγx − βγiy
=
|γz + δ|2
αγ|z|2 + βδ + αδx + βγx i(αδ − βγ)y
= +
|γz + δ|2 |γz + δ|2
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we have g(i) = a + ib. Thus the orbit of i passes through all points in H2 and so SL2 (R) is transitive in H2 .
ii) The result is obvious from above.
Recall that a group action G × X → X is called faithful if there are no group elements g, except the identity
element, such that gx = x for all x ∈ X. The group SL2 (R) does not act faithfully on H2 since the elements ±I act
trivially on H2 . Hence, consider the above action as PSL2 (R) = SL2 (R)/{±I} action. This group acts faithfully on H2 .
Let S be a set and G a group acting on it. Two points s1 , s2 are said to be G-equivalent if s2 = gs1 for some g ∈ G.
For any group G acting on a set S to itself we call a fundamental domain F, if one exists, a subset of S such that any
point in S is G-equivalent to some point in F, and no two points in the interior of F are G-equivalent.
The group Γ = SL2 (Z)/{±I} is called the modular group. It is easy to prove that the Γ action on H2 via linear
fractional transformations is a group action. This action has a fundamental domain F
F = z ∈ H2 |z|2 ≥ 1 and |Re(z)| ≤ 1/2
as proven in the following theorem, as well as [8], and displayed in Fig. 4.3.
Figure 4.3: The action of the modular group on the upper half plane.
Proof. i) We want to show that for every z ∈ H2 , there exists g ∈ Γ such that gz ∈ F. Let Γ0 be a subgroup of Γ
generated by
! !
0 −1 1 1 1
S= :z→− and T = : z → z + 1.
1 0 z 0 1
Note that when we apply an appropriate T j to z then we can get a point equivalent to z inside the strip − 12 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 21 .
If the point lands outside the unit circle then we are done, otherwise we can apply S to get it outside the unit circle
and then apply again an appropriate Tn to get it inside the strip − 12 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 21 .
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Img z
Let g ∈ Γ0 . We have seen that Img(gz) = .
Since, c and d are integers, the number of pairs (c, d) such that
|cz+d|2 !
a b
|cz + d| is less then a given number is finite. Hence, there is some g = ∈ Γ0 such that Img(gz) is maximal (|cz + d|
c d
is minimal).
Without loss of generality, replacing g by Tn g for some n we can assume that gz is inside the strip − 12 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 12 .
If |gz| ≥ 1 we are done, otherwise we can apply S. Then
Img(gz) Img(gz)
Img(Sgz) = = > Img(gz).
|gz + 0|2 |gz|2
We want to show that Γ is a subgroup of Γ0 . Assume g ∈ Γ. Choose a point z1 in the interior of F, and let z2 = gz1 ∈ H2 .
From the definition of the fundamental domain we have that there exists a g0 ∈ Γ0 such that g0 z2 ∈ F. But z1 and
g0 z2 of F are Γ-equivalent, and one of them is in the interior of F, hence from Theorem 4.2 these points coincide and
g0 g = 1. Thus, g ∈ Γ0 .
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!
1 k
Note that = 1, so S has order 2, while =
S2 Tk for any k ∈ Z, so T has infinite order. For more details on the
0 1
modular group and related arithmetic questions the reader can see [8] among others.
Exercises:
90
Chapter 5
Sylow theorem
Sylow’s theorem is one of the most important theorems of elementary group theory. It tells us for what divisors of
the group order we are guaranteed a subgroup. As you will see in the applications of this theorem, we will be able
to prove many important results of group theory.
ϕ : G × G −→ G
G × G −→ G
(5.1)
(g, x) −→ gx
It is obvious that this is a group action. We have seen this action before in the Cayley’s theorem.
If H is a subgroup of the group G, then G is a H -set under the action of multiplication from the left from the
|G|
elements of H. Let LH be the set of left cosets of H in G. Then, |LH | = [G : H] = |H| , 1. Then H act on L − H as
follows
H × LH −→ LH
(5.2)
(h, gH) −→ (hg)H
Denote by L0 the fixed set of this action. We have the following observation which will be used in the proof of the
following lemma.
Lemma 5.1. gH ∈ L0 if and only if g ∈ NG (H).
Proof. If gH ∈ L0 , then (hg)H = gH, for all h ∈ H. Hence, g−1 hg H = H, for all h ∈ H. In other words, g−1 Hg ⊂ H which
implies that g ∈ NG (H).
Conversely, if g ∈ NG (H) then gH = Hg. Hence, we have
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ϕ : G × G −→ G
(5.3)
(g, x) −→ gxg−1
gSg−1 = {gsg−1 | s ∈ S}
ϕ : G × P(G) −→ P(G)
(5.4)
(g, S) −→ gSg−1
nS = [G : NG (S)].
Proof. The proof is just a simple application of Lemma 4.2, which says that
where
StabG (S) = {g ∈ G | gSg−1 = g} = NG (S)
This completes the proof.
|G| = |Z(G)| + n1 + · · · + nk .
The stabilizer subgroup of each xi , C(xi ) = {g ∈ G : gxi = xi g}, is called centralizer subgroup of xi . Then we obtain
the class equation:
|G| = |Z(G)| + [G : C(x1 )] + · · · + [G : C(xk )].
It follows that the order of any conjugation class must divide the order of the group G. WE summarize in the
following theorem.
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Theorem 5.1 (Class equation). Let G be a finite group and g1 , . . . , gr the representatives of distinct conjugacy classes of G
not contained in Z(G). Then,
r
X
|G| = |Z(G)| + [G : CG (gi )] (5.5)
1
Proof. Let C g denote the conjugacy class of g ∈ G. Then, |C g | = 1 if and only if g ∈ Z(G). Let
Z(G) = {1G , z2 , . . . , zm }
and C1 , . . . , Cr be the conjugacy classes of G not contained in Z(G). We denote by g1 , . . . , gr their representatives
respectively. Then,
r
X
|G| = |Z(G)| + |Ci | (5.6)
1
This completes the proof.
Definition 5.1. Conjugation by g is called an inner automorphism of G. The set of all inner automorphisms denoted by
Inn(G) forms a group with composition functions.
Lemma 5.3. Inn(G) C Aut (G).
Proof. First we need to show that Inn(G) is a subgroup of Aut (G). For every g ∈ G we have the conjugation
isomorphism σ g :
σg : G → G
h → ghg−1
For every a, b, x ∈ G we have that:
Solution: We know that all elements of the same type are conjugate in Sn . There are 24 elements which are 5-cycles in S5 and
they are all conjugate. Let α be a 5-cycle in S5 . Then,
CS5 (α) = {1, α, α2 , α3 , α4 }
Since all of them are 5-cycles then CS5 (α) = CA5 (α). Then,
|A5 | 60
| OrbA5 (α)| = = = 12
|CA5 | 5
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Exercise 5.3. Find all conjugacy classes of S5 . What about the conjugacy classes of A5 ?
Exercises:
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5.2 p-groups
Here we will study some special groups which play an important role in the study of the structure of groups. They
are called p-groups. We we have seen before some cases of p-groups. Throughout this section p denotes a prime
integer.
A p-group is a group such that of the group has order a power of p. We will focus on finite p-groups.
Exercise 5.4. Prove that a finite p-group has order pn for some integer n ≥ 1.
Lemma 5.4. If G is a finite p-group, then G has nontrivial center.
Since every summand [G : Cx ] is a power pi of p, for i ≥ 1, then we know that the centralizer of x is a subgroup and
therefore we have that X X
|Z(G)| = |G| − [G : Cx ] = pn − pi
Proof. Since G = p2 , then Z(G) has order p or p2 . If |Z(G)| = p2 , then we are done. Otherwise, G/Z(G) has order p and
is therefore cyclic. From 3.14, G is Abelian.
Lemma 5.5. Let G be a finite p-group. Show that if H is a nontrivial normal subgroup of G then H ∩ Z(G) , {1}.
Proof. Recall that if H C G and C a conjugacy class of G then C ⊂ H or C ∩ H = ∅. Pick representatives from the
conjugacy classes of G
g1 , g2 , . . . , gr ,
such that
g1 , . . . , gs ∈ H and gs+1 , . . . , gr < H
Then,
r
X
|H| = |H ∩ Z(G)| + [G : CG (gi )]
i=s+1
Since p | |H| and p | [G : CG (gi )] for all i = s + 1, . . . , r, then p | |H ∩ Z(G)|. This completes the proof.
Now we are ready to prove the following lemma which will be used in the proof of the Sylow’s theorem.
Lemma 5.6. Let G be a finite p-group and H a proper subgroup of G. Then,
i) H is proper in NG (H),
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Since, p | |S| = [G : H] and p divides the sum then p | |S0 |. Hence, p | [NG (H) : H]. Therefore H is proper in NG (H).
ii) Let M be a maximal subgroup in G. From part i) we know that M is proper in NG (M). Therefore, M = G. This
implies that M C G.
By the Theorem 3.9 we have that [G : M] = p.
Exercises:
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Shaska T. An Introduction to Algebra
σ :G → G
(5.7)
h → ghg−1
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Example 5.4. Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is a characteristic subgroup.
c
Solution: Let G = hai and H ≤ G. Show that H C G which is equivalent to say σ(H) = H, for all s ∈ Aut(G).
Case 1: |G| = ∞.
Then G (Z, +) and so Aut(G) Aut(Z). But Aut(Z) = id, because
and
σ(−n) = σ(−1) · σ(n) = −σ(n) = −nσ(1).
So ∀n ∈ Z, σ(n) = nσ(1). So σ(1) and σ(−1) have to generate Z. Thus, σ(1) = 1 or σ(1) = −1 which implies σ(n) = −n. But
σ(m · n) = −mn , (−m)(−n) and so σ is not a homomorphism.
Case 2: |G| = hai = n.
Let |H| = m. Then σ(H) ≤ G. Also |σ(H)| = |H| = m because σ is a bijection. But from the Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic
Groups we have that since G is cyclic, then G has a unique subgroup of order m.
c
Thus, σH = H and so H C G.
Example 5.5. If G is an abelian group and k a positive integer, then
Gk = {ak | a ∈ G}
is a characteristic subgroup of G.
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Proof. Let’s denote with H = Q ∩ NG (P). Since P ⊆ NG (P) then P ∩ Q ≤ H. We want to show that H ≤ P ∩ Q. Since
H ≤ Q, it is enough to show that H ≤ P.
Consider PH. It is a subgroup of G, hence it is a p -subgroup and |PH| = p j , for some j < n. Since P is a maximal
subgroup, p -subgroup of G we have that PH = P. Then H ≤ PH and H ≤ P. Hence, H ≤ Q ∩ P.
Theorem 5.2 (Sylow). Let |G| = pα m where p is a prime number such that (p, m) = 1. The following are true.
a) Sylp (G) , ∅
Moreover, np | m.
Proof. We will prove a) by induction on |G|. If the order of |G| = 1 then the theorem is clear. Assume that it is true
for all groups with order < |G|.
If p | |Z(G)|, then from Proposition 2.6, Z(G) has a subgroup with order p, say N ≤ Z(G), which of course is normal
in G. Let Ḡ := G/N. Then we have
|G| = pα−1 · m
and so G has a Sylow p -subgroup P such that |P| = pα−1 . By the Theorem 3.9 there is a subgroup P of G such that
N ≤ P. Then, [P : N] = |P| and
|P| = |N| · |P| = p · pα−1 = pα .
If p - |Z(G)|, then from the Class Equation Eq. (5.5) we have
r
X
|G| = |Z(G)| + [G : CG (gi )]
1
pα · m
p - [G : H] =
|H|
Hence, |H| = pα · s where (p, s) = 1. Since H is a proper subgroup of G then by induction hypothesis there exists a
Sylow p-subgroup P such that |P| = pα . Hence, P < G and |P| = pα . This completes the proof of part a).
To prove the other two parts we proceed as follows. From a) we have that there is a P ∈ Sylp (G). Let’s denote by
X = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pr }
the set of all conjugated subgroups of P. From the action of the group on the set X we have
G × X −→ X
g
(g, Pi ) −→ Pi := gPi g−1
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b) 1) The fact that NG (P) < NG (NG (P)) is true for every group.
2)If P is a Sylow p -subgroup of the group G then P is a Sylow p -subgroup for every H ≤ G such that P < H.
Hence P is a Sylow p -subgroup of NG (P) but P C NG (P) therefore it is the only Sylow p -subgroup of NG (P). Let a
x ∈ NG (NG (P)) Then,
x−1 NG (P)x = NG (P) then x−1 Px < NG (P).
Hence x−1 Px = P and finally we say that x ∈ NG (P).
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Lemma 5.11. Let P be a Sylow p -subgroup of a finite group G and let x be an element with order a power of p. If x−1 Px = P,
then x ∈ P.
Proof. Obviously x ∈ N(P) and the cyclic subgroup, hxPi ⊂ N(P)/P, has order a power of p. From Theorem 3.9 there
is a subgroup H of N(P) such that H/P = hxPi. Since |H| = |P| · |hxPi|, the order of H must be a power of p. However,
P is a Sylow p -subgroup which is contained in H. Since the order of P is the largest power of p that divides |G|, then
H = P. Thus, H/P is subgroup trivial and xP = P, or x ∈ P.
Next we see some applications of the Sylow’s Theorem.
Example 5.6. Prove that there is no simple group with order 30.
n2 = 1, 3, 5, 15
n3 = 1, 10
n5 = 1, 6
Counting the elements of G we have at least 3 subgroups P2 and each one has an element different from identity, 10
subgroups P3 and each has 2 elements different from identity, and 6 subgroups P5 and each has 4 elements different
from identity. Thus,
1 + 3 · 1 + 10 · 2 + 6 · 4 = 48 > 30
Example 5.7. Let a group G with order 40. What does the Sylow’s theorem tell us about this subgroup.
Example 5.8. Find all groups which have precisely 2 subgroups, 3 subgroups.
Solution: Every group |G| > 1 has at least two subgroups, namely and {e} and G. Hence, we want to determine all groups
which have no proper subgroups. So we want groups whose order n has no divisors other then 1 and itself. Otherwise the
group would have p-groups (Sylow p-groups). So |G| = p, where p is prime number. Thus, the groups are isomorphic to Cp for
prime p.
In the second case, We are looking for groups with exactly one proper subgroup. So G| = pα for some prime p and α ∈ Z+ .
If α > 2, then from properties of p-groups we know that G would have subgroups of order p, p2 .
So |G| = p2 . In this case G is abelian. Since p is a divisor of |G| then there is an element of order p in G. Thus, G has a
subgroup of order p.
Example 5.10. Let G be given such that |G| = 495 = 32 · 5 · 11. Prove that G has a normal subgroup of order 5 or 11.
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We see that if n5 = 11 and n11 = 45, then by counting the elements of the group we have at least
Hence,
n5 = 1 or n11 = 1.
Hence, P5 C G or P11 C G.
5.8. Prove that if |G| = 462 then G is not simple.
Proof. From the Sylow’s Theorem we get
n3 =
n5 =
n11 =
5.9. Prove that if |G| = 132 then G is not simple.
Proof. From the Sylow’s Theorem we get
n3 =
n5 =
n11 =
Example 5.11. Prove that a group of order 105 has an element of order 15.
Proof. From the Sylow’s Theorem we get
n3 = 1, 7,
n5 = 1, 21,
n11 = 1, 15
If n3 = 7 then [G : NG (P3 )] = 7. Hence, |NG (P3 )| = 15. We know that every group of order 15 is cyclic, say NG (P3 ) = hai.
Then, |a| = 15.
If n3 = 1, then P3 C G. Hence, P3 P5 is a subgroup of G and has order 15. Then, there exists a ∈ G such that
P3 P5 = hai. Thus, |a| = 15.
Exercises:
5.10. If G is a group with order pn , where p is a prime number, prove that G has a proper subgroup with order p. If n ≥ 3, is it
true that G must have a proper subgroup with order p2 ?
5.11. If |G| is pq where p and q are distinct prime numbers and if G has a normal subgroup of order p and a normal subgroup
of order q, prove that G is cyclic.
5.12. Let |G| be pq, p > q are primes, prove
a) G has a subgroup of order p and subgroup of order q.
b) If q - p − 1, then G is cyclic.
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c) Given two primes p, q, such that q | p − 1, there exists a non-abelian group of order pq.
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Ludwig Sylow
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Definition 5.2. A group G is called simple group if does not have proper normal subgroups.
Exercise 5.8. Prove that if G is a group of order |G| < 60, then G is not simple.
Lemma 5.12. If |G| = 60 and it has more than one Sylow 5-subgroup, then G is simple.
n2 = 1, 3, 5, 15 n3 = 1, 4, 10, n5 = 1, 6.
Proof. Since H = h(12345)i and K = h(13245)i are two distinct Sylow 5-subgroups of A5 , then A5 is simple.
Proof. Let G be a simple group of order 60. Since |G| = 22 · 3 · 5 then from the Sylow theorem we have that n1 = 1, 3, 5,
or 15, n3 = 1, 4, or 10, and n5 = 1, or 6. Since, G is simple that n2 , n3 , and n5 can not be equal to 1. By the same
argument we ca show that n2 , 2.
Assume that n3 = 4. Since |G| - 4! then G is not simple Theorem 3.16. Hence, n3 , 4. Thus, n3 = 10, n5 = 6, and
n2 = 5 or 15.
Case I: Assume n2 = 5. Then, [G : NG (P2 ) = 5. Hence, there is a subgroup K = NG (P2 ) of G which has index 5. From
Theorem 3.15 there is σ : G → S5 such that ker σ ⊂ K. Since kernels are normal and G is simple then | ker σ| = 1. Thus,
σ is an embedding and we can identify G with σ(G). Hence, take G < S5 .
If G ⊂ A5 then we are done since both have the same order. Assume G 1 A5 . Then, S5 = GA5 because |GA5 | > 60
and GA5 is a subgroup since both G and A5 are normal in S5 .
Then,
60 · 60
|GA5 | = = 120
|G ∩ A5 |
Hence, |G ∩ A5 | = 30. This means that G ∩ A5 C G as a subgroup of order 2. This is a contradiction since G is simple.
Case II: Let n2 = 15 which implies that we have 15 Sylow 2-subgroups (each or order 4). They can’t all be disjoint
since then we would h ave at least 1 + 15 · 3 + n2 · 4 = 69 elements. Hence, assume that two of them, say P and Q
intersect nontrivially. Then, |P ∩ Q| = 2. Let H = NG (P ∩ Q). Since P and Q are Abelian then both are contained in H.
So |H| > 4 and a multiple of 4, then |H| = 12 or 20.
If |H| = 20 then its index is 3 and Theorem 3.16 implies that G is not simple. If |H| = 12 then its index is 5 and this
case is reduced to Case 1.
Example 5.12. a) Show that A5 does not contain subgroups of order 15, 20, or 30.
b) Show that A5 contains a subgroup of order 10 and a subgroup of order 6.
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Proof. The proof of part a) is an immediate consequence of the Theorem 3.16 and the fact that A5 is simple.
b) Since 60 = 22 · 3 · 5 then from the Sylow’s Theorem we get
n2 = 1, 3, 5, 15
n3 = 1, 4, 10
n5 = 1, 6
n2 = 3, 5, 15
n3 = 4, 10
n5 = 6
Let’s assume that n3 = 4. Since n3 is the index of the normalizer of P3 then exists a subgroup H := NA5 (P3 ) such
that [A5 : H] = 4. But 606 | 4!, hence A5 is not simple by the Theorem 3.16. Hence, n3 = 10. But then again n3 is the
index of the normalizer of P3 . Thus, H := NA5 (P3 ) has order 6.
We know that n5 = 6. Since n5 is the index of the normalizer of P5 then this normalizer has order 10. This
completes the proof.
Let us now try to generalize some of the results for An , n ≥ 5.
Lemma 5.14. Let N be a normal subgroup of An , where n ≥ 3. If N contains a 3 -cycle, then N = An .
Proof. First we prove that An is generated from 3-cycles of type (i jk), where i and j are fixed in {1, 2, . . . , n} and let k
vary. Every 3-cycle is the product of 3-cycles of this type, because
(ia j) = (i ja)2
(iab) = (i jb)(i ja)2
( jab) = (i jb)2 (i ja)
(abc) = (i ja)2 (i jc)(i jb)2 (i ja).
Assume that N is a normal nontrivial subgroup of An for n ≥ 3 such that N contains a 3-cycle of the form (i ja). Using
the fact that N is normal we have that
[(i j)(ak)](i ja)2 [(i j)(ak)]−1 = (i jk)
is in N. Thus, N must contain all 3-cycles (i jk), for 1 ≤ k ≤ n. From Lemma 2.2, these 3-cycles generate An . Thus,
N = An .
Lemma 5.15. For n ≥ 5, for every normal subgroup N of An contains a 3 -cycle.
Proof. Let σ be any element in a normal subgroup N. Then, the possible cyclic types for σ are:
• σ is a 3-cycle.
If σ is a 3 -cycle, then this completes the proof. If N contains a product of disjoint cycles, σ and at least one of
these cycles has length bigger than 3, so σ = τ(a1 a2 · · · ar ). Then
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σ = τ(a1 a2 a3 )(a4 a5 a6 ).
Then,
σ−1 (a1 a2 a4 )σ(a1 a2 a4 )−1 ∈ N
since
(a1 a2 a4 )σ(a1 a2 a4 )−1 ∈ N.
Thus,
Hence N contains a cycle with length bigger than 3 and we proceed as above.
Assume that N contains a disjoint product of the type σ = τ(a1 a2 a3 ), where τ is the product of disjoint 2-cycles.
Since σ ∈ N, σ2 ∈ N, and
σ2 = τ(a1 a2 a3 )τ(a1 a2 a3 )
= (a1 a3 a2 ).
σ = τ(a1 a2 )(a3 a4 ),
Since n ≥ 5, we can find b ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} such that b , a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 . Let µ = (a1 a3 b). Then,
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and
µ−1 (a1 a3 )(a2 a4 )µ(a1 a3 )(a2 a4 )
= (a1 ba3 )(a1 a3 )(a2 a4 )(a1 a3 b)(a1 a3 )(a2 a4 )
= (a1 a3 b).
Thus, N contains a 3-cycle. The proof is completed.
Theorem 5.3. The alternating group, An , is simple for n ≥ 5.
Proof. Let N a normal subgroup of An . From Lemma 5.15, N contains a 3-cycle. From Lemma 5.14, N = An . Thus,
An does not contain proper normal subgroups for n ≥ 5.
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Exercises:
5.15. Let G be a finite group and let H and K be subgroups of G such that H Cp × Cp and K Cp2 . Prove that p3 | |G|.
5.16. Let G be a finite group which has a unique maximal subgroup. Show that G is cyclic if and only if it has prime power
order.
5.17. Let p and q be primes. Show that there is no simple group of order p2 q.
5.18. Let G be a finite group, P ∈ Sylp (G), and H C G. Prove that H ∩ P is a Sylow subgroup of H and HP/H is a Sylow
subgroup of G/H.
5.19. Let G be a finite group and P ∈ Sylp (G). Give an example of a subgroup H of G with H ∩ P not a Sylow subgroup of H.
5.20. Let G be a finite group, P ∈ Sylp (G) and H C G. Prove that H ∩ P is a Sylow subgroup of H and HP/H is a Sylow
subgroup of G/H.
5.21. Let be given G a finite group and P ∈ Sylp (G). Give an example of a subgroup H of G where H ∩ P is not a Sylow
subgroup of H.
5.22. Let be given G a finite group in which every Sylow subgroup is normal. Prove that G is isomorphic to the direct product
of its Sylow subgroups.
5.23. Let be given p a prime number, n > 1 an integer and G = GLn (Fp ). Prove that there exist two Sylow p -subgroups H1
and H2 in G such that H1 ∩ H2 = {e}.
5.24. Let be given |G| = pqr where p, q, r are primes and p < q < r. Prove that G has a Sylow normal subgroup for p, q or r.
5.25. Let be given the group G such that |G| = 495 = 32 · 5 · 11. Prove that G has a normal subgroup with order 5 or 11.
5.26. Prove that a group with order 105 has a element with order 15.
5.27. What is the order all Sylow p - subgroups when the group G of has the order 18, 24, 54, 72 and 80?
5.28. Find all Sylow 3-subgroups of S4 and prove that they are all conjugated.
5.29. Prove that every group with order 45 has a normal subgroup with order 9.
5.30. Let H be a Sylow p -subgroup of the group G. Prove that H is the only Sylow p -subgroup of G that is contained in N(H).
5.31. Prove that no group with order 96 is simple.
5.32. Prove that no group with order 160 is simple.
5.33. If H is a normal subgroup of a finite group G and |H| = pk for a prime number p, prove that H is contained in some Sylow
p -subgroup of G.
5.34. Let G be a group with order p2 q2 , where p and q are two distinct prime numbers such that q6 | p2 − 1 and p6 | q2 − 1. Prove
that G must be Abelian. Find three pair of numbers p and q which satisfy these conditions.
5.35. Show that a group with order 33 has only a Sylow 3-subgroup.
5.36. Prove that a group with order 108 must have a normal subgroup.
5.37. Classify all groups with order 175 up to isomorphisms.
5.38. Prove that every group with order 255 is cyclic.
5.39. Prove that a Sylow 2-subgroup of S5 is isomorphic to D4 .
5.40. Prove that any group G of order 20 is not simple.
5.41. Prove that groups with order 4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 27, 32, 49, 64 and 81 are not simple and groups with order 4, 9, 25 and 49
are Abelian.
5.42. A group of order 56 = 23 · 7 is not simple.
5.43. Prove that a group G with order 48 is not simple.
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5.44. Prove that for every simple group with order 60 is isomorphic to A5 .
5.45. Prove that there are no simple groups of order 264.
5.46. Prove that there are no simple groups of order 3159.
5.47. Let be given G a simple group with order 168. Prove that
a) n2 = 21, n3 = 7, n7 = 8.
b) Sylow 2-subgroups of G are dihedral, Sylow 3-subgroups and Sylow 7-subgroups are cyclic.
5.48. Prove that GL3 (2) is a simple group with order 168.
5.49. Prove that if |G| = 462, then G is not simple.
5.50. Prove that if |G| = 132, then G is not simple.
5.51. Let G be a simple group of order 168. Show that i) n2 = 21, n3 = 7, n7 = 8.
ii) Sylow 2-subgroups of G are dihedral, Sylow 3-subgroups and Sylow 7-subgroups are cyclic.
5.52. Prove that SL2 (F4 ) A5 .
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John Griggs Thompson, (born October 13, 1932, Ottawa, Kansas, U.S.),
American mathematician who was awarded the Fields Medal in 1970 for
his work in group theory. In 2008 the Norwegian Academy of Science
and Letters awarded Thompson and Jacques Tits of France the Abel Prize
for their ?profound achievements in algebra and in particular for shaping
modern group theory.?
Thompson earned a B.A. from Yale University in 1955 and a Ph.D. from
the University of Chicago in 1959. After a year at Harvard University (1961–
62), he returned to the University of Chicago (1962–68), and he subsequently
moved to Churchill College, Cambridge, England.
Thompson was awarded the Fields Medal at the International Congress
of Mathematicians in Nice, France, in 1970. His work was largely in group
theory. In 1963 he and Walter Feit published their famous theorem that
every finite simple group that is not cyclic has an even number of elements,
a proof requiring more than 250 pages. Because every finite group is made
up of composition factors, building blocks that are finite simple groups
theorems about simple groups have ramifications for all finite groups.
The subsequent work that resulted in Thompson’s receiving the Fields Medal was the determination of all the
minimal simple finite groups?that is, those groups all of whose proper subgroups are built only of cyclic compo-
sition factors. Thompson’s revolutionary ideas inspired and permeated an effort, hitherto considered hopeless,
to determine all the finite simple groups. The solution of this problem, the so-called "Enormous Theorem", was
announced in 1981 and represents the combined efforts of hundreds of mathematicians in separate journal articles
consuming well over 10,000 pages. Thompson made further contributions to Galois theory, representation theory,
coding theory, and, working on the proof of the nonexistence of a plane of order 10, the theory of finite projective
planes.
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Chapter 6
One of the main problems in group theory is that of classifying all groups, up to isomorphism. For example, we
showed in the previous section that all cyclic groups are isomorphic to Z or Cn . Can we accomplish this in general?
This was one of the main mathematical problems of the XX century. For more historical comments see section three
in this chapter.
Exercise 6.1. Prove that G1 × G2 together with the operation defined above forms a group.
The group G1 × G2 is called the outer direct product of G1 and G2 . We have seen examples of outer direct
products before. For example, the Euclidean space R × R together with addition is an outer direct product; see [10]
for details.
We can also construct the outer direct product of more then two groups. Thus, the n direct product
n
Y
Gi = G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn
i=1
of groups G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn is defined in the same way. Hence, G is merely the Cartesian product of groups G1 , . . . , Gn
with a new binary operation defined component-wise. We will denote by ei the identity element for each Gi ,
i = 1, . . . , n.
Lemma 6.1. Let (g1 , g2 ) ∈ G1 × G2 . If g1 and g2 have finite orders, respectively m and n, then
Proof. Assume that l = lcm (m, n) and s = |(g1 , g2 )|. Then, obviously
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Thus, s must divide l and s ≤ l. However, m and n also must divide s. Thus, s = lcm (m, n).
The reader should prove the following:
Exercise 6.2. Let G = ni=1 Gi and g ∈ G such that g = (g1 , . . . , gn ). If gi has finite order ri in Gi , then
Q
Remark 6.1. Thus, G = G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn is constructed by certain normal subgroups G1 , . . . , Gn and every element g ∈ G
can be written in a unique way as a product g = g1 · · · gn , for gi ∈ Gi .
x1
x
2
Before we go on, let’s just recall that this is not totally new to us. Consider x ∈ R , such x = . . Then,
n
..
xn
x1 x1 0 0
x2 0 x2 0
x = . = . + . + · · · + .
.. .. .. ..
xn 0 0 xn
since R is an additive group and ei = 0 for i = 1, . . . , n. The fact that x can be written uniquely this way in linear
algebra means that x it is written uniquely as a linear combination in terms of the standard basis; see [10, Chap. 2]
for details.
Let us now get back to Remark 6.1. So the group G is given as G = G1 G2 · · · Gn , where every element of g ∈ G is
written uniquely as g = g1 · · · gn , for gi ∈ Gi . Moreover, from construction we have that Gi C G and G∩ G j = {e} for all
i , j.
This motivates the following definition.
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Definition 6.1. A group G is said to be the inner direct product of its normal subgroups N1 , . . . , Nn , if every g ∈ G is written
uniquely as g = g1 · · · gn , for gi ∈ Ni .
Lemma 6.3. Let G be a group and H and K normal subgroups of G such that H ∩ K = {e}. Then, for every h ∈ H and k ∈ K
we have that hk = kh.
Then we have the following.
Lemma 6.4. If G is the inner direct product of its normal subgroups N1 , . . . , Nn , then for i , j, Ni ∩ N j = {e}. Moreover, for
i , j and gi ∈ Ni and g j ∈ N j we have that gi g j = g j gi .
Hence we have proved that the definition of the inner product in G to a collection of subgroups H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn of
G, which must have the following properties
• G = H1 H2 · · · Hn = {h1 h2 · · · hn : hi ∈ Hi }
• Hi ∩ h∪ j,i H j i = {e}
Sometimes the inner product is defined via the properties above. Now we have the following theorem.
G = H1 · · · Hn ,
Proof.
From now on we will speak of simply direct product and drop the adjectives inner or outer.
Exercises:
6.1. Let G be an inner direct product of subgroups H and K. Prove that the function φ : G → H × K such that φ(g) = (h, k) for
g = hk, where h ∈ H and k ∈ K, is injective and surjective.
6.2. Prove or disprove: If every element of G has finite order, then G is finite.
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Example 6.1. All finite groups are finitely generated. For example, the group S3 is generated from permutations (12) and
(123). The group Z × Zn is a infinite group but is finitely generated by {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.
Proof. Notice that the group hG \ Hi, generated by G \ H, is a subgroup of G. Also, hG \ Hi ∪ H = G. From Example 2.1
we have that either hG \ Hi ⊆ H or H ⊆ hG \ Hi. But hG \ Hi ⊆ H is impossible. Thus, H ⊆ hG \ Hi and so G = hG \ Hi.
H = h{gi ∈ G : i ∈ I}i.
α
Proof. Let K be the set of all products of the form gi 1 · · · gαi n , where gik are not necessarily distinct. Hence K is a
1 n
subset of H. We must prove that K is a subgroup of the group G. If this holds then K = H because H is the smallest
subgroup which contains all gi .
k
The set K is closed under the operation of the group. Since g0i = 1, identity is in K. The inverse of g = g11 · · · gki n
n
in K is also in K, since
k −k
g−1 = (g11 · · · gki n )−1 = (g−k
1
n
· · · gi 1 ) ∈ K.
n n
Remark 6.2. Notice that we allow that gi to repeat because we are not assuming that G is an Abelian group. In the case of
Abelian group each gi appears only once.
Theorem 6.2. Every finite Abelian group G is the direct product of its Sylow subgroups.
Corollary 6.1. Let G be an Abelian group such that its Sylow subgroups are cyclic, then G is cyclic.
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Proof. From the above theorem, G is the direct product of its cyclic Sylow subgroups. Since their orders are coprime,
then this direct product is a cyclic group.
In our quest of classifying all finite Abelian groups the main task now becomes classifying all isomorphism
types of finite Abelian p-groups.
Let G be an Abelian p-group, say |G| = pα . Can we write down all the isomorphism classes for G?
Lemma 6.6. If G be an Abelian p-group such that |G| = pα , then G is isomorphic to one of the following
with β1 ≥ β2 ≥ · · · ≥ βt ≥ 1 and β1 + β2 + · · · βt = α.
Proof. Start here ....
Notice that the above result, gives many groups as possibilities to be isomorphic to G. More precisely, for each
choice of integers
(β1 , β2 , . . . , βt ), such that β1 + β2 + · · · βt = α,
gives us a possible group. Hence, to list all possible groups we have to list all the partitions of the positive integer
α.
There is a huge amount of literature in elementary number theory on the number of partitions and how to
represent partition through Ferrers diagrams, Young diagrams and other diagrams. To avoid double counting we
will follow the usual conventions that β1 ≥ β2 ≥ · · · ≥ βt ≥ 1. The integers β1 , . . . , βt are called the invariant factors
and integers pβi above are called the elementary divisors of G.
Example 6.3. Classify all Abelian groups of order 35 .
Solution: Hence, we are looking first for the partitions of 5. The seven partitions of 5 and the corresponding groups
are:
5 C35 C405
4+1 C34 × C3 C81 × C3
3+2 C33 × C32 C27 × C9
3+1+1 C33 × C3 × C3 C27 × C3 × C3
2+2+1 C32 × C32 × C3 C9 × C9 × C3
2+1+1+1 C32 × C3 × C3 × C3 C9 × C3 × C3 × C3
1+1+1+1+1 C3 × C3 × C3 × C3 × C3 C3 × C3 × C3 × C3 × C3
Solution: From the theorem we know that G is isomorphic to the direct product of its Sylow subgroups,
G P2 × P3 × P5
3, 3 = 2 + 1, 3 = 1 + 1 + 1.
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Hence, P3 is isomorphic to
C27 , C9 × C3 , C3 × C3 × C3 .
The Sylow 5-subgroup has order 5 and therefore it is isomorphic to C5 . Putting all cases together we have:
• C4 × C27 × C5
• C4 × C9 × C3 × C5
• C4 × C3 × C3 × C3 × C5
• C2 × C2 × C27 × C5
• C2 × C2 × C9 × C3 × C5
• C2 × C2 × C3 × C3 × C3 × C5
Remark 6.3. Every group G with order |G| = pα has a subgroup of order pβ , for every β such that β ≤ α.
Solution: Indeed
β β β
G Cp1 × Cp2 × · · · × Cpn ,
each one has a subgroup of order p since they are cyclic.
Remark 6.4. Let m and n be positive integers such that m | n. Every Abelian group of order n has a subgroup of order m.
α α β β β
Proof. Let |G| = p1 1 · p2 2 · · · pαnn and m = p11 · p22 · · · pnn . Then,
G A1 × A2 × · · · × An ,
α
where |Ai | = pi i . Thus, Cp × Cp × · · · × Cp ≤ Ai .
We turn our attention to our initial problem; that of classifying all finite Abelian groups of a given order. From the
previous two lemmas we know that such groups are a direct product of its Sylow subgroups and each such Sylow
subgroup is a direct product of cyclic groups. We combine these two result is a single theorem which is usually
called the Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups or as sometimes called the Primary Decomposition
Theorem.
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Theorem 6.3 (Primary Decomposition Theorem). Let G be a finite Abelian group of order
α α α
|G| = n = p1 1 · p2 2 · · · pk k
|G| = 252 = 22 · 32 · 7
C42 × C6
C84 × C3
C252
C126 × C2
Example 6.6. Let G be a finite abelian group of order pn . Prove that if G has exactly one subgroup of order p, then G is cyclic.
Is "abelian" condition necessary?
Solution: Let |G| = pn . From the Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups we have
where i1 + i2 + · · · + ik = n.
Recall that all Cpin are cyclic. So
G = hg1 i × hg2 i × · · · hgn i
of order p, pi , · · · pi
precisely. But from Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups, we know that every cyclic group of order pi has
a subgroup of order p. So we have many other subgroups of order p, which can’t be true. So G = hg1 i.
Yes, the condition that G is abelian is necessary. Consider Q8 .
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Exercises:
6.19. Prove that the infinite direct product G = Z2 × Z2 × · · · is not finitely generated.
6.20. A group G is called a torsion group if every element of G has finite order. Prove that a torsion group is finitely generated.
6.21. Let G, H and K be finitely generated Abelian groups. Prove that if G × H G × K, then H K. Give a counterexample to
prove that this result is not in general true.
6.22. (Q, +) is not finitely generated.
6.23. Prove that a group with order G = 5 · 7 · 17 is cyclic.
6.24. Find all Abelian groups with smallest order or equal with 40 up to isomorphisms.
6.25. Find all Abelian groups with order 200 up to isomorphisms.
6.26. Find all Abelian groups with order 720 up to isomorphisms.
6.27. Let G be a finite abelian group of order n and p a prime divisor of n. Show that G contains an element of order p.
6.28. Let G be a finite Abelian group with |G| square free. Show that G is cyclic.
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F(X) Z × · · · Z = Zn
G Gtor × Zr
for some r ≥ 0.
Determining the torsion part of n elliptic curve is interesting on its own right. There is a theorem of Mazur
which determines all possibilities
Exercises:
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Chapter 7
Solvable Groups
{1} C G1 C . . . C Gn = G.
The groups Gi+1 /Gi are called factor groups of the normal series and n is the length of the series. Two normal series
of G are equivalent if they have the same length and isomorphic factor groups.
Let
{1} C G1 C . . . C Gn = G
be a normal series of G. Then
{1} C H1 C . . . C Hm = G
is a refinement of the first normal series if
{G1 , . . . , Gn } ⊂ {H1 , . . . , Hm }.
A(A? ∩ B) C A(A? ∩ B? ),
B(B? ∩ A) C B(B? ∩ A? ).
Moreover,
A(A? ∩ B? )/A(A? ∩ B) B(B? ∩ A? )/B(B? ∩ A)
Theorem 7.1 (Schreier). Any two normal series of an arbitrary group G have refinements that are equivalent.
Proof. Homework
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An Introduction to Algebra Shaska T.
A? B?
A(A? ∩ B? ) (A? ∩ B? )B
== A? ∩ B? ==
A(A? ∩ B) == (A ∩ B? )B
A B
A ∩ B? A? ∩ B
Theorem 7.2 (Jordan - Hölder). Any two composition series of a group are equivalent.
Proof. Composition series are normal series and from Schreier’s theorem they have equivalent refinements. But
composition series are already refined (by the maximality condition).
Exercises:
7.1. Show that for every group G, Z(G) is a characteristic subgroup of G. Find an example where Z(G) is not fully invariant
(i.e. φ(Z(G)) ⊂ Z(G) where φ is an endomorphism of G).
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{1} C G1 C . . . C Gn = G,
G = G(0) ≥ G(1) ≥ . . .
Proof. Homework
Exercise 7.1. Show that there exist solvable groups of arbitrary large derived lengths
{1} = G0 C G1 C . . . C Gn = G
such that each Gi+1 /Gi is Abelian. We will show that G(n) = 1.
Claim: For all i ≤ n, G(i) ≤ Gn−i .
We proceed induction. If i = 0 then G0 = G = G(0) . Assume that it is true for i = s. So G(s) ≤ Gk−s . Then,
(G(s) )0 ≤ (Gk−s )0 .
Hence, G(s+1) ≤ (Gk−s )0 . But Gk−s /Gk−s−1 is Abelian (solvable series). Then,
(Gk−s )0 ≤ Gk−s−1
Lemma 7.3. Suppose that G is a finite solvable group. Then there is a chain
{e} C H1 C H2 C . . . C Hm = G
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{e} C G1 C G2 C . . . C Gn = G
For every step Gi C Gi+1 we get a composition series (Jordan - Hölder theorem)
{e} C H1 C H2 C . . . C Hm = G
where all the factors Hi,k /Hi,K+1 are simple. Since Hi,k+1 /Hi,k ≤ Gi+1 /Gi then Hi,k+1 /Hi,k is Abelian and simple. Hence,
it is of prime order and therefore cyclic.
Lemma 7.4. The homomorphic image of a solvable group is solvable.
Proof. Let f : G → H be surjective homomorphism and
{e} C G1 C G2 C . . . C Gn = G
f ( G(i) ) = f (G)(i)
{e} C G1 C G2 C . . . C Gn = G
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Theorem 7.5. (Hall) If G is a solvable group and G = ab, (a, b) = 1, then G contains a subgroup of order a. Moreover, any
two subgroups of order a are conjugate.
Theorem 7.6. Let G be a finite group.
i) (Burnside) If |G| = pa qb for some primes p, q then G is solvable.
ii) (Hall)
iii) (Feit-Thompson) If |G| is odd then G is solvable
iv) (Thomspon) If for every pair of elements x, y ∈ G, hx, yi is a solvable group, then G is solvable.
Exercises:
G = Pn ⊃ Pn−1 ⊃ · · · ⊃ P1 ⊃ P0 = {e}
{e} = G0 ≤ g1 ≤ · · · ≤ Gn = G
such that every i = 1, . . . , n we have Gi C G and Gi+1 /Gi is cyclic. Find an example of a group which is solvable, but not
supersolvable.
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7.26. Assume that G is a finite solvable group. Prove that we can find a chain G = G0 ≥ G1 ≥ · · · ≥ Gk = {e} of G such that
every Gi+1 is normal in Gi and Gi /Gi+1 is cyclic.
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Shafarevich and his school greatly contributed to the study of algebraic geometry of surfaces. He initiated
a Moscow seminar on classification of algebraic surfaces that updated around 1960 the treatment of birational
geometry, and was largely responsible for the early introduction of the scheme theory approach to algebraic
geometry in the Soviet school. His investigation in arithmetic of elliptic curves led him independently of John Tate
to the introduction of the most mysterious group related to elliptic curves over number fields, the Tate–Shafarevich
group. He introduced the Grothendieck–Ogg–Shafarevich formula and the Néron-Ogg-Shafarevich criterion. He
also formulated the Shafarevich conjecture which stated the finiteness of the set of Abelian varieties over a number
field having fixed dimension and prescribed set of primes of bad reduction. This conjecture was proved by Gerd
Faltings as a step in his proof of the Mordell conjecture.
Shafarevich was a student of Boris Delone, and his students included Yuri Manin, A. N. Parshin, I. Dolgachev,
Evgeny Golod, A. I. Kostrikin, Igor A. Kostrikin, S. Y. Arakelov, G. V. Belyi, Victor Abrashkin, Andrey N. Tyurin,
and V. A. Kolyvagin. He did major work in collaboration with Ilya Piatetski-Shapiro on K3 surfaces.
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Zn a · Zn h = Zn h · Zn a
Zn · ah = Zn · ha
b1 · ah = b2 · ha, for some b1 , b2 ∈ Zn (7.1)
ah = b · ha, b ∈ Zn ⊂ H
aha−1 = b h ∈ H
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Thus, a ∈ NG (H).
b) Assume that G is nilpotent. Let P ∈ Sylp (G). If NG (P) = G then P C G and G P × G/P. If NG (P) is proper in G,
then by part a) it is proper in NG (N g (P)). But, this is a contradiction; see Lemma 5.10.
Theorem 7.7. A group G is nilpotent if and only if Gn = 1 for some n ≥ 0
Proof.
Lemma 7.10. The following is true
Gi ≤ Gi
Proof. Exercise
Theorem 7.8. Prove that every nilpotent group is solvable.
Proof. Use the above lemma
Exercises:
7.27. Let p be a prime number and G be the group of all invertible n by n matrices which are lower triangular over the field Fp
of p elements.
a) Let U = {a ∈ G : aii = 1, f or all i = 1, 2, 3..}. Prove that U is nilpotent.
b) Show that G is solvable, but if n > 1, G is not nilpotent.
7.28. Let H < G and assume that Z(H) = {e}. Show that the following are equivalent:
a) There is a subgroup J of G such that G = H × J
b) For every g ∈ G, g induces by conjugation an inner automorphism of H.
7.29. Let G be a group; call g ∈ G a non-generator if, for each subset X of G so that X ∪ {g} generates G, then, in fact, X itself
generates G. Let Fr(G) denote the set of all non-generators of G.
a) Prove that Fr(G) is a subgroup of G.
b) Show that Fr(G) is the intersection of all maximal (proper) subgroups of G. (Careful with Zorn’s Lemma!)
7.30. a) Prove that a finite p-group is nilpotent.
b) The direct product of a finite number of nilpotent groups is nilpotent.
7.31. a)Prove that if G is nilpotent, and H is any proper subgroup, then H is a proper subgroup of its normalizer.
b) Prove that G is nilpotent if and only if it is isomorphic to a finite direct product of p-groups.
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134
Chapter 8
8.1 Extensions
The extension problem.
Example 8.1. Automorphism group of a hyperelliptic curve:
Definition 8.1. If K, Q are groups, then an extension of K by Q is a group G having a subgroup K1 isomorphic to K such
that G/K1 Q.
Example 8.2. S3 is an extension of Z3 by Z2 : Indeed, Z3 h(123)i ,→ S3 and S3 /h(123)i Z2 .
Example 8.3. Z6 is an extension of Z3 by Z2 : Indeed, Z3 ,→ Z6 and Z6 /Z3 Z2 . In this case, Z6 Z2 × Z3 .
Example 8.4. Direct products: Obviously any direct product G K × Q is an extension of K by Q.
Definition 8.2. Let K C G and G/K Q. Then, the degree of the extension G of K is called the cardinality |Q| of Q.
8.1. Given the group K. Find all possible degree n extensions of K (up to isomorphism).
Or we can narrow it down to the following:
8.2. Given the group K and Q such that |Q| = n. Find all possible extensions of K by Q (up to isomorphism).
Hölder Program:
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Definition 8.5. The holomorphic group of a group K, denoted by Hol(K), is the subgroup of SK generated by KL and Aut (K).
M(Q) := H2 (Q, C? )
Definition 8.8. Let G be a finite group. The exponent of eG is the smallest integer e such that for all x ∈ G, xe = 1.
Lemma 8.4. Let Q be a finite group. Then the following are true:
i) M(Q) is a finite Abelian group.
ii) e|M(Q)| | |Q|.
Exercises:
8.3. Show that the group Qn of generalized quaternions is not a semidirect product.
8.4. Prove that if K and Q are solvable, then Koθ Q is solvable.
8.5. Find H2 (Z2 , Zn ).
8.6. Find all central extensions of Z2 by Zn .
8.7. Given a finite group G. Write a computer program in GAP which checks if G has a complement in Aut (G).
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Shaska T. MTH 155: Calculus 2
Final Exam
Midterm April 2017
Notice: You are not allowed to receive or give help. If academic dishonesty is discovered you will be reported to
the Dean of Students and might be expelled from the Oakland University. All solutions must be complete and with
full details in order to receive credit. No partial credit will be given
Name: Signature:
1. 1.15, 1.45, 1.59, 2.18, 2.22, 3.17, 3.38, 3.39, 5.21, 5.34, 6.13,6.14, 7.23, 7.5,
2. 1.28, 1.46, 1.60, 2.17, 2.23, 3.16, 3.36, 3.40, 5.22, 5.35, 6.12,6.15, 7.24, 7.6,
3. 1.17, 1.47, 1.61, 2.16, 2.24,3.15, 3.33, 3.41, 5.23, 5.36, 6.11,6.16, 6.29, 7.7,
4. 1.18, 1.48, 1.62, 2.15, 2.25, 3.14, 3.32, 3.42, 5.24, 5.37, 6.10,6.17, 6.30, 7.8,
5. 1.19, 1.49, 1.65, 2.14, 2.26, 3.13, 3.31, 3.43, 5.25, 5.38, 6.9,6.18, 6.31, 7.9,
6. 1.20, 1.50, 1.66, 2.13, 2.27, 3.12, 3.25, 3.44, 5.49, 5.39, 6.8,6.19, 6.32, 7.18,
7. 1.21, 1.58, 1.67, 2.12, 2.28,3.11, 3.24, 3.45, 5.27, 5.46, 6.7,6.20, 6.33, 7.11,
8. 1.22, 1.52, 1.68, 2.11, 2.29, 3.10, 3.23, 5.13, 5.28, 5.45, 6.6,6.21, 6.34, 7.19,
9. 1.23, 1.53, 1.69, 2.10, 2.31, 3.6, 3.22, 5.14, 5.29, 5.47, 6.5,7.22, 7.26, 7.20,
10. 1.24, 1.54, 1.70, 2.20, 2.32, 3.4, 3.21, 5.18, 5.30, 5.48, 6.4,6.23, 7.1, 7.14,
11. 1.25, 1.55, 1.71, 2.8, 2.33, 3.3, 3.20, 5.19, 5.31, 5.50, 6.3,6.24, 7.2, 7.15,
12. 1.26, 1.56, 1.72, 2.7, 2.34, 3.7, 3.19, 5.17, 5.32, 5.51, 7.21,6.25, 7.3, 7.16,
13. 1.27, 1.57, 1.73, 2.6, 2.37, 3.5, 3.18, 5.20, 5.33, 5.52, 6.1,6.26, 7.4, 7.17,
Shaska
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Part I
Ring theory
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Chapter 9
Rings
(a · b) · c = a · (b · c), ∀a, b, c ∈ R
(a + b)c = ac + bc
a(b + c) = ab + ac
∀a ∈ R, a · eR = a.
A ring R with identity (eR , 0) in which every element a ∈ R \ {0} has inverse with multiplication is called a division
ring. An Abelian ring which is also a division ring is called a field .
In this book we usually will deal with rings with identity.
Lemma 9.1. Let be given ring R. Then the following hold:
a) 0a = a0 = 0
b) (−a)b = a(−b) = −ab
c) the identity is a unique element and
−a = (−eR ) · a
Proof. a) 0a = (0 + 0)a = 0a + 0a. Hence, 0a = 0a + 0a, 0a = 0.
b) ab + (−a)b = (a − a)b = 0b = 0
c) If R has two identities ea and eb then, ea · eb = ea , ea · eb = eb . Hence, ea = eb .
Let be given ring R. A nonzero element a ∈ R is called a zero divisor if there is an nonzero element b ∈ R such
that ab = 0 or ba = 0. A element u ∈ R is called unit in R if there exists v ∈ R that uv = vu = 1.
An Abelian ring with identity is called an integral ring if has not zero divisors.
Lemma 9.2. The integral rings have the cancellation property
ab = ac ⇒ a = 0 or b=c
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Proof. ab = ac ⇒ a(b − c) = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or b = c
Example 9.1. The ring (Z, +, ·) is an integral ring since ab = 0 implies that a = 0 and b = 0. However, (Z, +, ·) is not a field
since most elements have no multiplicative inverses. The only elements with multiplicative inverses are 1 and -1.
Example 9.2. Together with the usual addition and multiplication the following integers Z, rational numbers Q, real numbers
R, complex numbers C are rings. Moreover, the reader can check that they are also fields, other than Z.
Example 9.3. We studied the set Zn = Z/nZ with addition and showed that it was an Abelian group. Define the multiplication
in Zn as follows:
Z 7→ Zn
a · b = ab mod n
For example, in Z12 , 5 · 7 ≡ 11 (mod 12). Then (Zn , +, ·) is a ring. Obviously, Zn is a commutative ring, but not an integral
ring. For example, 3 · 4 ≡ 0 (mod 12) in Z12
Example 9.4. The set of continuous functions on a fixed interval, for example
f : [a, b] 7→ R,
i2 = j2 = k2 = −1
ij = k
jk = i
ki = j
ji = −k
kj = −i
ik = −j.
α β
!
,
−β α
(a1 + b1 i + c1 j + d1 k) + (a2 + b2 i + c2 j + d2 k) =
(a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i + (c1 + c2 )j + (d1 + d2 )k
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and multiplication as
(a1 + b1 i + c1 j + d1 k)(a2 + b2 i + c2 j + d2 k) = α + βi + γj + δk,
where
α = a1 a2 − b1 b2 − c1 c2 − d1 d2
β = a1 b2 + a1 b1 + c1 d2 − d1 c2
γ = a 1 c2 − b 1 d 2 + c1 a 2 − d 1 b 2
δ = a1 d2 + b1 c2 − c1 b2 − d1 a2 .
ν : K∗ −→ Z
2. ν is surjective
νp : Q∗ −→ Z
a c
= pα −→ α
b d
where p is relatively prime with c and d. The reader to prove that νp is a discrete value. What is the value ring of νp ?
It is the set of elements of Q for which α ≥ 0. Hence all those elements which have denominators not divisible by p. The
units of this ring are exactly those elements for which α = 0. Prove each of the above statements.
A subring S of a ring R is a subset S of R such that S is also a ring with operations if R.
For example, Z is subring of Q, Q is subring of R. The following result gives us necessary and sufficient
condition that S is a subring of R.
Proposition 9.1. Let R be a ring and S a subset of R. Then, S is a subring of R if and only if the following hold:
1. S , ∅.
2. rs ∈ S for every r, s ∈ S.
3. r − s ∈ S for every r, s ∈ S.
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Exercises:
9.1. Let R be a ring with identity and S a subring of R containing the identity. Prove that if u is a unit in S then u is a unit in
R. Show that the converse is false.
9.2. Prove that the intersection of any nonempty collection of subrings of a ring is also a subring.
9.3. The center of a ring R is
Z(R) = x ∈ R | xy = yx, for all y ∈ R
prove that the center of a ring is a subring which contains the identity. Prove that the center of a division ring is a field.
9.4. Prove that if R is an integral domain and x2 = 1 for some x ∈ R, then x = ±1.
9.5. An element x ∈ R is called nilpotent if xm = 0 for some m ∈ Z+ .
a) Show that if n = ak b for some integers a and b then ab is an nilpotent element of Z/nZ.
b) If a ∈ Z is an integer, show that a ∈ Z/nZ is nilpotent if and only if every prime divisor of of n is also a divisor of a.
9.6. Let R be a commutative ring and x nilpotent in R.
a) Prove that x is either zero or a zero divisor
b) Prove that rx is nilpotent for every r ∈ R.
c) Prove that 1 + x is a unit in R.
d) Prove that the sum of a nilpotent and a unit is always a unit.
9.7. A ring is called a Boolean ring if a2 = a for all a ∈ R. Prove that every Boolean ring is commutative.
9.8. Prove that a Boolean ring which is an integral domain is Z/2Z.
9.9. Let D be an integer, which is not a complete square in Z. Take the set
√
Z[D] := {a + b D : a, b ∈ Z}
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9.10. Let be given an integer that is not complete square and define
√
Q[D] := {a + b D : a, b ∈ Q}.
Prove that Q[D] is field. Prove that the valuation ring is a ring.
9.11. Let be given the field K, discrete valuation ν in K and R the valuation ring of ν in R.
a) Prove that for every nonzero element x ∈ K, x ∈ R or x−1 ∈ R
b) Prove that x is a unit in R if and only if ν(x) = 0
Polynomial rings
Let be given a Abelian ring R with unity. Take a variable x and consider all polynomials with coefficients from R,
p(x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0
for n ≥ 0 and ai ∈ R. The number n is called that degree of the polynomial and an is called leading term of the
polynomial. We denote the degree of a polynomial p(x) with deg p. If an = 1, then polynomial is called monic. The
set of all polynomials with coefficients from R is called the ring of polynomials of R and denoted by R[x].
Exercise 9.1. Prove that R[x] is an Abelian ring with identity with addition and multiplication of polynomials.
Similarly we we prove that polynomials with many variables form a ring. We denote this ring by R[x1 , . . . , xn ].
Lemma 9.3. Let be given R an integral ring. Then,
a) units of R[x] are units of R.
b) R[x] is an integral ring.
Proof. a) If p(x) is a unit then there exists q(x) such that p(x) q(x) = 1. Thus, deg p(x) = deg q(x) = 0. Thus, p(x) and q(x)
are constant polynomials, hence they are in R.
b) Assume that R[x] is not an integral ring. Hence there exist p(x) and q(x)
p(x) = an xn + . . . a0
q(x) = bm xm + . . . b0
such that p(x) q(x) = 0. Then, p(x) q(x) = an bm xm+n + . . . a0 b0 = 0. Hence, an , bm ∈ R and an bm = 0. Thus, R is not integral
ring, which contradicts the hypothesis of the theorem.
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Then,
0 ab
0
0 0 0
AB = 0 0 0, BA = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
This shows that for every ring R, the ring Mn (R) has zero divisors for n ≥ 2.
Exercises:
9.12. Let R be the ring Z/6Z. How many polynomials are in R[x]?
9.13. Let R be a ring with identity 1 , 0, n a positive integer, and A ∈ Mn (R) such that
h i
A = ai,j
1 if r = i, s = j
(
er,s =
0 otherwise
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φ : Z → Zn ,
and
φ(ab) = ab (mod n) = a (mod n) · b (mod n) = φ(a)φ(b).
The kernel of the homomorphism φ is nZ.
Example 9.10. Let C[a, b] ring of real valued functions continuous in an interval [a, b]. For a fixed α ∈ [a, b], we can define a
ring homomorphism
φα : C[a, b] → R,
where φα ( f ) = f (α). This is indeed a ring homomorphism, because
Proof. Exercise.
The following properties are elementary but useful.
2. φ(0) = 0.
Next, we study ideals of ring. A left ideal of the ring R is called the subgroup (I, +) ≤ (R, +) such that
∀x ∈ R, ∀y ∈ I, we have that,xy ∈ I.
Hence, RI ⊂ I. A right ideal is called I ⊂ R such that Ix ⊂ I for every x ∈ R. A ideal that is a left and right ideal is
called an ideal. In commutative rings we have simply ideals. A ideal I , 0 and I , R is called proper ideal.
Every ring R has at least two ideals, {0} and R. Let R a ring with identity and assume that I is a ideal in R such
that 1 is in R. Since for every r ∈ R, r1 = r ∈ I from the definition of ideal, I = R.
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Example 9.11. If a is some element in a commutative ring R with unity, then the set
hai = {ar : r ∈ R}
is a ideal in R. Obviously, hai is nonempty, since together 0 = a0 and a = a1 are in hai. The sum of two elements in hai is again
in hai since ar + ar0 = a(r + r0 ). The opposite of ar is −ar = a(−r) ∈ hai. Finally, if we multiply an element ar ∈ hai with an any
element s ∈ R, we get s(ar) = a(sr). Thus, hai is an ideal.
If R is a commutative ring with identity, then a ideal hai = {ar : r ∈ R} is called principal ideal.
Proof. The zero ideal {0} is a principal ideal, since h0i = {0}. If I is a nonzero ideal in Z, then I must contain some
positive integer n. From the well ordering principal we find the smallest n in I. Let a an element in I. Using the
division algorithm we know that there exist integers q and r, such that
a = nq + r
where 0 ≤ r < n. This equation shows that that r = a − nq ∈ I. However, r must be 0 since n is the smallest positive
integer in I. Thus, a = nq and I = hni.
Example 9.12. The set nZ is an ideal in the ring Z. If na is in nZ and b is in Z, then nab is in nZ. Thus, nZ is an ideal,
for any n. Indeed, these are the only ideals of Z.
Proof. From the theory of groups we know that ker φ is a additive subgroup of R. Assume that r ∈ R and a ∈ ker φ.
Then, we must prove that ar and ra are in ker φ. However,
and
φ(ra) = φ(r)φ(a) = φ(r)0 = 0.
Theorem 9.2. Let I a ideal of R. The quotient group R/I is a ring, where multiplication is of defined as
(r + I)(s + I) = rs + I.
Proof. We know that R/I is Abelian group under addition. Let r + I and s + I in R/I. We want to show that the
product (r + I)(s + I) = rs + I is independent from the choice of cosets representatives. Thus, if r0 ∈ r + I and s0 ∈ s + I,
then r0 s0 must be in rs + I. Since r0 ∈ r + I, there exists a element a in I such that r0 = r + a. Similarly, there exists a b ∈ I
such that s0 = s + b. Notice that
r0 s0 = (r + a)(s + b) = rs + as + rb + ab
and as + rb + ab ∈ I since I is an ideal. Hence, r0 s0 ∈ rs + I. To verify the associative and distributive properties we
leave it as an exercise for the reader.
The ring R/I in Theorem 9.2 is called quotient ring. Next we will study properties of quotient rings.
ψ : R −→ R/I
r −→ r + I
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Proof. The map ψ : R → R/I is a surjective homomorphism of Abelian groups. Remains to prove that ψ preserves
the multiplication of rings. Let r and s in R. Then,
ψ : R → R/ ker φ
η : R/ ker φ → φ(R),
I/I ∩ J (I + J)/J.
Proof. Exercise
Theorem 9.6 (Third Isomorphism Theorem). Let R a ring and I and J ideals of R where J ⊂ I. Then,
R/J
R/I .
I/J
Theorem 9.7 (Correspondence Theorem). Let I a ideal of ring R. Then, there is a correspondence S → S/I between the set
of subrings S, that contain I and the set of subrings of R/I. Moreover, ideals of R, that contain I correspond with ideals of R/I.
Proof. Exercise
Exercises:
9.16. Let R be the ring of continuous, integrable, real valued functions on [0, 1]. Prove that φ : R → R given by
Z 1
φ( f ) = f (t) dt,
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9.17. Let φ : R → S be a surjective ring homomorphism. Prove that the image of the center of R is contained in the center of S.
9.18. If I and J are ideals in R, prove that I ∩ J is an ideal of R. Prove that the collection of an arbitrary nonempty collection of
ideals in R is again an ideal in R.
9.19. Let I be an ideal of R and S a subring of R. Prove that I ∩ S is an ideal in S. Show by example that not every ideal of S is
of the form I ∩ S, for some ideal I in R.
9.20. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Prove that if x is an nilpotent element of R then φ(x) is nilpotent in S.
Lemma 9.6. In a ring with identity every proper ideal is contained in a maximal ideal.
Proof. Let be given ring R with unity and the proper ideal I ⊂ R. Let S the set of all proper ideals that contain I. S
is nonempty because I ∈ S. Also S is ordered from set inclusion. Take an increasing chain C in S. Prove that has it
has an upper bound. Take
J := ∪A∈C A
Prove that J is ideal. Obviously J is nonempty, because 0 ∈ J. If a, b ∈ J then there exist ideals A, B ∈ C such that
a ∈ A and b ∈ B. From the definition of chain A ⊂ B or B ⊂ A. Hence a − b ∈ J, which implies J is closed with addition.
Since A is closed from left and right multiplication with the elements of R then and J is closed. Thus, J is an ideal.
J is proper ideal. If not then 1 ∈ J. Thus, there exists some A ∈ C, that 1 ∈ A. this is contradiction, because
A ∈ C ⊂ S. Finally, the hypothesis of Zorn’s lemma are satisfied which implies that that S has an maximal element
M.
Theorem 9.8. Every commutative ring A , 0 with identity contains a maximal ideal.
Corollary 9.2. Every non unit element of A is contained in some maximal ideal.
Lemma 9.7. In a commutative ring, an ideal M is maximal if and only if R/M is field.
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Proof. From the Fourth Isomorphism Theorem, ideals of R/I correspond one to one with ideals of R that contain M.
If M is maximal, then does not exist any ideal that contains M. Thus, there are no ideals of R/I other than 0 and R/I.
Thus, R/I is field. If R/I is field, then does not have other ideals other than 0 and R/I. Thus, R does not have ideals
that contain M.
ab ∈ P ⇒ a ∈ P or b ∈ P.
Lemma 9.8. Let be given R a commutative ring. I is prime if and only if R/I is integral ring.
Proof. Assume that I is prime. Take the natural projection π : R −→ R/I. then, r ∈ I if and only if π(r) = 0 in R/I.
If π(a) π(b) = 0 in R/I then a b ∈ I. Then, a ∈ I ose b ∈ I, so π(a) = 0 or π(b) = 0 in R/I. Thus, R/I does not have zero
divisors. The converse is similar.
Proof. If M is maximal ideal, then R/M is field. Every field is integral ring. From the above Lemma, M is a prime
ideal.
Example 9.13. Principal ideals generated from prime numbers in Z are prime and maximal ideals.
Example 9.14. The ideal (x) is prime in Z(x), because Z[x]/(x) Z. This ideal is not maximal. The ideal 0 is a prime ideal
in Z[x], but not maximal ideal.
Proof. Denote with ℵ the nilradical of R and ℵ0 the intersection of all prime ideals of R. If x ∈ ℵ, then xn = 0 ∈ p, for
every prime ideal p. Then, x ∈ p, because p is prime. Thus, x ∈ ℵ0 .
Take now x ∈ ℵ0 . Assume , se x is not nilpotent. Let Σ the set of all ideals a with property that for n > 0, xn < a.
Σ is not empty, because 0 ∈ Σ. From Zorn’s Lemma we have that Σ has an maximal element. Let p the maximal
element of Σ. If we prove that p is prime ideal, then the proof is complete. To prove that p is prime, we must of
prove that
a < p, b < p ⇒ ab < p
ideals p + (a) and p + (b) contain p, hence are not elements of Σ. Thus, there exist M and n that
xm ∈ p + (a), xn ∈ p + (b)
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Proof. ⇒ Assume that 1 − xy is not a unit. Then, it is contained in some maximal ideal m. However, x ∈ < ⊂ m,
hence x y ∈ m. Thus, 1 ∈ m which is a contradiction.
⇐ Assume that x < <. Then, there is a maximal ideal m, such that x < m. Thus, m and x generate R. Hence, they
generate the ideal (1). Thus we have 1 = u + xy for u ∈ m and y ∈ R, which implies that u = 1 − xy ∈ m is not a unit in
R.
If a is an ideal of A then the radical of a is
r(a) := {x ∈ A : xn ∈ a, n ∈ Z+ }.
Proposition 9.7. Let A be a given ring and a an ideal of A. The radical r(a) of a is the intersection of all prime ideals of A that
contain a.
Proof. Prime ideals of A that contain a correspond with prime ideals of A/a; see Correspondence Theorem. If xn ∈ a
then xn = 0 in A/a, so x is in the nilradical of A/a. Thus, x is in every prime ideal, that contains a. Conversely, if x is
in every ideal that contains a, then x is in the nilradical of A/a. Thus, there exists n such that xn = 0 in A/a which is
equivalent with xn ∈ a.
Example 9.15. Let pZ be an ideal in Z, where p is a prime. Then, pZ is a maximal ideal since Z/pZ Zp is a field.
Example 9.16. Every ideal in Z is of the form nZ. The quotient ring Z/nZ Zn is a integral ring only when n is prime
number. In this case Zn is a field. Thus, nonzero prime ideals in Z are ideals pZ, where p is prime. This explains the use of
the term ’prime’ for such ideals.
Exercises:
ab = a ∩ b
9.22. Let be given an integral ring R. Prove that, (a) = (b) for a, b ∈ R if and only if when a = ub for some unit element u of R.
9.23. Let x a nilpotent element of a commutative ring A. Prove that, the element 1 + x is a unit element in A.Conclude that
the sum of an nilpotent element with a unit, is a unit.
9.24. Let be given a ring A and N its nilradical. Prove that the following are equivalent:
i) A has only a prime ideal.
ii) for every element of A is or element a unit or nilpotent.
iii) A/N is a field
9.25. Let R be a finite commutative ring with identity. Prove that every prime ideal is a maximal ideal.
9.26. Let R be a commutative ring. Prove that the following are equivalent:
c) R/N(R) is a field
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(r, d) ∼ (s, e) ⇒ re = sd ⇒ f re − f sd = 0
(s, e) ∼ (t, f ) ⇒ s f = te ⇒ ds f − dte = 0
Thus, f re − dte = 0 which implies that e( f r − dt) = 0. Since e ∈ D, e is not a zero divisor and e , 0 we have r f − td = 0.
This implies that (r, d) ∼ (t, f ).
The equivalence class of (r, d) is denoted by dr . Denote with Q the set of all equivalence classes of the relation
above. Notice that, dr = dc rc
in Q for all c ∈ D, (dc ∈ D because D is closed multiplicative set). Define addition of
multiplication in Q as follows:
a c ad + bc
+ =
b d bd
a c ac
· =
b d bd
The reader can prove that
Thus, Q is commutative ring with identity. The ring Q is called the ring of fractions of R and denoted by D−1 R.
If R is integral ring, then D = R \ {0} and D−1 R is field because every element has multiplicative inverse. In this case
D−1 R is called the field of fractions of R. In any case, R ⊂ D−1 R. Thus, D−1 R is a extension of R.
Example 9.17. Show that Q is the field of fractions of Z.
Example 9.18. Since Q is a field, Q[x] is a integral ring. The field of fractions of Q[x] is the set of all rational expressions
p(x)/q(x), where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials over Q and q(x) is not the zero polynomial. We will denote this field with Q(x).
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Theorem 9.9 (Chinese remainder theorem). Let I1 , I2 , ..., Ik ideals in R and the natural projection
with kernel I1 ∩ I2 ∩ · · · ∩ Ik . If for every i, j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k}, where i , j, ideals Ii and I j are co-maximal, then this map is surjective
and
I1 ∩ I2 ∩ · · · ∩ Ik = I1 I2 . . . Ik ,
so
R/(I1 I2 . . . Ik ) = R/(I1 ∩ I2 ∩ ... ∩ Ik ) R/I1 × R/I2 × ...R/Ik .
Proof. First, we prove the theorem for k = 2. The general case follows from induction. Let A = I1 and B = I2 , consider
the map
ϕ : R → R/A × R/B
r → (r mod A, r mod B) ,
where mod A means the coset in R/A that contains r ( so r + A). This map is a ring homomorphism, because is
simply the natural projection of R onto R/A and onto R/B for both components.
The kernel of ϕ consists in all the elements r ∈ R such that r ∈ A ∩ B. To finish the proof we need to show that
when A and B are co-maximal, then ϕ is surjective and A ∩ B = AB.
If ϕ(x) = (0, 1) and ϕ(y) = (1, 0), then x ∈ A and x = 1 − y ∈ 1 + B. If (r1 mod A, r2 mod B) is an element of R/A × R/B,
then r2 x + r1 y is mapped this element. So
In general we have
Corollary 9.4. Let n a positive integer and
α α α
p1 1 p2 2 . . . pk k
its factorization into powers of primes. Then,
α α α
Z/nZ (Z/p1 1 Z) × (Z/p2 2 Z) × · · · × (Z/pk k Z),
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If we compare orders of the groups on different sides of the above isomorphism we have
α α α
ϕ(n) = ϕ(p1 1 )ϕ(p2 2 ) . . . ϕ(pk k )
for the Euler function ϕ. In number theory this is known as the multiplicative property of the Euler function. Thus,
ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b)
where a and b are positive integers which are relatively prime. This corollary also implies the decomposition of the
Abelian group (Z/nZ)× into a direct product of cyclic groups.
Exercises:
Let R a ring with identity 1 , 0.
9.27. A element e ∈ R is called idempotent if e2 = e. Assume that e is a idempotent in R and er = re, ∀r ∈ R. Show that e and
1 − e are respectively units of subrings re and R(1 − e).
9.28. Let R a finite Boolian ring with unity 1 , 0. Prove that R Z/2Z × Z/2Z × · · · × Z/2Z.
9.29. Let R and S two rings with identity. Prove that every ideal of R × S is of the form I × J, where I is an ideal in R and J an
ideal in S.
9.30. Prove that, if R and S are nonzero rings, then R × S is not a field.
9.31. Let n1 , n2 , . . . , nk integers, which are pairwise relatively prime (ni , n j ) = 1, for all i , j.
1. Show that Theorem 9.9 implies that for every a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈ Z the system
x ≡ a1 mod n1
x ≡ a2 mod n2
...
x ≡ a mod n
k k
9.32. Let f1 (x), f2 (x), . . . , fk (x) be polynomials with integer coefficients of same degree d. Let n1 , n2 , . . . , nk integers, which are
pairwise relatively prime. Prove that there is a polynomial f (x) with integer coefficients and degree d, such that
f (x) ≡ f1 (x) mod n1
f (x) ≡ f2 (x) mod n2
f (x) ≡ fk (x) mod nk
Hence coefficients of f (x) agree with all coefficients of fi (x) mod ni . Prove that, if all fi (x) are monic, then f (x) can be chosen
monic.
9.33. Let m and n integers, where n | m. Prove that natural projection of rings Z/mZ → Z/nZ is also surjective on the units
(Z/mZ)× → (Z/nZ)× .
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Chapter 10
Proposition 10.1 (Cancellation property). Let D a commutative ring with identity. D is a integral ring if and only if when
for all the nonzero elements a ∈ D,
ab = ac ⇒ b = c.
Proof. Let D a integral ring. Then, D does not have zero divisor. Let ab = ac, where a , 0. Then, a(b − c) = 0. Thus,
b − c = 0 and b = c.
Conversely, let ’s assume that cancellation property holds in D. Thus, assume that, ab = ac, implies b = c. Let
ab = 0. If a , 0, then ab = a0 and b = 0. Thus, a can not be a zero divisor.
It is easily proved that Gaussian integers form a subring of complex numbers, since they are closed under
addition addition and multiplication.
Let α = a + bi a a unit in Z[i]. Then, α = a − bi is also a a unit, since if αβ = 1, then αβ = 1. If β = c + di, then
1 = α · β · α · β = (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ).
Thus, a2 + b2 must be 1 or −1. Equivalently, a + bi = ±1 or a + bi = ±i. Thus, units of this ring are ±1 and ±i. Thus,
Gaussian integers are not field. The reader should prove that Gaussian integers are an integral ring.
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√ √
is field. The inverse of the element a + b 2 in Q( 2 ) is
a −b √
+ 2.
a2 − 2b2 a2 − 2b2
The following theorem was proven by Wedderburn.
Theorem 10.1 (Wedderburn). Every finite integral ring is field.
Proof. Let D a integral ring finite and D∗ the set of elements nonzero of D. We must of we prove that for every
element in D∗ has inverse.
For every a ∈ D∗ can of define a function λa : D∗ → D∗ where λa (d) = ad. This function is of well defined because
if a , 0 and d , 0, then ad , 0.
The map λa is injective, since for d1 , d2 ∈ D∗ ,
implies d1 = d2 from cancellation from the left. Since D∗ is a finite set , the map λa must be surjective. Thus, for
some d ∈ D∗ , λa (d) = ad = 1. Thus, a has a left inverse. Since D is commutative, d must be also a right inverse for a.
Hence, D is field.
For every non negative integer n and for every element r in a ring R, We write r + · · · + r (n times) as nr. We define
the characteristic of a ring R to be the smallest positive integer n such that nr = 0 for all r ∈ R. If there is no such
integer, then the characteristic of R is defined to be 0.
Example 10.4. For for every prime number p, Zp is field with characteristic p. Every nonzero element in Zp has inverse.
Thus, Zp is field. If a is a nonzero element in field, then pa = 0, since the order of for every the nonzero element in the Abelian
group Zp is p.
Theorem 10.2. The characteristic of an integral ring is a prime number or zero.
Proof. Let D a integral ring and assume that the characteristic of D is n, where n , 0. If n is not prime number, then
n = ab, where 1 < a < n and 1 < b < n. Since
0 = n · eR = (ab) · eR = (a · eR )(b · eR )
and a, b are not zero divisor in D. Then, a · eR = 0 or b · eR = 0. Thus, characteristic of D must be smaller than n, which
is contradiction. Thus, n must be prime.
Exercises:
N : R −→ Z+ ∪ {0}
such that N(0) = 0 is called a norm for R. A ring can have more than a norm.
Definition 10.1. The integral ring R is called a Euclidean domain if there is a norm N in R, such that for every two elements
a of b , 0 in R, there exist elements q, r ∈ R such that:
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N : Z −→ Z+ ∪ {0}
a −→ |a|
From elementary arithmetic we we know that in Z the Euclidean algorithm is valid. Hence, for every a, b ∈ Z, there exist
q, r ∈ Z such that
a = q·b+r
where |r| < |b|.
Example 10.6 (Fields). Every field is a Euclidean domain. For example is given the field F. Take N : F −→ Z+ ∪ {0}, such
that
N(a) = 0, ∀a ∈ F.
Then, ∀a, b ∈ F, a = (ab−1 )b + 0, so q = ab−1 , r = 0.
Example 10.7. Let be given the field F and the ring of polynomials F[x]. Then, F[x] is Euclidean domain. As a norm we take
N(p(x)) = deg p(x). We will see later that F[x] is a Euclidean domain.
Example 10.8. Every discrete valuation ring (DVR) is a Euclidean domain. Let be given R a DVR. Then, there is a field K, a
valuation ν : K∗ −→ Z, that R is valuation ring of ν. Take N : R −→ Z ∪ {0} such that ∀a ∈ R∗ , N(a) = v(a), N(0) = 0. Then,
∀a, b ∈ R.
i) If N(a) < N(b), then a = 0 · b + a
ii) If N(a) > N(b), then N(a) − N(b) > 0, N(ab−1 ) > 0 ⇒ ab−1 ∈ R, so a = (ab−1 )b + 0.
Lemma 10.1. Every ideal in a Euclidean domain R is principal.
Proof. Take the ideal I , 0 in R. If I = R, then I = (1). Assume that I is proper. Consider the set
A = {N(a) : a ∈ I} ⊂ Z+ ∪ {0}
This set has an minimum element M (Zorn’s lemma). Denote with d ∈ I the element such that N(d) = m. Prove that
I = (d).
Take a ∈ I. From Euclidian ’s algorithm we have a = qd + r where N(r) < N(d). Thus, r = a − qd ∈ I, hence N(r) = 0
because d has minimal norm in I. which implies that a = qd. Thus, a ∈ (d).
The above Lemma says that in Z every ideal is principal. However, Z[x] is not Euclidean domain, because (2, x)
is not principal ideal.
Definition 10.2. Let be given ring (commutative) R and a, b ∈ R, b , 0. The greatest common divisor of a and b is called
the nonzero element d, such that
1) d|a and d|b
2) If d1 |a and d1 |b, then d1 |d.
The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted by (a, b) or by gcd (a, b).
Theorem 10.3. Let be given an Euclidean domain R and the nonzero elements a, b ∈ R. Applying the Euclidean algorithm
a = q0 b + r0
b = q1 r0 + r1
r0 = q2 r1 + r2
.........
rn−2 = qn rn−2 + rn
rn−1 = qn+1 rn
The sequence {rn } is decreasing and finite and rn = (a, b) := d. Also, there exist x, y ∈ R such that that d = xa + by.
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Proof. Since R is Euclidean domain there exists norma N : R −→ Z+ ∪ {0}. Using Euclid ’s algorithm we have
N(b) > N(r0 ) > · · · > N(rn ).
Thus, the sequence {rn } is decreasing. Since ri ∈ Z+ this sequence has a minimal element , so is finite. Prove that
rn |a and rn |b. From the last equality rn |rn−1 . Then, rn |rn and rn |rn−1 therefore rn |rn−2 . From induction we get rn |a and
rn |b. If d1 |a and d1 |b, then from first equality d1 |r0 . Thus, d1 |r0 and d1 |b and therefore d1 |r1 . Again with induction we
prove that d1 |rn . Thus, rn = (a, b).
To prove that rn is a linear combination of a and b it is enough to prove that rn belongs to the ideal I = (a, b). We
have r0 ∈ I, r1 ∈ I, . . . . Thus, rn ∈ I.
If a, b ∈ R such that (a, b) = eR then a and b are called relatively prime.
Example 10.9. Gaussian integers are defined as
Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z}.
Prove that they form a Euclidean ring.
Proof. We define the following norm,
ν : Z[i] → Z
a + bi → a2 + b2
We have to show that for every z = a + bi and w = c + di in Z[i], where w , 0, there are the elements q and r in Z[i]
such that
z = qw + r,
where r = 0 or ν(r) < ν(w).
Consider, z and w as elements in Q(i) = {p + qi : p, q ∈ Q} the field of fractions of Z[i]. Notice that
c − di ac + bd bc − ad
zw−1 = (a + bi) 2 2 = 2 2 + 2 2 i
c + d c + d c + d
n1 n2
= m1 + 2 2 + m2 + 2 2 i
c +d c +d
n1 n2
= (m1 + m2 i) + 2 2 + 2 2 i
c +d c +d
= (m1 + m2 i) + (s + ti)
in Q(i).
Finally we will write the real and the imaginary part as a sum of an integer and a proper fraction. Thus, take
the integer closest to mi such that the fractional part satisfies |ni /(a2 + b2 )| ≤ 1/2.
Take s and t as fractional parts of zw−1 = (m1 + m2 i) + (s + ti). We know that s2 + t2 ≤ 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2. Multiplying
with w, we get
z = zw−1 w = w(m1 + m2 i) + w(s + ti) = qw + r,
where q = m1 + m2 i and r = w(s + ti). Since z and qw are in Z[i], r must be in Z[i]. Finally, we must prove that r = 0
or ν(r) < ν(w). However,
1
ν(r) = ν(w)ν(s + ti) ≤ ν(w) < ν(w).
2
This completes the proof.
Exercises:
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Exercises:
r = ab ⇒ a ose b is unit.
2) A element r ∈ R is called reducible if r is written as product two elements r = ab, where a and b are not units.
3) The element p ∈ R is called prime if (p) is a prime ideal.
4) Two elements a, b are called associated if a = bu for some a unit u in R.
Lemma 10.3. A prime element is irreducible.
Proof. Let p an prime element in R. If p = ab then ab ∈ (p). Thus, a ∈ (p) ose b ∈ (p). Assume that a ∈ (p) this implies
a = pr. Then, p = ab = prb therefore rb = 1. This implies that b is a unit. Finally (p) is irreducible.
Not all irreducible elements are prime. For example, take the ring
√ √
Z[ −5] = {a + b −5 : a, b ∈ Z}
√
Recall that the ring Z[ D], has a norm
√
N : Z[ D] −→ Z
√
a + b D −→ a2 − Db2
and N(xy) = N(x) · N(y). Also u is a unit in R if and only if N(u) = ±1.
√ √
Take α = 2 + −5 ∈ Z[ −5]. Then, N(α) = −1. If α = ab then N(ab) = −1. Thus, a or b is a unit and therefore α is
irreducible. However α is not prime because
√ √
32 = (2 + −5)(2 − −5
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and if
β β
r = q11 . . . qs s ,
then s = k and pi is of associated with qi .
Example 10.10. field F is UFD because every nonzero element is a unit.
Lemma 10.5. In a UFD an nonzero element is prime if and only if is irreducible.
Proof. Form the above statement a prime element is irreducible. Let ’s prove the converse.
Take an irreducible element p ∈ R. Assume that ab ∈ (p). Thus, ab = pc for c ∈ R. Since R is UFD then
α α β β
a = p1 1 . . . pk k , and b = q11 . . . qs s ,
α α β β
Thus , p must be associated with some prime from p1 1 . . . pk k q11 . . . qs s . Assume that p is associated with p1 . Thus,
p = p1 u, where u is a unit. Thus,
α −1 α
a = (up)p1 1 . . . pk k .
Thus, α is in (P).
√ √ √
Above we proved that α = 2 + −5 is irreducible but not prime in Z[ −5]. Thus, Z[ −5] is not UFD. This is
the first example of an integral ring that is not UFD.
Theorem 10.4. Every principal ideal domain R is UFD.
Proof. Take an element r ∈ R, r , 0 and r is not a unit. We want to prove that r can not be written as product of
irreducible elements of R. If r is irreducible, we are done. If r is reducible, then r can be written as product r = r1 r2
where r1 and r2 are not units. If these elements are irreducible we are done, otherwise they are written as product
of other elements. We need to show that this process ends.
We know that,
(r) ⊂ (r1 ) ⊂ · · · ⊂ R.
This increasing chain ends by Zorn ’s lemma.
To prove that this factorization is unique we use induction on the number of irreducible factors n of r. For n = 1
it is clear. If
r = p1 p2 . . . pn = q1 q2 . . . qm m ≥ n
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then p1 divides the right hand side, hence one of qi , i = 1, 2, . . . m. Assume that, p1 |q1 . Then, q1 = p1 u. Then, u must
be a unit because q1 is irreducible. which implies p1 of q1 are of associated. Thus, we have
p1 p2 . . . pn = p1 uq2 . . . qm .
We can cancel p1 since the cancellation property holds on integral rings, and we get
p2 . . . pn = uq2 . . . qm .
Now we have (n − 1) factors. From induction hypothesis pi and q j are of associated. Since and p1 and q1 are
associated, then this completes the proof.
Theorem 10.5 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic). The ring of integers Z is UFD.
Exercises:
ϕ : R → R1 ⊕ R2
r → (r + I, r + J)
Zmn = Zm ⊕ Zn
10.9. Let be given x an element nilpotent of a ring A. Prove that, 1 + x is a a unit of A. Show that the sum of a nilpotent
element with a a unit is a unit.
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10.10. Let be given ring A and N its nilradical. Prove that, the following statements are equivalent:
i) A has exactly only a prime ideal.
ii) Every element of A is a unit or nilpotent.
iii) A/N is field.
10.11. Let be given A a ring and f ∈ A[x], such that
f = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn .
Prove that
i) f is a unit in A[x] if and only if when a0 is a unit in A and a1 , . . . , an are nilpotent.
ii) f is nilpotent if and only if when a0 , a1 , . . . , an are nilpotent.
iii) f is a zero divisor if and only if there is an a , 0 in A, such that a f (x) = 0.
iv) For every f, g ∈ A[x], f g is irreducible if and only if f and g are irreducible.
√ √ √
10.12. Let z = a + b 3 i in Z[ 3 i]. If a + 3b2 = 1, prove that, z must be a unit. Prove that, the only units of Z[ 3 o f ] are 1
and −1.
10.13. Gaussian integers, Z[i], are UFD. Factor each from the following elements in Z[i], in a product of irreducible elements;
i) 5, ii) 1 + 3i, iii) 6 + 8i, iv) 2.
10.14. Let D a integral ring.
1. Prove that, FD is a commutative group under with addition.
2. Prove that multiplication is well defined in the field of fractions FD .
3. Verify properties associative and commutative for multiplication in FD .
10.15. Prove or disprove: Every subring of a field F, that contains 1 is an integral ring.
10.16. Let F a field with characteristic zero. Prove that, F contains a subfield isomorphic to Q.
10.17. Le to be F field.
1. Prove that, field of fractions of F[x], of denoted by F(x), is isomorphic to the set of all rational expressions p(x)/q(x),
where q(x) is not polynomial zero.
2. Let p(x1 , . . . , xn ) and q(x1 , . . . , xn ) be polynomials in F[x1 , . . . , xn ]. Prove that, the set of all rational expressions
p(x1 , . . . , xn )/q(x1 , . . . , xn ) is isomorphic to field of fractions of F[x1 , . . . , xn ]. Denote the field of fractions of F[x1 , . . . , xn ]
by F(x1 , . . . , xn ).
10.18. Let p be prime and denote the field of fractions of Zp [x] by Zp (x). Prove that Zp (x) is an infinite field of characteristic
p.
10.19. Prove that field of fractions of Gaussian integers, Z[i] is
Q(i) = {p + qo f : p, q ∈ Q}.
10.20. A field F is called simple field if it has no proper subfield. If E is a subfield of F and E is simple field, then E is a prime
subfielde F.
1. Prove that, every field contains a unique prime subfield.
2. If F is field with characteristic 0, show that prime subfield of F is isomorphic to field of rational numbers, Q.
3. If F is field with characteristic p, show that prime subfield of F is isomorphic to Zp .
√ √
10.21. Let Z[ 2 ] = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z}.
√
1. Prove that, Z[ 2 ] is a integral ring.
√
2. Find all units of Z[ 2 ].
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√
3. Determine the field of fractions of Z[ 2 ].
√ √
4. Prove that, Z[ 2o f ] is a Euclidean domain with Euclidean norm ν(a + b 2 i) = a2 + 2b2 .
10.22. Let D be a UFD, d ∈ D is the greatest common divisor of a and b in D if d | a and d | b and d is divisible from every
other element, that divides together a and b.
1. If D is PID and a and b are together elements nonzero of D, show that there is the greatest common divisor, unique, of a
and b. We write gcd (a, b) for the greatest common divisor of a and b.
2. Let D a PID and a and b elements nonzero of D. Prove that, there exist elements s and t in D, such that gcd (a, b) = as + bt.
10.23. Let D a integral ring. Define a relation in D, where a ∼ b if a and b are associative in D. Prove that, ∼ is equivalence
relation in D.
10.24. Let D a Euclidean domain with Euclidean norm ν. If u is a unit in D, prove that ν(u) = ν(1).
10.25. Let D a Euclidean domain with Euclidean norm ν. If a and b are associative in D, show that ν(a) = ν(b).
√
10.26. Prove that Z[ 5 i] is not UFD.
10.27. Prove or disprove: Every subring of a UFD is again UFD.
10.28. A ideal of commutative ring R is called finitely generated if there are elements a1 , . . . , an in R such that every element
r ∈ R can be written as a1 r1 + · · · + an rn for some r1 , . . . , rn in R. Prove that, R satisfies the decreasing chain condition if and
only if,every ideal of R is finitely generated.
10.29. Let D a integral ring with a decreasing chain of ideals I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ · · · . Prove that, there exists a N, such that Ik = IN for
every k ≥ N. A ring that satisfy this condition is called a ring with decreasing chain condition, or DCC. The rings which
satisfy the DCC are called Artinian rings.
10.30. Let R a commutative ring with identity. We define the multiplicative subset of R to be a subset S, such that 1 ∈ S
and ab ∈ S if a, b ∈ S.
1. Define a relation ∼ in R × S, where (a, s) ∼ (a0 , s0 ), if there exists a s ∈ S such that s(s0 a − sa0 ) = 0. Prove that ∼ is
equivalence relation in R × S.
2. Let a/s the equivalence class of (a, s) ∈ R × S and let S−1 R the set of all equivalence classes with ∼. Define addition and
of multiplication on S−1 R respectively as
a b at + bs
+ =
s t st
ab ab
= ,
st st
Prove that these operations are of well defined in S−1 R and that S−1 R is ring with identity with these operations. The
ring S−1 R is called ring of fractions of R related to with S.
3. Prove that, the map ψ : R → S−1 R of defined from ψ(a) = a/1, is homomorphism rings.
4. If R does not have zero divisor and 0 < S, prove that ψ is injective.
5. Prove that, P is prime ideal of R, if and only if S = R \ P is multiplicative subset of R.
6. If P is prime ideal of R and S = R \ P, prove that ring of fractions S−1 R has a maximal ideal of only. Every ring, that has
a maximal ideal of only is called local ring .
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Chapter 11
Polynomial rings
In this chapter we will review some of the basic properties of polynomial rings. Further, we will study the
irreducibility criteria for polynomials, symmetric functions, resultants, and discriminants. Even though most of the
results can be extended to polynomials in several variables we will focus mainly on polynomials in one variable.
11.1 Polynomials
In this chapter, R is a commutative ring with identity. An expression of the form
n
X
f (x) = ai xi = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn ,
i=0
where ai ∈ R and an , 0, is called a polynomial over R with variable x. The elements a0 , a1 , . . . , an are called
coefficients of f (x). The coefficient an is called the leading coefficient. A polynomial is called monic if its leading
coefficient is 1.
If n is the largest non negative integer for which an , 0, then we say that the degree of f (x) is n and write
deg f (x) = n. If such an n does not exist, then we have f = 0 and degree of f (x) is ∞.
The set of all polynomials , with coefficient in a ring R is denoted by R[x]. Two polynomials are equal if their
corresponding coefficients are equal, so if we have
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn
q(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm ,
then p(x) = q(x) if and only if ai = bi for every i ≥ 0.
To prove that the set of all polynomials forms a ring, we must first define addition and multiplication. The sum
of two polynomials we define as follows. Let p(x) and q(x) be as follows
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn
q(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm .
Then, the sum of p(x) with q(x) is
p(x) + q(x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + ck xk ,
where ci = ai + bi for every i.
The product of p(x) with q(x) is defined as
p(x)q(x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cm+n xm+n ,
where
i
X
ci = ak bi−k = a0 bi + a1 bi−1 + · · · + ai−1 b1 + ai b0 ,
k=0
for every i. Notice that in all cases some of the coefficients can be zero.
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Theorem 11.1. Let R a commutative ring with identity. Then, R[x] is commutative ring with identity.
Proof. First we want to show that R[x] is an Abelian group with additions of polynomials. The zero polynomial,
f (x) = 0 is the zero of the group. Let be given a polynomial p(x) = ni=0 ai xi , then the opposite of p(x) is −p(x) =
P
Pn Pn
i=0 (−ai )x = − i=0 ai x . Commutativity and associativity come from the definition of addition.
i i
To prove that multiplication of polynomials is associative, take p(x), q(x), r(x) as follows
m
X n
X p
X
p(x) = ai xi , q(x) = bi xi , r(x) = ci x i .
i=0 i=0 i=0
Then,
m n p
X X X
p(x)q(x) r(x) = i i i
ai x
bi x
ci x
i=0 i=0 i=0
p
m+n i
X X X
=
i i
a j bi−j x ci x
i=0 j=0 i=0
m+n+p
j
X X i X
= c j xi
a b
k j−k
i=0 j=0 k=0
m+n+p
X X
= a j bk cr xi
i=0 j+k+l=i
m+n+p
i− j
X X i X
= bk ci−j−k xi
a j
i=0 j=0 k=0
m n+p i
X X X
= i
ai x b j ci−j xi
i=0 i=0 j=0
m n p
X X X
=
a i x i
b i xi
c i xi
i=0 i=0 i=0
=
p(x) q(x)r(x)
The proof for the commutativity and distribution are left as an exercise for the reader.
Lemma 11.1. Let p(x) and q(x)polynomials in R[x], where R is a integral ring. Then,
p(x) = am xm + · · · + a1 x + a0
q(x) = bn xn + · · · + b1 x + b0
where am , 0 and bn , 0. The degrees of p and q are m and n, respectively. The leading term of p(x)q(x) is am bn xm+n ,
which can not be zero since R is a integral ring; thus, degree of p(x)q(x) is m + n and p(x)q(x) , 0. Since p(x) , 0 and
q(x) , 0 this means se p(x)q(x) , 0, so R[x] is an integral ring.
Next we have the following important result.
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Theorem 11.2. Let be given a field F. Then, F[x] is a Euclidean domain with norm
N : F[x] −→ Z+ ∪ {0}
p(x) −→ deg p.
Proof. Take a(x), b(x) ∈ F[x], where a(x), b(x) , 0. We will prove the theorem by induction on the degree n = deg(a(x)).
For n = 0, 1 the theorem is simply the Euclid’s algorithm for Euclidean domains.
Assume that the theorem is true for k < n − 1. If n < m, then a(x) = 0 · b(x) + b(x) and the proof is complete. If n ≥ m
then we get
a(x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0
b(x) = bm xm + · · · + b1 x + b0
an · bm−1 n−m−1 an
a0 (x) = an xn−1 + · · · + a0 − x + · · · + b0 xn−m
b0 bm
Hence a0 (x) is a polynomial with degree n − 1. From induction hypothesis there exist q0 (x) and r(x) that
where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg b(x). Take q(x) = q0 (x) + bamn xn−m and we have:
However, the degree of b(x) is m. Hence q1 (x) − q(x) = 0. From this we get that r(x) = r1 (x).
where deg r(x) < deg g(x) and r(x) is a nonzero polynomial.
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Proof. First let’s study the existence of q(x) and r(x). Let S = { f (x) − g(x)h(x) : h(x) ∈ F[x]} and assume that
g(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn
is a polynomial with degree n. This set is nonempty, since f (x) ∈ S. If f (x) is the zero polynomial, then 0 = f (x) =
0 · g(x) + 0. Hence, q and r, are zero polynomials.
Assume that the zero polynomial is not in S. In this case, the degree of for every polynomial in S is non-negative.
We pick a polynomial r(x) with smallest degree in S ; hence, there exists a q(x) ∈ F[x] such that
or
f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x).
We must show that degree of r(x) is smaller than degree of g(x). Assume that deg g(x) ≤ deg r(x). Let r(x) =
b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm and m ≥ n. Then,
! ! !
bm m−n bm m−n
f (x) − g(x) q(x) − x = f (x) − g(x)q(x) + x g(x)
an an
!
bm m−n
= r(x) + x g(x) = r(x) + bm xm + terms of lower degree
an
is contained in S. This is a polynomial with smaller degree than r(x), which contradicts the fact that r(x) is a
polynomial with smallest degree in S ; so deg r(x) < deg g(x).
To prove that q(x) and r(x) are unique, assume that there exist two other polynomials q0 (x) and r0 (x) such that
f (x) = g(x)q0 (x) + r0 (x) and deg r0 (x) < deg g(x) or r0 (x) = 0 ; hence,
and
g(x)[q(x) − q0 (x)] = r0 (x) − r(x).
If g is not the zero polynomial, then
However, degrees of r(x) and r0 (x) are strictly less than degree of g(x). Hence, r(x) = r0 (x) and q(x) = q0 (x).
Let p(x) be a polynomial in F[x] and α ∈ F. We say that α is a zero or roots of p(x), if p(x) is in the kernel of the
homomorphism φα or we say α is a zero of p(x) if p(α) = 0.
Corollary 11.1. Let F be a field. An element α ∈ F is a zero of p(x) ∈ F[x], if and only if x − α is a factor of p(x) in F[x].
Proof. Assume that α ∈ F and p(α) = 0. From the division algorithm, there exist polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
and the degree of r(x) must be smaller than degree of x − α. Since the degree of r(x) is smaller than 1, then r(x) = a
for a ∈ F ; hence,
p(x) = (x − α)q(x) + a.
However
0 = p(α) = 0 · q(x) + a = a.
Hence, p(x) = (x − α)q(x) and x − α is a factor of p(x).
Conversely, assume that x − α is a factor of p(x) ; say p(x) = (x − α)q(x). Then, p(α) = 0 · q(x) = 0.
Corollary 11.2. Let F a field. A nonzero polynomial p(x) with degree n in F[x] must have at most n distinct zeroes in F.
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Proof. We will use mathematical induction on the degree of p(x). If deg p(x) = 0, then p(x) is a constant polynomial
and does not have a zero. Let deg p(x) = 1. Then, p(x) = ax + b for some a and b in F, where α1 and α2 are zeroes of
p(x), we have aα1 + b = aα2 + b or α1 = α2 .
Now assume that deg p(x) > 1. If p(x) does not have some zero in F, then this completes the proof. Also, ifα is a
zero of p(x), then p(x) = (x − α)q(x) for some q(x) ∈ F[x]. The degree of q(x) is n − 1. Let β another zero of p(x), which
is different from α. Then, p(β) = (β − α)q(β) = 0. Since α , β and F is a field, q(β) = 0.
From induction hypothesis, p(x) can have at most n − 1 zeroes in F which are different from α. Thus, p(x) has at
most n distinct zeroes in F.
Let F a field. A polynomial monomial d(x) is called greatest common divisor of polynomials p(x), q(x) ∈ F[x] if
d(x) divides p(x) and q(x) ; and if for every other polynomial d0 (x) that divides p(x) and q(x), d0 (x) | d(x). We write
d(x) = gcd (p(x), q(x)). Two polynomials p(x) and q(x) are relatively prime if gcd (p(x), q(x)) = 1.
Proposition 11.1. Let F be a field and assume that d(x) is the greatest common divisor of two polynomials p(x) and q(x) in
F[x]. Then, there exist polynomials r(x) and s(x) such that
We write d(x) = r(x)p(x) + s(x)q(x), for two polynomials r(x) and s(x) in F[x]. We must show that d(x) divides p(x)
and q(x). First must prove that d(x) divides p(x). From division algorithm , there exist polynomials a(x) and b(x)
such that p(x) = a(x)d(x) + b(x), where b(x) is the zero polynomial or deg b(x) < deg d(x). Thus,
is a linear combination of p(x) and q(x) therefore is contained in S. However, b(x) must be the zero polynomial,
since d(x) was picked with smallest degree, hence d(x) divides p(x). A similar argument shows that d(x) divides
q(x). Thus, d(x) is a common divisor of p(x) and q(x).
To prove that d(x) is greatest common divisor of p(x) and q(x), assume that d0 (x) is a other common divisor of
p(x) and q(x). We must prove that d0 (x) | d(x). Since d0 (x) is a other common divisor of p(x) and q(x), then there exist
polynomials u(x) and v(x) such that p(x) = u(x)d0 (x) and q(x) = v(x)d0 (x). Thus,
which implies that d0 (x) | d(x), d(x) is greatest common divisor of p(x) and q(x).
Finally, we must prove that the greatest common divisor of p(x) and q(x)) is unique. Assume that d0 (x) is another
common divisor of p(x) and q(x). It is enough to show that there exist polynomials u(x) and v(x) in F[x] such that
Since
deg d(x) = deg d0 (x) + deg[r(x)u(x) + s(x)v(x)]
and d(x) and d0 (x) are both the greatest common divisor, then deg d(x) = deg d0 (x). Since d(x) and d0 (x) are two
monomial polynomials with the same degree, then we have that d(x) = d0 (x).
Theorem 11.4. If k is a field then k[x] is a PID.
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A polynomial f (x) ∈ k[x] is called irreducible if it has degree ≥ 1 and can not be written as
f (x) = g(x)h(x)
for some g, h ∈ k[x] and both g, h < k. Elements of k are called constant polynomials.
Let A be a commutative ring and f ∈ A[x]. Let B be an extension ring of A. Then α ∈ B is called a root of f (x) if
f (α) = 0.
Theorem 11.5. Let k be a field and f ∈ k[x] a polynomial of degree n. Then f (x) has at most n roots in k, and if x = a is a root
of f (x) in k, then (x − a) divides f (x).
Proof. We prove the second part of the Theorem first. Assume that α ∈ k and f (α) = 0. From the division algorithm,
there exist polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
and the degree of r(x) must be smaller than degree of x − α. Thus the degree of r(x) is smaller than 1, then r(x) = a
for some a ∈ k; hence,
f (x) = (x − α)q(x) + a.
However
0 = f (α) = 0 · q(x) + a = a.
Hence, f (x) = (x − α)q(x) and x − α is a factor of f (x).
Conversely, assume that x − α is a factor of f (x); say f (x) = (x − α)q(x). Then, f (α) = 0 · q(x) = 0.
To prove the first part of the theorem we will use mathematical induction on the degree of f (x). If deg f (x) = 0,
then f (x) is a constant polynomial and does not have a zero. Let deg f (x) = 1. Then, f (x) = ax + b for some a and b in
k, where α1 and α2 are zeroes of f (x), we have aα1 + b = aα2 + b or α1 = α2 .
Now assume that deg f (x) > 1. If f (x) does not have some zero in k, then this completes the proof. Also, if α is a
zero of f (x), then f (x) = (x − α)q(x) for some q(x) ∈ k[x]. The degree of q(x) is n − 1. Let β another zero of f (x), which
is different from α. Then, f (β) = (β − α)q(β) = 0. Since α , β and k is a field, q(β) = 0.
From induction hypothesis, f (x) can have at most n − 1 zeroes in k which are different from α. Thus, f (x) has at
most n distinct zeroes in k.
Lemma 11.2. Let f (x) be a polynomial in F[x]. Then, F[x]/h f (x)i is a field if and only if f (x) is irreducible.
Proof. Exercise
Theorem 11.6. Every finite subgroup of the multiplication group of a field is cyclic
Proof. Let F be a field and F? denote the set of its nonzero elements. Let G ≤ F? such that |G| = n. Then G is Abelian
(since F? is Abelian) and from the fundamental theorem of Abelian groups G has an invariant factor decomposition
G Zm1 × · · · × Zmk
such that mi | mi+1 and mi ≥ 2, for all i ≤ k. Take x ∈ G. Then x ∈ Zmi for some i. Hence, xmi = 1 which implies that
xmk = 1. Thus, the polynomial xmk − 1 has n roots (since G has n elements). But a polynomial can’t have more roots
then its degree, see Theorem 11.5. Hence, n = mk and G Zmk .
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An element ε in a field k such that εn = 1 is called the n-th root of unity. The set of n-th roots of unity are roots
of the polynomial f (x) = xn − 1. This set forms a subgroup of k? of order n and by Theorem 11.6 such subgroup is
cyclic. Any generator of this group is called a primitive n-th root of unity. If k = C then the n-th roots of unity are
2πi
αr = er n
2πi
for 1 ≤ r ≤ n. One of the primitive roots in this case is e n
Let A be a commutative ring and f (x) ∈ A[x], such that
One can easily verify that for every f, g ∈ A[x] and a ∈ A the following are true
( f + g)0 = f 0 + g0
( f · g)0 = f 0 g + f g0
(a f )0 = a f 0
Hence, this definition of the derivative matches the definition from Calculus. Moreover, we have a map
A[x] → A[x]
f → f0
such that (x − α) 6 | g(x). We call m the multiplicity of α in f (x). The root α is called a multiple root if m > 1.
Lemma 11.3. Let k be a field and f ∈ k[x]. Let α ∈ k be a root of f (x). Then, α is a multiple root if and only if f 0 (α) = 0.
Proof. Homework.
Exercises:
11.1. Assume that R and S are isomorphic rings. Prove that R[x] is isomorphic to S[x].
11.2. Let F a field and a ∈ F. If p(x) ∈ F[x]. Prove that p(a) is the remainder obtained from the division of p(x) with x − a.
11.3. Let Q∗ the multiplicative group of non-negative rational numbers. Prove that Q∗ is isomorphic to (Z[x], +).
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taking all p such that ordp ( f ) , 0. If cont ( f ) = 1, then f (x) is called a primitive polynomial. Thus, every polynomial
f (x) ∈ k[x] can be written as
f (x) = cont ( f ) · f1 (x),
where f1 (x) is primitive and f1 (x) ∈ A[x]. The following result is known as Gauss’ lemma.
Theorem 11.7 (Gauss). Let be given A a UFD, k its field of fractions and f, g ∈ k[x]. Then,
Proof.
Corollary 11.5. f g is primitive if and only if f and g are both primitive.
Proof. Assume that f (x)g(x) is not primitive and we will show that as f (x) as g(x) are not primitive. Qe f (x)g(x)
is not a unit means that gcd of coefficients of this polynomial is not 1. Let p be an irreducible factor of this gcd.
Consider the image n of A mod p, so the natural homomorphism of subrings θ : A → A/pA - and extend it to the
ring of polynomials. Since A is a integral ring, A/pA is integral ring, so e and (A/pA)[x] is a integral ring.
We have that f (x)g(x) = 0, where f (x) is the image of f (x) in (A/pA)[x] and g(x). Hence f (x) = 0 or g(x) = 0, hence
f (x) or g(x) is divisible from p, so one of these polynomials is not primitive.
Corollary 11.6. If f (x) is reducible in k[x], then f (x) is reducible in A[x].
Proof. Let be given f (x) = g(x) · h(x), where g(x), h(x) ∈ k[x]. Then,
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Exercises:
f = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn .
Prove that
i) f is an element a unit in A[x] if and only if a0 is an element a unit in A and a1 , . . . , an are nilpotent.
ii) f is nilpotent if and only if a0 , a1 , . . . , an are nilpotent.
iii) f is a zero divisor if and only if there exists a , 0 in A such that a f (x) = 0.
iv) For every f, g ∈ A[x], f g is primitive if and only if f and g are primitive.
11.5. Prove that the ideals I = (x) and J = (x, y) are prime ideals in Q[x, y], but only J is maximal.
11.6. Prove that the ideals I = (x, y) and J = (2, x, y) are prime ideals in Z[x, y], but only J is maximal.
11.7. Prove that I = (x, y) is not a principal ideal in Q[x, y].
11.8. Show that the radical of the ideal I = (x, y2 ) in Q[x, y] is the ideal J = (x, y). Moreover, prove that I is a primary ideal
that is not a power of a prime ideal.
11.9. Prove that the rings F[x, y]/(y2 − x) and F[x, y]/(y2 − x2 ) are not isomorphic for any field F.
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Proof. If p(x) has a factor (ax + b) = a(x − (− ba )) = a(x − α), then α = ba ∈ F. Hence assume that p(x) has a factor (x − α).
Then, p(α) = 0. On the contrary, assume that ∃α ∈ F that p(α) = 0. Then, p(x) = q(x)(x − α) + r from Euclid’s algorithm.
Substituting x = α we have r = 0.
p(x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0
an rn + an−1 rn−1 s + · · · + a0 sn = 0
Hence an rn = −s(an−1 rn−1 + · · · + a0 sn−1 ), hence s|an . Also a0 sn = −r(an rn−1 + . . . a1 ), so r|a0 .
Corollary 11.7. If p(x) ∈ Z[x] is given as follows
Proof. If r
s ∈ Q and p( sr ) = 0, then s|1 so s = ±1. which implies r|a0 and p(r) = 0, that is contradiction.
Example 11.1. Prove that
g(x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
is irreducible over field with two elements F2 .
Proof. The field F2 has two elements 0 and 1. We see that no one of them is a root. Hence g(x) does not have linear
factors. Then, if g(x) is factored it will have only quadratic factors. Assume that there exist such quadratic factors,
say
g(x) = (x2 + ax + 1)(x2 + bx + 1)
Leading coefficients must be 1 that x4 to have coefficient 1. Also the constant terms must be 1 so that their product
is 1. By multiplying through and equaling coefficients we get b + c = 1 and bc = 1. This system does not have a
solution in F2 (check 0,1). Hence g(x) is irreducible.
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Proof. We can assume that cont ( f ) = 1. If there is a factorization in factors with degree ≥ 1 in K[x] then from corollary
of Gauss Lemma there exists a factorization in A[x], for example f (x) = g(x)h(x), where
g(x) = bd xd + · · · + b0
h(x) = cm xm + · · · + c0 ,
where d, m ≥ 1 and bd cm , 0.Since b0 c0 = a0 is divisible from p, but not from p2 , we have that one of them is not
divisible from p, say b0 . Then, p | c0 .Since bd cm = an is not divisible from p, then p does not divide cm .Let cr the
farthest coefficient on the right such that p | cr . Then, r , m and
ar = b0 cr + b1 cr−1 + . . . .
Since p does not divide b0 cr and divides all other terms in this sum, we conclude that p does not divide ar . This
completes the proof.
Example 11.2. Using Eisenstein criteria the reader to prove that polynomials that follow are irreducible,
xp − 1
φp (x) = = xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1
x−1
is called cyclotomic polynomial in p.
Lemma 11.5. φp (x) is irreducible in Z[x]
Proof. If φp (x) is reducible, then φp (x + 1) is also reducible. Thus, instead of φp (x) we consider φp (x + 1). We have
(x + 1)p − 1 p(p − 1)
φp (x + 1) = = xp−1 + pxp−2 + · · · + x + p.
x 2
Then, from Eisenstein criteria φp (x + 1) is irreducible. Therefore, φp (x) is irreducible
Theorem 11.11 (Extension of Eisenstein criteria). Let be given A a UFD and K its field of fractions. Let be given f ∈ A[x]
such that
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
and p a prime number in A such that:
is irreducible in Q[x].
Proof. We will use the above theorem. 3 divides a0 , . . . , a3 , but does not divide a4 . Hence, r = 4. Thus, if f (x) is
reducible, then it is the product of polynomials of degrees 4 and 1. Thus, f x has a rational root. From integer root
test we can show that this doesn’t happen.
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ϕ0 : A → B,
and ϕ : A[x] 7→ B[x] its extension to polynomial rings. Let be given K, L the field of fractions of A, B respectively and f ∈ A[x]
such that ϕ ( f ) , 0 and deg ϕ( f ) = deg( f ). If ϕ( f ) is irreducible in L[x], then f is irreducible in K[x].
Proof. Assume that f has a factorization f (x) = g(x) · h(x) in K[x]. Then,
ϕ( f ) = ϕ(g) · ϕ(h).
Since deg ϕ(g) ≤ deg g and deg ϕ(h) ≤ deg h, then we have equality. From irreducibility in L(x) we conclude that
one of ϕ(g) or ϕ(h) is a constant. Thus one of g or h is in A, which contradicts our assumption. This completes the
proof.
Corollary 11.8 (Modulo p irreducibility test). Let be given p a prime number and f (x) ∈ Z[x], such that deg f ≥ 1 and p
does not divide the leading coefficient of f (x). Let f¯(x) ∈ Zp [x] be the reduction of f (x) mod p. If f¯(x) is irreducible in Zp [x],
then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].
Example 11.4. Prove that
f (x) = x5 − 5x4 − 6x − 1
is irreducible in Q[x].
Proof. Let be given f¯(x) = f (x) mod 5 = x5 + 4x + 1. It can be easily shown that f¯(x) does not have root in Z5 . Thus,
if f¯(x) is reducible in Z5 [x], then it is a product of polynomials with degree 2 and 3. These polynomials are
see Milne [6] (pg. 9) for the proof that this is reducible for any prime p.
To prove that f (x) is irreducible in Z[x] we use the above example. We prove that f (x) does not have rational
root. Thus, it is product polynomials with degree 2. By elementary arithmetic we can show that this doesn ’t
happen.
Exercises:
11.10. Let f (x) irreducible. If f (x) | p(x)q(x), prove that f (x) | p(x) or f (x) | q(x).
11.11. Prove that f (x) = x3 − 3x − 1 is irreducible in Z[x].
11.12. For every prime number pprove that x2 − p and x3 − p are irreducible in Q.
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11.13. Let be given α ∈ Z such that α is divisible from some prime number p, but p2 - α. Prove that xn − α is irreducible.
11.14. Prove that f (x) = x4 + 1 is irreducible in Q.
11.15. Prove that the following polynomials are irreducible in Z[x].
f (x) = x4 + 10x + 5.
f (x) = x4 + 10x2 + 1.
f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 6.
irreducible?
11.23. Prove that polynomials
n
Y
f (x) = (x − i) ± 1
i=1
are irreducible in Z for all n ≥ 1.
11.24. If a is rational and x − a divides a polynomial monomial f (x) ∈ Z[x], prove that a is a integer.
11.25. Find which of the following is reducible (irreducible) in Z2 [x]. Justify your answer
i) x2 + 1
ii) x2 + x + 1
iii) x3 + x + 1
11.26. Prove or disprove: xp + a is irreducible, for every a ∈ Zp , where p is prime number.
11.27. Find a factorization of
f (x) = x4 + 1
in Z5 [x].
11.28. Find a factorization for
f (x) = x4 + 1
in Z5 [x].
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f (x) = xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an .
Then,
n
X
s1 (x1 , . . . , xn ) = xi = −a1
i=1
X
s2 (x1 , . . . , xn ) = xi1 xi2 = a2
1≤i1 <i2 ≤n
............
X
sm (x1 , . . . , xn ) = xi1 . . . xim = (−1)m am
1≤i1 <..<im ≤n
............
sn (x1 , . . . , xn ) = x1 x2 . . . xn = (−1)n an .
Polynomials s1 , . . . sn are called symmetric polynomials of polynomial of degree n. The polynomial sm (x1 , . . . , xn ) is
called the M -th elementary symmetric polynomial in x1 , . . . , xn .
This polynomial has the following property
for every permutation σ of {1, . . . , n}.Recall that a permutation of {1, . . . , n} is a correspondence 1-1
Theorem 11.13. Every symmetric polynomial in k[t1 , . . . , tn ] can be written in unique way with elementary symmetric
polynomials s1 , . . . , sn .
Proof. Let p(x1 , . . . , xn ) a Sn -invariant. Le to be
the map which drops xn . Hence, q(xi ) = xi where (1 ≤ o f < n), q(x) = 0 where (i = n).
If p(x1 , . . . , xn ) is Sn -invariant, then
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Now use the same polynomial P, but with elementary polynomials from introduction of xn with
From the way we picked P we have that q(p(x1 , . . . , xn )) − g(x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0. Hence the map xn → 0 sends the difference
p − g in 0. Using factorization of only in Z[x1 , . . . , xn ] this implies that xn divides p − g. Sn -invariance of p − g implies
that every xi divides p − g. Thus, from uniqueness of factorization sn (x1 , . . . , xn ) divides p − g.
e
The total degree of monomial c x11 . . . xenn is the sum of exponents
e
deg(c · x11 . . . xenn ) = e1 + · · · + en .
The total degree of a polynomial is the maximum of total degrees of its monomials. Consider the polynomial
p − g p(x1 , . . . , xn ) − g(x1 , . . . , xn )
= .
sn sn (x1 , . . . , xn )
p−g
It has total degree smaller than p. With induction on total degree, sn is expressed in terms of symmetric elementary
polynomials.
f (x) = (x − α1 ) · · · (x − αn ).
Lemma 11.6. Let be given f (x) ∈ C[x]. Then, f (x) has a double root if and only if D( f, x) = 0.
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Then,
Exercise 11.2. Suppose a, b ∈ Q. We know that Dp = 0 iff p has a multiple root. Show that Dp > 0 iff p has three distinct real
roots. Thus Dp < 0 iff p has one real root and two non-real complex conjugate roots.
f (x) = al xl + · · · + a0
g(x) = bm xm + · · · + b0
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Let these coefficients equal zero we get the system of (l + m) equations. Consider c0 , . . . , cm−1 , d0 , . . . , dl−1 as
variables. The system is linear and its coefficient matrix is:
al bm
a
l−1 al bm−1 bm
al−2 al−1 . bm−2 bm−1 .
. . . . . . .
al−2
. . . . al . . . . bm
Syl( f, g, x) = a1 . . . al−1 b0 . . . bm−1
(11.2)
a
0 a1 . . al−2 b0 . . .
a . . . . . .
0
. . . .
. . .
a0 b0
Then, Y
Res ( f, g, x) = (αi − β j )
i,j
Proof. Exercise.
Corollary 11.9. Polynomials f (x), g(x) ∈ k[x] have a common factor in k[x] if and only if
Res ( f, g, x) = 0.
Proof.
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Exercises:
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xn + ax + b
f (x) = x3 + x2 − 5x − 5
(11.5)
g(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 10
xn · xm = xn+m
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A[[x]] := Map(G, A)
f (1) = a + 0 ∈ A
f (x) = a1 ∈ A
...
f (xn = an ∈ A
We write
f = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · an xn + · · ·
For f, g ∈ A[[x]] as
f = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · an xn + · · ·
g = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · bn xn + · · ·
and X X
( f g)(x) = ci xi , where ci = a k bk
k+l=i
Proof.
Theorem 11.15. Let O be a local and complete ring with m the maximal ideal of O. Let f ∈ O[[x]] and not all coefficients are
in m, such that
X∞
f= ai xi
i=0
where an is the first coefficient not in m. Then, for every g ∈ O[[x]], there exist q, r ∈ O[[x]] such that
where deg r ≤ n − 1.
Manin.
Theorem 11.16 (Weierstrass preparation theorem). Let O be a local and complete ring with m the maximal ideal of O. Let
f ∈ O[[x]] and not all coefficients are in m, such that
∞
X
f= ai xi , a0 , . . . , an < m.
i=0
Then, there exists a unique unit u(x) and b0 , . . . , bn−1 ∈ m such that
f (x) = xn + b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · bn−1 xn−1 · u(x)
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Exercises:
11.46. Suppose that O is a complete local ring. Show that O[[x]] is also a complete local ring.
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Chapter 12
∀x, y ∈ S =⇒ xy ∈ S
The set S−1 A is called the quotient ring of A by S or the ring of fractions of A by S. We review quickly its
construction.
Take
F := {(r, d) : r ∈ A, d ∈ S}
Define a relation in F as follows:
(r, d) ∼ (s, e) ⇔ re = sd
Prove that this is an equivalence relation and denote the equivalence class of (r, d) with dr . Let S−1 A be the
set of all equivalence classes of this relation. Note that dr = dc
rc
in S−1 A for all c ∈ S, (dc ∈ S because S is a closed
multiplicative set).
Define addition and multiplication in S−1 A as follows:
a c ad + bc
+ =
b d bd
a c ac
· =
b d bd
Prove that (S−1 A, +, ·) is a commutative ring with identity. We call S−1 A the ring of fractions of A and denote it
by S−1 A.
Now let p be a prime ideal of A. Obviously S = A \ p is a multiplicative set of A. The ring of quotients S−1 A is
called the localization of A at p and denoted by Ap .
Definition 12.1. A local ring is a commutative ring with identity which has a unique maximal ideal.
Proposition 12.1. For every prime ideal p the ring Ap is a local ring.
Proof.
Exercise 12.1. Let S be a multiplicative set and 0 < S. Take P a maximal ideal such that P ∩ S = ∅. Prove that P is prime.
Exercise 12.2. Let A be a local ring and m its maximal ideal. Prove that m is the set of all non-units of A and A \ m is a
multiplicative set.
Exercise 12.3. Let R be an integral domain and S a multiplicative set of R which does not contain 0. Show that R can be
embedded in S−1 R.
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Let S be a multiplicative set of A and denote by J(A) the set of ideals of A. Define the following map as follows:
ψS : J(A) → J(S−1 A)
a → S−1 a
where
a
S−1 a = | a ∈ a, s ∈ S
s
Exercise 12.4. Prove that
i) S−1 a is an ideal of S−1 A.
ii) S−1 (a + b) = S−1 a + −1
S b
iii) S (ab) = S a S b
−1 −1 −1
Exercises:
12.1. Let A = S−1 Z where S is the set of all integers not divisible by a fixed prime p and I a unique maximal ideal of A. Show that
i) ∩∞i=1
In = {0}
ii) A is not complete
Exercises:
12.2. a) Suppose that A is a commutative ring with identity, and M is an A-module. Show that the following are equivalent:
a) M=0
b) MP = 0 over AP , for each prime ideal P of A.
c) Mm = 0 over AQ , for each maximal ideal m of A.
[Note: Clearly state the facts about localization which are needed here.What is worth it to show is c)=⇒a)]
b) Suppose R is a subring of a field K and S is a multiplicative set of R not containing 0. Show that if x ∈ K is integral over
S−1 R then it may be written as x = bs where s ∈ S and b is integral over R.
12.3. If A is a commutative ring with identity which is Noetherian, then prove that A[[T]], the ring of formal power series, is
also Noetherian.
I1 ⊂ I2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Ik ⊂ · · ·
I1 ⊂ I2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Ik ⊂ · · ·
A ring A is called Notherian if every ascending chain stabilizes after finitely many steps.
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M1 ⊂ M2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Mn ⊂ · · ·
x 1 , . . . x r ∈ Ms
Then,
hx1 , . . . , xr i ⊂ Ms ⊂ M = hx1 , . . . , xr i
Hence, for all j > s we have M j = Ms = M.
Let I ⊂ A be any ideal. Pick some a0 ∈ I. If I = ha0 i then we are done. Otherwise, let a1 ∈ I such that a1 < ha0 i. We
proceed inductively in the way to get
ha0 i ⊂ ha0 , a1 i ⊂ · · · ⊂ I
where each inclusion is proper. Then this ascending chain stabilizes after many steps. Hence, I is finitely generated.
Proposition 12.3. Let φ : A → B be a ring homomorphism. If A is Notherian then φ(A) is Notherian.
Proof. Take an ideal a ⊂ φ(A). Obviously φ−1 (a) is an ideal in A. Since A is Notherian then φ−1 (a) is finitely generated.
Let
φ−1 (a) = hφ−1 (a1 ), φ−1 (a2 ), . . . , φ−1 (an )i
Take b ∈ a. Then, X
φ−1 (b) = ri φ−1 (ai )
where i = 1, . . . , n and ri ∈ A. Then X
b = φ−1 φ−1 (b) = ri ai
So a is finitely generated.
Proposition 12.4. Let A be Notherian. Then every subring and every quotient ring of A are Notherian.
Proof. Exercise
Proposition 12.5. Let A be a commutative Notherian ring and S a multiplicative set of A. Then, S−1 A is Notherian.
Proof. Indeed, the ideals of S−1 A look like S−1 a where a is an ideal in A. Complete the proof.
The proof of the following theorem will be provided in the chapter of Notherian modules.
Theorem 12.1 (Cohn). Prove that A is Notherian if and only if every prime P is finitely generated.
Exercises:
12.4. (a) Let A be a commutative ring with identity, which satisfies the ascending chain condition on prime ideals. Must A be
Noetherian? Prove, or else give a counterexample.
(b) Let A be a commutative ring with identity such that the local ring Ap is Notherian for every prime ideal P of A. Is A
necessary Notherian?
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Proof. Let I be an ideal of A[x]. Let ai be the set of leading coefficients of degree i polynomials in I and 0.
Claim: ai is an ideal in A.
This proves the claim.
Then we have
a0 ⊂ a1 ⊂ · · ·
This ascending chain stops after some r steps, since A is Notherian. So
a0 ⊂ a1 ⊂ · · · ar = ar+1 = · · ·
Let
ai,1 , . . . , ai,ni
be the generators for each ai .
Let fi,j be the corresponding coefficient in I with leading coefficient ai,j .
If d ≤ r then
This completes the proof.
Proof. Let I be an ideal in A[x] and a the set of all leading coefficients of polynomials in I.
First we show that a is an ideal of A. Since I contains the zero polynomial then 0 ∈ a. Let
f = axd + . . .
g = bxe + · · ·
be polynomials in I with degrees d and e and leading coefficients a, b ∈ A. Then, for every r ∈ A we have ra − b is zero
or it is the leading coefficient of
rxe f − xd g.
Since this is in I then ra − b ∈ a, which means that a is an ideal of A. Since A is Notherian, then a is finitely generated.
Say, a is generated by a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ A.
For every i = 1, . . . , n let fi be an element of I which has leading coefficient ai . Let ei be the degree of fi and denote
with N the maximum of e1 , e2 , . . . , en . For every d ∈ {0, 1, . . . , N − 1} denote by ad the set of all leading coefficients of
elements in I with degree d together with 0.
Similarly we show that ad is an ideal of A. Since A is Notherian then ad is finitely generated.
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a = r1 a1 + · · · + rn an .
Then,
g = r1 xd−e1 f1 + · · · + rn xd−en fn
is an element of I0 of the same degree d and the same leading coefficient a as f . Th en, f − g ∈ I is a polynomial in I
with degree less than f.Since f is of minimal degree we have f − g = 0, or f = g ∈ I0 , which is a contradiction.
Next, assume that d < N. In this case a ∈ Ld , for d < N. Hence, we have
Then,
g = r1 fd,1 + · · · + rnd fnd
is a polynomial in I0 of the same degree d and the same leading coefficient a as f . Again we have a contradiction.
Hence, I = I0 . This completes the proof.
Proof.
Proof. Let I be an ideal in A. Suppose that I is not a finite intersection of irreducible ideals.
Let S be the set of all ideals of A which are not a finite intersection of irreducible ideals. Then, S , ∅ since I ∈ S.
By Zorn’s lemma, S has a maximal element. Let’s call it a. So a is reducible since a ∈ S. Then, there exist b, c such
that
a = b ∩ c =⇒ a = b or a = c
and a is proper in b and c.
But since a is the maximal ideal which is not a finite intersection of irreducibles then b and c are a finite intersection
of irreducibles ideals. Then, so is a, which is a contradiction.
Proposition 12.7. Prove that in a Notherian ring every ideal has a primary decomposition.
Proof.
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Exercises:
12.5. Prove that an Artinian commutative ring A with identity has only a finite number of prime ideals, and that each one is
a maximal ideal.
12.6. Let A be a commutative ring with identity. Prove that:
A is Artinian if and only if A Noetherian of dim 0.
From construction the ideal I0 is contained in I, because all generators were picked in I. If I , I0 , then there is a
nonzero polynomial h ∈ I with minimal degree such that h is not in I0 . Let d = deg h and let a leading coefficient of h.
Assume first that d ≥ N. Since a ∈ L we can write a as a linear combination of generators of L
a = r1 a1 + · · · + rn an .
Then,
g = r1 xd−e1 f1 + · · · + rn xd−en fn
is an element of I0 of the same degree d and with the same leading coefficient a as h. Then, h − g ∈ I is a polynomial
in I with smaller degree than h. Since h is with minimal degree must of we have h − g = 0, so h = g ∈ I0 , which is a
contradiction.
Next assume that d < N. In this case a ∈ Ld , for d < N. Hence, we can write
Then,
g = r1 fd,1 + · · · + rnd fnd
is a polynomial in I0 with of same degree d and with the same leading coefficient a as h, again we have contradiction.
Hence remains that I = I0 is finitely generated and since I is any ideal, this completes the theorem.
Exercises:
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David Hilbert
Born in Vlora (Albania) his family was sent to Kocul (a village of Vlora)
by the communist government when he was a little kid. Graduated from
"Gjimnazi Halim Xhelo" in Vlora, in 1985. During his senior year in high
school won the first place in the mathematical olympiad in the city of Vlora,
but was not allowed to represent the city in the national olympiad because
his family was considered ’kulaks’ by the communists. During the years
1988-89 did the mandatory service in the Albanian army.
In the Fall 1990, was allowed to attend the University of Tirana as a
student veterinary but changed to mathematics. In March 1991, after the
university was closed due to the unrest against the communists he left the
country and fled to Italy.
After spending a few months in Italy, he went to the USA and in Jan. 1992 enrolled at the University of Michigan.
Graduated from the University of Michigan in December 1994, majoring in mathematics and computer science.
After working for about a year in the industry, enrolled at the PhD program at the University of Florida in September
1996. Received a PhD in Spring 2001, working under the direction of Helmut Völklein and John Thompson.
After his degree, he held a postdoctorate position at the University of California at Irvine (2001-2003) and a
tenure track position at the University of Idaho (2003-2005), until he moved to Oakland University in 2005 where
he continues to this day.
His research combines questions of moduli spaces of algebraic curves, computational algebraic geometry,
interactions of group theory and algebraic geometry, Galois theory, arithmetic geometry, and applications of these
areas in cryptography and coding theory.
Prof. Shaska founded the Albanian Journal of Mathematics in 2007, has been the PI for two NATO Advanced
Study Institutes (2008, 2014), and organized many other conferences receiving support from NSF, NSA and other
agencies.
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Part II
Module theory
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Chapter 13
Introduction to modules
In this chapter we give a short introduction of modules and their basic properties.
Definition 13.1. Let R a ring (not necessarily ring with identity or Abelian ring). A left R-module or a left module over the
ring R is a set M together with
1. a binary operation + over M, with which the set M forms a Abelian group and
2. an operation of rings R over M (hence a map R × M → M ) which denoted by rm, for every m ∈ M which satisfies
conditions:
a) (r + s)m = rm + sm, for every r, s ∈ R and m ∈ M,
b) (rs)m = r(sm), for every r, s ∈ R and m ∈ M,
c) r(m + n) = rm + rn, for every r ∈ R and m, n ∈ M.
If the ring R has identity 1R then we add the axion
d) 1R · m = m, for every m ∈ M.
The term "left" means that the multiplication is done on the left. Similarly we can define an R -right module. If
a ring R is an Abelian ring and M is a left module, we can think of it as a right module by mr = rm, for every m ∈ M
and r ∈ R. When using the term "module" we always mean "left module". Modules which satisfy the condition 2(d)
are called module with identity and in this notes all modules will be with identity.
When the ring R is a field F, axioms of a R module are exactly the same with those of a vector spaces over field
F. Hence, we have
Lemma 13.1. Modules over a field F and vector spaces over F are the same.
Definition 13.2. Let R be a ring and M an R-module. A R-submodule of M is a subgroup N of M which is closed under the
multiplication by scalars o f R, which implies rn ∈ N, for every r ∈ R and n ∈ N.
Submodules of modules M are subsets of M which are also modules with operations on M. If R = F is a field,
submodules are the same with subspaces. Every R-module M has at least two submodules M and 0.
Example 13.1. Let R a ring. Then, M = R is an R -left module, where the multiplication is that of the ring R and addition is
also the same as that of R.
Every field F can be considered as a vector space (1 dimensional) over itself. When R is considered as a left module over
itself, submodules of R are exactly left ideals of R.
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Example 13.2. Let R = F be a field. As stated above every vector space over F is a F–module and conversely. Let n ∈ Z+ and
let
Fn = {(a1 , a2 , · · · , an )|ai ∈ F, for every i}
(which is called the affine space over F ). Fn can be considered as a vector space defining addition and of multiplication as
follows:
As in the case of Euclidean n -spaces (F = R ), the affine n -space is a vector space with dimension n over F.
Rn can be made an R-module defining addition and of multiplication as above. The module Rn is called free module with
rank n over R .
Example 13.4. Abelian groups can be modules for many different rings.
For example, if M is a R-module and S is a subring of R, where 1S = 1R , then M is automatically also an S -module. The
field R is an R–module, a Q–module is a Z–module.
Example 13.5. If M is a R-module and for an ideal I of R, am = 0 for every a ∈ I and for every m ∈ M, we say that M is
annihilated from I. In this case we can transform M to a (R/I)–module defining operations over the factor ring R/I over M
in such that
(r + I)m = rm, for every m ∈ M and for every coset r + I ∈ R/I .
Since am = 0 for every a ∈ I and for every m ∈ M the above is well defined and it is easy to prove that M is a R/I–module. In
particular when I is a maximal ideal in an Abelian ring R and IM = 0, then M is a vector space over field R/I.
Next we describe a test for submodules which is similar to the subgroup test.
Proposition 13.1 (The submodule test). Let R a ring and M a R-module. A subset N of M is a submodule of M if and only
if
1. N , ∅ and
Proof. If N is a submodule, then 0 ∈ N so N , ∅. Also N is closed under addition and under the action of elements
of R. Conversely, assume that (1) and (2) are true. Let’s have r = −1 and use the subgroup test to check that N is a
subgroup of M. In particular, 0 ∈ N. Now let x = 0 and use (2) to check that N is closed under the multiplication of
R.
Definition 13.3. Let R a Abelian ring with identity. A R–algebra is a ring A with identity together with a ring homomorphism
f : R → A, that maps 1R to 1A , such that the subring f (R) of A is contained in the center of A.
Definition 13.4. If A and B are two R–algebras, an R–algebra homomorphism (resp. an isomorphism) is a ring homomor-
phism (resp. isomorphism) ϕ : A → B which maps 1A to 1B such that ϕ(ra) = rϕ(a) for every r ∈ R and a ∈ A.
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Assume that A is a R–algebra. Then, A is a ring with identity so is a R –left module (with identity) which satisfies
the property:
r · (ab) = (r · a)b = a(r · b)
for every r ∈ R and a, b ∈ A. Conversely, over the ring A these conditions determine an R–algebra and often are used
as the definition of an R–algebra.
Exercises:
to be the collection of all finite fields of elements of the form am, where a ∈ I and m ∈ M. Prove that IM is a submodule of M.
13.4. Prove that any intersection of not empty submodules of a R-module is a submodule.
13.5. Let z a element of the center of R, so zr = rz for every r ∈ R. Prove that zM is a submodule of M, where
zM = {zm|m ∈ M}.
Prove that if R is ring of 2 × 2 matrices over a field and e is a matrix with 1 in position (1, 1) and 0 in all other positions, then
eR is n ot a R –left submodule.
13.6. If M is a finite Abelian group then M is a Z–module. Can we extend the action of Z on M such that M becomes a Q
-module?
A homomorphism R-modules is an isomorphism if it is injective and surjective. Modules M and N are called
isomorphic, denoted with M N, if there is an R-module isomorphism ϕ : M → N.
If ϕ : M → N is an R-module homomorphism, the kernel of ϕ is:
ker ϕ = {m ∈ M | ϕ(m) = 0}
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Conversely, if ϕ(rx + y) = rϕ(x) + ϕ(y), we get r = 1 for of seen that ϕ is additive and we get y = 0 for of seen that ϕ
is commutative with operation in of R over M.
Let ϕ, ψ elements of Hom R (M, N). Define ϕ + ψ such that
Then, ϕ + ψ ∈ HomR (M, N) and with this operation Hom R (M, N) is Abelian group. If R is commutative ring then for
r ∈ R define rϕ such that
(rϕ)(m) = r(ϕ(m)) for all m ∈ M.
Then, rϕ ∈ HomR (M, N) and with this action of R, the Abelian group Hom R (M, N) is a R-module.
Lemma 13.3. Hom R (M, N) is a R-module.
Proof. It is easy to prove that all axioms of Abelian groups and R-modules are satisfied with these definitions.
Notice that commutative property of rings R is used to show that rϕ satisfies the second axiom of a R-module
homomorphism, namely
Proposition 13.2. i) If ϕ ∈ Hom R (M, N) and ψ ∈ Hom R (M, N) then ψ ◦ ϕ ∈ Hom R (M, N).
ii) With the addition as above and with multiplication as composition of functions, Hom R (M, M) is ring with identity.
When R is commutative then Hom R (M, M) is an R–algebra.
Proof. i) Let given ϕ and ψ and r ∈ R, x, y ∈ L. Then, we have:
π : M → M/N,
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Proof. Since the group M is Abelian with addition +, the factor group M/N is an Abelian group. To see the operation
is well defined, assume that x + N = y + N, so x − y ∈ N. Since N is a left R-module, r(x − y) ∈ N. Thus, rx − ry ∈ N and
therefore rx + N = ry + N. Since action in M/N agrees with those in M, axioms to prove that M/N is a R-module are
easy to prove. For example, axiom 2(b) is proved as follows: for every r1 , r2 ∈ R and x + M/N, from the definition of
operation it of elements of rings over the elements of M/N
The other axioms are easy to prove and their proof is left as an exercise.
Finally natural projection π of given above is natural projection of the Abelian group M over the Abelian group
M/N, therefore is a group homomorphism with kernel N. It is left only prove that π is a homomorphism modules,
so π(rm) = rπ(m). However,
π(rm) = rm + N = r(m + N) = rπ(m)
This completes the proof.
We call the module M/N a quotient module.
Definition 13.6. Let A, B submodules of an R-module M. The sum of A and B is the set:
A + B = {a + b | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
Exercise 13.1. Prove that the sum of two submodules A and B is a submodule and is the smallest submodule that contains A
and B.
The following theorem combines four isomorphism theorems for modules. Their proof is similar to the proofs
for such theorems in the case of rings.
Theorem 13.1 (Isomorphism Theorems for Modules). i) Let M and N, R–module and let ϕ : M → N a homomorphism
R-modules. Then, ker ϕ is a submodule of modules M and m/ ker ϕ ϕ(M).
iii) Let M a R-module and Let’s are A and B submodules M where A ⊂ B. Then, (M/A)/(B/A) M/B.
iv) Let N a submodule of R-module M. There exists a bijection between submodules of M which contain N and submodules
of M/N. The correspondence is given from A ↔ A/N, for every A ⊇ N.
Proof. Exercise
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Lemma 13.4. Let N and Q be R-modules and f : N → P an homomorphism. Then the following are equivalent:
a) f is injective
b) fp : Np → Qp is injective for every prime p.
c) fm : Nm → Qm is injective for every maximal ideal m.
Proof. Exercise
Exercises:
13.7. Use the submodule criteria to prove that the kernel and the image of the homomorphism R-modules are submodule.
13.8. Prove that the relation "is R-module isomorphic " is a equivalence relation over for every set R-modules.
13.9. Give an example of a function from an R-module to another which is a group homomorphism but not a homomorphism
of R-modules.
13.10. Prove that Hom Z (Z/nZ, Z/mZ) Z/(m, n)Z.
RA = {r1 a1 + r2 a2 + · · · + rm am | r1 , . . . , rm ∈ R, a1 , . . . , am ∈ A, m ∈ Z+ }
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M1 × · · · × Mk := {(m1 , m2 , · · · , mk ) | mi ∈ Mi }
M1 × · · · × Mk .
Proposition 13.4. Let N1 , N2 , · · · , Nn submodules a R-module M. Then, the following are equivalent:
1. The function
π : N1 × N2 × · · · × Nk → N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk
(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) → a1 + a2 + · · · + ak
N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk N1 × N2 × · · · × Nk .
M = M1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mk
A R-module F is called a free module on the subset A of F if for every nonzero element x ∈ F, there exist unique
nonzero elements r1 , r2 , · · · , rn ∈ R and a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ A such that
x = r1 a1 + r2 a2 + · · · rn an
for some n ∈ Z+ . In this case we we say that A is a basis of free generators for F. If R is commutative ring cardinality
of A is called the rank of F.
Theorem 13.2. i) For any set A there exists a free R-module F(A) on the set A and an embedding
ι : A ,→ F(A)
ii) Moreover, F(A) satisfies the universal property, namely: If M is a R-module and
ϕ : A → M,
is any map of sets, then there is a unique R-module homomorphism φ : F(A) → M such that the following diagram is
commutative
iii) If A is a finite set {a1 , a2 , · · · , an }, then
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ι / F(A)
A
φ
ϕ
!
M
(r f )(a) = r f (a)
Prove that this is an R-module. Define the function
ι : A → F(A)
a → fa
where fa : A → R as follows f (a) = 1 and f (x) = 0 for all x , a. Thus, ι is an embedding.
To prove part ii), think of F(A) as all finite linear combinations of elements of A, where f = r1 a1 + · · · + rn an such
that f (ai ) = ri and is 0 everywhere else. By the definition of f ∈ F(A) each such expression is unique. Define
φ : F(A) → M
Xn n
X
f= ri ai → ri ϕ(ai )
i=1 i=1
By uniqueness of the expression for f , φ is a well defined R-module homomorphism. By definition of the map φ
the diagram commutes.
iii) By Proposition 13.4, part 3), we have that
Notice that R Rai , for all i, under that map r 7→ rai . By Proposition 13.4, part 1), we have that F(A) Rn .
Corollary 13.1. 1. If F1 and F2 are free modules over of same set A, there is a unique isomorphism between F1 and F2
which is the identity function in A.
2. If F is a R free module with basis A, then F F(A). Moreover, F has the universal property with respect to A, as has F(A).
When R = Z, a free module over the set A is a free Abelian group over A. If |A| = n, then F(A) is called a free
Abelian group with rank n and is isomorphic to Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z, n -times.
Lemma 13.5. Every module M is quotient of a free module.
Proof. Exercise
Theorem 13.3. M is a finitely generated R-module if and only if M is isomorphic to a quotient of Rn , for some n > 0.
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Lemma 13.6. Let R be a commutative ring and M a finitely generated R-module. If M = IM for some ideal I of R, then there
exists an x ∈ I such that
(1 − x)M = 0
Lemma 13.7 (Nakayama’s Lemma). Let R be a commutative ring, M a finitely generated R-module, and I an ideal of R
contained in the Jacobson radical J(R) of R. If IM = M then M = 0.
Exercise 13.5. Show that M is irreducible if and only if M , 0 and M is a cyclic module with any nonzero elements as a
generator. Determine all irreducible Z-modules.
Exercise 13.6. Let R be a commutative ring. Prove that an R-module M is irreducible if and only if M is isomorphic (as an
R-module) to R/I for some maximal ideal I.
Exercise 13.7. Show that if M and N are irreducible R-modules then every module homomorphism f : M → N is an
isomorphism.
Lemma 13.8 (Schur). If M is an irreducible R-module then EndR (M) is a division ring.
Proof.
Exercises:
13.11. Suppose that A is a commutative ring with identity. Let F(m) and F(n) be the free modules on m and n generators,
respectively. Prove that if F(m) F(n), then m = n.
(b) Give an example of a free A-module F such that two different basis of it have different cardinalities.
[Hint: A has to be non-commutative, otherwise b) is true]
13.12. (a) Suppose that R is a principal ideal domain. Prove that any submodule of a free R-module is free.
(b) Give an example of an ring R with 1 with an R-module F which is free but has a submodule which is not free.
13.13. Prove that if A and B are set with same cardinality, then free modules F(A) and F(B) are isomorphic.
13.14. Suppose that R is commutative. Prove that Rn Rm if and only if when n = m, so two free R-modules with finite rank
are isomorphic if and only if when they have same rank.
13.15. A R-module M is called a torsion module if for every m ∈ M there is an nonzero element r ∈ R such that rm = 0, i.e.
M = Tor(M). Prove that every finite Abelian group is a torsion Z–module. Give a example a the infinite Abelian group which
is a torsion Z–module.
13.16. Let R a integral domain. Prove that for every finitely generated torsion R–module M there is a non-zero element r ∈ R
such that rm = 0 for all m ∈ M. In other words, Ann(M) , 0.
13.17. Let N a submodule of modules M. Prove that if both M/N and N are finitely generated then so is M.
13.19. Let R be a commutative ring and F a free R-module of finite rank. Prove that, Hom R (F, R) F.
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M × N → F(M × N)
Let D be the Z-submodule of F(M × N) which is generated by elements of the following type
where x, x1 , x2 ∈ M, y, y1 , y2 ∈ N, and λ ∈ R.
Definition 13.7. The quotient Z-module F(M × N)/D will be called the tensor product of modules M and N and denoted by
M ⊗R N.
where x ∈ M, y ∈ N, and λ ∈ R.
Define the canonical mapping
j : M × N −→ M ⊗R N
(m, n) −→ (m, n) + D
j : M × N −→ M ⊗R N
(m, n) −→ m ⊕ n
Theorem 13.4. i) Let ψ : M ⊗ N → G be a Z-linear mapping into a Z-module G. The mapping ψ ◦ j : M × N → G is Z-bilinear
and R-balanced.
ii) Let G be any Abelian group and ϕ : M × N → G, be any Z-bilinear, R-balanced mapping. Then, there exists a unique
mapping ψ : M ⊗ N → G such that ϕ = ψj.
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Then, ϕ? (D) = 0, since ϕ is bilinear. The reader must verify this. Hence, we can define a homomorphism
ψ : M ⊗R N := F(M × N)/D → G
x ⊗R y := (x, y) + D → ϕ(x, y)
j
M×N / M ⊗R N
ψ
ϕ
%
G
(m1 + m2 ) ⊗ n = m1 ⊗ n + m2 ⊗ n
m ⊗ (n1 + n2 ) = m ⊗ n1 + m ⊗ n2
mr ⊗ n = m ⊗ rn
Example 13.10. The tensor product of non-zero modules may be zero. For example, take the two Z-modules M = Z/2Z and
N = Z/3Z. Then, in M ⊗ N we have
Hence,
Z ⊗Z Z/2Z 1 Q ⊗Z Z/2Z
Example 13.11. Notice that Q ⊗Z Z/2Z = 0. Indeed,
r r r
q ⊗ a = · 2 ⊗ a = ⊗ 2a = ⊗ 0 = 0
s s s
The existence of the map ψ : M ⊗ N → G, or the universal property, characterizes the tensor product. In other
words the following is true.
Proposition 13.5. Suppose that there is a R-module T such that for every Z-bilinear, R-balanced map ϕ : M ⊗ N → G there
exists a unique g : T → G such that g jT = ϕ. Then,
T M ⊗R N
Proof. Homework
To summarize we state the two main properties of the tensor product:
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jT
M×N /T
g
ϕ
"
G
ϕ :M × N → M0 ⊗ N0
(x, y) → u(x) ⊗ v(y)
j
M×N / M⊗N
u⊗v
ϕ
%
M0 ⊗ N 0
This mapping is denoted by u ⊗ v and is called the tensor product of the homomorphisms (or linear maps) u and
v. The canonical map (u, v) → u ⊗ v induces the map
M ⊗R N M 1 ⊗R N ⊕ M 2 ⊗ N
Proof. Notes
Exercise 13.10. Let M = Q and M1 = Z. Why the above theorem does not work in this case? What about the case M = Z and
M1 = 2Z?
(sm)r = s(mr)
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ψs (m ⊗ n) = sm ⊗ n.
j
M×N / M⊗N
∃! ψs
ϕs
%
M⊗N
S × M ⊗R N → M ⊗R N
(s, m ⊗ n) → ψs (m ⊗ n) = sm ⊗ n
R ⊗R M → M
r⊗m → m
is well defined. Its inverse is
M → R ⊗R M
m → 1⊗m
is well defined.
Exercises:
R/I ⊗R M M/IM
for a R-module M.
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Q ⊗Z M ⊕ri=1 Q
where r is rank of M.
13.23. Let M, N, S, R-module. Prove that:
M ⊗R (N ⊗R S) (M ⊗R N) ⊗R S
13.26. Suppose that R is a ring with identity. For each left R-module M, HomR (R, M) is naturally R-isomorphic to M. Prove
this, and explain what the “natural” part is all about.
13.27. Suppose that R and S are rings with identity. Let S AR be an S-R-bimodule, and B be a left R-module. Prove that A ⊗R B
has a unique scalar multiplication making it a left S-module, so that s(a ⊗ b) = sa ⊗ b, for each s ∈ S, a ∈ A, and b ∈ B.
where Img ψ = ker ϕ. A pair of homomorphisms with this property is called exact.
α β
Definition 13.8. The pair of homomorphisms X → Y → Z is said to be exact at Y if Img α = ker β. A sequence of
homomorphisms
· · · → xn−1 → xn → xn+1 → · · ·
is called exact sequence if it is exact in every xn between a pair of homomorphisms.
Proposition 13.6. Let A, B and C, be R-modules and 0 is the zero module. Then,
i) The sequence
ψ
0→A→B
is exact (in A ) if and only if ψ is injective.
ii) The sequence
ϕ
B→C→0
is exact in C if and only if ϕ is surjective.
Proof. The homomorphism ψ : 0 → A has image 0 in A. This will be the kernel of ψ if and only if ψ is injective.
Similarly, the kernel of the homomorphism zero C → 0 is all of C which is the image of ϕ if and only if ϕ is surjective.
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[n] π
O → Z → Z → Z/nZ → O
where with [n] denote the function x → nx and π denote the natural projection.
Notice that modules of the above short exact sequences are not isomorphic even though A and C are isomorphic.
Thus, there exist at least two different ways to obtain non equivalent extension of degree n Z/nZ over Z.
Example 13.14. If ϕ : B → C is a homomorphism we can always construct the short exact sequence
ϕ
0 → ker ϕ ,→ B → Img ϕ → O.
Let
O→A→B→C→O
and
O → A0 → B0 → C0 → O
be two short exact sequences.
i) A homomorphism of exact short sequences is a triple α, β, γ of homomorphisms modules such that the
following diagram is commutative:
0 /A /B /C /0
α β γ
0 / A0 / B0 / C0 /0
A homomorphism is an isomorphism of exact short sequences if α, β, γ are all isomorphisms. In this case
extensions B and B0 are called isomorphic extensions.
ii) The two exact sequences are called equivalent if A = A0 , C = C0 and there is a isomorphism between them as
in the above diagram. In this case B and B0 are called equivalent extension.
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0 /A /B /C /0
α β γ
0 / A0 / B0 / C0 /0
Lemma 13.9 (The short five lemma). Let α, β, γ be homomorphisms of short exact sequences as in the diagram
Then the following are true:
i) If α and γ are injective then so is β
ii) If α and γ are surjective then so is β.
ii) If α and γ are isomorphisms then so is β.
Proof.
Let R be a ring and
ψ ϕ
0→A→B→C→0
be a short exact sequence of R-modules. We say that this sequence is split if there is an R-module complement
of ψ(A) in B. In this case B = ψ(A) ⊕ C0 for some submodule C0 of B. Since ψ is injective and ϕ is surjective then
B A ⊕ C.
Suppose now that we have a short exact sequence
ψ ϕ
1→A→B→C→1
Then,
00
dim V 0 + dim V = dim V
ii) Let the following be an exact sequence of finite-dimensional vector spaces over a field k.
0 −→ V1 −→ V2 −→ V3 −→ V4 −→ 0
Then,
dim V4 = dim V3 − dim V2 + dim V1
Proof.
Exercises:
X0 −→ X → X” −→ 0
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A ⊗R N −→ A ⊗R M −→ A ⊗R P −→ 0
is exact.
13.30. Let A be a commutative ring with identity, and S be a multiplicative system of A. Prove that S−1 (·) is a covariant
functor which carries short exact sequences of A-modules to short exact sequences of S−1 A-modules.
13.31. Assume that R is a ring with identity, and that every short exact sequence of with unity R-modules splits. Prove that
every with unity R -module is isomorphic to a direct sum of simple R-submodules.
13.33. If O is a local ring with maximal ideal m, there is a natural exact sequence of O-modules
P
h
f
~
M / M00 /0
g
Proof.
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f
0 /X /Y
g
h
Q
Divisible groups
An abelian group G is divisible if and only if for every positive integer n and every g ∈ G, there exists y ∈ G such
that ny = g.
An abelian group G is divisible if and only if G is an injective object in the category of abelian groups, so a
divisible group is sometimes called an injective group.
Lemma 13.10. Prove that:
(a) An abelian group is injective if and only if it is divisible.
(b) Over a PID a module is injective if and only if it is divisible.
Proof. Homework
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M0 ⊗R N → M ⊗R N → M” ⊗R N → 0
is exact.
Proof.
Hence, for every module, we have the following
Proof. Let
0→P→K→Q→0
be an exact sequence of B-modules. We want to show that
0 → P ⊗B (B ⊗A M) → K ⊗B (B ⊗AM M) → Q ⊗B (B ⊗A M) → 0
is exact.
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P ⊗B (B ⊗A M) (P ⊗B B) ⊗A M P ⊗A M
A ,→ AP
AP ⊗A M = S−1 A ⊗A M S−1 M = MP
is flat as an AP -module.
b) =⇒ a) : is obvious.
c) =⇒ a) : Use Lemma 13.4.
Exercises:
13.34. (a) Give an example of a projective module which is not free. Explain.
(b) Give an example of a ring with identity and a free module possessing a submodule which is not free.
13.35. Let R be a ring with identity. Prove that a direct sum of left R-modules is projective if and only if each summand is
projective.
13.36. Assume that R is a ring with identity. Prove that every free R-module is projective.
13.37. Prove that every abelian group G can be embedded as a subgroup of a divisible abelian group.
13.38. Let G be an abelian group. Prove that G has a subgroup d(G) which is divisible and contains all divisible subgroups of
G, and, moreover, that d(G) is a summand of G, such that G/d(G) has no nontrivial divisible subgroups.
13.39. Let R be a ring with identity. Prove that a direct product of left R-modules is injective if and only if each factor is
injective.
13.40. Let R be a ring with identity, and J be an indecomposable injective left R-module, and S = EndR (J). Prove that for all
s ∈ S at least one of s or 1 − s is a unit.
[Hint: Recall that an injective module J is indecomposable if and only if every two nonzero submodules of J have nontrivial
intersection.]
13.41. Let R be a ring with identity.
(a) Define flat left R-module.
(b) Prove that a direct is flat if and only if each module is flat.
(c) Prove that a free left R-module is flat.
(d) Prove that every projective module is flat.
13.42. Suppose that R is a ring with identity, and that every short exact sequence of unital R-modules splits. Prove that every
unital R-module is isomorphic to a direct sum of simple R-submodules.
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13.43. Let
0 −→ A −→ B −→ P −→ 0
be an exact sequence of commutative groups with A and B of orders a and b respectively such that (a, b) = 1. Let
B‘ = {x ∈ E : bx = 0}. The group E is the direct sum of A and B‘. Moreover, B‘ is the only subgroup of E isomorphic to B.
13.44. Let A be a commutative ring with identity. For each multiplicative set S of A, prove that S−1 A is a flat A-module.
13.45. Let A be a commutative ring with identity. For each multiplicative system S of A, prove that the contraction Q 7→ Q ∩ A
is an order isomorphism from Spec(S−1 A) onto the subset of Spec(A) consisting of all prime ideals P of A which are disjoint
from S.
13.46. Suppose that R is a principal ideal domain (PID) and F its field of fractions. For every R-module torsion free M, prove
that M ⊗R F is the injective hull of M. (You may use any results about injective and flat modules over a PID; please identify
them clearly.)
13.47. Suppose that A is a commutative ring with identity. If P and Q are projective A-modules, prove that P ⊗A Q is also
projective.
13.48. Suppose that R is a principal ideal domain and F is its field of fractions. For any torsion-free R-module M, prove that
M ⊗R F is the injective hull of M. (You may use any results about injective and flat modules over a PID; please identify them
clearly.)
f g
M / M0 / M00 /0
α β γ
0 / N0 /N / N00
f g
Lemma 13.14 (Snake Lemma). Given a snake diagram as above, the map
δ : ker γ → Coker α
induced by δz00 = f −1 ◦ β ◦ g−1 z00 is well defined and the following sequence is exact
ker α → ker β → ker γ → Coker α → Coker β → Coker γ
Proof.
Exercises:
13.49. Assume that A is a commutative ring with identity. Let F(m) and F(n) be the free modules on M and n generators,
respectively. Prove that if F(m) F(n), then m = n.
(b) Give an example of a free A-module F such that two different basis of it have different cardinalities.
[Hint: A has to be non-commutative, otherwise b) is true]
13.50. Let R be a ring with identity, and J be an indecomposable injective left R-module, and S = EndR (J). Prove that for all
s ∈ S at least one of s or 1 − s is a unit.
[Hint: Recall that an injective module J is indecomposable if and only if every two nonzero submodules of J have nontrivial
intersection.]
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f g
M0 /M / M00 /0
α β γ
0 / N0 /N / N00
f g
Coker α / Coker β / Coker γ
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Chapter 14
M1 ⊆ M2 ⊆ M3 ⊆ · · ·
Proof. (1 ⇒ 2) Assume that M is Notherian and let Σ the collection of nonempty submodules of M. Let m1 ∈ Σ. If
m1 is maximal then (2) is true, so assume that m1 is not maximal. Then, there is a m2 ∈ Σ such that m1 ⊂ m2 . If m2 is
maximal in Σ, then (2) is true, otherwise we can assume that there is an m3 ∈ Σ which contains m2 . If we continue
this way then we get an infinite strictly increasing chain of elements of Σ, which contradicts (1).
(2 ⇒ 3) Assume that 2) holds and let N be a submodule of M. Let Σ the collection of all finitely generated
submodules of N. Since {0} ∈ Σ, this collection is not empty. By 2) we have that Σ contains an maximal element
N0 . If N0 , N, let x ∈ N \ N0 . Since N0 ∈ Σ, the submodule N0 is finitely generated by assumption. Therefore, the
submodule generated by hN0 , xi is finitely generated. This contradicts the maximality of N0 . Hence, N = N0 is
finitely generated.
(3 ⇒ 1) Let
M1 ⊆ M2 ⊆ · · ·
be a chain of submodules of M. Let
∞
[
N= Mi
i=1
It can easily be proved that N is a submodule of M and by assumption it is finitely generated, say by
a1 , a2 , · · · , an .
m = max{ j1 , j2 , · · · , jn }.
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Then, ai ∈ Mm , for all i. Hence, the module that they generate is contained in Mm . Thus, N ⊆ Mm . This implies
Mm = N = Mk for every k ≥ m, which proves 1).
Corollary 14.1. If R is a PID then every nonempty set of ideals of R has an maximal element and R is a Notherian ring.
r1 y1 + r2 y2 + · · · + rn+1 yn+1 = 0
Proposition 14.1. Let R be an a integral domain and let M be a free R-module with rank n < ∞. Then, any n + 1 elements of
M are R-linearly dependent.
Proof. Let e1 , e2 , · · · , en be a basis for M and y1 , y2 , · · · , yn+1 , are distinct elements of M. For 1 ≤ i ≤ n + 1, we have
in terms of basis e1 , e2 , · · · , en .
Let A be a (n + 1) × (n + 1) matrix whose the i, j entry is ai j , 1 ≤ o f ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n + 1 and whose last row is zero.
Therefore, det A = 0. Since R is integral domain from Corollary 14.1 shows columns of A are R-linearly dependent.
This implies dependence relations on the yi ’s. This completes the proof.
Tor (M) is a submodule of M, which is called the torsion submodule of M. If N is a submodule of Tor (M), then N
is called a torsion submodule of M. If Tor (M) = 0, then the module M is called torsion free.
For a submodule N of M, the annihilator of N is the ideal of R defined as:
Notice that if N is not a submodule torsion of M then Ann (N) = (0). It is easy to prove that if N and L are submodules
M where N ⊆ L then Ann (L) ⊆ Ann (N). If R is be a PID and N ⊆ L ⊆ M with Ann (N) = (a) and Ann (L) = (b), then
a | b. In particular, annihilator of for every the element x of M divides the annihilator of M (this follows from
Lagrange’s Theorem when R = Z.)
Definition 14.1. For every integral domain R the rank of an R-module M is the maximum number of R-linearly independent
elements of M.
Theorem 14.2. Let R a PID, let M be a free R-module with finite rank n, and N a submodule of M. Then, the following hold:
1) N is free with rank m ≤ n,
2) there exist a basis y1 , y2 , · · · , yn of M such that a1 y1 , a2 y2 , · · · , am ym is a basis for N where the elements a1 , a2 , · · · , am are
nonzero elements of R such that
a1 |a2 | · · · |am .
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π:R→C
π(r) = rx
which is surjective from the assumption that C = Rx. From the First Isomorphism Theorem for rings Theorem 9.4
we have an isomorphism of R-modules
R/ ker π C
If R is a PID, ker π is a principal ideal, (a), so modules cyclic are of the form R/(a) where (a) = Ann (C).
Theorem 14.3 (Fundamental Theorem, Existence: Invariant Factor Form). Let R be a PID and Mbe a finitely generated
R-module.
1. Then, M is isomorphic to a direct sum of finitely many cyclic modules. More precisely,
for some integer r ≥ 0 and the elements nonzero a1 , a2 , · · · , am ∈ R which are not units in R and which satisfy
a1 |a2 | · · · |am
as rings and also as R-module. Applying this to the decomposition from the Theorem 14.3 we complete the proof.
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α α
Let R be a PID and let M a R-module finitely generated as in above theorem. The prime powers p1 1 p2 2 · · · pαt t (up
to multiplication by units) are called elementary divisors of M.
Assume that M is a finitely generated torsion module over R, where R is a PID. Then, for distinct primes
p1 , p2 , · · · , pn that appear in above theorem we group together all cyclic factors that correspond to the same prime pi .
Then, M can be written as direct sum:
M = N1 ⊕ N2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Nn
where Ni contains all the elements of M which are annihilated from some power of pi . Then, we have the following:
Theorem 14.5 (The Primary Decomposition Theorem). Let R be a PID, M be a nonzero torsion R-module, Ann (M) = hai,
such that
α α
a = u · p1 1 p2 2 · · · pαnn ,
where p1 , . . . , pn are distinct primes, and
α
Ni = {x ∈ M|pi i x = 0}, 1 ≤ o f ≤ n.
α
Then, Ni is a submodule of M, Ann (Ni ) = hpi i } and
M = N1 ⊕ N2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Nn .
If M is finitely generated, then for every Ni is direct sum of a finitely many cyclic modules whose annihilators are divisors of
α
pi i .
iii) Let
M = R/(a1 ) ⊕ R/(a2 ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ R/(ak )
where each ai is divisible by p. Then, M/pM Fk .
1. Two finitely generated R-modules M1 and M2 are isomorphic if and only if they have of the same free rank and the same
list of invariant factors.
2. Two finitely generated R-modules M1 and M2 are isomorphic if and only if they have of the same free rank and the same
list of elementary divisors.
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Exercises:
f (A) = 0.
I, A, A2 , . . . , As
are linearly dependent for s > n2 . Thus, there exist a0 , . . . , as such that
as As + . . . aA + a0 I = 0.
Take f (x) = as xs + . . . a1 x + a0 .
Definition 14.2. We call the minimal polynomial of A the unique monic polynomial m ∈ k[x] of minimal degree such that
m(A) = 0. The minimal polynomial of A is denoted by mA (x).
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and we denote it by C f .
Lemma 14.2. Let f (x) ∈ k[x] and C f its companion matrix. The characteristic polynomial of C f is
char (C f , x) = f (x).
Proof. Exercise.
For a given matrix A the characteristic polynomial char (A, x) = det(xI − A). The matrix (xI − A) can be considered
as a matrix over the field k(x). Moreover, A is also in Matn×n ( k(x) ). In the next theorem we show how every
matrix in Matn×n ( k(x) ) can be transformed into a diagonal matrix by the elementary operations. These elementary
operations consist of
ii) Adding a multiple (in k[x]) of one row or column to another (Ri −→ q(x) · Ri + R j ).
Two matrices A and B, one of which can be obtained by a sequence of elementary operations on the other, are called
Gaussian equivalent. For matrices whose entries are polynomials we have the following:
Theorem 14.8. Let M ∈ Matn×n ( k[x] ). Then, using elementary operations the matrix M can be put in a diagonal form
1
·
·
1
e1 (x)
·
·
·
es (x)
Proof. We will use the elementary operations to transform M into a diagonal matrix. Among all matrices which are
Gaussian equivalent to M pick the one which has the entry of smallest degree. Let such matrix be A = [ai j (x)] and
the entry with lowest degree is ai j =: m(x).
By an interchange of rows and columns bring this entry in (1, 1)-position. All entries of the first column can be
written as (Euclidean algorithm)
a1 j = m(x) q j (x) + r j (x)
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m(x)
r (x)
2
. . .
.
. . .
rn (x)
Choose the entry m0 (x) with the smallest degree from the first column and by a row change move that to the
(1, 1)-position. Perform the same process as above. Then degrees of r0j (x) will decrease by at least one. Since k[x] is
an Euclidean domain this process will end after finitely many steps and the first column will look like
m1 (x)
0
. . . .
. . .
0
Indeed, the maximum number of steps can be no bigger then deg m(x).
Next we perform the same procedure for the first row to get
m2 (x) 0 ... 0
a0 (x) a0 (x)
2,1 2,2
... a02,n (x)
a0 (x) a0 (x) ... a03,n (x)
3,1 3,2
. . .
...
0
an,1 (x) a0n,2 (x) 0
an,n (x)
Continuing again with the first column and so on, we get a sequence of operations
A → A(1) → A(2) → . . .
Let mi (x) denote the entry in the (1, 1)-position after the i-th step. Then
where e1 (x) has the smallest degree and divides all the entries a00
i,j
(x).
Now we perform the same procedure focusing on the next row and column. Finally we will have
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Remark 14.1. If any of ei (x) = 0 then it will occur in the last position since all other e j (x), j , i must divide ei (x).
Definition 14.4. Let A ∈ Matn×n (k). Then by the above theorem the matrix xI − A can be put into the diagonal form
1
·
·
1
e1 (x)
·
·
·
es (x)
such that ei (x) are monic and ei (x) | ei+1 (x), for i = 1, . . . , s − 1. This is called the Smith normal form for A and elements ei (x)
of nonzero degree are called invariant factors of A.
Lemma 14.3. The characteristic polynomial of A is the product of its invariant factors up to multiplication by a constant.
Proof. We have
char (A, x) = det(xI − A).
for some c ∈ k.
Lemma 14.4. Let e1 (x), . . . es (x) be the invariant factors of A such that
The minimal polynomial ma (x) is the largest invariant factor of A. In other words
es (x) = mA (x).
Proof. Exercise
Example 14.1. Find the Smith normal form of the matrix A given as follows:
2 -2 14
A := 0 3 -7
0 0 2
Solution: We have
x - 2 2 - 14
xI − A = 0 x-3 7
0 0 x-2
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x − 2 2 - 14
C ←→C
xI − A = 0
x−3 7 1−→ 2
0 0 x−2
2 x−2 - 14
R →(x−3)R −2R
x − 3
0 7 2 −→ 1 2
0 0 x−2
2 x−2 - 14
C →(x−2)C −2C
0
(x − 2)(x − 3) −14(x − 2) 2 −→ 1 2
0 0 x−2
2 0 - 14
R1 → 1 R1 , R2 →− 1 R2
0 2 2
−2(x − 2)(x − 3) −14(x − 2)
−→
0 0 x−2
1 0 -7
C →7C +C
0 (x − 2)(x − 3) 7(x − 2) 3 1 3
−→
0 0 x−2
1 0 0
C ←→C
0 (x − 2)(x − 3) 7(x − 2) 2 3
−→
0 0 x−2
1 0 0
R →R −7R
0 7(x − 2) (x − 2)(x − 3) 3 2 3
−→
0 (x − 2) 0
1 0 0
C →(x−3)C −7C
0 7(x − 2) (x − 2)(x − 3) 3 2 3
−→
0 0 (x − 2)(x − 3)
1 0 0
R2 → 1 R2 , R3 →− 1 R3
0 7 7
7(x − 2) 0
−→
0 0 −7(x − 2)(x − 3)
1 0 0
0 (x − 2) 0
0 0 (x − 2)(x − 3)
which is the Smith normal form Smith (A). The reader can check that the characteristic polynomial of Smith (A) and A are the
same.
Exercises:
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3. Let A be a 2 by 2 matrix with entries in Q such that char (A, x) = x2 + 1. Find the minimal polynomial of A.
Let A be a 3 by 3 matrix with entries in Q such that char (A, x) = f (x). Find the minimal polynomial mA (x) of
A. Can you generalize to a degree n polynomial?
5. Find the Smith normal form of matrices in the previous two exercises.
7. Determine all possible Smith normal forms of a matrix A with characteristic polynomial
8. Find all possible Smith normal forms of a matrix A with characteristic polynomial
char (A, x) = x3 − 1.
Programming exercises:
1) Write a computer program which finds the Smith normal form of a given matrix A.
C1
C2
·
·
·
Cs
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is called the rational canonical form of A and is denoted by Rat (A). The word rational is used to indicate that this
form is calculated entirely within the field k. Notice that,
e1 (x) · · · es (x) = c · char (A, x)
implies that
deg e1 + · · · + deg es = deg char (A, x).
Hence, A and Rat (A) have the same dimensions.
Example 14.2. Find the rational canonical form of the matrix
2 -2 14
A := 0 3 -7
0 0 2
Solution: We found the invariant factors of this matrix in Example 14.1 in the last section. They are e1 (x) = x − 2 and
e2 (x) = (x − 2)(x − 3). Then the rational form of A is
2
Rat (A) = 0 -6
1 5
Theorem 14.9. Let k be a field and A ∈ Matn×n (k). Then the following hold:
i) Two matrices in Matn×n (k) are similar if and only if have the same rational form.
ii) The rational form of A is unique.
Proof. Let A be similar to B. Then char A (x) = char B (x) as polynomials over k. Hence, the Smith normal form is the
same for A and B. Thus, A and B have the same rational form.
If A and B have the same rational form, then they have the same invariant factors.
ii) There is only a unique choice of invariant factors. Hence a unique rational form.
Example 14.3. Let A be a 10 by 10 matrix such that its invariant factors are
e1 (x) = x − 2
e2 (x) = (x − 2)(x3 + x + 1) (14.1)
e3 (x) = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + x + 1) 3
e2 (x) = x4 − 2x3 + x2 − x − 2
(14.2)
e3 (x) = x5 − 5x4 + 7x3 − 4x2 + x + 6
Hence, the rational canonical form of A is
2
0 0 0 2
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 -1
0 0 1 2
Rat (A) =
0 0 0 0 -6
1 0 0 0 -1
0 1 0 0 4
0 0 1 0 -7
0 0 0 1 5
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Example 14.4. Let A be a 8 by 8 matrix such that its invariant factors are
e1 (x) = x3 + x + 1
(14.3)
e2 (x) = (x2 + 2)(x3 + x + 1) = x5 + 3x3 + x2 + 2x + 2
0 0 -1
1 0 -1
0 1 0
0 0 0 0 -2
Rat (A) =
1 0 0 0 -2
0 1 0 0 -1
0 0 1 0 -3
0 0 0 1 0
Exercises:
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
A =
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Theorem 14.10. (Cayley - Hamilton) Let A ∈ Matn×n (k), mA (x) its minimal polynomial, and char A (x) the characteristic
polynomial of A. Then,
mA (x) | char A (x).
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Proof. Let e1 (x), . . . , es (x) be the invariant factors of A such that ei (x) | ei+1 (x), for i = 1, . . . s. We know that
Since es (A) = mA (A) = 0 and es (x) | char A (x), then char A (A) = 0.
Since m(x) is the minimal polynomial then
Furthermore, mA (A) = 0. We check that A − I , 0 and (A − I)2 = 0. Hence the minimal polynomial is
mA (x) = (x − 1)2
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2. 2) Transform it to the Smith normal form and keep track of all the elementary operations.
3. 3) For each of the operations of step 2, perform the following operations on the identity matrix I by converting to the
following rules:
a) Ri ←→ R j =⇒ Ci ←→ C j
b) Ri −→ q(x) · Ri + R j =⇒ Ci −→ q(x) · Ci + C j
c) Ri −→ u · Ri , for u ∈ k =⇒ Ci −→ u · C j
4. 4) The matrix obtained after performing these operations on I is the sought matrix C.
Exercises:
4. Prove that two non-scalar 2 × 2 matrices over k are similar if and only if they have the same characteristic
polynomial.
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6. Determine all possible rational canonical forms for a matrix with characteristic polynomial
7. Determine all possible rational canonical forms for a matrix with characteristic polynomial
f (x) = xp − 1
for an odd prime p.
9. Find all similarity classes of 2 × 2 matrices with entries in Q and precise order 4 (i.e, A4 = I).
Programming exercises:
1) Write a computer program which finds the rational canonical normal form of a given matrix A.
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P−1 (A − αI)P = D
α 1
α 1
α 1
D + αI = · ·
· ·
α
1
α
A matrix is in Jordan canonical form if it is a block diagonal matrix
J1
J2
J = .
.
Jn
For each αi , i = 1, . . . , er we have a Jordan block. Since the product of all the invariant factors equals the characteristic
polynomial of A, the combination of all the Jordan blocks along the diagonal will create an n by n matrix (same
dimensions as A).
Remark 14.2. The Jordan canonical form of a matrix A is diagonal if and only if A is diagonalizable.
Example 14.6. Both matrices
0 1 1 1 5 2 -8 -8
1 0 1 1 -6 -3 8 8
A = , B = ,
1 1 0 1 -3 -1 3 4
1 1 1 0 3 1 -4 -5
Solution: The minimal polynomial for A and B is one of the following polynomials:
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We check that (A − 3I) (A + I) = 0. In the same way we check that (B − 3I) (B + I) = 0. Hence, the minimal polynomial of A
and B is
m(x) = (x − 3) (x + 1).
Its Smith normal forms are
1
x+1
Smith (A) = Smith (B) =
x+1
(x − 3)(x + 1)
Thus, A and B are similar. Further, A and B are diagonalizable matrices and we can diagonalize them using the techniques of
the previous chapter.
Example 14.7. Let A be a matrix such that its invariant factors are
e1 (x) =(x − 2)2 (x2 + 1)
(14.5)
e2 (x) =(x − 2)3 (x2 + 1)2
Find the rational and Jordan canonical form of A.
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2 1 0
A = 0 2 0
0 0 3
Solution: Then char (A, λ) = (λ − 2)2 (λ − 3). For the eigenvalue λ = 2, the algebraic multiplicity is 2 and the eigenspace is
given by
1
E2 = {t 0 | t ∈ Q}
0
The geometric multiplicity is 1, hence A is not similar to the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues.
We have
xI − A =
x − 2 1 0 C ←→C 1 x−2 0
R =(x−2)R −R
0 1 2 2 1 2
x−2 0 −→ x − 2 0 0 −→
0 0 x−3 0 0 x−3
1 x−2 0 C =(x−2)C −C 1 0 0
R ←→R
C 2←→C3
2 1 2 2 3
0 (x − 2)2 0 −→ 0 - (x − 2)2 0 −→
0 0 x−3 0 0 x−3
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 x−3 0 −→ 0 1 0
0 0 (x − 2)2 0 0 (x − 2)2 (x − 3)
Instead we could have recognized that A was already in the Jordan canonical form. Notice that the geometric multiplicity for
each eigenvalue is 1 and there is one Jordan block for each eigenvalue. Also the algebraic multiplicities of the eigenvalues are 2
and 1 and the corresponding Jordan blocks are of sizes 2 and 1 respectively. We will see that these facts are not a coincidence.
Exercises:
char (A, x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1
Find the rational form of A over Q and the Jordan canonical form of A over C.
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3. Compute the Jordan canonical form of the matrix with characteristic polynomial f (x) = xn − 1, for n ≥ 2.
4. Show that if A2 = A then A is similar to a diagonal matrix which has only 0’s and 1’s along the diagonal.
8. Determine the Jordan canonical form for the n × n matrix over Q whose entries are all 1.
2π
9. Let A be the 2 × 2 matrix which corresponds to the rotation of the complex plane by 5 . Find the Jordan
canonical form of A. Explain in terms of complex numbers.
10. Let A be the 2 × 2 matrix which corresponds to the transformation of the complex plane T(z) = 1z . Find the
Jordan canonical form of A. Explain in terms of complex numbers.
Programming exercises:
1) Write a computer program which finds the Jordan canonical form of a given matrix A.
1. Find the rational canonical form of the 5 by 5 matrix A with characteristic polynomial
2. Let A be a n by n matrix which has n distinct eigenvalues λ1 , . . . , λn . Find the Jordan canonical form of A.
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3 1 0 -1
4 0 0 3
A =
-4 2 2 -3
2 -4 0 7
7 -1 0 2
-10 4 0 -4
A =
5 -1 2 2
-15 3 0 -4
8. Let A be a strictly upper triangular matrix (all entries on the main diagonal and below are 0). Prove that A is
nilpotent.
2π
9. Let A be the 2 × 2 matrix which corresponds to the rotation of the complex plane by n . Find the Jordan
canonical form of A. Explain in terms of complex numbers.
10. Determine the set of similarity classes of 3 × 3 matrices A, over C, which satisfy A3 = 1.
11. Determine the set of similarity classes of 3 × 3 matrices A, over C, which satisfy A6 = 1.
12. Determine the set of similarity classes of 6 × 6 matrices A, over C, with characteristic polynomial:
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ϕ:Z→F
n → n · 1F
Then, ker(ϕ) = p Z. From the First Isomorphism Theorem Theorem 9.4 we have that
Thus, F contains and isomorphic copy of Zp := Z/pZ. This motivates the following definition:
Definition 15.1. The prime subfield of a field F is a subfield of F generated by 1F .
Now we summarize the previous discussion in the following theorem.
Theorem 15.2. Let F be a field. If char F = 0, the prime subfield of F is isomorphic to Q. If char F = p > 0, the prime subfield
is isomorphic to Zp .
Proof. If char (F) = 0, then the map ϕ : Z → F has ker ϕ = {0} and therefore is injective. In this case, F contains an
isomorphic copy of Z. Hence, it contains the field of fractions of Z as a subfield. Thus, F contains an isomorphic
copy of Q.
If char F = p > 0, then ϕ(1) = 1F . Hence, 1 f ∈ Img (ϕ) Zp and Zp contains no proper subfields. Hence, the prime
subfield of F is Img (ϕ). Hence, the prime subfield of F is isomorphic to either Q or Zp .
Exercise 15.1. Let F be a field. Then, there exists a unique subfield of F which is a prime field, and this is the least subfield of F.
Exercise 15.2. For a field to be prime it is necessary and sufficient that it contains no subfield other then itself.
1 if char F = 0
(
q=
p if char F = p > 0
Lemma 15.2. Let F be a field of characteristic exponent q. For every integer n ≥ 0 the mapping
ϕ :F → F
n
x → xq
n
is an isomorphism of F on one of its subfields (denoted by Fq ).
Proof. In the case q = 1 then this statement is trivial. If q , 1 then this is simply an extension of Theorem 15.1. Indeed,
n−1 n !
pn pn
X p n n
(a + b) = a +···+ · ai bp −i + · · · bp
i
i=2
pn
All i
are divisible by p. Hence
n n n
(a + b)p = ap + bp
The formula
n n n
(ab)p = ap · bp
is easy to prove.
A field F with characteristic exponent q is called perfect if Fq = F, otherwise is called imperfect.
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Proposition 15.1. If F is a field of characteristic 0, or if F is a finite field, then F is perfect. In particular prime fields are perfect
fields.
Proof. If F has characteristic 0 then q = 1 and obviously F1 = F. If F has characteristic p > 0 and is finite then the
subfield Fp of F has the same cardinal as F. Thus, Fp = F and F is perfect. Since a prime field either has characteristic
zero or is finite then prime fields are perfect.
Imperfect fields do exists.
Solution: Let F be a field of characteristic p > 0 and F(x) be the field of rational functions over F in the indeterminate
f (x)
x. There exists no element g(x) in F(x) such that
!p
f (x)
= x.
g(x)
p
= x g(x) p . Therefore, for r = deg f and s = deg g we have
Indeed, if this were true then f (x)
rp = 1 + sp
Exercises:
15.1. Let F be a field and p(x) ∈ F[x]. Show that F[x]/hp(x)i is a field if and only if p(x) is irreducible in F[x].
15.2. Let F be a finite field of characteristic p > 0. Prove that |F| = pn , for some positive integer n.
15.5. In a field F with characteristic p > 0, prove the formula: for every two elements x, y ∈ F,
(x + y)p = xp + yp .
is an automorphism of F.
15.9. Let C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R} be the set of complex numbers. Prove directly the C/R is a field extension. Let φ : C 7→ C be
defined as
a + bi 7→ a − bi
This is called the conjugation map. Prove that the conjugation map is an automorphism of C.
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Exercise 15.3. Let F/K be a field extension. Show that F is a vector space over K, where the vector addition and scalar
multiplication are the addition and multiplication of the field.
Let be given the extension L/K. The degree of the extension, which is denoted
L
by [L : K], is called the dimension of the vector space L over K. In other words, the
cardinality of the basis of L over K. If [L : K] is finite (resp., infinite) then the field
extension is finite (resp., infinite) extension. It is very useful to also use diagrams to
K
denote such extensions.
A ring homomorphism among fields is called a field homomorphism. The following result is obvious.
Proof. We of we know that ker(ϕ) is an ideal of F. However F has as ideals only 0 and F. If ker ϕ = 0, then ϕ is
injective. If n ker(ϕ) = F, then ϕ = 0.
A field homomorphism σ : F → F which is bijective is called an automorphism of F. The set of all automorphisms
of F is denoted by Aut (F).
Example 15.3. For any given field F prove that Aut (F) is a group.
[L : F] = [L : K] [K : F]
Proof. Let B1 := {αi | i ∈ A} and B2 := {β j | j ∈ B} be the basis of K/F and L/K respectively. We denote by
B = {αi β j | i ∈ A, j ∈ B}.
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E EF EF
F E F
E
k k
k
Notice that property iii) follows from the first two conditions. EF/F is in C because of the ii) property. Then, F/k
is in C and EF/F is in C implies that EF/k is in C by the first property.
Next we continue with some basic definitions about fields and field extensions.
Let F/k be a field extension and α ∈ F. If there is a polynomial f (x) ∈ k[x] such that f (α) = 0 then α is called an
algebraic element over K. An element which is not algebraic is called transcendental.
√
Example 15.4. The number 2 is algebraic over Q because is a root of the polynomial
x2 − 2 ∈ Q[x].
An extension F/k is called an algebraic extension if every element α ∈ F is algebraic over k. Otherwise, F/k is
called a transcendental extension.
We apply some of the results above when the base field is Q. A complex number is called an algebraic number
if it is algebraic over Q. A number that is not algebraic is called transcendental.
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αn + an−1 αn−1 + · · · + a1 α + a0 = 0
• finite extensions
• transcendental extensions
• normal extensions
Exercises:
15.10. Let C be a distinguished class of extensions. Prove that C is closed under taking a finite number of composites.
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and ( )
f (α)
F(α) = f, g ∈ F[x], g(α) , 0
g(α)
Moreover, F(α) is the quotient field of F[a].
Proof. Homework
In general we have
F ⊂ F(α1 ) ⊂ F(α1 , α2 ) ⊂ · · · ⊂ F(α1 , . . . , αn )
It is clear that
Proposition 15.3. Let L be a field extension of F and α1 , . . . , αn ∈ L. Then
and
f (α1 , . . . , αn )
( )
F(α1 , . . . , αn ) = f, g ∈ F[x1 , . . . , xn ], g(α1 , . . . , αn ) , 0
g(α1 , . . . , αn )
Moreover, F(α1 , . . . , αn ) is the quotient field of F[α1 , . . . , αn ].
Proof. Homework
Theorem 15.3. The class of all finitely generated extensions is distinguished.
Proof. Let X and T be finite sets. Since,
F ⊂ F(X) ⊂ F(X)(T)
then every step is finitely generated because F(X)(T) = F(X ∪ T).
To show that for every tower F ⊂ K ⊂ F(X) the extension K/F is finitely generated we will discuss it in the section
of transcendental extension.
To prove the lifting property, let E = F(X), where X is a finite set. If F ⊂ K, with EK defined, then
EK = K(F(X)) = K(X)
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Proof. Homework
Lemma 15.5. Let E/F and K/F be given and EK well defined. If B a basis of E over F, then B spans EK over K. Moreover,
[EK : K] ≤ [E : F]
Proof. Let B = {β1 , . . . , βn } be a basis for E over F. Then, EK = K(β1 , . . . , βn ). From the Theorem 15.4, each βi is algebraic
over K. Hence, EK is the set of polynomial expressions in β1 , . . . , βn with coefficients in K. However, any monomial
EK
E K
an αn + an−1 αn−1 + · · · + a1 α + a0 = 0.
Thus,
p(x) = an xn + · · · + a0 ∈ F[x],
is a nonzero polynomial where p(α) = 0.
Theorem 15.7. If E is a finite extension of F and K is a finite extension of E, then K is a finite extension of F and
[K : F] = [K : E][E : F].
Proof. Let {α1 , . . . , αn } be a basis for E as vector space over F and {β1 , . . . , βm } a basis for K as K
vector space over E. We will show that {αi β j } is basis for K over F.
m
First we will prove that these vectors generate K. Let u ∈ K. Then, u = m j=1 b j β j and
P
Pn
b j = i=1 aij αi , where b j ∈ E and ai j ∈ F. Therefore, E
n
m X
n
X X
u= a α β = ai j (αi β j ).
i j i
j F
j=1 i=1 i, j
Figure 15.2: Finite ex-
Thus, mn vectors αi β j must generate K over F. tensions
Next we must prove that {αi β j } are linearly independent. Let
X
u= ci j (αi β j ) = 0,
i,j
for cij ∈ F. We must of to show that all ci j are zero. We can rewrite u as
m X
n
X
c α β j = 0,
i j i
j=1 i=1
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n
X
ci j αi = 0
i=1
for all j. However, α j are also linearly independent over F. Thus, ci j = 0 for every i and j, which completes the
proof.
Corollary 15.1. If Fi is field, where i = 1, . . . , k and Fi+1 is a finite extension of Fi , then Fk is a finite extension of F1 and
Corollary 15.2. Let E/F be an extension. If α ∈ E is algebraic over F with polynomial minimal p(x) and β ∈ F(α) with minimal
polynomial q(x), then deg q(x) divides deg p(x).
Proof. We know that deg p(x) = [F(α) : F] and deg q(x) = [F(β) : F]. Since F ⊂ F(β) ⊂ F(α) we have
√ √
Example 15.5. Find a basis for Q 3 + 5 /Q.
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Theorem 15.8. Let E a extension field of F. Then, the following are equivalent.
i) E is a finite extension of F.
ii) There is a finite number of algebraic elements α1 , . . . , αn ∈ E, such that E = F(α1 , . . . , αn ).
iii) There is a tower of fields
(2) ⇒ (3). Assume that E = F(α1 , . . . , αn ) where every αi is algebraic over F. Then,
is a simple extension and αi are algebraic over F(α1 , . . . , αi−1 ) then we have that F(α1 )
15.11. Let L/F and K/F be field extensions with degrees p and q respectively. Assume that (p, q) = 1. What is the degree of
LK/F? What about L ∩ K/F?
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Proof. Let α ∈ L. Since L/K is finite then the powers 1, α, α2 , . . . cannot be algebraically independent. So it exists a
polynomial for which α is a root. Hence, α is algebraic over K.
Let L/K be a field extension and [L : K] = n. Let
B = {α1 , . . . , αn }
be a basis of L over K. We denote this by L = K(α1 , . . . , αn ). Any extension of the form L = K(α) is called a simple
extension and α is called a primitive element.
Lemma 15.8. Let L/K be a field extension and α ∈ L be algebraic over K. Then,
Proof. From previous lemma, the polynomial p(x) := min (α, K, x) is irreducible. Hence the ideal Iα = hmin (α, K, x)i
is maximal and therefore
K[x]/hmin (α, K, x)i,
is a field. We define the map
ψ : K[x] → L
(15.1)
f (x) → f (α)
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Theorem 15.9 (Primitive Element Theorem). Let K be a field and L/K a finite extension. Then, L = K(α) if and only if
there are only finitely many intermediate fields.
L = K(α)
E = K(a0 , . . . , an )
Let p(x) = min (α, K, x) and pF (x) = min (α, F, x). Since p(x) can be considered as a polynomial in F[x] then
pF (x) | p(x). But p(x) is monic and F[x] is a UFD, so p(x) has finitely divisors. So it is left to show that every divisor
of p(x) determines only one intermediate field. For a fixed pF (x) given as
pF (x) = an xn + · · · + a0 ,
[L : E] = deg pF (x) = [L : F]
Since α + m1 β and α + m2 β are in the same field then (m1 − m2 )β ∈ K(α + m1 β) = K(α + m2 β). In the same way,
α ∈ K(α + m1 β) = K(α + m2 β). Hence, K(α, β) = K(α + m1 β).
When char (L) = p > 0 then L? is cyclic. Say L? = hαi. Then L = K(α).
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φ
F(x) / F(t)
f (t)
s= ,
g(t)
where we can assume that f (t) and g(t) are co-prime. Then t is algebraic over F(s) because it satisfies the polynomial
Let p(y) := f (y) − s · g(y). We will show that p(y) = min (t, F(s), y).
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F(t)
f (t)
F(s) = F g(t)
Obviously, t is a root of p(y) since p(t) = f (t) − s g(t) = 0. By Gauss’ Lemma p(y) is irreducible in F(s)[y] if and only
if it is irreducible in (F[s])[y]. However, (F[s])[y] = (F[y])[s] = F[y, s]. So it is enough to show that p(y) is irreducible
over F[s, y]. Suppose not, then
p(y, s) = a(y) b(y) · s + c(y) ,
where a(y), b(y), c(y) ore in F[y]. But, f (y) and g(y) are co-prime. Hence, a(y) must be a unit in F[y], which implies
that p(y, s) is irreducible in F[y, s].
The above theorem motivates the following definition. The degree of a rational function
f (t)
s= ,
g(t)
Exercises:
15.12. Let f (x), g(x) be irreducible in F(x) and deg f, deg g = 1. Let α be a root of g(x) and L = F(α). Is f (x) necessarily
irreducible in L[x]?
√ √ √ √
15.13. Show that Q( 2, 3) = Q( 2 + 3).
√ √ √ √ √
15.14. Determine the minimal polynomial of the following extensions: Q( 2)/Q, Q( 3)/Q), Q( 5)/Q, Q( 2, 3)/Q.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
15.15.
√ Determine the minimal polynomial of the following extensions: Q( 2+ 3)/Q( 2), Q( 2+ 3)/Q( 3), Q( 5)/Q( 2+
3).
√
15.16. Let F/Q be a field extension such that [F : Q] = 2. Show that F = Q( d), where d is an integer not divisible be the
square of any prime.
√ √ √ √
15.17. Let a and b be rational numbers. Show that Q( a, b) = Q( a + b).
15.18. Let p be a prime integer and εp be a p-th primitive root of unity. Find [Q(εp ) : Q].
15.19. Let F = k(α) where α is algebraic over k and [F : k] is odd. Show that F = k(α2 ).
α
15.20. If α, β are algebraic over k then α ± β, αβ, and β for β , 0) are also algebraic over k.
√ √3
15.21. Find an element α such that Q( 2, 5) = Q(α).
15.22. Let α ∈ Q and α is an algebraic integer. Prove that α ∈ Z.
15.23. If α and β are algebraic integers satisfying α3 + α + 1 = 0 and β2 + β − 3 = 0, then both α + β and αβ are algebraic
integers.
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Proof. Let {α1 , . . . , αn } be a basis of E over F. Then, every element of E can be expressed as a linear combination
a1 α1 + · · · + an αn
where ai ∈ F. We have |F| possibilities for ai and n possibilities for αi . Hence, in total |F|n possibilities.
Lemma 15.11. The order of a finite field F is pn , where p = char F and n any positive integer.
Proof. The characteristic of fields is a prime number p or 0. Every field with characteristic 0 is isomorphic to Q, so
is infinite. Thus, characteristic of F is p > 0. Take the field homomorphism
ϕ : Z/pZ −→ F
1 −→ e f
This homomorphism is 0 or injective. Since 1 −→ eF then ϕ , 0, so it is injective. Thus, F has an isomorphic copy
of Z/pZ. Since F is finite then it is a finite extension of Z/pZ. Assume that [F : Z/pZ] = n. Then from the above
lemma |F| = |Z/pZ| = pn .
Finite fields usually are denoted with Fq , where q = pn for p a prime number and n ∈ Z. Next we will study the
existence of fields with pn elements.
Theorem 15.12. For every prime number p and a positive integer n ∈ Z there is a field with q = pn elements. All fields with
pn elements are isomorphic.
Proof. To prove the first part of the theorem consider the polynomial
f (x) = xq − x
Let S be the splitting field of the polynomial f (x) over field Fp := Z/pZ. Let R be the set of roots of f (x) in S. The set
R is a field because contains 0 and 1 and
α ∈ R ⇒ αq − α = 0 ⇒ αq = α
α, β ∈ R ⇒ (α + β) = αq + βq = (α + β)q
because q is multiple of p. Also,
α ∈ R ⇒ −α ∈ R
α, β ∈ R ⇒ αβ −1
= αq (β−1 )q = (αβ−1 )q ⇒ αβ−1 ∈ R
Since S is the smallest field that contains roots of f (x) and R ⊂ S, then R = S. Hence S is the set of roots of f (x). To
prove that f (x) does not have double root we take the derivative of f (x)
Since f 0 (x) , 0 then we have no double root. Hence all factors of f (x) are linear. Therefore |S| = q because degree of
f (x) is q.
To prove the second part recall that for every finite field F, F∗ = F \ {0} is a cyclic group. Let F be another field, distinct
from S, such that |F| = q. Then, ∀α ∈ F we have αq−1 = 1 ⇒ αq − α = 0.
Hence every α ∈ F is root of f (x) = xq − x over Z/pZ. Since |F| = q and f (x) has q roots (all distinct) then F is
splitting field of f (x). We we know that every two splitting fields of a polynomial are isomorphic. Thus, S F.
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GF(p24 )
" b
" b
GF(p8 ) GF(p12 )
"
"
"
"
GF(p4 ) GF(p6 )
"
"
"
"
GF(p2 ) GF(p3 )
b "
b "
GF(p )
Example 15.7. Let p some prime number and D a integral ring with characteristic p. Then,
n n n
ap + bp = (a + b)p
Proof. We use induction on n. By the binomial formula for the case when n = 1 we have
p !
X p
(a + b) =
p
ak bp−k .
k
k=0
Proof. Let F a subfield of E = GF(pn ). Then, F must be a extension field of K that contains pm elements, where K is
isomorphic to Zp . Then, m | n, since [E : K] = [E : F][F : K].
m
To prove the converse assume that m | n for some m > 0. Then, pm − 1 divides pn − 1. Thus, xp −1 − 1 divides
n m n m n
xp −1 − 1. Thus, xp − x must divide xp − x, and every zero of xp − x is also a zero of xp − x. Thus, GF(pn ) contains
m
as a subfield, a splitting field of xp − x, which is isomorphic to GF(pm ).
Example 15.8. The lattice of subfields of GF(p24 ) is given in Fig. 15.3.
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For every field F we have a group of nonzero elements of F which we denote by F∗ and call it the multiplicative
group of F. The multiplicative group of every field is a cyclic group.
Theorem 15.14. If G is a finite subgroup group of F∗ , then G is cyclic.
e e
Proof. Let G a finite subgroup of F∗ with n = p11 · · · pkk elements, where pi are primes. From the Fundamental Theorem
of Abelian Groups,
G Zpe1 × · · · × Zpek .
1 k
e e
Let m be the least common multiple of p11 , . . . , pkk . Then, G has an element with order m. Since every α ∈ G satisfies
xr − 1 for some r that divides m, α is a root of xm − 1. However, xm − 1 has at most m roots in F, n ≤ m. Since m ≤ |G|,
then m = n. Thus, G contains an element with order n and hence is cyclic.
Corollary 15.3. The multiplicative group of all nonzero elements of a finite field is cyclic.
Corollary 15.4. Every finite extension E of a finite field F is a simple extension of F.
Proof. Let α generate the group cyclic E∗ of nonzero elements of E. Then, E = F(α).
Example 15.9. The finite field GF(24 ) is isomorphic with the field Z2 /h1 + x + x4 i. Thus, the elements of GF(24 ) can be
obtained as
{a0 + a1 α + a2 α2 + a3 α3 : ai ∈ Z2 and 1 + α + α4 = 0}.
Proof. Recall that 1 + α + α4 = 0. We add and multiply the elements of GF(24 ) as we add and multiply polynomials.
The multiplicative group of GF(24 ) is isomorphic to Z15 with generator α :
α1 = α α6 = α2 + α3 α11 = α + α2 + α3
α2 = α2 α7 = 1 + α + α3 α12 = 1 + α + α2 + α3
α3 = α3 α8 = 1 + α2 α13 = 1 + α2 + α3
α4 = 1+α α9 = α + α3 α14 = 1 + α3
α5 = α + α2 α10 = 1 + α + α2 α15 = 1.
Exercises:
15.30. Let f (x) a irreducible polynomial in k[x]. Prove that, the following are equivalent:
i) char(k) = p > 0 and f (x) = g(xp ), for some g(x) ∈ k[x].
ii) All of f (x) are multiple
Notice: In a finite field Fq , with characteristic p, for every element β ∈ Fq can be written as β = αp , for some α ∈ Fq .
15.31. Let E be an algebraic extension of a field F, and let σ a automorphism of E, which fixes F. Let α ∈ E. Prove that, σ
induces a permutation of the set se all roots of the minimal polynomial of α, which are in E.
15.32. Prove or disprove: Let be given a polynomial p(x) in Z6 [x], can you construct a ring R, such that, p(x) has a root in R.
15.33. Let F a field with characteristic p. Prove that, p(x) = xp − a or is irreducible over F or splits in F.
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Algebraic Closure
In this chapter we study in more detail algebraic extensions which will be our focus for the remaining chapters. We
will develop one of the very important concepts of algebra, that of algebraic closure, and will prove the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra.
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Solution: Since 0 and 1 are not roots of this polynomial then p(x) is irreducible over Z2 . Hence, Z2 [x]/hp(x)i is a
field; see Lemma 11.2. Let f (x) + hp(x)i be an element of Z2 [x]/hp(x)i. From the division algorithm we have
where deg r(x) < 2. Hence, r(x) is one of the following polynomials 0, 1, x, and x + 1. Therefore, E = Z2 [x]/hx2 + x + 1i
is field with four elements, namely
From the above theorem, E must be an extension field for Z2 which contains a root α of p(x). Notice that
p(α) = α2 + α + 1 = 0.
(1 + α)(1 + α) = 1 + α + α + (α)2 = α.
The other computations are done similarly. We summarize such computations in the following tables
+ 0 1 α 1+α · 0 1 α 1+α
0 0 1 α 1+α 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1+α α 1 0 1 α 1+α
α α 1+α 0 1 α 0 α 1+α 1
1+α 1+α α 1 0 1+α 0 1+α 1 α
Example 16.2. Let be given
p(x) = x5 + x4 + 1 ∈ Z2 [x].
Then, p(x) has irreducible factors x2 + x + 1 and x3 + x + 1. To construct the extension E of Z2 such that p(x) has a root in E,
take E to be,
Z2 [x]/hx2 + x + 1i or Z2 [x]/hx3 + x + 1i.
In the previous example we considered Z2 [x]/hx2 + x + 1i.
It is left as an exercise for the reader to prove that Z2 [x]/hx3 + x + 1i is field with 23 = 8 elements and list all these elements.
An extension E/F is called an algebraic extension of F if every element in E is algebraic over F. If E = F(α) for
some α ∈ E, then E/F is called a simple extension.
√
q
Example 16.3. Prove that 2 + 3 is algebraic over Q.
√ √ √
q
Proof. If α = 2 + 3, then α2 = 2 + 3. Thus, α2 − 2 = 3 and (α2 − 2)2 = 3. Since α4 − 4α2 + 1 = 0 is true se α is a
root of the polynomial x4 − 4x2 + 1 ∈ Q[x].
The following Lemma characterizes the transcendental extensions.
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Theorem 16.2. Let E/F be an extension and α ∈ E. Then, α is transcendental over F if and only if F(α) is isomorphic to F(x).
Proof. Define the evaluation map at α as
φα : F[x] → E
f (x) → f (α)
Then, α is transcendental over F if and only if
φα (p(x)) = p(α) , 0,
for all polynomials p(x) ∈ F[x]. This is true if and only if ker φα = {0}. Thus, is true only when φα is injective, which
implies that the field E must contain an isomorphic copy of F[x]. The smallest field that contains F[x] is the field of
fractions F(x). Thus, E must contain an isomorphic copy of this field.
In the case of algebraic extensions we have.
Theorem 16.3. Let E/F be an extension and α ∈ E algebraic over F. There exists a unique monic irreducible polynomial
p(x) ∈ F[x] of smallest degree such that p(α) = 0.
If f (x) is another monic polynomial in F[x] such that f (α) = 0, then p(x) divides f (x).
Proof. The proof goes similarly to that of the above theorem. Define the evaluation map at α as
φα : F[x] → E
f (x) → f (α)
Since F[x] is a PID then the kernel of φα is a principal ideal generated by some polynomial p(x) ∈ F[x], where
deg p(x) ≥ 1. The ideal hp(x)i consists exactly of those elements of F[x] that of have α as a root. If f (α) = 0 and f (x)
is not a zero polynomial, then f (x) ∈ hp(x)i and p(x) divides f (x). Thus p(x) is a polynomial with minimal degree,
which of has α as a root. Every other polynomial with of same degree, which of has α as a root must be of the form
βp(x), for some β ∈ F.
Assume that p(x) = r(x)s(x) is a factorization of p(x) in polynomials with lower degree. Since p(α) = 0, then
r(α)s(α) = 0 and as a consequence r(α) = 0 or s(α) = 0, which contradicts the fact that p(x) is of minimal degree. Thus
p(x) must be irreducible.
Let E a extension field of F and α ∈ E algebraic over F. The unique monic polynomial p(x) from the last theorem
is called the minimal polynomial of α over F and is denoted by min (α, F, x). The degree of p(x) is the degree of α
over F.
√
Example 16.4. Let f (x) = x2 − 2 and g(x) = x4 − 4x2 + 1. These polynomials are respectively minimal polynomials of 2 and
√
q
2 + 3.
Proposition 16.1. Let E/F be an extension and α ∈ E algebraic over F. Then,
F(α) F[x]/hmin (α, F, x)i
Proof. Define the evaluation map at α as
φα : F[x] → E
f (x) → f (α)
Its kernel is the ideal generated by the minimal polynomial min (α, F, x) of α. From the First Isomorphism Theorem
for rings (Theorem 9.4) the image of φα in E is isomorphic to F(α).
Theorem 16.4. Let E = F(α) be a simple extension of F, where α ∈ E is algebraic over F. Assume that degree of α over F is n.
Then, every element β ∈ E can be expressed in a unique way in the form
β = b0 + b1 α + · · · + bn−1 αn−1
for bi ∈ F.
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Proof. Since φα (F[x]) = F(α), every element in E = F(α) must be of the form φα ( f (x)) = f (α), where f (α) is the
polynomial in α with coefficients in F. Let
αn = −an−1 αn−1 − · · · − a0 .
Similarly we get
αn+1 = ααn
= −an−1 αn − an−2 αn−1 − · · · − a0 α
= −an−1 (−an−1 αn−1 − · · · − a0 ) − an−2 αn−1 − · · · − a0 α.
Continuing in this way we can express every monomial αm for m ≥ n as of linear combination of powers of α which
are less than n. Thus, every β ∈ F(α) can be written as
β = b0 + b1 α + · · · + bn−1 αn−1 .
b0 − c0 = b1 − c1 = · · · = bn−1 − cn−1 = 0,
or bi = ci for i = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
Example 16.5. Since x2 + 1 is irreducible over R, then hx2 + 1i is a maximal ideal in R[x]. Thus E = R[x]/hx2 + 1i is an
extension field of R which contains a root of x2 + 1. Let α = x + hx2 + 1i.
Then, E is isomorphic to R(α) = {a + bα : a, b ∈ R}. We we know that α2 = −1 in E since
Thus, we have a isomorphism of R(α) with C of defined from the map which takes a + bα → a + bi.
Exercises:
16.1. Let K/F be an algebraic extension such that: [K : F] = p, where p is prime number. Prove that, there is no intermediate
field F ⊂ E ⊂ K.
16.2. Prove that, if [F(α) : F] is an odd number then F(α) = F(α2 ).
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
16.3. Prove that, Q( 3, 7 ) = Q( 3 + 7 ). Generalize this proof to show that Q( a, b ) = Q( a + b ).
16.4. Let α, β transcendental over Q. Prove that, or αβ, or α + β is also transcendental.
16.5. Let E a extension field of F and α ∈ E transcendental over F. Prove that, for every element in F(α), i cili is not in F, is
also transcendental over F.
√ √
16.6. Prove or disprove: Q( 2 ) Q( 3 ).
√
4 √4
16.7. Prove that, the fields Q( 3 ) and Q( 3 i) are isomorphic, but not equal.
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16.8. Let K a algebraic extension of E, and E a algebraic extension of F. Prove that, K is algebraic over F.
16.9. Prove that, each from the following numbers is algebraic over Q, by finding the minimal polynomial over Q.
√ √ √ √ √ √
q q
3 3
2 − i, 1/3 + 7, 3 + 5, 3 + 2 i.
√
4
16.10. Determine all subfields of Q( 3, o f ).
16.11. Prove that, Z2 [x]/hx3 + x + 1i is a field with eight elements. Construct a multiplication table for the group of
multiplication of the field.
√ √ 4 √
8
16.12. Prove that, Q( 3, 3, 3, . . .) is a algebraic extension of Q, but not a finite extension.
16.13. Prove or disprove: π is algebraic over Q(π3 ).
16.14. Prove that, the set of all elements in R, which are algebraic over Q, form a extension field for Q, which is not finite.
16.15. Let E a extension field of F and α ∈ E. Determine [F(α) : F(α3 )].
16.16. Prove or disprove: Z[x]/hx3 − 2i is field.
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Theorem 16.5. For every field F and every polynomial f (x) ∈ F[x] there is a extension K of F which is splitting field of f (x).
Proof. We prove the existence of splitting fields with induction on the degree n of the polynomial. If a polynomial
has degree n = 1, then we get K = F. Assume that the statement is true for k ≤ n − 1. If f (x) is factored in linear factors
again we get K = F. On the contrary, there is a factor with degree ≥ 2. We know that there is a field E1 in which this
factor has a root α. The polynomial f (x) has a root α in E1 . The degree of the other factor f1 (x) of f (x) is ≤ n − 1. By
induction hypothesis there is a extension of E that contains all roots of f1 (x). However α ∈ E1 ⊂ E. Thus, E contains
all roots of f (x). Take as K as the intersection of all subfields of E, that contain all roots of f (x).
√ √ √ √ √
Example √ 16.6. The splitting field for x − 2 is Q( 2) because roots of x − 2 are α12 = ± 2 and Q( 2, − −2) = Q( 2).
2 2
Then, [Q( 2 : Q] = 2.
Example 16.7. The splitting field of x4 + 4 over Q is Q(i), because
x4 + 4 = (x2 + 2x + 2)(x2 − 2x + 2)
Proof. Take a polynomial f (x) with degree n. Let α be one of its roots. Then,
f (x) = (x − α) f1 (x).
The degree of F(α) over F is at most n. The polynomial f1 (x) has degree (n − 1). Let β be one of its roots. The degree
of F(α)(β) is at most (n − 1). Continuing this way for all roots we get the desired result.
√
Example 16.8. Let p(x) = x4 + 2x2 − 8 in Q[x]. Then, p(x) has irreducible factors x2 − 2 and x2 + 4. Thus field Q( 2, ı) is
splitting field for p(x).
√
3
Example 16.9. Let p(x) = x3 − 3 in Q[x]. Then, p(x) has a root in field Q( 3 ). However this field is not splitting field for
p(x) since complex cubic roots of 3
√
3 √6
− 3 ± ( 3 )5 o f
,
2
√3
are not in Q( 3 ).
Next we study the question if two splitting fields of the same polynomial f (x) over some field F are somehow
related.
Lemma 16.2. Let φ : E → F be a field isomorphism. Let K/E be an extension, α ∈ K algebraic over E, and p(x) = min (α, E, x).
Assume that L/F is an extension such that β is root of the polynomial φ(p(x)) in F[x]. Then, φ can be extended to a unique
isomorphism ψ : E(α) → F(β) such that ψ(α) = β and ψ agrees with φ in E.
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ψ
E(α)
−→ F(β)
yσ yτ
φ
E[x]/hp(x)i
−→ F[x]/hq(x)i
y
y
φ
E −→ F
Proof. If p(x) has degree n, then from Theorem 16.4 we can write every element of E(α) as linear combination of
1, α, . . . , αn−1 . Thus, we define
where
a0 + a1 α + · · · + an−1 αn−1
is an element of E(α). The fact that ψ is isomorphism can be easily checked.
We can extend φ so that it becomes an isomorphism from E[x] to F[x], which we also denote with φ, by taking
This extension agrees with the original isomorphism φ : E → F, since constant polynomials are mapped to constant
polynomials. From the assumption φ(p(x)) = q(x). Thus, φ maps hp(x)i in hq(x)i.
Hence, we have an isomorphism φ : E[x]/h p(x)i → F[x]/h q(x)i . The isomorphisms
Proof. We use mathematical induction on the degree of p(x). Assume that p(x) is irreducible over E. Thus q(x) is
also irreducible over F. If deg p(x) = 1, then from the definition of splitting fields K = E and L = F.
Assume that the theorem is true for all polynomials with smaller degree than n. Since K is a splitting field of E,
all roots of p(x) are in K. Pick one from these roots, say α such that E ⊂ E(α) ⊂ K. Similarly we can find a root β of
q(x) in L such that F ⊂ F(β) ⊂ L.
From Lemma 16.2, there is an isomorphism φ : E(α) → F(β) such that φ(α) = β and φ agrees with φ in E.
ψ
K
−→ L
y
y
φ
E(α)
−→ F(β)
y
y
φ
E −→ F
Then, p(x) = (x − α) f (x) and q(x) = (x − β)g(x), where degrees of f (x) and g(x) are respectively less than degrees
of p(x) and q(x). The field extension K is splitting field for f (x) over E(α) and L is splitting field for g(x) over F(β).
From induction hypothesis there is a isomorphism ψ : K → L such that ψ agrees with φ in E(α). Thus, there is a
isomorphism ψ : K → L such that ψ agrees with φ in E.
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Corollary 16.1. Let p(x) a polynomial in F[x]. Then, there is a splitting field K for p(x) which is unique up to a isomorphism.
Example 16.10. Find the degree of the splitting field of
x8 − 2
over Q.
√
8
Solution: Let be given α = 2 an eighth root of 2. Since f (x) is irreducible then [Q(α) : Q] = 8. Then, splitting field
is Q(α, ε8 ), where ε8 is a primitive root of unity. Let’s say,
√
2
e8 = (1 + ı).
2
Thus, splitting field is Q(α, ı). It is clear that, ı < Q(α), since α ∈ R. Thus, [Q(α, ı) : Q(α)] = 2. Therefore, [Q(α, ı) : Q] = 16.
√ √
Example 16.11. Let a and b be square free distinct integers such that, [Q( a + b) : Q] = 4. Find
√ √
min( a + b, Q, x).
over Q.
√ √
Solution: Let be given a and b square free, distinct integers such that, [Q( a + b) : Q] = 4. Recall that we have
√ √ √ √
proved that Q( a + b) = Q( a, b) ).
√ √ √ √ √ √
If a + b is root and a, b are such that, [Q( a + b) : Q] = 4, then ± a ± b are all roots. Then, minimal
polynomial is
f (x) = x4 − 2(a + b)x2 + (a − b)2 .
It is easily proved that f (x) is irreducible over Q, since its roots are not in Q and all quadratic factors also are not
polynomials in Q[x].
For a = 2, b = 3, we have
f (x) = x4 − 10x2 + 1.
Similarly if a = 2, b = 7, or a = 3, b = 5, we get
Let f (x) ∈ K[x] be given. We say that f (x) splits over a field L if f (x) factors completely into linear factors in L[x].
Definition 16.2. The extension L of K is called the splitting field of the polynomial f (x) ∈ K[x] if it is the smallest field
containing K where f (x) splits completely.
Theorem 16.7 (Kronecker). For any field K and f (x) ∈ K[x] there exists the splitting field of f (x) over K.
Proof. The proof goes by induction on the degree of f (x). If f (x) has degree one then this is obviously true. If the
deg f > 1 then f (x) = (x − α) g(x) for some α. Then K(α) K[x]/h f i contains α. By induction hypothesis there is an
extension of K(α) which contains all roots of g(x).
√ √ √ √
Example 16.12. The splitting field of x2 − 2 over Q is Q( 2). Indeed, the two roots are ± 2 and − 2 ∈ Q( 2).
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where each factor is irreducible. The roots are ±1 ± i. Hence the splitting field is Q(i).
Lemma 16.3. A splitting field E f of a polynomial f (x) of degree n over K is of at most of degree n! over K. Moreover, if f (x)
is irreducible over K then n | [E f : K].
Proof. Let f (x) ∈ K[x] be a polynomial of degree n. Then adjoining one root α of f (x) to K we get an extension of
f (x)
degree at most n. Then, x−α has degree at most (n − 1). Adjoining a second root to K(α) the degree of the extension
will be at most (n − 1). Since the degrees of the extensions are multiplicative this proves the lemma.
If f (x) is irreducible then [K(α) : K] = deg f = n. Thus, n | [E f : K].
f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c
Let α1 , α2 , α3 be the roots of the cubic. Then, Q(α1 , α2 , α3 ) = Q(α1 , α2 ) since α3 = −a − (α1 + α2 ). Since f (x) is irreducible
f (x)
then [Q(α1 ) : Q] = 3. The polynomial x−α has degree 1 or 2 and so [Q(α1 , α2 ) : Q(α1 )] = 1 or 2. Hence, [Q(α1 , α2 ) : Q] =
1
3 or 6.
Lemma 16.4. The splitting field of a cubic has degree 3 if and only if the discriminant of f (x) is a square in Q.
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g(x) = x3 + ax + b
So the splitting field of f (x) and g(x) are the same. The roots of g(x) are given by Cardano’s formulas
r r
b b2 a3 1/3 b b2 a3 1/3
xi = (− + + ) + (− − + )
2 4 27 2 4 27
and the discriminant of g(x) is
∆(g, x) = −4a3 − 27b2
So the roots are !1/3 !1/3
b 1 √ b 1 √
xi = − + −3∆ + − − −3∆
2 18 2 18
Now the result is obvious.
We will discuss the solution of the cubic in detail later in the book.
Example 16.15. Let
f (x) = x3 − 3x + 1 ∈ Q[x]
Its discriminant is
∆( f, x) = 34
Then the splitting field of f (x) has degree 3 over Q.
Example 16.16. Let f (x) ∈ Q[x] such that
f (x) = x3 − 2
Its roots are
√
3 √3
1 I√
√
3 1 I√
2, 2 − + 3 , 2 − − 3
2 2 2 2
√
3 √
and the splitting field is Q( 2, −3). We have the following lattice So the splitting field of f (x) = x3 − 2 has degree 6 over Q.
√
3 √
Q( 2, −3)
2 3
√
3 √
Q( 2) Q( −3)
3 2
1 1 1
α1 := d + 3d + ; (16.1)
6 4 3
√ 1
where d = (−28 + 84 −3) 3 .
7 1 1√
!
d d 14
αi := − − + ± −3 − (16.2)
12 3d 3 2 6 3d
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Proof. Since f (x) is irreducible and f (α) = 0 then f (x) is a constant multiple of the minimal polynomial of α. Thus,
F(α) F[x]/h f (x)i via
Similarly we have
It is an easy exercise to check that this is and isomorphism and an extension of σ. Thus, the composition τ : F(α) →
φ
F[x]/h f (x)i / F0 [x]/h f 0 (x)i
ϕ ψ
τ
F(α) F (α0 )
0
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K K0
τ
F(α) F0 (α0 )
σ
F F0
Q K is the splitting field of the set of polynomials { fi } then for each fi there exist a, α1 , . . . , αn ∈ K such that
Proof. Since
fi (x) = a j (x − α j ). Thus,
Y
fi0 (x) = σ fi (x) = τ fi (x) = τ(a) (x − τ(α j ))
j
Let {(Li , ϕi )} be a chain in A. This chain has an upper bound given by L = ∪i Li and ϕ : L → K0 given by
ϕ(a) = ϕi (a), if a ∈ Li .
The reader should check that ϕ is a homomorphism extending σ. By Zorn’s lemma there is a maximal element
(M, τ) in A. We will show that M = K and τ(M) = K0 .
τ
K K0
F σ F0
If M , K, then there is an f (x) ∈ S which does not split over M. Let α ∈ K be a root of f (x) that is not in M. Denote
by p(x) = min (x, F, α) and let p0 = σ(p) ∈ F0 [x]. Let α0 ∈ K0 be a root of p0 (x). Such α0 exists since p0 | f 0 and f 0 splits
over K0 / By Lemma 16.5, there is a ρ : M(α) → τ(M)(α0 ) that extends τ. Then, (M(α), ρ) ∈ A is larger than (M, τ),
which is a contradiction. Hence, M = K.
The equality τ(K) = K0 follows from Lemma 16.6, because τ(K) ⊂ K0 is a splitting field for S0 over F0 . This
completes the proof.
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Corollary 16.2. Let f (x) ∈ k[x]. Any two splitting fields of f (x) are k-isomorphic. In particular, every two algebraic closures
of k are k-isomorphic.
Proof. For the first part take σ = id in the above theorem. The second statement follows from the first since every
algebraic closure is the splitting field on the set of all nonconstant polynomials in k[x].
τ τ
Ef o / E0f k1a o / ka
2
k k
where εn is the primitive root√of unity. The degree of this extension over Q will depend on a and n as we will see in the section
of cyclotomic extensions. If n a ∈ Q then the splitting field of f (x) is Q(εn ).
Exercises:
16.17. Let K be the splitting field of x3 + x2 + 1 ∈ Z2 [x]. Prove or disprove that K is a radical extension.
√
16.18. Let F a field such that char F , 2. Prove that splitting field of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is F( α ), where α = b2 − 4ac.
16.19. Let K a splitting field of a polynomial over F. If E is a extension field of F which is contained in K and [E : F] = 2, then
E is splitting field of a polynomial in F[x].
16.20. Let be given f (x) irreducible in k[x], such that, deg f = m and let K a extension field of k, ku [K : k] = n. Prove that, if,
gcd (m, n) = 1, then f (x) is irreducible over K.
16.21.
Determine splitting field over Q of polynomials
i) x4 − 2.
ii) x4 + 2.
iii) x4 + x2 + 1.
iv) x6 − 4.
16.22. Let E be a finite extension of a field F. If [E : F] = 2, prove that, E is a splitting field of F.
16.23. Let p(x) a non-constant polynomial with degree n in F[x]. Prove that, there is a splitting field E for p(x), such that,
[E : F] ≤ n!.
16.24. Compute the splitting fields of the following polynomials, over Q and find the degree of such field:
1. x5 − 2;
2. x3 − 3x + 3;
3. x3 + 2,
4. x4 − 3 or x4 − 2,
5. x5 − 4x + 2
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6. x4 − 10x2 + 4
7. x4 + 4x2 + 2
8. x3 + 3x2 − x − 1,
9. x3 − 3x + 1,
√ √
q q
16.25. Let Q( 1 + 5)/Q be given. Find the minimal polynomial of 1+ 5 and the degree of the extension.
16.27. Let E be a finite extension of F. Prove that E is a splitting field for some polynomial if and only if every irreducible
polynomial over F, having a root in E, factors completely over E.
Example 16.20. Every degree 2 extension is normal. Let K/F be a field extension such that [K : F] = 2. Take
α ∈ K\F
Proposition 16.2. Let K/F be an algebraic extension. Then the following are equivalent:
i) K is normal over F
ii) For any irreducible polynomial f (x) ∈ F[x], if f (x) has a root in K then it splits over K.
Proof.
√
4
Q( 2, i)
2 4
normal
√
4
Q( 2) Q(i)
not normal
4 2
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Remark 16.1. Let L/F/k be a tower of field extensions such that L/k is normal. Then L/F is normal.
L
normal
~
normal F
K
Proof. If L is the splitting field of a family of polynomials in k[x] then it is the splitting field of the same family in
F[x].
Example 16.22. Give an example such that K ⊂ E is normal, E ⊂ F is normal, but K ⊂ F is not normal.
√ √
4 √
4
Take Q ⊂ Q( 2) ⊂ Q( 2). Each extension is normal because it is degree 2 but Q ⊂ Q( 2) is not normal as shown above.
Remark 16.2. Normal extensions don’t form a distinguished class.
The proof of the following can be found in Lang, pg. 238.
Remark 16.3. If K1 , K2 are normal over k and are contained in some field L, then K1 K2 is normal over k, and so is K1 ∩ K2 .
Exercises:
16.28. Let F ⊂ K ⊂ E be fields. If E is a normal extension of F, prove that E is also a normal extension of K.
16.29. Let α be a real number such that α4 = 5. Show that:
where deg q2 (x) = deg p(x) − 2. The process will stop because the degree of p(x) is finite.
Conversely, assume that every non-constant polynomial p(x) in F[x] is factored in linear factors. Let ax − b a
factor such. Then, p(b/a) = 0. Thus, F is algebraically closed.
Corollary 16.3. A algebraically closed field F does not have any proper algebraic extensions.
Proof. Let E a algebraic extension of F, then F ⊂ E. For α ∈ E minimal polynomial of α is x − α. Thus α ∈ F and F = E.
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Lemma 16.7 (Artin). Let F be a field. Then there is an extension of F which is algebraically closed.
Proof. First we construct an F1 such that every polynomial in F[x] has a root in F1 . Then, construct another field F2
such that every polynomial in F1 [x] has a root in F2 and continue. We get a tower of fields
F ⊂ F1 ⊂ F2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Fi ⊂ Fi+1 ⊂ . . .
Let
F̄ = ∪i∈I Fi ,
for some index set I. Then F̄ is algebraically closed, since for every polynomial f ∈ F̄, f has a root in one of the Fi ’s.
Thus, it is left to construct F1 such that every polynomial in F has a root in F1 . For every f ∈ F[x] introduce a
new variable x f . Let S be the set of all new variables x f . Let R := F[S] and
I = h f (x f )i f ∈F[x]
I , R, otherwise
1R = a1 f1 (x f1 ) + · · · + an fn (x fn )
where ai ∈ F. Since for each of the fi exist a field extension of F such that fi has a root (see Kronecker’s Theorem
Theorem 11.5), then there is a field K such that 1R = a1 · 0 + · · · + αn · 0 = 0 which is a contradiction. Then, I is contained
in a maximal ideal M.
α / R[x]
F[x]
π
$
(R/M ) [x]
Let π : R[x] → R/M [x] be the quotient map and α : F[x] ,→ R[x] the inclusion map. Let σ := π ◦ α. For every
f ∈ F[x], σ( f ) has a root in R/M, namely x f + M. Take F1 = R/M. This completes the proof.
The algebraic closure of a field F will be called a field F̄ if it is an algebraic extension of F and it is algebraically
closed.
Theorem 16.10. Every field has an algebraic closure.
Proof. Let k be a field. From the previous theorem there exists an extension E of F which is algebraically closed. Let
ka be the union of all Fi such that k ⊂ Fi ⊂ E and Fi /k is algebraic. We claim that ka is the algebraic closure of k.
Indeed, let α ∈ ka . Then α ∈ Fi for some i. Hence, α is algebraic over k. Thus, ka /k is algebraic.
Let f (x) ∈ ka [x]. Then, f (x) has a root α in E. Thus, α is algebraic over ka . Hence, α is algebraic over k (algebraic
extensions form a distinguished class). So α ∈ Fi for some i, which implies that α ∈ ka . Therefore ka is algebraically
closed. This completes the proof.
Usually the algebraic closure of a field k is denoted by k̄ or ka .
Example 16.23. It will be proved later in these notes that C is algebraically closed. Indeed, Ra = C. However, Qa , C
Exercises:
16.30. Let F/k be a field extension, f (x) ∈ k[x], and σ an isomorphism of F fixing every element of k. Prove that if α is a root of
f (x) then σ(α) is also a root of f (x).
√
3
16.31. Prove that Q( 2) has no automorphisms other then the identity.
16.32. Prove that if α ∈ C is a root of f (x) ∈ R[x] then ᾱ is also a root of f (x).
16.33. Let E be the algebraic closure of a field F. Prove that, every polynomial p(x) in F[x] splits in E.
16.34. If for every irreducible polynomial p(x) in F[x] is linear, prove that, F is a field algebraically closed.
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A number α is called constructible if we can construct a line segment of length α by a ruler and compass. The
following theorem is the link of geometric constructions to algebra:
√
Lemma 16.8. If c > 0 is constructible then c is also constructible
Proof. Take the right triangle with hypotenuse 1 + c and the height from the right angle splitting the hypotenuse in
segments of length 1 and c. Then the height has length
√
h2 = 1 · c =⇒ h = c
i y
ω3 ω
–1 0 1 x
ω5 ω7
–i
Proof. Exercise.
Corollary 16.4. If a, b are constructible then so is a + b, ab, ba .
Proof. Exercise.
Theorem 16.11. i) Constructible numbers form a field.
ii) A real number α is constructible if and only if it is contained in a field of the form
√ √ √ √
Q( α1 , . . . αs ), αi ∈ Q( α1 , . . . αi−1 )
Proof. Part i) is an immediate consequence of the above corollary. From i) it follows that the field of constructible
√ √
numbers is an extension of Q. Since every number in Q( α1 , . . . αi−1 ) is constructible it is left to show that every
√ √
constructible number is in Q( α1 , . . . αi−1 ).
This follows from the fact that the intersection of a line and a circle contains only square roots.
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[Q(α) : Q] = 2r
for some r.
√ √
Proof. If α is constructible then α ∈ Q( α1 , . . . αn ), for some α1 , . . . , αn . Then,
√ √
[Q(α) : Q] | [Q( α1 , . . . αn ) : Q] = 2r
for some r ≥ 0.
We now have the following results:
Proof. Trisecting an angle 3α is the same as constructing cos α when cos 3α is given. The equation
Proof. Let r be constructible and a circle of radius r is given. We want to construct a square of radius x such that
x2 = πr2
Since π is not even an algebraic number then the roots of the above equation are not even algebraic and therefore
can not be constructible.
Proof. Take a cube of volume 1. To double the cube would mean to construct an x such that
x3 = 2.
The polynomial
f (x) = x3 − 2
is irreducible over Q and therefore for each root α of f (x) we have [Q(α) : Q] = 3, which is not a power of 2.
n = 2k · p1 · · · ps
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Q(εn )
Q(cos 2π
n )
n−1
2
n . Let εn denote
Proof. To construct an n -gon is equivalent with constructing cos 2π
2π 2π
en = cos + i sin
n n
Then,
2π 1
cos = (εn + ε−1
n )
n 2
Hence, Q(εn ) is an extension of Q( 2π
n ). We complete the proof only for n a prime p, the rest will be proven in the
chapter of cyclotomic fields. So cos 2π
n is constructible if
p−1
= 2r
2
for some r ≥ 0. Thus, this is possible only for primes p of the form p = 2k + 1. But these are exactly the Fermat’s
primes and they are in the form
r
p = 22 + 1.
This completes the proof.
Exercises:
Xn + an−1 Xn−1 + . . . + a1 X + a0 = 0
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For the rest of this subsection we study the case n = 3, i.e., the equation
(1) Y3 + aY + b = 0
Substituting Y = u + v gives
a
u3 + v3 + 3 (uv + ) (u + v) + b = 0
3
which holds if u and v satisfy
a
(2) u3 + v3 = −b, uv = −
3
The latter gives
a3
(Z − u3 ) (Z − v3 ) = Z2 + bZ −
27
so without loss q
4a3
−b + b2 + 27
u =
3
2
q
4a3
−b − b2 + 27
v3 =
2
Conversely, we can choose u and v as suitable cube roots of the expressions on the right hand side such that (2)
holds. Then u + v is one solution of (1), and the others we get by different choice of cube roots. More precisely, if
is a primitive third root of unity then the solutions of (1) are
Y1 = u + v, Y2 = u + 2 v, Y3 = 2 u + v
which can be checked by expanding (Y − Y1 )(Y − Y2 )(Y − Y3 ). These are Cardano’s formulas, which are usually (but
less precisely) written as
r r
b b2 a3 1/3 b b2 a3 1/3
Yi = (− + + ) + (− − + )
2 4 27 2 4 27
We see that these formulas have a lot of symmetries, coming from the various choices of square roots and cube
roots, and also from the choice of a third root of unity. The crucial point is that the pattern of symmetries between
the solutions can be defined without using the explicit formula for the solutions: It is given by the Galois group of
the equation. The fundamental idea of Galois theory can now simply be stated as follows: For general n, replace
the explicit formula for the solutions (it doesn’t exist anyway) by using the Galois group.
Starting point is the observation that adjoining any root of an irreducible equation gives a field extension that
depends only on the equation, up to isomorphism. This yields field isomorphisms interchanging the different roots
of the equation. These isomorphisms yield the basic symmetries between the roots, which form the Galois group.
then Y
Dp = (xi − x j )
i, j
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The matrix
1 ... 1
x
1 ... xn
. ... .
X :=
. ... .
. ... .
...
n−1 n−1
x1 xn
has Y
det(X) = (xi − x j )
i>j
S0 S1 ... Sn−1
S
1 S2 ... Sn
. . ... .
(3) Dp = det(X)2 = det(XX ) = det
t
. . ... .
. . ... .
Sn−1 Sn ... S2n−2
where
µ µ
Sµ := x1 + . . . + xn
It remains to express the power sums Sµ in terms of the elementary symmetric functions
X
σν = xi1 xi2 . . . xiν
i1 <i2 <···<iν
(whose basic property is that σν (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (−1)ν an−ν ). This is provided by Newton’s identities (c.f. Cox et al.,
p. 317):
Then
Pn Q n
−zσ0 (z) z i=1 xi j,i (1 − x j z) X xi z
= =
σ(z) σ(z) 1 − xi z
i=1
n X
∞ ∞ X n ∞
(16.4)
X X X
= xνi zν = ( xνi ) zν = Sν zν
i=1 ν=1 ν=1 i=1 ν=1
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Thus
n
X ∞
X n
X
(−1) j σ j z j · Sν zν = (−1)µ+1 µσµ zµ
j=0 ν=1 µ=1
Exercises:
over Q. √ √ √ √
Recall: we have shown that Q( a + b) = Q( a, b).
16.39. Let f (x) be an irreducible polynomial in k[x]. Prove that the following are equivalent:
i) char (k) = p > 0 and f (x) = g(xp ) for some g(x) ∈ k[x].
ii) all roots of f (x) are multiple.
Recall: In a finite field Fq of characteristic p, every element β ∈ Fq can be written as β = αp for some α ∈ Fq .
16.40. Let f (x) be irreducible in k[x] such that deg f = m and let K be a field extension of k with [K : k] = n. Prove that if
gcd (m, n) = 1 then f (x) is irreducible over K.
16.41. Trisecting an angle β = 3α is the same as constructing cos α when cos 3α is given. The equation
1
f (x) = 4x3 − 3x −
3
which is irreducible. Then, [Q(cos α) : Q] = 3 which is not a power of 2. Hence, this angle can not be trisected.
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√8
16.42. Let α = 2 be a 8-th root of 2. Since f (x) is irreducible (Eisenstein) then [Q(α) : Q] = 8. Then the splitting field is
Q(α, ε8 ), where ε8 is a primitive root of unity. Say
√
2
e8 = (1 + ı)
2
hence the splitting field is Q(α, ı). Clearly, ı < Q(α) since α ∈ R. Thus, [Q(α, ı) : Q(α)] = 2. Therefore, [Q(α, ı) : Q] = 16.
√ √ √ √
16.43. Let a and b be distinct square free integers such that [Q( a + b) : Q] = 4 (recall: we have shown that Q( a + b) =
√ √
Q( a, b) ).
Find √ √
min( a + b, Q, x)
Use the result to write down the minimal polynomial for
√ √ √ √ √ √
2 + 3, 2 + 7, 3 + 5
over Q.
√ √ √ √ √ √
As in the lecture, if a + b is a root and a and b are such that [Q( a + b) : Q] = 4, then ± a ± b are all roots. Then,
the minimal polynomial is
f (x) = x4 − 2(a + b)x2 + (a − b)2 .
It is easy to show that it is irreducible over Q since its roots are not in Q and all possible quadratic factors are also not
polynomials in Q[x].
For a = 2, b = 3 we have
f (x) = x4 − 10x2 + 1.
Similarly, if a = 2, b = 7 or a = 3, b = 5 we get
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Chapter 17
Galois theory
In this chapter we will study one of the most elegant parts of mathematics. The beauty of Galois theory is in its power
to connect some powerful mathematics with some elementary classical problems as that of roots of polynomials.
Proof. If σ and τ are the automorphism of E, then such are στ and σ−1 . The identity also is a automorphism. Thus,
the set of all automorphisms of a field F is group.
Proposition 17.2. Let E a extension field of F. Then, the set of all automorphisms of E that fix every element of F is group.
Hence the set of all automorphisms σ : E → E such that σ(α) = α for every α ∈ F is group.
Proof. We must only prove that the set of all automorphisms of E that fix every element of F forms a subgroup of the
group of automorphisms of E. Let σ and τ two the automorphism of E such that that σ(α) = α and τ(α) = α for every
α ∈ F. Then, στ(α) = σ(α) = α and σ−1 (α) = α. Since identity fixes for every element of E, the set of automorphisms
of E that fix the elements of F is a subgroup of the group of automorphisms of E.
Let E a extension field of F. The group of automorphisms of E we will denote by Aut(E). The Galois group of
E over F is the group of automorphisms of E that fix F -in in every element. Thus,
If f (x) is a polynomial in F[x] and E is splitting field of f (x) over F, then the Galois group of f (x) is Gal (E/F).
Example 17.1. Complex conjugation, of defined as:
σ : a + bi 7→ a − bi
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√ √ √
is a automorphism of Q( 3, 5 ) which fixes Q( 5 ). Similarly
√ √
τ(a + b 5 ) = a − b 5
√ √ √ √ √
is a automorphism of Q( 3, 5 ) that fixes Q( 3 ). The automorphism µ = στ moves 3 and 5. We will see next that
√ √
{id, σ, τ, µ} is the Galois group of Q( 3, 5 ) over Q. The following table shows se this group is isomorphic to Z2 × Z2 .
id σ τ µ
id id σ τ µ
σ σ id µ τ
τ τ µ id σ
µ µ τ σ id
√ √ √ √ √
The field √Q( √3, 5 ) can be√thought
√ as a vector field with basis {1, 3, 5, 15 }. It is not a coincidence the fact that
| Gal (Q( 3, 5 )/Q)| = [Q( 3, 5 ) : Q)] = 4.
Proposition 17.3. Let E/F be a field extension and f ∈ F[x]. Then, every automorphism in Gal (E/F) determines a permutation
of roots of f (x) in E.
σ : F(α) → F(β),
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Theorem 17.1. Let f ∈ F[x] and E f its splitting field over F. If f (x) does not have multiple roots, then
Proof. We will use induction over the degree of f (x). If the degree of f (x) is 0 or 1, then E = F. Assume that this is
true for all polynomials with degree k where 0 ≤ k < n. Let p(x) an irreducible factor of f (x) with degree r. Since
all roots of p(x) are in E we can choose one of them, say α, such that F ⊂ F(α) ⊂ E. If β is any root of p(x), then
F ⊂ F(β) ⊂ E. From the above there is a unique isomorphism σ : F(α) → F(β) for every β that fixes every element of F.
Since E is a splitting field of F(β), then are exactly r isomorphisms such that. We can factor p(x) in F(α) as
p(x) = (x − α)p1 (x). Degrees of p1 (x) and q1 (x) are less than r. Since we we know that E is a splitting field of p1 (x) over
F(α) we can of apply the hypothesis of induction to prove that
Hence
[E : F] = [E : F(α)][F(α) : F]
are possible automorphisms of E that fix F, or | Gal (E/F)| = [E : F].
Corollary 17.1. Let F a finite field with a extension of finite E such that [E : F] = k. Then, Gal (E/F) is cyclic.
Proof. Let p characteristic of E and F and assume that the order of E and F is respectively pm and pn . Then, nk = m.
m m
Also assume that E is splitting field of xp − x over subfield with order p. Thus E is also splitting field of xp − x over
F. Applying the above theorem we get | Gal (E/F)| = k.
n
To prove that Gal (E/F) is cyclic we must find a generator for Gal (E/F). Let σ : E → E such σ(α) = αp . Assume
that σ is the desired element in Gal (E/F). First we must prove that σ is in Aut (E). If α and β are in E, then
n n n
σ(α + β) = (α + β)p = αp + βp = σ(α) + σ(β).
Also it is easy to prove that σ(αβ) = σ(α)σ(β). Since σ is a nonzero homomorphism of fields it is injective; see ??. It is
n
also surjective because E is a finite field. We we know that σ must be in Gal (E/F) since F is splitting field of xp − x
over field basis with order p. This means se σ fixes for every element in F. Finally must of prove that the order of σ
k
is k. We we know that σk (α) = αp = α is identity of Gal (E/F). However σr can not be identity for 1 ≤ r < k otherwise
rk
xp − x is pm root which is impossible.
√ √
Example 17.3. Now we can confirm that √ Galois group of Q( 3, 5 ) over Q is √
√ the isomorphic
√ to Z2 × Z2 . The group
H = {id, σ, τ, µ} is a subgroup of Gal (Q( 3, 5)/Q). However H must be of all Gal (Q( 3, 5)/Q) because
√ √ √ √
|H| = [Q( 3, 5 ) : Q] = | Gal (Q( 3, 5 )/Q)| = 4.
Proof. We we know that f (x) is irreducible. Moreover, since (x − 1) f (x) = x5 − 1, we can use the De Moivre formula
to express roots ωi , for i = 1, . . . , 4 of f (x). We have
ω = cos(2π/5) + ı sin(2π/5).
Thus, splitting field of f (x) must be Q(ω). We can define an automorphisms σi of Q(ω) with σi (ω) = ωi for i = 1, . . . , 4.
It is easy to see that these automorphisms are different in Gal (Q(ω)/Q). Since
σi ’s must all be from Gal (Q(ω)/Q). Thus Gal (Q(ω)/Q) Z4 implying that ω is a generator for the Galois group.
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f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn
Lemma 17.1. Let F a field and f (x) ∈ F[x]. Then, f (x) is separable if and only if when f (x) and f 0 (x) are relatively prime, so
gcd ( f, f 0 ) = 1.
Proof. Let f (x) separable. Then, f (x) is factored over extension field of F as f (x) = (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) · · · (x − αn ), where
αi , α j for i , j. Then,
f 0 (x) = (x − α2 ) · · · (x − αn )
+ (x − α1 )(x − α3 ) · · · (x − αn )
+ · · · + (x − α1 ) · · · (x − αn−1 ).
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Proof. The equivalence of i), ii) iii), and iv) has been shown in the chapter on polynomials.
iv) =⇒ v). Since f is irreducible then deg f 0 < deg f , then gcd ( f, f 0 ) , 1 implies that f 0 = 0. Hence, char (k) = p > 0
and f is a polynomial in xp .
Proof. Assume that k contains an element a which is not a p-th power. Then
f (x0 = xp − a ∈ k[x]
We say that multiplicity of roots αi of f (x) is ni . A root with multiplicity 1 is called simple root. Recall that se a
polynomial f (x) ∈ F[x] with degree n is separable if it has n distinct roots in E. Thus, f (x) is separable if ai is factored
in linear factors over E[x]. A extension E of F is a separable extension of F if every element in E is root of a splitting
polynomial F[x]. Also recall that f (x) is separable if and only if gcd ( f (x), f 0 (x)) = 1.
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Proposition 17.5. Let f (x) a irreducible polynomial over F[x]. If characteristic of F is 0, then f (x) is separable. If characteristic
of F is p and f (x) , g(xp ) for a g(x) in F[x], then f (x) is also separable.
Proof. First assume that char F = 0. Since deg f 0 (x) < deg f (x) and f (x) is reducible, then gcd ( f (x), f 0 (x)) , 1 only if
f 0 (x) is the zero polynomial, which is impossible in a field with characteristic zero. If char F = p, then f 0 (x) can to
be polynomial zero if for every coefficient of f (x) is a multiple of p. This can happen only if we have a polynomial
of the form f (x) = a0 + a1 xp + a2 x2p + · · · + an xnp .
Some extension fields of F of the form F(α) are easier to study. Let be given a extension field E of F. lHow is it
possible to find an element α ∈ E such that E = F(α). In this case α is called primitive element. We already have
seen examples of extension of fields generated by primitive elements. For example,
√ √ √ √
Q( 3, 5 ) = Q( 3 + 5 )
and
√
3 √ √
6
Q( 5, 5 ı) = Q( 5 ı).
There exists an element primitive for every finite, separable extension as we can prove next.
Theorem 17.2 (Primitive Element Theorem). Let E a finite separable extension of fields F. Then, there is an element α ∈ E
such that E = F(α).
Proof. Assume that E is a finite extension of an infinite field. We will prove the theorem for F(α, β). Then the general
case is easily obtained by induction. Let f (x) and g(x) be minimal polynomials of α and β respectively . Let K be
the splitting field of f (x) and g(x). Assume that f (x) has roots α = α1 , . . . , αn in K and g(x) has roots β = β1 , . . . , βm in
K. All of these roots have multiplicity 1 since E is separable over F. Since F is infinite we can find a ∈ F such that
αi − α
a,
β − βj
γ = α + aβ , αi + aβ j .
Thus, γ − aβ j , αi for every i, j where j , 1. Define h(x) ∈ F(γ)[x] such that h(x) = f (γ − ax). Then, h(β) = f (α) = 0.
However h(β j ) , 0 for j , 1. Thus, h(x) and g(x) have a common factor in F(γ)[x]. Hence irreducible polynomial of
β over F(γ) must be linear because β is a common root of g(x) and h(x), which implies β ∈ F(γ) and α = γ − aβ is in
F(γ). Thus, F(α, β) = F(γ).
Exercises:
over Fp , where q = pn . What is the cardinality and the degree of the splitting field?
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FG = {α ∈ F | σ(α) = α, ∀ σ ∈ G}
The reader can to prove that FG is subfield of F. Let F/k a algebraic extension. Recall that an automorphism of F
over k is a automorphism σ of F such that σ(α) = α for every α ∈ k.
Definition 17.4. Let F/k a algebraic extension. We say that F/k is a extension Galois if it is normal and separable.
The group Aut k (F) of automorphisms of F over k is called the Galois group of F over k and denoted by Gal (F/k).
Proposition 17.6. Let F/k a algebraic extension. The following are equivalent:
k = FG
Oα := {σ(α) | σ ∈ G} = {α = α1 , α2 , . . . αr }
since each σ(α) is root of f (x) then Oα has cardinality ≤ deg f , and also Oα ⊂ F. Define h(x) such that:
r
Y
h(x) := (x − αi )
i=1
p(α1 , . . . , am )
α= .
q(α1 , . . . , αm )
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Lemma 17.3. Let L/k a finite extension Galois and G = Gal (L/k). If F is an intermediate subfield k ⊂ F ⊂ L, then L/F is
Galois and the function
Φ : F −→ Gal (L/F)
is injective.
Proof. From above, if L/F is normal and separable, then it is a Galois extension. Let F and F0 two intermediate field
and H := Gal (L/F), H0 = Gal (L/F0 ) corresponding groups. Then,
0
F = KH and F0 = KH
i) Φ(FF0 ) = H ∩ H0
L {eG }
/
FF0 H ∩ H0
F F0 H H0
F ∩ F0 M
k G
Proof. Exercise.
The following Lemma determine the degree of extensions L/LG .
Lemma 17.4. Let G a finite subgroup of Aut (L) with order |G| = n. Then, degree of extensions L/LG is:
[L : LG ] = n = |G|
Proof.
Now we state the main result of Galois theory.
Theorem 17.3. Let L/k a finite extension Galois and G = Gal (L/k). There exists a bijection between the set of intermediate
subfields F of L/k and subgroups H < G, that is given from
F = LH ←→ H
and G(L/F) H. Also F/k is Galois if and only if H E G. In this case G(F/k) G/H.
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Proof. The function Φ of Lemma 17.3 is injective. This function is also surjective because for every subgroup H ≤ G
there is a intermediate field LH .
Assume that H E G. To prove that F/k is Galois we must show that
i) F/k is normal
ii) F/k is separable.
Let α ∈ F = LH and β a root of min (α, k, x). If we show that β ∈ F then we have proved that F/k is normal.
From the theorem of isomorphic extensions Theorem 16.8 there is a σ ∈ G such that:
σ(α) = β
Let τ ∈ H. Then,
τ(β) = σ(σ−1 τσ(α))
Since H is normal then σ−1 τσ ∈ H. Also since every element of H fixes the elements of F we have that
σ−1 τσ(α) = α
Hence
τ(β) = σ(α) = β ∈ F
which shows se F/k is normal and is separable because separable form a distinguished class.
L {1G }
o /
F = LH H
k G
Conversely assume that F/k is Galois with Galois group Gal (F/k). Define the function
φ : G → Gal (F/k)
σ → σ|F
Thus, σ|F is in Gal (F/k) and φ is of well defined. Then,
Let f (x) a irreducible polynomial in k[x] which is factored as follows:
f (x) = (x − α1 ) . . . (x − αn )
in a splitting field E f . Then, E f /k is Galois because is a normal extension and separable. The group Gal (E f /k) is
called the Galois group of f (x) over k and do of denoted by Gal ( f ). The elements of Gal ( f )permute roots of f (x).
Thus, the Galois group of polynomial has a copy isomorphic in Sn , where n is degree of the polynomial.
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Example 17.7 (Cubic polynomials). Let f (x) be an irreducible cubic polynomial in k[x]. We have shown that [E f : k] = 3 or
6. Hence, the Galois group Gal ( f ) is a subgroup of S3 with order 3 or 6. Thus, Gal ( f ) A3 if and only if ∆ f is a square in k,
otherwise Gal( f ) S3 .
Exercises:
17.4. Suppose that E is a finite extension Galois of fields F. If Gal(E/F) has order pq, where p < q are two different primes and
p does not divide q − 1, then prove that E has two subfields Ep and Eq , which are fixed under the action of Gal(E/F), such that
Ep ∩ Eq = F, Ep and Eq generate E and Gal(Ep /F) (resp. Gal(Eq /F) ) is cyclic with order p (resp. q ).
17.5. Let E a finite Galois extension of F and G = Gal (E/F). Denote with (·)0 the Galois correspondence L −→ L0 and H −→ H0 ,
which maps intermediate subfields to subgroups of G and conversely. Prove that
(a) If L is an intermediate subfield which is invariant under all automorphisms of G, then L0 is normal in G.
(b) If H is normal subgroup of G, then prove that σ(H0 ) = H0 , for every σ ∈ G.
17.6. Prove that every automorphism of the real fields R is identity.
Φ8 (x) = x4 + 1
Φ10 (x) = x4 − x3 + x2 − x + 1
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Theorem 17.4. All cyclotomic polynomials Φn (x) ∈ Q[x] are irreducible in Q[x].
Proof. If Φn (x) is irreducible in Q, then by Gauss’ lemma is also irreducible in Z[x] Hence assume that
where f (x) and g(x) are monic and at least one of them is irreducible over Z. Suppose that f (x) is irreducible over
Z. Let α root of f (x). Then, α is root of unity and αp is a root of n -te primitive of unity since p - n
where h(x ) is a polynomial monic h(x) ∈ Z[x]. Reduce mod p and denote b f¯ the remainder mod p of f ∈ Z[x].
Then, in Fp we have:
Φn (x) = f · g.
Notice that Φn (x) | (xn − 1) and it does not have root in some extension of Fp . Since in Fp we have that ap = a then for
every a ∈ Fp we have:
p
g(xp ) = g(x) .
Hence f¯ | ( ḡ)p and as a consequence every factor q(x) in Fp [x] of f¯ divides also ḡ. Hence q2 divides Φn which implies
that Φn (x) has multiple roots. This is a contradiction and this completes the proof.
Hence all primitive roots of unity are roots of f (x). Thus, f (x) = Φn (x) and Φn (x) is irreducible.
Let εn be an n-th primitive root and denote by Fn the splitting field of Φn (x). Then, we have that:
Corollary 17.5. If Fn is n-th cyclotomic extension of Q then Fn = Q(εn ). Moreover, we have:
Exercises:
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Lα : F −→ F
(17.2)
x −→ a x
Recall that F is a vector space n -dimensional over k and Lα a function linear over this vector space. Let Mα be the
matrix associated with the linear map Lα .
Definition 17.5. Let be given F/k a finite field extension. The norm NkF and trace TrFk of for every element α ∈ F are defined
as follows:
NkF (α) = det(Mα ) TrFk (α) = tr (Mα ) (17.3)
Recall from linear algebra that the change of basis of a vector space changes the matrix Mα to a similar matrix
A−1 Mα A. The determinant and trace are the same since
det(A−1 Mα A) = det(Mα )
(17.4)
tr (A−1 Mα A) = tr (Mα )
Lemma 17.6. Let F = k(α) be an algebraic extension where the minimal polynomial of α is
Then,
NkF (α) = (−1)n β0 , TrFk (α) = − βn−1
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Proof. This theorem will be proved only for Galois extensions in the following corollary.
Corollary 17.6. Let be given F/k a extension Galois finite with group Galois G. Then, for every α ∈ F,
Y X
NkF (α) = σ(α) and TkF (α) = σ(α)
σ∈G σ∈G
G = {1, σ, . . . , σn−1 }.
We know that all σi (α), for i ≤ n are also root of f (x). The result now follows.
√
Example 17.10. Let be given F = k( d). Then, F/k is Galois since for every extension with degree two is Galois. The group
Galois is G = {id, σ} ku √ √
σ : d −→ − d
√
Then, for α = a + b α ∈ F, we have:
√ √
NkF (α) = α · σ(a) = (a + b d)(a − b d) = a2 − b2 d.
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Proof. Exercise.
Exercises:
17.13. Let be given n ≥ 3 a integer, εn a root of n -te primitive of unity and K := Q(εn ). Prove that NQ
K (ε ) = 1.
n
√ √
4 √ √ √ √
17.14. Let be given F = Q( 3) and L = Q( 3). Determine NQ F ( 3), N L ( 3), TrF ( 3), TrL ( 3).
F Q F
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f (x) = xd − b
where d | n and b ∈ k.
iv) F is a separable field of
f (x) = xn − b
for b ∈ k.
Proof. Use Hilbert’ 90.
Theorem 17.9 (Hilbert’s 90 Theorem, (additive version)). Let be given K/k a finite extension cyclic with Galois group
Gal(K/k) = hσi and α ∈ K. Then, we have that Tr(α) = 0 if and only if when there is a β ∈ K such that α = β − σ(β)
Proof. Exercise.
The following will be accepted without proof.
Theorem 17.10 (Artin-Schreier). Let be given char (k) = p > 0. The polynomial
f (x) = xp − x − a ∈ k[x]
either is in k or is irreducible over k. Moreover, the following are equivalent:
Exercises:
17.16. Let be given F which is a extension of k of generated from all n-roots of unity, for every n ≥ 1. Prove that F/k is Abelian.
17.17. Let be given F a field and σ ∈ Aut (F) such that |σ| = s > 1. Prove that there is a α ∈ F such that
σ(α) = α + 1
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is a subfield of F.
is a subfield of F.
Subgroup F{σi } of F is called the fixed field of {σi }. The fixed field for a subgroup G of Aut(F) do of denoted by
FG .
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
Example
√ √ 17.11. Let σ : Q( 3, 5 ) → Q( 3, 5 ) the automorphism that maps 3 to − 3. Then, Q( 5 ) is subfield of
Q( 3, 5 ) which is fixed from σ.
Proposition 17.8. Let E a splitting field over F of an irreducible polynomial. Then, EGal (E/F) = F.
Proof. Let G = Gal (E/F). Thus, F ⊂ EG ⊂ E. Also E is splitting field of EG and Gal (E/F) = Gal (E/EG ). From above
we have
|G| = [E : EG ] = [E : F].
Thus [EG : F] = 1. therefore EG = F.
Exercise 17.1. Let G a finite group of automorphisms of E and let F = EG . Then, [E : F] ≤ |G|.
Let E be an algebraic extension of F. If for every irreducible polynomial in F[x] with a root in E of has all its roots
in E, then E is called a normal extension of F. Thus, for every polynomial irreducible in F[x] that contains a root in
E is a product of linear factors in E[x].
Theorem 17.11. Le to be E a extension field of F. Then, the following are equivalent.
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Let E a finite extension , normal and separable of F. From Theorem 17.2 we can find an element α
in E such that E = F(α). Let f (x) minimal polynomial of α over F. Then E must contain all roots of f (x) since it is a
normal extension of F. Thus, E is splitting field for f (x).
(2) ⇒ (3). Let E be the splitting field an irreducible polynomial over F. We know that EGal (E/F) = F. Since
| Gal (E/F)| = [E : F], this is a finite group.
(3) ⇒ (1). Let F = EG for a finite automorphism group G of E. Since [E : F] ≤ |G|, E is a finite extension of F. To
prove that E is a normal extension and finite of F, let f (x) ∈ F[x] a polynomial monic and irreducible which has a
root α in E. We must show that f (x) is product of linear factors in E[x].
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√ √
{id, σ, τ, µ} Q( 3, 5 )
@ @
@ @
@ @
√ √ √
{id, σ} {id, τ} {id, µ} Q( 3 ) Q( 5 ) Q( 15 )
@ @
@ @
@ @
{id} Q
√ √
Figure 17.3: Gal (Q( 3, 5 )/Q)
We we know that automorphisms in G permute roots of f (x) that are in E. Thus, if G acts over α we take the
distinct roots α1 = α, α2 , . . . , αn in E. Let g(x) = ni=1 (x − αi ). Then, g(x) is separable over F and g(α) = 0. Any σ in G
Q
permutes factors of g(x) since it permutes these roots. Thus, when σ acts over g(x) it must fix coefficients of g(x).
Thus coefficients of g(x) must be in F. Since deg g(x) ≤ deg f (x) and f (x) is minimal polynomial of α, then f (x) = g(x).
Corollary 17.8. Let K a extension field of F such that F = KG for a finite automorphism group G of K. Then, G = Gal (K/F).
Proof. Since F = KG , then G is a subgroup of Gal (K/F). Thus,
From this we conclude that G = Gal (K/F) since they must have the same order.
√ √
√ √ 17.12. Above we studied the automorphisms of Q( 3, √ 5 )√which fix Q. Fig. 17.3 shows the lattice of subfields of
Example
Q( 3, 5 )/Q and the lattice of subgroups of the group Gal (Q( 3, 5 )/Q). The Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory
determines the correspondence between those two lattices.
Now we are ready to state and prove the Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory.
Theorem 17.12 (Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory). Let E/F be a Galois extension with Galois group Gal (E/F),
then the following are true.
1. The function K 7→ Gal (E/K) is a bijection of subfields K of E that contains F with subgroups of Gal (E/F).
2. If F ⊂ K ⊂ E, then
[E : K] = | Gal (E/K)| and [K : F] = [Gal (E/F) : Gal (E/K)].
Proof. (1) Assume that Gal (E/K) = Gal (E/L) = G. Both K and L are fixed fields of G. Thus, K = L and the function
such K 7→ Gal (E/K) is bijective. To prove that the function is surjective let G a subgroup of Gal (E/F) and K to be
the fixed field of G. Then, F ⊂ K ⊂ E. Therefore, E is a normal extension of K. Thus, Gal (E/K) = G and the function
K 7→ Gal (E/K) is a bijection.
(2) From above | Gal (E/K)| = [E : K]. Thus,
| Gal (E/F)| = [Gal (E/F) : Gal (E/K)] · | Gal (E/K)| = [E : F] = [E : K][K : F].
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E - {id}
L - Gal (E/L)
K - Gal (E/K)
F - Gal (E/F)
(4) Let K a normal extension of F. If σ is in Gal (E/F) and τ is in Gal (E/K) must to prove that σ−1 τσ is in Gal (E/K).
Thus, It is enough we prove that σ−1 τσ(α) = α for every α ∈ K. Assume that f (x) is minimal polynomial of α over F.
Then, σ(α) is also a root of f (x) which is contained in K since K is a normal extension of F. Thus, τ(σ(α)) = σ(α) or
σ−1 τσ(α) = α.
Conversely, let Gal (E/K) a normal subgroup of Gal (E/F). We must show that F = KGal (K/F) . Let τ ∈ Gal (E/K).
For every σ ∈ Gal (E/F) there is a τ ∈ Gal (E/K) such that τσ = στ. therefore for every α ∈ K
Thus, σ(α) must be in the fixed field of Gal (E/K). Let σ restriction of σ in K. Then, σ is a automorphism of K that
fixes F since σ(α) ∈ K for every α ∈ K. Thus, σ ∈ Gal (K/F). Also we do prove that fixed field of Gal (K/F) is F. Let β be
an element in K which is fixed from all automorphisms in Gal (K/F). In particular σ(β) = β for every σ ∈ Gal (E/F).
Thus, β is in the fixed subfield F of the group Gal (E/F).
Finally must prove that when K is a normal extension of F then
For σ ∈ Gal (E/F), let σK the automorphism of K obtained from the restriction of σ in K. Since K is a normal extension
the above paragraph shows se σK ∈ Gal (K/F). Therefore the function φ : Gal (E/F) → Gal (K/F) is defined as σ 7→ σK .
This function is a group homomorphism since
Thus, the image of φ is Gal (K/F) and φ is surjective. Applying Theorem 9.4 we have: Gal (K/F) Gal (E/F)/ Gal (E/K).
Next we see some examples of the galois correspondence.
Example 17.13. Construct the lattice of the field extension E f /Q, where E f is the splitting field of the polynomial
f (x) = x4 − 2
Solution: We will compare this latice with the lattice of subfields of the splitting field E f of f (x) = x4 − 2 over Q. The
√
4 √ √ √
4
splitting field E f of f (x) is Q( 2, ı). Notice that f (x) is factored as (x2 + 2 )(x2 − 2 ). Thus, roots of f (x) are ± 2 and
√
4 √
4 √
4 √
4 √
4
± 2 ı. First we add the root 2 to Q and and then ı to Q( 2 ). Thus, the splitting field of f (x) is Q( 2 )(ı) = Q( 2, ı).
√
4 √4 √4 √
4 √
4
Since [Q( 2 ) : Q] = 4 and ı is not in Q( 2 ) then [Q( 2, ı) : Q( 2 )] = 2. Thus, [Q( 2, ı) : Q] = 8. The set
√
4 √
4 √
4 √
4 √
4 √
4
{1, 2, ( 2 )2 , ( 2 )3 , ı, ı 2, ı( 2 )2 , ı( 2 )3 }
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√
4
Q( 2 )
H P
HH PPP
H PP
√
4
√
4
√ √
4
√
4
Q( 2 ) Q( 2 i) Q( 2, i) Q((1 + i) 2 ) Q((1 − i) 2 )
H
HH
H
HH
H H
√ √
Q( 2 ) Q(i) Q( 2 i)
H
HH
H
Q (a)
√
4 √
4
is a basis for Q( 2, ı) over Q. The lattice of subfields of Q( 2, ı)/Q is presented in Fig. 17.5(a).
The Galois group G of f (x) must have order 8. Let σ be the automorphism defined by
√
4 √4
σ( 2 ) = 2
and σ(ı) = ı. Let τ the automorphism defined by complex conjugation. Thus, τ(ı) = −ı. Then, G has an element of
order 4 and an element of order 2. The elements of G are
with relations τ2 = id, σ4 = id and τστ = σ−1 . Thus, G must be isomorphic to D4 . The lattice of subgroups of G is
given in Fig. 17.5(b).
Exercises:
17.18. Prove that the Galois group of an irreducible polynomial of degree two is isomorphic to Z2 .
17.19. Prove that the Galois group of irreducible polynomial of degree three is isomorphic to S3 or Z3 .
17.20. Use the derivative to prove that if f (T) is irreducible polynomial over field F, then it has a root that again is in splitting
field if and only if when characteristic of F is p > 0 and f (T) = g(Tp ), for g(T) ∈ F[T].
17.21. Give the definition of the discriminant ∆ of a polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x]. Prove that ∆2 ∈ Q. Also prove that Gal ( f ) < An
if and only if ∆2 is a complete square in Q.
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such that for every every step is one of the following types:
i) Fi+1 = Fi (εn ), where εn is an n-th root of unity.
ii) Fi+1 = Fi (αi ), where αn is a root of
f (x) = xn − a
for n > 1, a ∈ k and (n, p) = 1 if p > 0
iii) If char (k) > 0 then Fi+1 = Fi (αi ) where αn is a root of
f (x) = xn − x − a
for a ∈ k.
A extension F/k is of solvable by radicals if it has a radical series. Then we have the following:
Theorem 17.13. If F/k is solvable by radicals then such is and Fn /k.
Theorem 17.14. A separable finite extension F/k is solvable by radicals if and only if it is solvable.
A extension field E of fields F is a radical extension if there exist the elements α1 , . . . , αr ∈ K and positive integers
n1 , . . . , nr such that
E = F(α1 , . . . , αr ),
n
where α1 1 ∈ F and
n
αi i ∈ F(α1 , . . . , αi−1 )
for i = 2, . . . , r. A polynomial f (x) is solvable by radicals over F if splitting field K of f (x) over F is contained in a
extension of F with radicals.
Example 17.14. The polynomial xn − 1 is solvable with radicals over Q. Roots of this polynomial are 1, ω, ω2 , . . . , ωn−1 , where
2π 2π
ω = cos + o f sin .
n n
splitting field of xn − 1 over Q is Q(ω).
Lemma 17.8. Let F a field with characteristic zero and E f splitting field of the polynomial
f (x) = xn − a ∈ F[x].
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Assume that F does not contain an n -th root of unity. Let ω a generator of the cyclic group of roots of n -ta
of unity. Let α a zero of xn − a. Since α and ωα are in splitting field of xn − a, then ω = (ωα)/α is also in E. Let
K = F(ω). Then, F ⊂ K ⊂ E. Since K is splitting field of xn − 1, then K is a normal extension of F. An automorphism σ
in Gal (F(ω)/F) is determined from σ(ω). Then, σ(ω) = ωi for a integer i since all zeroes of xn − 1 are powers of ω. If
τ(ω) = ω j is in Gal (F(ω)/F), then
Lemma 17.9. Let F a field with characteristic zero and E/F a radical extension. Then, there is a normal radical extension K/F
which contains E.
Proof. Since E is a extension with radicals of F, there exist the elements α1 , . . . , αr ∈ K and positive integers n1 , . . . , nr
such that
E = F(α1 , . . . , αr ),
n
where α1 1 ∈ F and
n
αi i ∈ F(α1 , . . . , αi−1 )
for i = 2, . . . , r. Let f (x) = f1 (x) · · · fr (x), where fi is minimal polynomial of αi over F and let K splitting field of K
over F. Every root of f (x) in K is of the form σ(αi ), where σ ∈ Gal (K/F). Thus, for for every σ ∈ Gal (K/F) we have
[σ(α1 )]n1 ∈ F and [σ(αi )]ni ∈ F(α1 , . . . , αi−1 ) for i = 2, . . . , r. Thus, if Gal (K/F) = {σ1 = id, σ2 , . . . , σk }, then K = F(σ1 (α j )) is a
extension with radicals of F.
We will prove the Fundamental Theorem for solvability with radicals.
Theorem 17.15. Let f (x) in F[x], where char F = 0. Then, f (x) is of solvable with radicals if and only if Gal f is solvable.
Proof. Let K splitting field of f (x) over F. Since f (x) is solvable with radicals, there is a radical extension E such that
F = F0 ⊂ F1 ⊂ · · · Fn = E.
Since Fi is normal over Fi−1 , then E is a normal extension of for every Fi . From Theorem 17.12 we have that Gal (E/Fi )
is a normal subgroup of Gal (E/Fi−1 ). Thus, we have a subnormal series subgroups Gal (E/F) such that
Hence, Gal (Fi /Fi−1 ) is solvable. Thus, Gal (E/F) is also solvable.
Exercises:
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(b) If p(T) is a irreducible polynomial over Q with order p which has exactly two root not real, then the Galois group of
splitting field of p(T) is Sp .
17.24. Prove that for every group Sn , (n ≥ 2 ) there exists a polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] such that
Gal( f ) Sn
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Proof. Assume that E is a finite extension of C. Since for every finite extension field with characteristic zero is
primitive then there is a α ∈ E such that E = C(α) where α is the root of some irreducible polynomial f (x) in C[x].
Splitting field L of f (x) is a normal separable extension of C which contains E. We must prove that it is impossible
for L to be a proper extension of C.
E = C(α)
Assume that L is a proper extension of C. Since L is splitting field of f (x) = x2 + 1 over R, then L is a normal
and separable, finite extension of R. Let K fixed field of Sylow 2-subgroups of G of Gal (L/R). Then, R ⊂ K ⊂ L and
| Gal (L/K)| = [L : K]. Since,
[L : R] = [L : K][K : R],
then [K : R] must be odd. Thus, K = R(β), where β has a minimal polynomial f (x) with odd degree. Thus, K = R.
We know that Gal (L/R) is a 2-group. Follows that Gal (L/C) is a 2-group. We have accepted that L , C, then
| Gal (L/C)| ≥ 2. From Sylow’s Theorem and Fundamental Theorem of Galois theory (Theorem 17.12) there is a
subgroup Gal (L/R) of Gal (L/C) with index 2 and a field E which is fixed by Gal (L/R). Then, [E : C] = 2 and there
exists an element γ ∈ E with minimal polynomial x2 + bx + c in C[x]. This polynomial has roots
√
−b ± b2 − 4c
2
which are in C since ∆ = b2 − 4c is in C. This is impossible. Hence, L = C.
Exercises:
17.25. Let G be the Galois group of polynomial with degree n. Prove that |G| | n!.
17.26. Let F ⊂ E. If f (x) is solvable over F, prove that f (x) is also solvable over E.
17.27. Construct a polynomial f (x) in Q[x] with degree 7 which is not solvable with radicals.
17.28. Let p be a prime number. Prove that there is a polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] with degree p and Galois group isomorphic to
Sp . Generalize that for every prime p with p ≥ 5 there is a polynomial with degree p which is not is solvable with radicals.
17.29. Let p be a prime number and Zp (t) the field of rational functions over Zp . Prove that f (x) = xp − t is a irreducible
polynomial in Zp (t)[x]. Prove that f (x) is not splitting.
17.30. Let E be an extension field of F. Assume that K and L are two intermediate fields. If there is an element σ ∈ Gal (E/F)
such that σ(K) = L, then K and L are called conjugate fields. Prove that K and L are conjugate if and only if Gal (E/K) and
Gal (E/L) are conjugated subgroups Gal (E/F).
17.31. Let σ ∈ Aut (R). If a is a positive real number prove that σ(a) > 0.
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17.32. Prove or disprove that: Two different subgroups of a Galois group have different fixed fields.
17.33. We know that the cyclotomic polynomial
xp − 1
Φp (x) = = xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1
x−1
is irreducible over Q for every prime number p. Let ω be a root of Φp (x). Determine Q(ω).
17.34. Prove that ω, ω2 , . . . , ωp−1 are different zeroes of Φp (x) and conclude that they are all zeroes of Φp (x).
17.35. Prove that Gal (Q(ω)/Q) is Abelian with order p − 1.
17.36. Prove that fixed field of Gal (Q(ω)/Q) is Q.
17.37. Let F a finite field or a field of zero characteristic. Let E be a finite normal extension of F with Galois group Gal (E/F).
Prove that F ⊂ K ⊂ L ⊂ E if and only if {id} ⊂ Gal (E/L) ⊂ Gal (E/K) ⊂ Gal (E/F).
17.38. Let F a field with characteristic zero and let f (x) Q∈ F[x] be a splitting polynomial with degree n. If E is the splitting
field e f (x), let α1 , . . . , αn be roots of f (x) in E. Let ∆ = i,j (αi − α j ). Prove that the discriminant of f (x) is ∆2 .
17.39. If σ ∈ Gal (E/F) is a transposition of two roots of f (x), prove that σ(∆) = −∆.
17.40. If σ ∈ Gal (E/F) is an even permutation of roots of f (x), prove that σ(∆) = ∆.
17.41. Prove that Gal (E/F) is isomorphic to a subgroup of An if and only if ∆ ∈ F.
17.42. Determine the Galois group of x3 + 2x − 4 and x3 + x − 3.
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Evaroiste Galois
Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (10 December 1804 – 18 February 1851) was
a German mathematician, who made fundamental contributions to elliptic
functions, algebraic geometry, dynamics, differential equations, and num-
ber theory. His name is occasionally written as Carolus Gustavus Iacobus
Iacobi in his Latin books, and his first name is sometimes given as Karl.
One of Jacobi’s greatest accomplishments was his theory of elliptic func-
tions and their relation to the elliptic theta function. This was developed
in his great treatise Fundamenta nova theoriae functionum ellipticarum
(1829), and in later papers in Crelle’s Journal. Theta functions are of great
importance in mathematical physics because of their role in the inverse
problem for periodic and quasi-periodic flows. The equations of motion are
integrable in terms of Jacobi’s elliptic functions in the well-known cases of
the pendulum, the Euler top, the symmetric Lagrange top in a gravitational
field and the Kepler problem (planetary motion in a central gravitational
field).
He also made fundamental contributions in the study of differential
equations and to rational mechanics, notably the Hamilton–Jacobi theory.
It was in algebraic development that Jacobi’s peculiar power mainly lay, and he made important contributions
of this kind to many areas of mathematics, as shown by his long list of papers in Crelle’s Journal and elsewhere
from 1826 onwards. One of his maxims was: ’Invert, always invert’ (’man muss immer umkehren’), expressing his
belief that the solution of many hard problems can be clarified by re-expressing them in inverse form.
In his 1835 paper, Jacobi proved the following basic result classifying periodic (including elliptic) functions: If
a univariate single-valued function is multiply periodic, then such a function cannot have more than two periods,
and the ratio of the periods cannot be a real number. He discovered many of the fundamental properties of theta
functions, including the functional equation and the Jacobi triple product formula, as well as many other results on
q-series and hypergeometric series.
The solution of the Jacobi inversion problem for the hyperelliptic Abel map by Weierstrass in 1854 required the
introduction of the hyperelliptic theta function and later the general Riemann theta function for algebraic curves
of arbitrary genus. The complex torus associated to a genus g algebraic curve, obtained by quotienting C g by the
lattice of periods is referred to as the Jacobian variety. This method of inversion, and its subsequent extension by
Weierstrass and Riemann to arbitrary algebraic curves, may be seen as a higher genus generalization of the relation
between elliptic integrals and the Jacobi, or Weierstrass elliptic functions
Jacobi was the first to apply elliptic functions to number theory, for example proving of Fermat’s two-square
theorem and Lagrange’s four-square theorem, and similar results for 6 and 8 squares. His other work in number
theory continued the work of Gauss: new proofs of quadratic reciprocity and introduction of the Jacobi symbol;
contributions to higher reciprocity laws, investigations of continued fractions, and the invention of Jacobi sums.
He was also one of the early founders of the theory of determinants; in particular, he invented the Jacobian
determinant formed from the n2 differential coefficients of n given functions of n independent variables, and which
has played an important part in many analytical investigations. In 1841 he reintroduced the partial derivative ∂
notation of Legendre, which was to become standard. Students of vector fields and Lie theory often encounter the
Jacobi identity, the analog of associativity for the Lie bracket operation.
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Chapter 18
We only consider only fields of characteristic 0. While we will develop the theory for polynomials over a field K,
all our examples will be for f ∈ Q[x].
f (x) = (x − α1 ) · · · (x − αn )
with distinct roots α1 , . . . , αn in the splitting field L of f . The Galois group of f over K, denoted by GK ( f ), is the
group Gal (L/K), viewed as a permutation group of the roots α1 , . . . , αn . Thus GK ( f ) is a subgroup of Sn , determined
up to conjugacy by f .
Proposition 18.1. (i) Let G = GK ( f ) and H = G ∩ An . Then H = Gal (L/K( ∆ f )). In particular, G is contained in the
p
alternating group An iff the discriminant ∆ f is a square in K.
(ii) The irreducible factors of f in K[x] correspond to the orbits of G. In particular, G is a transitive subgroup of Sn iff f is
irreducible.
Proof. (i) We have ∆ f = d2f , where d f = i> j (αi − α j ). For g ∈ G we have g(d f ) = sgn(g)d f . Thus H = G ∩ An is the
Q
stabilizer of d f in G. But this stabilizer equals Gal (L/K(d f )). Hence the claim.
(ii) G acts transitively on the roots of each irreducible factor of f , by Lemma ??.
18.1.1 Cubics
Let f (x) ∈ Q[x] be given by
f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c
The group S3 has two transitive subgroups A3 and S3 . Thus for irreducible f , we have G = A3 if and only if
is a square in Q.
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i) If α1 , α2 , α3 are real roots and distinct then obviously ∆ f > 0. Suppose that ∆ f > 0. If one of the roots is non-real
then its complex conjugate is also a root. Thus, we can assume that the roots are
a + bi, a − bi, r
for a, b, r ∈ R. Then 2
∆ f = 2bi · β · β̄ ,
where β = (a − r) + bi. Hence,
∆ f = −4 · b2 · ||β||4 < 0,
which contradicts our hypothesis that ∆ f > 0. Part ii) is an immediate consequence of i).
Remark 18.1. Recall that for a degree n irreducible polynomial f (x) over k with splitting field E f we have n | [E f : k], see
Lemma 16.3.
Exercises:
18.1. Compute the Galois groups of the splitting fields of the following polynomials, over Q:
i) p(x) = x3 − 3x + 3,
ii) x3 + 2,
iii) x3 + 3x2 − x − 1,
iv) x3 − 3x + 1
√ √
18.2. Determine the Galois group of the field Q 2 + 3 over Q.
with a, b, c ∈ k. Let E f = k(α1 , . . . , α4 ) be the splitting field of f over k. Since f has no x3 -term, we have α1 + · · · + α4 = 0.
We assume ∆ f , 0, so α1 , . . . , α4 are distinct. Let G = Gk ( f ), viewed as a subgroup of S4 via permuting α1 , . . . , α4 .
There are 3 partitions of {1, . . . , 4} into two pairs. S4 permutes these 3 partitions, with kernel
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Thus S4 /V4 S3 , the full symmetric group on these 3 partitions. Associate with these partitions the elements
β1 = α1 α2 + α3 α4 , β2 = α1 α3 + α2 α4 , β3 = α1 α4 + α2 α3
of L. If β1 = β2 then α1 (α2 − α3 ) = α4 (α2 − α3 ), a contradiction. Similarly, β1 , β2 , β3 are 3 distinct elements. Then G acts
as a subgroup of S4 on α1 , . . . , α4 , and as the corresponding subgroup of S3 S4 /V4 on β1 , . . . , β3 . Thus the subgroup
of G fixing all βi is G ∩ V4 . This proves
Lemma 18.2. The subgroup G ∩ V4 of G corresponds to the subfield k(β1 , β2 , β3 ) of E f . This subfield is the splitting field over
k of the cubic polynomial ("cubic resolvent")
The roots βi of the cubic resolvent can be found by Cardano’s formulas. The extension k(α1 , . . . , α4 )/k(β1 , β2 , β3 )
has Galois group ≤ V4 , hence is obtained by adjoining at most two square roots to k(β1 , β2 , β3 ).
L := k(α1 , α2 , α3 , α4 )
Ḡ=G∩V4
F := k(β1 , β2 , β3 )
d
i) d = 1 ⇐⇒ G V4 .
ii) d = 3 ⇐⇒ G A4 .
iii) d = 6 ⇐⇒ G S4 .
iv) If d = 2 then we have
a) f (x) is irreducible over F ⇐⇒ G D4
b) f (x) is reducible over F ⇐⇒ G Z4
One can first eliminate the coefficient of x3 by the substituting x with x − 4a . Then using the formula for the resolvent given
above we compute g(x) which is
g(x) := x3 − bx2 + (ac − 4d)x − a2 d + 4bd − c2
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The discriminant of f (x) is the same as the discriminant of g(x) and is given below:
α1 + α2 = −β2 − β3
p
α1 + α3 = −β1 − β3
p
α1 + α4 = −β1 − β2
p
or
−β1 − β2 + −β1 − β3 + −β2 − β3
p p p
α1 =
2
− −β1 − β2 − −β1 − β3 + −β2 − β3
p p p
α2 =
2
− −β1 − β2 + −β1 − β3 − −β2 − β3
p p p
α3 =
2
−β1 − β2 − −β1 − β3 − −β2 − β3
p p p
α4 =
2
This completes the case for the quartics. We next give a few examples how to compute the galois groups of a few
quartics.
Example 18.4. Let f (x) = x4 − 3. Recall from the section on splitting fields that [E f : Q] = 8. Then Gal ( f ) D4 .
∆ f = 210 · 32 · 72
and splits in Q as
g(x) = (x + 10)(x − 4)(x + 4)
Thus, Gal ( f ) = V4 .
The second method would be to compute the Galois action explicitly. The roots of f (x) are
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
14 6 14 6 14 6 14 6
α1 = + , α2 = − , α3 = − + , α4 = − −
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Then we have the following automorphisms;
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σ1 : α1 → α2
α3 → α3
α4 → α4
σ2 : α3 → α4
α1 → α1
α2 → α2
σ1 σ2 : α1 → α2
α3 → α4
Exercises:
18.4. Compute the Galois groups of the splitting fields of the following polynomials, over Q:
i) x4 − 3 or x4 − 2,
ii) x4 − 10x2 + 4
iii) x4 + 4x2 + 2
iii) x4 + x3 + 3x + 1
iii) x4 − x2 − x − 12
Proof. G is transitive, hence its 5-Sylow subgroup is isomorphic to Z5 (generated by a 5-cycle). If Z5 is not normal,
then G has at least 6 of 5-Sylow subgroups; then |G| ≥ 6 · 5 = 30, hence [S5 : G] ≤ 4 which implies G = S5 , A5 . If Z5 is
normal in G then G is conjugate either Z5 , D5 (dihedral group of order 10) or F5 = AGL(1, 5), the full normalizer of
Z5 in S5 , of order 20 (called also the Frobenius group of order 20).
Remark 18.2. If the discriminant of the quintic is a square in k then Gal ( f ) is contained in A5 . Hence, it is Z5 , D5 , or A5 .
In the next few examples we give a polynomial for each of the above groups. However proofs is some of the
cases are difficult and will be shown in the next section. The reader can check the Galois group of each polynomial
in Maple by using the command "galois(f, x)".
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Example 18.7. Let f (x) = x5 + x4 − 4x3 − 3x2 + 3x + 1. Then Gal ( f ) over Q is isomorphic to Z5
Example 18.8. Let f (x) = x5 + 11x + 44. Then Gal ( f ) over Q is isomorphic to D5
We will give a direct proof without making use of the previous lemma. First, f (x) is irreducible by Eisenstein’s criteria. Its
roots are √ √ √ √ √
5 5 5 5 5
2, ε · 2, ε2 · 2, ε3 · 2, ε4 · 2
√
5
where ε5 = 1. Hence E f = Q( 2, ε). Since x5 − 2 is irreducible over Q(ε) and we know that [Q(ε) : Q] = 4 (cyclotomic
extension), then [E f : Q] = 20. Hence Gal( f ) = F5 .
Example 18.10. Let f (x) = x5 + 20x + 16. Show that Gal ( f ) over Q is isomorphic to A5
The discriminant is ∆ f = 216 · 56 . Thus, Gal ( f ) is contained in A5 and is either Z5 , D5 , or A5 . We will see later how to
determine which group it is.
Example 18.11. Let f (x) = x5 − 4x + 2. Show that Gal ( f ) over Q is isomorphic to S5
Notice that the derivative of f (x) is f 0 (x) = 5x4 − 4. Study the sign of the derivative and show that f (x) intersect the real
line in only three points. Thus, it must have to non-real roots. Then, Gal ( f ) = S5 .
(5) f (x) = x5 + c4 x4 + · · · + c0 = (x − α1 ) · · · (x − α5 )
Let G = Gal ( f ), viewed as a (transitive) subgroup of S5 via permuting the (distinct) roots α1 , · · · , α5 . As before
E f = k(α1 , · · · , α5 ) denotes the splitting field.
A 5-cycle in S5 = Sym({1, . . . , 5}) corresponds to an oriented pentagon with vertices 1, . . . , 5. A 5-cycle and its
inverse correspond to a (non-oriented) pentagon, and the full Z5 corresponds to a pentagon together with its
"opposite". Thus F5 , the normalizer of CZ5 in S5 , is the subgroup permuting the pentagon and its opposite. D5
is the subgroup of F5 fixing the pentagon (symmetry group of the pentagon), and C5 is the subgroup of rotations.
Thus if G ≤ F5 then G fixes
where the first (resp., second) term corresponds to the edges of the pentagon (resp., its opposite).
Let δ1 , . . . , δ6 be the elements associated in this way to the six 5-Sylow’s of S5 , i.e., to the six pentagon-opposite
pentagon pairs on five given letters. Clearly, G permutes δ1 , . . . , δ6 . If G is conjugate to a subgroup of F5 , it fixes one
of δ1 , . . . , δ6 ; this fixed δi must then lie in k.
Thus, a necessary condition for the (irreducible) polynomial (5) to be solvable by radicals is that one δi lies in k,
i.e., that the polynomial
g(x) = (x − δ1 ) . . . (x − δ6 ) ∈ k[x]
has a root in k. It is also sufficient: If G fixes one δi then G is conjugate to a subgroup of F5 , provided that δ1 , . . . , δ6
are all distinct. To check this is:
Problem 5: Show δ1 , . . . , δ6 are mutually distinct (under the hypothesis D f , 0).
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The coefficients of g(x) are symmetric functions in α1 , . . . , α5 , hence are polynomial expressions in c0 , . . . , c4 . The
goal is to find these expressions explicitly. This gives an explicit criterion to check whether f (x) = 0 is solvable by
radicals.
Expressing the coefficients of g(x) explicitly in terms of α1 , . . . , α5 yields expressions that are too big (even for
a computer). A better way to proceed is by noting that these expressions have certain symmetries (invariance
properties). E.g., the substitution x0 = x + a in f (x) doesn’t change the δ0i s. To see the full invariance properties, we
need to "projectivize".
with βi , γi ∈ K̄. To prove this, we may assume bn , 0. (If bn = 0 apply induction to F/y). Then
x bn−1 x n−1 b0 x x
F = bn yn ( ( )n + ( ) +···+ ) = bn yn ( − α1 ) · · · ( − αn )
y bn y bn y y
maps F to
h(F) = F((x, y)h) = F(ax + cy, bx + dy) = (β01 x − γ01 y) · · · (β0n x − γ0n y)
From ! !
x y x y
F = det · · · det
γ1 β1 γn βn
we get
(γ0i , β0i ) = (γi , βi ) h−1 det(h)
From now on n = 5, so F is a binary quintic. Our present set-up reduces to that of the preceding section by setting
y = 1 = βi . The generalized version of the δi ’s are elements δ̃1 , . . . , δ̃6 , formed by replacing αi − α j by
γi βi
!
Di j = det
γj βj
δ̃1 = D212 D223 D234 D245 D251 − D213 D235 D252 D224 D241
Then
dν := σν (δ̃1 , . . . , δ̃6 )
is a homogeneous polynomial expression in b0 , . . . , b5 of degree 4ν. These polynomials are invariant under the action of SL(2, k)
on binary quintics: For any h ∈ SL(2, k) the quintic h(F) has the same associated dν ’s.
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Proof. For α j := γ j /β j we have δ̃i = (β1 · · · β5 )4 δi = b45 δi . Thus dν = b4ν σ (δ , , . . . , δ6 ). But the σν (δ1 , , . . . , δ6 ) are
5 ν 1
polynomial expressions in the c j = b j /b5 , j = 0, . . . , 4 (see the last section). Thus dν is a rational function in b0 , . . . , b5 ,
where the denominator is a power of b5 . Switching the roles of x and y yields that the denominator is also a power
of b0 . Thus it is constant, i.e., dν is a polynomial in b0 , . . . , b5 . If we replace each β j by cβ j for a scalar c then each δ̃i
gets multiplied by c4 , so dν gets multiplied by c4ν . Thus dν is homogeneous of degree 4ν. The rest of the claim is
clear.
There are four basic invariants of quintics, denoted by J, K, L, I, of degrees 4,8,12 and 18, such that every SL(2, k)-
invariant polynomial in b0 , . . . , b5 is a polynomial in J, K, L, I (see e.g. I. Schur, Vorlesungen ueber Invariantentheorie,
Springer 1968). To define J, K, L, we need auxiliary quantities
Then
J = 53 (B2 − 4AC)
h i
K = 25 · 56 2A(3EG − F2 ) − B(9DG − EF) + 2C(3FD − E2 ) (18.4)
h i
L = −210 · 59 · 3−1 4(3EG − F2 )(3FD − E2 ) − (9DG − EF)2
By using special quintics one gets linear equations for the coefficients expressing the dν ’s in terms of J, K, L. The
result is: (Due to Berwick 1915, see B. King, Beyond the quartic equation, Birkhaeuser 1996)
d1 = −10 J
d2 = 35 J2 + 10 K
d3 = −60 J3 − 30 JK − 10 L
(18.5)
d4 = 55 J4 + 30 J2 K + 25 K2 + 50 JL
d5 = −26 J5 − 10 J3 K − 44 JK2 − 59 J2 L − 14 KL
d6 = 5J6 + 20 J2 K2 + 20 J3 L + 20 JKL + 25 L2
These are the coefficients of the polynomial g(x) from the previous section. This g(x) has a root in the base field
iff the Galois group of f (x) is solvable. We summarize in the following:
Lemma 18.6. Let f (x) be a irreducible quintic over k and d1 , . . . , d6 defined in terms of the coefficients of f (x) as above. Then
f (x) is solvable by radicals if and only if
g(x) = x6 + d1 x5 + · · · d5 x + d6
has a root in k.
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Project: Investigate whether or not for each group that occurs as a Galois group of a quintic you can characterize
the case in terms of algebraic relations of invariants of cubics (I have not seen this done anywhere and would not
be surprised if it has never been done).
Exercises:
18.5. Compute the Galois groups of the splitting fields of the following polynomials, over Q:
1. p(x) = x5 − 2,
2. x5 − 4x + 2
n1 , n2 , n3 , · · · , nk ,
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f3 (x) = x5 + 2x + 2.
Hence there is a 5-cycle in the Galois group of f (x). For p = 5 we have
f5 (x) = (x2 + 2x + 3)(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 4)
and for p = 7 we have
f7 (x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 5)(x2 + 4x + 6)
From the above table we conclude that Gal( f ) = S5 .
Below we display the table for the type of elements in S6 .
() (2) (2)(2) (2)(2)(2) (3) (3)(2) (3)(3) (4) (4)(2) (5) (6) Order
S6 1 15 45 15 40 120 40 90 90 144 120 720
A6 1 0 45 0 40 0 40 0 90 144 0 360
S5 1 0 15 10 0 0 20 30 0 24 20 120
(S3 × S3 ) o C2 1 6 9 6 4 12 4 0 18 0 12 72
A5 1 0 15 0 0 0 20 0 0 24 0 60
C2 × S4 1 3 9 7 0 0 8 6 6 0 8 48
(C3 × C3 ) o C4 1 0 9 0 4 0 4 0 18 0 0 36
S3 × S3 1 0 9 6 4 0 4 0 0 0 12 36
S4 1 0 3 6 0 0 8 6 0 0 0 24
S4 1 0 9 0 0 0 8 0 6 0 0 24
C2 × A4 1 3 3 1 0 0 8 0 0 0 8 24
C3 × S3 1 0 0 3 4 0 4 0 0 0 6 18
A4 1 0 3 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 12
D12 1 0 3 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 12
S3 1 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 6
C6 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 6
Exercises:
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for r = 2s. Hence, for a fixed number of non-real roots, for p ≥ N(r) the Galois group is always Ap or Sp .
Corollary 18.1. Let a polynomial of prime degree p have r non-real roots. If one of the following holds:
(i) r = 4 and p > 7,
(ii) r = 6 and p > 13,
(iii) r = 8 and p > 23,
(iv) r = 10 and p > 37,
then Gal( f ) = Ap or Sp .
Remark 18.3. The above results gives a very quick way of determining the Galois group for polynomials with non-real roots.
Whether or not the discriminant is a complete square can be used to distinguish between Ap and Sp .
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Hence, ∆ f is a complete square in Q if G(t) = −23t(t − 1) is a complete square. In other words, for all those rational
points on the curve
y2 = G(t).
This is a genus 0 curve and can be parameterized as follows:
!
23m 23
(y, t) = − ,
m2 + 23 (m2 + 23
which is a complete square in Q. Thus, Gal( f ) is inside A23 . It is an simple calculus exercise to show that the number
of real roots of these polynomials is ≤ 3. Hence, the Galois group is A23 .
We conclude with the following open problem:
Problem: Find a degree 23 polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] with exactly 7 real roots such that ∆ f is a complete square in Q but Gal( f )
is not isomorphic to A23 .
Exercises:
18.11. Let
f (x) = x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
be an irreducible quartic with coefficients in Q. Give necessary and sufficient conditions in terms of a, b, c, d which characterize
Gal ( f ).
18.12. Using Maple or some other computer algebra package express d1 , . . . , d6 of Lemma 18.6 in terms of the coefficients of
f (x).
18.13. From Lemma 18.6, an irreducible quintic f (x) ∈ k[x] is solvable by radicals if and only if
g(x) = x6 + d1 x5 + · · · + d5 x + d6
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Final Exam
Midterm December 2017
Notice: You are not allowed to receive or give help. If academic dishonesty is discovered you will be reported to
the Dean of Students and might be expelled from the Oakland University. All solutions must be complete and with
full details in order to receive credit. No partial credit will be given
Name: Signature:
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Chapter 19
Abelian Extensions
Φn (x) = (x − α1 ) . . . (x − αr )
where α1 , . . . , αr are the n-th primitive roots of unity. Hence, if we fix a primitive root of unity α then
Y
Φn (x) = (x − αr )
(r,n) =1
Proof. Exercise
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Φ8 (x) = x4 + 1
Φ10 (x) = x4 − x3 + x2 − x + 1
and in general for a prime p we have
Φp (x) = xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1
Theorem 19.1. All cyclotomic polynomials Φn (x) over Q are irreducible in Q[x].
Proof. Assume that Φn (x) is reducible over Q. By Gauss’ lemma it is reducible in Z[x]. Say
Φn (x) = f (x) · g(x)
where f (x) and g(x) are monic and at least one of them irreducible over Z. We assume f (x) is irreducible over Z.
Let α be a root of f (x). Then α is a root of unity and αp is a primitive n-th root of unity since p - n
Proof: Say f (αp ) , 0. Then αp must be a root of g(x). Hence α is a root of g(xp ).
Since f (x) is monic and irreducible then f (x) | g(xp ), say
g(xp ) = h(x) f (x)
for some monic polynomial h(x) ∈ Z[x]. We reduce mod p. For f ∈ Z[x] let f¯ be the residue mod p of f . Thus in
Fp we have
Φn (x) = f · g.
Notice that Φn (x) | (xn − 1) therefore it has no repeated roots in any extension of Fp . Since ap = a in Fp for all a ∈ Fp
we have p
g(xp ) = g(x) .
Thus, f¯ | ( ḡ)p and therefore every factor q(x) in Fp [x] of f¯ divides also ḡ. Hence q2 divides Φn which implies that
Φn (x) has multiple roots. This is a contradiction and completes the proof of the claim.
Thus, from the Claim, we get that all primitive roots of unity are roots of f (x). Hence f (x) = Φn (x) and Φn (x) is
irreducible.
Let εn be the n-th primitive root of unity and Fn denote the splitting field of Φn (x). Then we have the following:
Corollary 19.1. If Fn is the n-th cyclotomic extension of Q then Fn = Q(εn ). Moreover,
G(Q(εn )/Q) (Z/nZ)∗ , and [Q(εn ) : Q] = ϕ(n)
Proof. The first part is obvious since Φn (εn ) = 0 and Φn (x) is irreducible. Hence, [Fn : Q] = ϕ(n). A basis for Q(εn )/Q
is {1, εin ) for (i, n) = 1. All σ ∈ Gal (Fn /Q) look like
εn → εin , where (i, n) = 1
Define
f : G(Q(εn )/Q) −→ (Z/nZ)∗
(19.2)
(εn → εin ) −→ i
It is easily shown that this is an isomorphism.
The highlight of the cyclotomic extensions is the celebrated Kronecker-Weber theorem.
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Theorem 19.2. Let F be a finite Abelian extension of Q. Then F is contained is some cyclotomic extension of Q.
Proof. The proof is beyond the scope of this book. The interested reader can see [4].
Exercises:
i) If n | m then Sm is an extension of Sn .
ii) Sn Sm = Sl
iii) Sn ∩ Sm = Sl
√
19.5. If d ∈ Q show that Q( d) lies in some cyclotomic polynomial Sn of Q (don’t use Kronecker-Weber theorem).
√ √ √ √
19.6. Determine which roots of unity are in the following: Q(i), Q( 2, Q( −2), Q( −3), Q( 3).
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f (x) = xd − b
where d | n and b ∈ k.
iv) F is a splitting field of
f (x) = xn − b
for b ∈ k.
Theorem 19.5 (Hilbert’s Theorem 90, additive version). Let K/k be a finite cyclic extension with Galois group Gal(K/k) =
hσi and α ∈ K. Then, Tr(α) = 0 if and only if there is a β ∈ K such that α = β − σ(β)
Exercises:
f (x) = xp − x − a ∈ k[x]
for some α ∈ k.
ii) F is the splitting field of the irreducible polynomial
f (x) = xp − x − a
for a ∈ k.
Exercises:
19.8. Let F be an extension of k generated by all n-th roots of unity, for all n ≥ 1. Show that F/k is Abelian.
19.9. Let F be a field and σ ∈ Aut (F) such that |σ| = s > 1. Show that there is an α ∈ F such that
σ(α) = α + 1
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Exercises:
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Chapter 20
Finite Fields
σ :Fp −→ Fq
x −→ xp
(α + β)p = αp + βp
(α − β)p = αp − βp
Proof. We have shown that F has a copy of Fp inside. Thus, F is a finite extension of Fp . Let [F : Fp ] = n. Hence,
F = Fp (α1 , . . . , αn ) for some α1 , . . . , αn . Each element of F is a linear combination
r 1 α1 + · · · + r n αn ,
where r1 , . . . , rn ∈ Fp . Thus there are p-choices for each ri . Hence, F has pn elements.
Theorem 20.1. For every q = pn there is, up to isomorphism, a unique field Fq of size q.
Proof. Let L be the splitting field of f (x) = xq − x over Fq . Let S be the set of roots of f (x) in L. It is easily verified that
S is a field. Thus S = L. Since
f 0 (x) = qxq−1 − 1 = −1 , 0
then f (x) has no multiple roots. Hence, |L| = q. Uniqueness comes from the uniqueness of splitting fields.
Lemma 20.3. Let Fq be a field of size q. Then, F∗q is a cyclic group under multiplication.
Proof.
Theorem 20.2. Fq is the splitting filed of f (x) = xq − x. (In other words, elements of Fq are the root of f (x) = xq − x.)
Proof.
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Theorem 20.3. (i) Every finite field has size pn for some p > 0, and n ∈ Z+ .
(ii) For every q = pn there is up to isomorphism a unique field Fq of size q, which is the splitting field of f (x) = xq − x over
Fq .
Proof.
Proof.
Corollary 20.1. All irreducible polynomials over a finite field are separable.
Proof.
2. R is a ring, I is an ideal.
Lemma 20.4. Let f (x) ∈ Fq [x] s.t. deg f = n and f (x) is irreducible. Then Fp [x]/h f (x)i is a field of pn elements.
Proof.
Exercises:
20.1. Prove that any finite subgroup of the multiplicative group of nonzero elements of a field is cyclic.
20.2. Prove that for each prime number p and positive integer n there is (up to isomorphism) one field of order pn . Your proof
should include an argument which shows that the order of a finite field is necessarily the power of a prime number.
20.3. Prove the Wedderburn’s Theorem that every finite division ring is a field.
20.4. Let F be a field and p(x) ∈ F[x]. Show that F[x]/hp(x)i is a field if and only if p(x) is irreducible in F[x].
20.5. Let Fq be a finite field, where q = pn . Show that Aut (Fq ) is cyclic of order n. Show that Fq /Fp is normal and separable.
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20.6. Let k ⊂ E ⊂ F be a tower of fields such that F/E and E/k are separable. Show that F/k is separable.
20.7. Let k ⊂ E ⊂ F be a tower of fields such that F = k(α), where α is algebraic over k. Let
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Transcendental Extensions
p(x)
s= , p(x), q(x) ∈ k[x]
q(x)
Proof.
Proof.
Proof.
√ √
−1+ 5 −1− 5
where ω = 2 ω=
, 2 , ζ is a primitive nth root of unity, is a primitive 5th root of unity, and i is a primitive
4th root of unity.
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Chapter 23
23.1 Introduction
In this section we define the very useful concepts of norm and trace. We will make use of them in the next section
to prove the Hilbert 90 theorem on cyclic extensions.
Let F/k be a field extension with [F : k] = n. Fix α ∈ F and consider the linear map
Lα : F −→ F
(23.1)
x −→ a x
Recall that F is a n-dimensional vector space over k and Lα linear map on this vector space. Let Mα be the associated
matrix to the map Lα .
Definition 23.1. Let F/k be a finite field extension. The norm NkF and trace TrFk of any α ∈ F are defined by
Remark 23.1. Recall from linear algebra that changing the base of the vector space would change the matrix Mα to a matrix
similar to it, say A−1 Mα A. Hence the trace and the determinant would still be the same, since
det(A−1 Mα A) = det(Mα )
(23.3)
tr(A−1 Mα A) = tr(Mα )
The following example is part of the folklore in the theory of quadratic extensions.
√ √
Example 23.1. Let F = k( d) for some d ∈ F which is not a square in k. Let α ∈ F, say α = a + b d. We want to find NF/k (α)
and TrF/k (α).
√
Pick a basis B = {1, d}. Then
√
Lα (1) = a + b d
√ √ √ √ (23.4)
La ( d) = (a + b d) · d = bd + a d
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Thus we have
The reader hopefully recognizes these formulas from elementary number theory.
Lemma 23.1. Let F(α)/k be an algebraic extension where the minimal polynomial of α is
Then,
NkF (α) = (−1)n β0 , TrFk (α) = − βn−1
Proof. We know that a basis for k(α) is
B = {1, α, α2 , . . . , αn−1 }.
Then,
Lα (1) = α = (0, 1, 0, 0, . . . 0)
Lα (α) = α2 = (0, 0, 1, 0, . . . 0)
Lα (α2 ) = α3 = (0, 0, 0, 1, . . . 0)
.........
Lα (αn−1 ) = αn = (−s0 , −s1 , −s2 , −s4 , . . . sn−1 )
and the matrix Mα is given by
0 0 ... ... −s0
1
0 ... ... −s1
0 1 ... ... −s2
C f :=
... ... . . .
... ... . . .
0 0 ... 1 −sn−1
Then
tr(Mα ) = −sn , and (−1)n s0 .
This completes the proof.
Remark 23.2. Note that the matrix Mα is the companion matrix of the min (α, k, x).
The norm and trace can be characterized as follows:
Theorem 23.1. Let F/k be a finite field extension and σ1 , . . . , σn the distinct embeddings of F in an algebraic closure ka of K.
For α ∈ F we have [F:k]i
r n
Y X
Nk (α) =
F
σ j (α) and TkF (α) = [F : k]i σ j (α)
j=1 j=1
Proof. We will prove this theorem only for Galois extensions in the following corollary.
Corollary 23.1. Let F/k be a finite Galois extension with Galois group G. Then for each α ∈ F,
Y X
NkF (α) = σ(α) and TkF (α) = σ(α)
σ∈G σ∈G
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√
Example 23.2. Let F = k( d). Then F/k is Galois since every degree 2 extension is Galois. The Galois group is G = {id, σ}
where √ √
σ : d −→ − d
√
Then for α = a + b α ∈ F, we have
√ √
NkF (α) = α · σ(a) = (a + b d)(a − b d) = a2 − b2 d.
Proof. Exercise
Exercises:
23.2. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer, εn a primitive n-th root of unity, and K := Q(εn ). Show that NQ
K (ε ) = 1.
n
√ √
4 √ √ √ √
23.3. Let F = Q( 3) and L = Q( 3). Compute NQ
F ( 3), N L ( 3), TrF ( 3), TrL ( 3).
F Q F
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1.2 Let us
1.3 hjbkj
1.4 jhvjkh
1.5 gjg
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15 Suppose that x2 ≡ −1 ( mod p), then p - a, therefore by Fermat’s Little Theorem xp−1 ≡ x4n+2 ≡ x2(2n+1) ≡
(−1)2n+1 ≡ −1(mod p). Thus 1 ≡ −1 (mod p), so 2 ≡ 0 (mod p) implies p|2 which in turn implies p = 2. Since p = 4n + 3,
p , 2 then there is no solution to the equation x2 ≡ −1 (mod p) .
1.16
1.17 By Corollary 1.2, we know φ(mn) = φ(m) ∗ φ(n). We also know by Lemma 1.9 that φ(p) = p − 1 and that
φ(pα ) = pα − pα−1 = pα (1 − 1p )
φ(100) = φ(52 ∗ 22 )
= φ(52 ) ∗ φ(22 )
= (52 − 5) ∗ (22 − 2)
= 20 ∗ 2
= 40
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1.18 Let us consider the dihedral group D4 and look at Caley’s Table for it. Let
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1. e = 0◦ /360◦ rotation,
Symmetries for D4
∗ e σ σ2 σ3 τ τ2 ρ ρ2
e e σ σ2 σ3 τ τ2 ρ ρ2
σ σ σ2 σ3 e ρ2 ρ τ τ2
σ2 σ2 σ3 e σ τ2 τ ρ2 ρ
σ3 σ3 e σ σ2 ρ ρ2 τ2 τ
τ τ ρ τ2 ρ2 e σ2 σ σ3
τ2 τ2 ρ2 τ ρ σ2 e σ3 σ
ρ ρ τ2 ρ2 τ σ3 σ e σ2
ρ2 ρ2 τ ρ τ2 σ σ3 σ2 e
gn hn = τ2 ρ2 = e · e = e
Thus, e , σ2 . This follows with Lemma 1.3 saying that if a group i s Abelian, then (gh)n = gn hn . Since D4 is not
Abelian, then (gh)n , gn hn .
1.19
1.20 Since the group is finite an cannot be distinct for all n ∈ Z. Let m1 , m2 ∈ Z where m1 , m2 such that am1 = am2
Without loss of generality, let m1 > m2 then, m1 − m2 ∈ Z+ and therefore am1 −m2 = e
k2 =(n − 1)2
=n2 − 2n + 1 ≡ 1 mod n
→ k2 = 1
and k ∈ U(n)
I f k = 1, n − 1 ≡ 1 mod n
→ −1 ≡ 1 mod n
→ 0 ≡ 2 mod n
This is possible only when n = 2. but from the assumption n > 2. Hence, n − 1 . 1 mod n therefore k is greater than
2.
1.22 Let a, b ∈ G. By our assumption, (ab)2 = a2 b2 . Now, (ab)2 = (ab)(ab) = a(ba)b = a2 b2 . Now, by left cancellation on
a we have that (ba)b = ab2 . Applying right cancellation on b yield ba = ab. Thus, G is abelian.
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xy = x−1 y−1
1.24 Let there exist an element c such that (ab)c = e is in fact c = b−1 a−1 :
= aea−1
= aa−1
=e
1.25 We know that (Zp , +) = h1i. Suppose to the contrary that (Zp , +) has a proper subgroup H. We also know that
(Zp , +) is cyclic and since H ≤ (Zp , +) it is known that H is also cyclic. Let H = hxi. Since x = x · 1, therefore the order
p p
of x is = = p. This makes H = Zp . So, the only subgroups of Zp are {0} and the entire set. Therefore, (Zp , +)
gcd (x,p) 1
does not have a proper subgroup.
1.26 Let g, h ∈ G such that |g| = 15 and |h| = 16. By definition of the order of an element we know that g15 = e and
h16 = e, where e is the identity of the group G.
The group generated by g is
We know gcd(15, 16) = 1. Therefore hgi ∩ hhi = {e} and |hgi ∩ hhi| = 1.
1.27 Let a be an element of a group G. Let ham i be the generator of G1 and han i be the generator of G2 . So we want
to find the generator of G1 ∩ G2 , this will be hai i where i is an integer. Since i must divide both m and n. Therefore,
i = lcm(m, n).
1.28 Let x ∈ Zn , where n > 2 generates Zn . Since hxi = hxi−1 , −x is also a generator of Zn . If we assume that x = −x,
then 2x = 0 (i.e. |x| = 2) then we have a contradiction because |x| , n. Therefore, we know that x , −x which means
that all generators come in pairs. From this, it can be said that there are y pairs of generators in Zn where n > 2,
meaning that there are 2y generators. Therefore Zn for n > 2 has an even number of generators as 2y is an even
number.
1.46 Let be given σ ∈ Sn . If σ is not a cycle, prove that σ can be written as product of at most (n − 2) transpositions.
For any σ ∈ Sn , σ can be expressed as a product of cycles. So, σ = (a1 , ..., an1 )... ((ans−1 +1 , ..., ans ) where ns ≤ n. Since
(a1 , ..., an1 ) = (a1 , an1 )...(a1 , a2 ) it can be written as n1 − 1 transpositions. By doing the same to all of these cycles, we
obtain n1 − 1 + ... + ns − ns−1 − 1 = ns − s ≤ n − s. As it has been given that σ is not a cycle, n − s ≤ n − 2 and so there are
at most n − 2 transpositions.
1.29
1.30
1.31
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1.32
1.33
1.34
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
α = (12345) = (54)(53)(52)(51)
or
α = (12345) = (54)(52)(21)(25)(23)(13)
1.42 Indeed !
1 2 3 4 5
α=
4 3 2 5 1
Then, !
1 2 3 4 5
α =
2
5 2 3 1 4
or !
1 2 3 4 5
α =α α =
4 2 2
4 2 3 5 1
and finally we have that:
!
1 2 3 4 5
α =α α =
6 4 2
1 2 3 4 5
1.42
1.43
1.44
1.45 Let σ ∈ Sn , by theorem 1.6 then σ = τ1 τ2 · · · τr with τi (where i = 1, 2, · · · r) is the transposition being disjoint r-cycle
of length ni and 1, 2, · · · , r is the number of transpositions.
Since τ is a cycle, say τi = (a1 , a2 , · · · ani ) then every cycle can be written as a product of transpositions, such that
(a1 , a2 , · · · ani ) = (a1 ani )(a1 ani −1 ) · · · )(a1 , a3 )(a1 , a2 ), this implies that each τi can be written as ni − 1 transposition. So σ
can be written as n1 − 1 + n2 − 1 + · · · nr − 1 = n − r ≤ n − 1 transposition.
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h(2354), (12345)i
h(2354)i h(12345)i
{(1)}
Where h(2354)i = {(1), (25)(34), (2354), (2453)} and h(12345)i = {(1), (12345), (13524), (14253)}.
1.57
1.58 D8 can be written as D8 = {1, r, r2 , r3 , r2 s, r3 s} where r is a rotation of 45 degrees and s is a 180 degree flip rsr = s,
therefore r and s do not commute therefore they are not in the center of D8 , but rsr = s mean that sr = r3 s so r3 and s
do not commute therefore they are not in the center of D8 . Then (rs)s = r but srs = (sr)s = r3 , so rs is not in the center.
(r2 s)r = rs but r(r2 s) = r3 s so r2 s is not in the center either. finally (r3 s)s = r3 but s(r3 ) = r so r3 s is not in the center. This
leaves 1 and r2 of which both commute with every other element therefore they are in the center. Thus the center of
D8 = {1, r2 }. The center of D1 0 is trivial, meaning that the center of D10 = {1}. in General, in the group Dn , sr = rn−1 s,
so s will not commute with rk unless rk = rn−k which can only happen if n is even. Therefore the center of Dn is {1}
when n is odd. When n is even, the center is {1, r(n/2) }.
.
B(x) = (σ(a1 ), σ(a2 ), · · · , σ(ak ))σ(ai ) = (σ(a1 ), σ(a2 ), · · · , σ(ak ))(σ(ai )) = σ(ai+1 )
. Hence A(x) = B(x).
Subcase 2.2: i = k. Then
A(x) = στ(x) = στ(ak ) = σ(a1 )
B(x) = (σ(a1 ), σ(a2 ), · · · , σ(ak ))σ(ak ) = σ(ai )
From case 1 and 2, we conclude that A(x) = B(x) for all x. Thus A = B implies Aσ−1 = Bσ−1 . Therefore, the result
holds. 2) Suppose µ = (b1 , b2 , · · · , bk ). Now let σ be the permutation that satisfies σ(ai ) = bi for some i = 1, 2, · · · , k. By
part 1) we have:
1.60 Assume that αβ = βα and α , e. Let c, d, f be three distinct elements such that α(c) = d and β = d f . Therefore,
we can say that αβ(c) = α(c) = d and also that βα(c) = β(d) = f . Therefore, αβ = d , f = βα and so αβ , βα. Therefore,
α is the identity permutation if αβ = βα for every β ∈ Sn .
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1.61 Let α be even. Then it can be expressed by the sequence of disjoint transpositions
σ1 σ2 ...σ2k
Then the inverse is simply
−1
2k σ2k − 1 ...σ2 σ1
σ−1 −1 −1
since each transposition is disjoint. So the inverse is trivially even. The same argument is made for an odd
permutation, resulting in an odd permutation for the inverse.
1.62 First, it is necessary to prove this lemma.
Lemma. If α is an even cycle, then α−1 is also even.
Proof. We know that an even permutation can be written as a product of an even amount of transpositions. Let
α = α1 α2 α3 . . . αn−1 αn where α is a cycle and αn (n ∈ Z+ ) is a transposition of α. from this we take the inverse.
Since both α and α−1 have the same number of transpositions, then α−1 is also even.
Using the lemma above, Let
α = α1 α2 α3 . . . αn α−1 = αn . . . α3 α2 α1
β = β1 β2 β3 . . . βn β−1 = βn . . . β3 β2 β1
If then we multiply them, we get
a1 a2 + b1 c2 a1 b2 + b1 d2
" # " # " #
a1 b1 a2 b2
∗ =
c1 d1 c2 d2 c1 a2 + d1 c2 c1 b2 + d1 d2
Since A, B ∈ G then, a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , d1 , d2 ∈ G So addition and multiplication of these matrices are closed and
therefore associative. Let the identity matrix be
" #
1 0
I=
0 1
Then, " # " # " #
a1 b1 1 0 a1 b1
∗ =
c1 d1 0 1 c1 d1
So the identity exists. Since det(A) , 0 and det(B) , 0 then,
det(AB) = det(A)det(B)
and
1
det(A−1 ) =
det(A)
therefore the inverse exists. Thus G forms a group under matrix multiplication.
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# "
1 0
1.67 First to show G is a group, the identity must exist within the Group. Let a = 1, d = 1, b = 0 → ∈ Mat2 (R)
0 1
and ad , 0. Thus the identity element is in G. " # " # " #
a b x y r k
Second, associativity must hold for the supposed group. Let A,B,C be matrices and A = ,B = ,C =
0 d 0 z 0 m
such that (AB)C = A(BC). First consider (AB)C.
ax ay + bz ax ay + bz r k
" #" # " # " #" #
a b x y
(AB)C = C= C=
0 d 0 z 0 dz 0 dz 0 m
r(ax) (ax)k + m(ay + bz)
" #
=
0 dzm
ax ay + bz
" #" # " #
a b x y
AB = =
0 d 0 z 0 zd
xa xb + yd
" #" # " #
x y a b
BA = =
0 z 0 d 0 zd
Thus AB , BA and G is not abelian.
! ! ! !
a 0 b 0 a 0 b 0
1.68 closure: Let A, B ∈ G such that A = −1 and B = −1 where a, b , 0, we see that AB = =
0 a 0 b 0 a−1 0 b−1
!
ab 0
∈ G since ab , 0.
0 (ab)−1
! !−1 !
a 0 a 0 a−1 0
Inverses: A = where a , 0. Well, = where a−1 , 0. Thus, G is a group under the
0 a−1 0 a−1 0 a
operation of matrix multiplication.
Hence, G is abelian.
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1.70 |G| ≤ 34 = 81, since a, b, c, d can each take one of 3 values (mod 3).
1.) Suppose ad = bc = 0(mod3). Then (a = 0) or (d = 0) and (b = 0) or (c = 0), leading to 25 possible values for
a, b, c, d.
2.) Suppose ad = bc = 1(mod3). Then (a = d = 1) or (a = d = 2) and (b = c = 1) or (b = c = 2), leading to 4 possible
values for a, b, c, d.
3.) Suppose ad = bc = 2(mod3). Then (a, d) = (1, 2) or (a, d) = (2, 1) and (b, c) = (1, 2) or (b, c) = (2, 1), leading to 4
possible values for a, b, c, d.
So there are in total 25 + 4 + 4 = 33 such matrices where ad − bc = 0(mod3). That means there are at most 81 - 33 =
48 such matrices where ad − bc , 0.
n(n−1) Q
i=n i
1.71 By the formula |SLn (Fp )| = p 2 i=2 (p − 1) we can find |SL2 (3)| by plugging n = 2 and p = 3 into the formula.
2(2−1) Q 2
i=2
i=2 (3 − 1) = 3 (3 − 1) = 3(9 − 1) = 24. Therefore, |SL2 (3)| = 24.
We get 3 2 i 2 2
1.72 From the construction of GL2 (p), we know the entries of the matrices (a, b, c, and d) are from Fp . Recall that
Fp = {[0], [1], . . . , [p − 1]} and |Fp | = p. Thus each entry has p possibilities when not restricted; however, in our
construction of GL2 (p) we have that the determinant cannot equal zero.
Let’s treat the matrices M ∈ GL2 (p) as two vectors u and v such that
" # " #
a b
M = [uv] where u = and v = .
c d
Clearly, u , 0 and v , 0 since ad − bc , 0. WLOG, we will say that u , 0 is the only restriction on u. Then the
possibilities for u are everything but when both a = 0 and b = 0 which equates to (p2 − 1). Next we will look at the
possibilities of v, taking into account we only put one restriction on u. If v is any scaled version of u, then ad − bc
could equal 0. Therefore v , tu for some t ∈ Fp . Since |Fp | = p, there are p possibilities for t that we must take into
account. And so the possibilities for v are everything but when v can be written as tu which equates to (p2 − p).
Multiplying the possibilities of the two vectors u and v together gives the possibilities of matrices in GL2 (p).
1.73
1.77
1.81
1.82
2.1 First, we prove that this subset is not empty. Since, e2 = e we have that e ∈ H. Let a and b be two elements from
H. We have a2 = e and b2 = e and want to show that (ab−1 )2 = e. Since G is an Abelian group we have:
(ab−1 )2 = (ab−1 )(ab−1 ) = ab−1 ab−1 = (aa)(b−1 b−1 ) = (a2 )(b−1 )2 = e(b2 )−1 = e.
2.3 The identity of Rt imes is 1. Since 1 = 1/1 is the ratio of two nonzero integers then the identity of Rt imes is in Q× .
If two elements p/q and r/s are given in Q× , then their product pr/qs is also in Q× . Also the inverse of every element
p/q ∈ Q× is again in Q× because (p/q)−1 = q/p. Finally, since multiplication in Rt imes has the association property
then this property is true also in Q× .
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2.5 A matrix !
a b
A=
c d
is in SL2 (R) when ad − bc = 1.
The 2 × 2 identity matrix I2 is in SL2 (R) and so is the inverse of the matrix A
!
1 d −b
A =
−1
· ,
ad − bc −c a
since
1
det A−1 = · (ad − bc) = 1.
ad − bc
Finally we have to show that the multiplication is closed. The product of two matrices with determinant 1 is again
a matrix with determinant 1.
2.6 Let G be an Abelian group and Cube(G) = {g3 | g ∈ G}. WTS: Cube(G) is a subgroup of G using the Second
Subgroup Test
Since G is a group eG ∈ G. (eG )3 = e3 ∈ Cube(G).
Since G is a group, g1 g2 ∈ G, so (g1 g2 )3 ∈ Cube(G). And since g1 , g2 ∈ G, (g1 )3 , (g2 )3 ∈ Cube(G). Then, (g1 )3 (g2 )3 =
(g1 g2 )3 . Since (g1 g2 )3 ∈ Cube(G), Cube(G) is closed.
Since G is a group g−1 ∈ G, (g−1 )3 = (g3 )−1 , so (g3 )−1 ∈ Cube(G).
2.7 We will use the second subgroup test so we must show that Gn is a subset of G, the identity of G is in Gn , closure
in Gn under the operation, and the elements in Gn have inverses that are also in Gn .
i) Subset:
By our construction of Gn , we are taking elements from G and performing the operation n times on each
element. Since G is a group, it is closed under the operation with its elements. Therefore, Gn is a subset of G.
ii) Identity:
Let e be the identity in G. Then en ∈ Gn but en = e. Thus, e ∈ Gn .
iii) Closure:
Let g, h ∈ G. Then gn , hn ∈ Gn such that
iv) Inverses:
Let a, a−1 ∈ G such that aa−1 = a−1 a = e, where e is the identity in G.
Then an , (a−1 )n ∈ Gn where
an = a1 a2 . . . an−1 an and (a−1 )n = a−1
1 a2 . . . an−1 an
−1 −1 −1
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= a1 a2 . . . (a−1
1 an−1 )(a2 an ) . . . an−1 an
−1 −1 −1
..
.
1 a2 a2 . . . an−1 an−1 an an
= a1 a−1 −1 −1 −1
= (aa−1 )n
= en = e
2.8 By the third subgroup test we will show that H is closed under multiplication which is the operation assigned
to the group Q. Let h1 , h2 ∈ H such that h1 = 2k1 and h2 = 2k2 such that k1 , k2 ∈ Z. Want to show that h1 h2 ∈ H.
So, h1 h2 = 2k1 2k2 = 2k1 +k2 . Since k1 , k2 ∈ Z, the sum (k1 + k2 ) ∈ Z and therefore h1 h2 ∈ H. Since H is closed under
multiplication H ≤ Q∗ .
2.9
2.10 To prove that a group is a subgroup four properties must be satisfied: G ⊂ RX , the identity of G is the same as
that of R, G is closed under multiplication, and every element of G has an inverse.
• Subset: Since both a and b ∈ Q and Q ⊆ R , and G , 0, since a and b both don’t equal 0.
• Identity: 1 is the identity of (RX , ×) because 1 is the identity of multiplicative groups. So,
√ √
1(a + b 2) = a + b 2
√ √
(a + b 2)1 = a + 2
√
Since both equal a + 2, which was the initial input, 1 is the identity.
• Closed under multiplication: Let a, b, c, d ∈ G, where a and b, both don’t equal zero and c and d , both don’t
equal zero. So a, b, c, d ∈ RX , since G ⊂ RX
√ √
(a + b 2)(c + 2)
√ √
ac + ad 2 + cb 2 + 2bd
√ √
ac + 2bd + ad 2 + cb 2
√
ac + 2bd + (ad + cb) 2
√
Since ac + 2bd + (ad + cb) 2 ∈ RX , G is closed under multiplication.
• Inverse: √
a+b 2 1
· √
1 a+b 2
√
a+b 2
= √
a+b 2
=1
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a+e b+ f
! ! !
a b e f
A+B = =
c d g h c+ g d+h
Associativity: Matrix addition is associative in G, hence it is also associative in H. Hence, the associative property
holds in H.
!
0 0
Identity: Consider eG = . a + d = 0 + 0 = 0 Hence, eG ∈ H.
0 0
!
a b
Inverses: Consider A = . Then,
c d
! d −b
!−1
a b 1 d −b
A−1 = = = ad−c− bc ad − bc
a
c d ad − bc −c a
ad − bc ad − bc
d a d+a 0
Now, + = = = 0. Hence, A−1 ∈ H. So, H is closed under inverses.
ad − bc ad − bc ad − bc ad − bc
Thus, H ≤ G.
2.12 Clearly since Z ⊂ R → SL2 (Z) ⊂ SL2 (R). Since SL2 (Z) ⊂ SL2 (R) we can apply " the
# 2nd subgroup test. Assume
1 0
that SL2 (Z) ≤ SL2 (R). First we must verify that the identity is in SL2 (Z). Since ∈ SL2 (Z) we can confirm that
0 1
the identity is in the group. Next, since SL2 (Z) is an established group we know that the closure property
" # is true.
d −b
Finally let A ∈ SL2 (Z). A−1 exists since the determinant is 1 the matrix is just of the form A−1 = where
−c a
a,b,c,d ∈ Z and AA−1 = e Thus SL2 (Z) ≤ SL2 (R).
2.13 Let Q8 = {I, −I, J, −J, K, −K, L, −L} where I is the identity matrix and J, K, L are matrices.
" # " # " # " #
i 0 0 1 0 i 1 0
J= K= L= I=
0 i −1 0 i 0 0 1
By the third subgroup test, the subgroups are S1 = {I, −I} with generator −I S2 = {I, −I, J, −J} with generator J or −J
S3 = {I, −I, K, −K} with generator K or −K and S4 = {I, −I, L, −L} with generator L or −L Q8 is also a subgroup.
2.14
2.15 To disprove this claim, we need to prove that HK fails a subgroup test. We will look at the second subgroup
test. Specifically the second part where it states:
ii) if h1 , h2 ∈ H, then h1 h2 ∈ H
In this case, let H = HK and h1 , h2 = x, y, such that x, y ∈ HK. We would make x = h1 k1 and y = h2 k2 . If we look
at xy = h1 k1 h2 k2 , we cannot move the elements in anyway since we do not know if G is Abelian. Thus HK fails the
second subgroup test and is not a subgroup of G.
Now, if G is Abelian, then we can re-approach the problem and show that HK ≤ G.
Let us use the second subgroup test:
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1. Identity e of G is in HK
Since H and K both are subgroups of G, then they both contain the identity e. If we take e and apply it to HK,
ee = e : e ∈ H and e ∈ K
Thus, e ∈ HK
2. If x, y ∈ HK, then xy ∈ HK.
From earlier, let x, y ∈ HK, such that x = h1 k1 and y = h2 k2 . Since G is Abelian, then
xy = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 )
= h1 k1 h2 k2
= h1 h2 k1 k2
= (h1 h2 )(k1 k2 )
a+c = a (24.2)
b+d = a+b (24.3)
d = c+d (24.4)
From (1) and (3) we can see that c = 0. From (2) we can see that a = d. So we get the matrix
" #
a b
B=
0 a
where a and b are any real number. This comprises the centralizer of A.
2.17 Let |G| = 2n and x ∈ G such that |x| , 2 and x , e. Then, |x−1 | , 2. So for every such x of order not equal to two,
x−1 has also order not equal to 2.
Thus, we have an even number of elements x , e of order different from 2, say this number is 2t. Thus, the
number of elements of order 2 is 2n − 2t − 1. Therefore, it is an odd number.
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2.18 To show that s : G → G is a surjective we have to show that ∀b ∈ G, there exists x ∈ G such that x2 = b. In other
words, every element of G can be represented as a square. Let b ∈ G. Since |G| = 2n + 1 for some integer n, then
b2n+1 = e. Then (bn+1 )2 = b2n+2 = b2n+1 · b = b. Thus, (bn+1 )2 = b. So it does exist an x = bn+1 such that x2 = b.
Next we show when this is a homomorphism? If s is an homomorphism then s(xy) = s(x) · s(y) = x2 · y2 . Also,
s(xy) == (xy)2 . Hence, the map is a homomorphism if and only if (xy)2 = x2 · y2 . We have shown before that this is
equivalent with G being Abelian.
2.19 We have φ : (Z, +) → G, such that φ(1) = g. Then
2.23 Suppose group G is infinite. Then, take some g ∈ G and consider the subgroup hgi. This subgroup would then
have infinitely many subgroups (it is isomorphic to Z). So for G to be finite, it must not contain this infinite cyclic
subgroup. So, every element generates a cyclic subgroup that is finite and G is then the union of all of the cyclic
subgroups. Since all of these subgroups are finite and there are in effect finitely many as well we can say that G too,
much be finite.
2.24 Given that the quaternion group consists of 2 × 2 matrices, we can observe that the identity for other such
matrices is still the identity for this group, that is, the identity is
" #
1 0
1=
0 1
So any cyclic subgroup must be generated by an element, say k, such that for some integer n, we have kn = 1.
Consider first our elements I, J, K:
" #
0 1
I=
−1 0
" #
0 i
J=
i 0
" #
i 0
K=
0 −i
Very quickly it is apparent that I2 = J2 = K2 = −1 and we can observe that −12 = 1, so I, J and K are all generators
of cyclic subgroups of order 4, these sets being hIi, hJi, hKi. Furthermore, −I, −J, −K are distinct elements as well.
However, these elements are generated by the previous elements, and we see
−I = I3
−J = J3
−K = K3
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So (−I)2 = I6 = I2 ∗ 1 = −1 and (−I)3 = I9 = (I4 )2 I = I, and a similar observation is made for −J and −K, so they do
not produce a distinct group. We also have the element −1, which we can observe produces a cyclic group of order
2. Having covered all the elements of Q8 we can see that there are 4 cyclic subgroups in the quaternion group:
hIi
hJi
hKi
h−1i
2.25 Let G be a group where |G| = pq and gcd(p, q) = 1. Assume a, b ∈ G such that, |a| = p and |b| = q.
Suppose |ab| = n for some n. Then (ab)n = e and since G is Abelian, we have that an bn = e
If n = pq, then
apq = (ap )q = eq = e
bpq = (bq )p = ep = e
pq − (q − 1) − (p − 1) − 1 = pq − q + 1 − p + 1 − 1
= pq − q + 1 − p
= q(p − 1) − (p − 1)
= (p − 1)(q − 1)
2.28 We know that an integer k ∈ Zn is a generator of Zn iff gcd(k, n) = 1
the number of generators of
Zn = |Un |
= φ(n)
Zpr = φ(pr )
1
= pr (1 − )
p
= pr−1 (p − 1)
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2.29 Since G is a finite group, ∃a ∈ G such that a has maximal order. Consider < a >, where | < a > | = n. If G =< a >,
then it must be the case that G is cyclic. Suppose that G ,< a >. That is, ∃b ∈ G such that b << a >. Denote |b| = k.
Now, it must be the case that k ≤ n, as n is the order of a, which has maximal order in G. Now, since G is abelian,
∃r ∈ G such that |r| = lcm(n, k). Since n is the maximal order of an element in G, we have that |r| = n, since clearly
lcm(n, k) ≥ n. This implies that lcm(n, k) = n. Which is true only when k divides n. Hence, n = qk for some q ∈ Z.
Hence, bn = bqk = (bk )q . Since |b| = k, we have that (bk )q = eq = e. Hence, b is a solution to xn = e. Now, since all
elements in < a > satisfy this equation, we have found n + 1 such elements that do, which is a contradiction against
our assumption that only n such solutions exist. So, it must be the case that G =< a >. And thus, G is cyclic.
2.30
2.31 The group of integers is always over the binary relation of addition. ∃ a subgroup of (Z, +) such that the
subgroup has an infinite index. The trivial subgroup {0} has an infinite index because ∀n ∈ Z {0} + n = n and since n
is in the integers and are infinite n is infinite. Therefore, {0} is infinite, and not every subgroup of the integers has
finite index.
2.34 We want to find the index of the additive group of real numbers in the additive group of complex numbers.
This index is the number of cosets of R in C. These cosets look like z + R =√{z + n | n ∈ R} for some z ∈ C.
Let x, y ∈ C such that x = a + bi and y = c + di where a, b, c, d ∈ R and i = −1. Then
x + R = y + R ⇔ (x − y) ∈ R ⇔ b = d ⇔ b − d = 0
We know b − d = 0 has the same amount of possibilities as the order of the real numbers and thus, b − d = f , for some
f ∈ R where f , 0, has infinitely many more possibilities than b − d = 0. Therefore, there are infinitely many cosets
of R in C and so the additive group of real numbers has infinite index in the additive group of complex numbers
(i.e. [(C, +) : (R, +)] = ∞).
2.35
2.36
2.38
2.39
2.40
2.41
2.42
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3.1 Indeed the function exponential has inverse the function ln x, so it is a bijection. Also we have that:
3.1
φ : Z → Q×
n → 2n .
Then,
φ(m + n) = 2m+n = 2m 2n = φ(m) φ(n).
From the definition, the map φ is surjective in the subset
φ(Z) = {2n : n ∈ Z} ⊂ Q×
To prove that φ is injective, assume that m , n. If we can prove that, φ(m) , φ(n), then of we have completed the
proof. Assume, that m > n. If φ(m) = φ(n), then 2m = 2n or 2m−n = 1, which is impossible because m − n > 0.
3.3 First we will show the identity map eG : G −→ G is an isomorphism for every a, b ∈ G. So eG (ab) = ab = eG (a)eG (b).
Therefore the bijection eG is a homomorphism of G.
Next suppose f : G −→ G0 and g : G0 −→ G00 are homomorphisms. We will show g ◦ f : G −→ G00 is a homomor-
phism. We have (g ◦ f )(ab) = g( f (ab)) = g( f (a) f (b)) = g( f (a))g( f (b)) = (g ◦ f )(a)(g ◦ f )(b) for all a, b ∈ G.
Finally suppose f : G −→ G0 is an isomorphism and we will show the comosition inverse f −1 : G0 −→ G is an
isomorphism. Since f and f −1 are inverse functions f −1 ( f (a)) = a for all a ∈ G and f ( f −1 (b)) = b for all b ∈ G0 . Therefore
for all a, b ∈ G0 .
Since eG ∈ Aut(G), the set Aut(G) is closed under composition, and every element in Aut(G) has an inverse in
Aut(G) we have shown that Aut(G) is a subgroup of the group permutations of G (i.e Aut(G) ≤ SG ).
• Identity: e is the identity of G. Since H and K are both subgroups of G, so e ∈ H and e ∈ K. ee = HK, so e = HK.
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• Inverse: Let hk ∈ HK h−1 ∈ H and k−1 ∈ K because both H and K are subgroups.
k−1 h−1 = h−1 k−1 since both Hand K are both normal inG
Let H / G such that H = gHg−1 , and K / G such that K = gKg−1 both ∀g ∈ G. Show that gHKg−1 = HK
HK = HK
(gHg−1 )(gKg−1 ) = HK
gH(g−1 g)Kg−1 = HKSince H and K are groups they are associative
gHKg−1 = HK Because gg−1 = e
Therefore, HK / G
3.7 Let H be a subgroup of G, N a normal subgroup of G, and H ∩ N = M. It is enough to show that hMh−1 is a
subset of M, ∀ h ∈ H because of Theorem 3.4.
Fix some h ∈ H, with inverse h−1 ∈ H, and let m1 ∈ M. Then m1 ∈ H and m1 ∈ N by our construction of M. Since
h, h , m1 ∈ H, H is a group, and H is closed under the operation, we know hm1 h−1 ∈ H.
−1
3.8
3.9
3.10 Since |G| = 2p, by Lagrange’s theorem, the orders of all possible proper subgroups are divisors of 2p, namely
2 and p. By Cauchy’s theorem, ∃a ∈ G such that |a| = p. That is, | < a > | = p. And so, G has a subgroup of order p.
|G| 2p
Now, since [G :< a >] = = = p. To show that < a > is normal, we prove that all subgroups of index 2 are
|<a>| 2
normal.
Claim: let G be a finite group. And let H be a subgroup of index 2 in G. Then, H is normal in G.
Consider g ∈ G such that g ∈ H as well. Then, gH = H = Hg. If g ∈ G such that g < H, then gH = G/H, as the two
cosets partition G. Likewise, if g ∈ G such that g < H, then Hg = G/H. Hence, gH = Hg. Hence, H = gHg−1 . Thus, H
is normal in G.
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Now, returning back to our original problem, we see that < a > is normal in G. And so, any group of order 2p
where p is a prime, has a normal subgroup of order p.
3.11
" # " #
x y 1 b
3.12 Let A = ∈ G and B = ∈ H Since A ∈ G then xz , 0, therefore
0 2 0 1
xb + y
" # " # " # " # " #
x y 1 b 1 z −y x 1 z −y
ABA −1
= ∗ ∗ = ∗
0 2 0 1 xz 0 x 0 z xz 0 x
" # " #
1 xz x2 b xb
1
ABA −1
= = z ∈H
xz 0 xz 0 1
Since xz , 0 then H / G. Then corresponding matrices are
" # " #
a1 a2 b1 b2
A= ,B =
0 a3 0 b3
Then, " #
1 b3 a3 −b3 a2 − b2 a1
−1
B A −1
=
a1 a3 b1 b3 0 b1 a 1
and then,
b1 a2 + b2 a3
" #
b1 a1
BA =
0 b3 a 3
Therefore,
b a b1 a2 + b2 a3
" # " #
1
b3 a3 −b3 a2 − b2 a1
B−1 A−1 BA = ∗ 1 1
0
a1 a3 b1 b3b1 a1 0 b3 a3
b1 a1 a3 b3 (b1 a2 − b2 a1 + b2 a3 − b3 a2 )
" #
1
B A BA =
−1 −1
a1 b1 a3 b3 0 b1 a1 b3 a3
So then, " #
1 H
B−1 A−1 BA = ∈H
0 1
a2 b1 −a1 b2 +a3 b2 −a2 b2
where h = a1 b1 . Therefore G/H is Abelian.
3.13
3.14 Assume G/Z(G) is cyclic. Then G/Z(G) = hgZ(G)i be some generator for some g ∈ G. Let α, β ∈ G.
and,
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We then observe αβ = (gi z1 )(g j z2 ). Since the center commutes with all elements we than can proceed as such,
αβ = gi z1 g j z2
= gi g j z1 z2
= gi+j z1 z2
= g j+i z2 z1
= g j gi z2 z1
= g j z2 gi z1
= (g j z2 )(gi z1 )
= βα.
3.15 Let G = GL2 (R) and H = SL2 (R). We can see that H is entirely contained within G, and since it is a group, so
we want to show that H is a group. From linear algebra, we know that for two matrices A, B, det(AB) = det(A)det(B),
and if A is invertible (as it is in the case of SL2 (R)) then det(A−1 ) = det(A)−1 . So consider h, k ∈ H:
det(hk) = det(h)det(k) = 1 ∗ 1 = 1
det(h−1 ) = det(h)−1 = 1−1 = 1
So then hk ∈ H and h−1 ∈ H, and we have shown closure and inverseness. Associativity and identity naturally
extend from G, so then H ≤ G.
It remains to be shown that H C G. That is, we want to show that for each g ∈ G, gHg−1 ∈ H. So, take an element
g ∈ G and let h be any element in H. Then det(h) = 1 and det(g) = n for some n ∈ R. Now consider
det(ghg−1 ) = det(g)det(h)det(g−1 )
= det(g)det(h)det(g)−1 )
= n ∗ 1 ∗ n−1
= n ∗ n−1
=1
So then ghg− 1 describes a matrix with determinant 1, that is, a matrix in H. But this applies to all matrices in H,
so then H C G, which is the same as SL2 (R) C GL2 (R).
3.16 Let h ∈ H and k ∈ K. Since H and K are normal subgroups, kh−1 k−1 ∈ H and hkh−1 ∈ K. Furthermore, it can be
said that h(kh−1 k−1 ) ∈ H and (hkh−1 )k−1 ∈ K since H and K are closed. It follows that h(kh−1 k−1 ) = (hkh−1 )k−1 = hkh−1 k−1
by associativity. Therefore hkh−1 k−1 ∈ H and hkh−1 k−1 ∈ K. Since H ∩ K = {e}, it is clear that hkh−1 k−1 = e
hkh−1 k−1 = e
hkh−1 k−1 k = ek
hkh−1 = k
hkh−1 h = kh
hk = kh
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φ : Sn 7−→ An+2
3.18 Let G be a group with order 35. Since |G| = 3 ∗ 5. By example discussed in notes, If |G| = p ∗ q, where p and q are
primes where q > p, p 6 |q − 1 =⇒ G is cyclic. So, since 3 and 5 are primes and 3 6 |5 − 1 = 4, a group with order 35 is
cyclic.
3.19 Let G be a group with order pn m where p is prime and p, m are relatively prime. Let P be a subgroup of G with
order pn . Then, by Sylow’s Theorems we get that the number of groups with order pn is congruent to 1 modulo p
and divides m. Thus, the possibilities are 1 and m.
If m < p, then m is not congruent to 1 modulo p and thus the number of subgroups of order pn is one and it must
be normal in G and we are done.
Assume m < p. If np = m, then [G : NG (P)] = m. From Lagrange’s Theorem (Theorem 2.12), we know that since P
is a subgroup of G,
|G| pn m
[G : P] = = n =m
|P| p
Thus,
|NG (P)| = |P|
and P is normal in G follows. Similarly to above, P is also normal in G if np = 1.
Therefore, P is a normal subgroup of G.
3.20
3.21 Since we know that G has an element of order 21, by Cauchy, you also know that there’s at least one subgroup
of order 21, let’s call it H.
Suppose that K ≤ G is another subgroup of order 21, then we can consider the subset HK that has order
.
If H and K were distinct then H ∩ K should be a proper subgroup of both of them, but since they have order the
prime 21 this is possible iff H ∩ K = (id) and so |HK| = 21 · 21 = 441 which is clearly bigger then 42.
We arrived to an absurd we have to conclude that H is the only subgroup of order 21 and so it’s characteristic,
hence normal.
3.22 Let G = {eG , g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 , g5 , g6 , g7 , g8 , g9 , g10 , g11 , g12 , g13 , g14 , g15 , g16 , g17 , g18 , g19 , g20 } and H = {eH , h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 , h5 , h6 , h7 , h8 , h9 ,
Each element of G can be mapped to each element of H and every element of H can be mapped to every element of
G.
φ : G 7→ H
eG , g1 , . . . , g20 7→ eH , h1 , . . . , h20
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To prove that groups are isomorphic they must be: well-defined, a bijection between the groups, and a homor-
phism. The construction of φ is well-defined, and there is a bijection between G and H.
Homomorphism: Let φ(gi ) = hi ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , 20, and where φ(eG ) = eH
φ(g1 g2 ) = h1 h2
h1+2 = φ(g1+2 )
(h1 )(h2 ) = φ(g1 )φ(g2 )
3.23 We begin by showing that any group of order 9 is abelian. Let H be a group with |H| = 9. If ∃b ∈ H such
that |b| = 9, then H is cylic, hence abelian. So suppose that all elements of H, excluding the identity, have order 3.
Consider x ∈ H such that x , e. Denote < x >= K. Also, Consider z ∈ H such that z < K. So, elements in H are of
the form xa zb where a, b ∈ {0, 1, 2}. To show that H is abelian, we demonstrate that xz = zx. Examining zx, we see
that it must be of the form xa zb for some a, b ∈ {0, 1, 2}. That is zx = xa zb . By cancellation, we see that both a, b , 0.
Now, if zx = x2 z =⇒ zxz−1 = x2 . So, z3 xz−3 = x8 = x2 , x, which is impossible as y3 = e. Similarly, zx , xz2 . Now, if
zx = x2 z2 =⇒ zx = x−1 z−1 = (zx)−1 =⇒ the order of zx is 1 or 2, which is impossible. Thus it must be the case that
zx = xz, and that H is abliean.
Now, back to our original problem. According to Cauchy’s theorem, since |G| = 99 = 9 ∗ 11, and 11 is prime,
∃b ∈ G such that |b| = | < b > | = 11. Denote < b >= N. Additionally, [G : N] = 9, by the fact that 11 - 9. Hence, N is
normal in G. Next, we will demonstrate that x ∈ N =⇒ x ∈ Z(G). That is, N is a subgroup of the center of G. Now,
by the normality of N in G, we have that gng−1 = nm =⇒ g11 ng−11 = (nm )11 , for some n ∈ N and some m ∈ Z+ . Now,
Fermat’s little theorem states that given prime p and some integer a where p - a, then ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p. Hence, m11 ≡ m
mod 11 =⇒ (nm )11 = nm . Thus, (nm )11 = g11 ng−11 = gng−1 , hence g10 n = ng10 . Now, since |G| = 99 and 10 - 99, we see
99
that ng = gn. Hence, n commutes with G, and so n ∈ Z(G). Thus, N ⊂ Z(G). Now, [G : N] = |G|/|N| = = 9. So, N is
11
indeed abelian. Now, if p, q ∈ G, we have that pq = rqp for some r ∈ N. Hence, r ∈ Z(G), hence r = e as all elements
11
of N have order 11. So, rqp2 = (rp)(qp) = (pr)(qp) = p(pq) = p2 q, by the fact that r ∈ Z(G). So we see that pm q = rqpm .
Additionally, if m = 11, then p11 q = qp11 . Hence, if |p| = 3, we have that p11 = p2 = p−1 , hence qp−1 = p−1 q. Hence,
p ∈ Z(G). And so, |Z(G)| = 33 since there are two elements in Z(G), one with order 11 and the other with order 3 =⇒
Z(G) contains an element with order lcm(11, 3) = 33. Hence, [G : Z(G)] = 1 or 3. If [G : Z(G)] = 1, then G = Z(G), and
so G is abelian. On the other hand, if [g : Z(G)] = 3, since 3 is prime, G/Z(G) is cyclic, and hence abelian. In either
case, we have that our group G, is, in fact, Abelian.
3.24 If G is a non-abelian group, then |G| = pq. Also ∃ H a normal subgroup of G with |H| = p (by Sylow Theorem).
Let K be the other subgroup of order q. Then, HK ≤ G since H is normal in G and HK=G since |KH| = |H| · |K|/|H ∩ K| =
pq = G
so since H C G, K ≤ G, HK=G, H ∩ K = 1, this implies that
G is ismorphic to HxK thus there exists a unique non-abelian group of order pq.
3.25 Let G, H be a group with |G| = pq and |H| = pq by Cauchy’s corollary, let a ∈ G then < a > /G. and Let b ∈ H then
< b > /H. Now G = {e, a, a2 } and H = {e0 , b, b2 }. Take the map
f :G→H
where f (e) = e0 , f (a) = b, and f (a2 ) = b2 . Since any two cyclic groups of same order are isomorphic, and G is cyclic
and H is cyclic, then G H.
3.7
3.27
3.28
3.29 Every element of C is a p-cycle other than the identity and any two conjugates of C intersect trivially at the
identity or coincide since |C| = p, a prime number. Since p-cycles are conjugate, every p-cycle is contained in a
conjugate of C. Every permutation α, that normalizes C, α : a 7→ (1, ..., p), a total of p choices and α : b 7→ (1, ..., p), a
total of (p − 1) choices because α cannot map different elements to the same outcome. Therefore |NSp (C)| = p(p − 1).
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3.30 Let be given H, the set of elements with order odd and α ∈ G is an element with order 2n . From Cayley’s
Theorem Theorem 3.14 we have
G ,→ Sr
(24.5)
g → Lg
such that L g (x) = gx and r = 2n m. Then, Lα is an element with order 2n in Sr and therefore product of 2n -cycles.
Moreover, Lα does not fix any point, otherwise Lα (x) = g x = x would imply that α = 1. Thus, Lα is a product of m
cycles such that. Thus, Lα is an odd permutation.
Then, in the group G half of elements are even permutations. Let’s denote with An−1 the set of such elements.
Then, |An−1 | = 2n−1 m. Moreover, H ≤ An−1 and L2α has order 2n−1 . If H An−1 then the proof is complete, otherwise
use the same argument for An−1 then take An−2 and so on. Finally, H An−i for some i ≤ n and [G : H] = 2n−i . The
proof is completed by induction.
3.30
3.31
3.32 The quarterion group Q8 is defined as such
such that
" # " #
1 0 0 1
I= I=
0 1 −1 0
" # " #
0 i i 0
J= K=
i 0 0 −i
An example to find S2 = {±1, ±I}, we multiply all the elements with one another and see that
1J = J1 = J 1(−J) = −J1 = −J
−1J = J(−1) = −J −1(−J) = −J(−1) = J
1·1 = 1 −1 · 1 = 1 · (−1) = −1 −1 · (−1) = 1
J · J = −1 −J · J = J · (−J) = 1 −J · (−J) = 1
where they are each the sets of cosets of each normal subgroup of Q8
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3.33
3.34 For (a), consider two elements a, b ∈ U. Then
a∗b
" #" #
1 x 1 y
=
0 1 0 1
1+0 y+x
" #
=
0+0 0+1
which is clearly of the same form, since x + y ∈ Q as Q is a group with addition, so we have closure in U. Now we
need to show the existence of an inverse. So again consider a and b from above. If y = −x then
" #
1 0
a∗b =
0 1
which is the identity, so b is the inverse of a. Since these are arbitrary elements, then we can construct an inverse for
any given u ∈ U, so we have established inverseness. Since associativity is inherited from T and the identity matrix
exists in U, then U ≤ T.
For (b), to prove U is Abelian, we must show for any two elements a, b ∈ U, ab = ba. So consider the same
elements a and b. We have ab, so consider ba:
" #" #
1 y 1 x
0 1 0 1
x+ y
" #
1
=
0 1
" #
c −b
t−1
= (1/ac)
0 a
− acb
"1 #
= a 1
0 c
− acb
" #" #" #
a b 1 x 1a
0 c 0 1 0 1
c
ax + b 1a − acb
" #" #
a
= 1
0 c 0 c
" #
ax+b b
=
1 c −c
0 1
ax
" #
1
= c
0 1
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And axc describes all the rational numbers when x is variable. So gUg−1 = U. Therefore, U C T.
For (d), we know that T/U forms a group with the operation by Theorem 3.5, but we need to show that this is
an Abelian group. We know that an element A ∈ T/U is of the form tU for some t ∈ T. To show this is Abelian, we
want to show that ∀t1 U, t2 U ∈ T/U, that t1 Ut2 U = t2 Ut1 U. Since U is normal, though, we know that
t1 U = Ut1
t2 U = Ut2
So then we get
So from this we get that T/U is abelian if and only if t1 t2 U = t2 t1 U, for all t1 , t2 ∈ T. So consider t1 t2 U
a1 a2 a1 a2 x + a1 b2 + b1 c2 a2 a1 y + a2 b1 + b2 c1
" # " #
a a
= 2 1
0 c1 c2 0 c1 c2
for some x, y ∈ Q. And we can easily construct a linear system for finding y in relation to x, namely, let
a1 a2 x + a1 b2 + b1 c2 = a2 a1 y + a2 b1 + b2 c1
a1 a2 x + a1 b2 + b1 c2 − a2 b1 + b2 c1 = a2 a1 y
a1 a2 x + a1 b2 + b1 c2 − a2 b1 + b2 c1
( )=y
a2 a1
So we know we can find a y for any x since a2 , a1 , 0 by our definition of the group. Therefore, T/U is abelian.
For (e), consider an element in GL(Q) , let it be g. Then we want to show that gT = Tg, or that gTg−1 = T, so
consider this equation.
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s 7→ s t 7→ t (24.7)
s 7→ st t 7→ t (24.8)
s 7→ st2 t 7→ t (24.9)
2
s 7→ s t 7→ t (24.10)
2
s 7→ st t 7→ t (24.11)
2 2
s 7→ st t 7→ t (24.12)
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And e 7→ e for all automorphisms. The maps from st, st2 , and t2 are implicitly defined here by the fact that these
are homomorphisms, so a mapping f (xy) = f (x) f (y). This then describes Aut(S3 ).
Now we can look at Inn(S3 ), which are all the automorphisms brought on by conjugacies in the group. Note
that any element can be described as a conjugate of others. That is, knowing that each element of order 2 is its own
inverse, and t and t2 are inverses:
∗ e σ σ2 σ3 τ τ2 ρ ρ2
e e σ σ2 σ3 τ τ2 ρ ρ2
σ σ σ2 σ3 e ρ2 ρ τ τ2
σ2 σ2 σ3 e σ τ2 τ ρ2 ρ
σ3 σ3 e σ σ2 ρ ρ2 τ2 τ
τ τ ρ τ2 ρ2 e σ2 σ σ3
τ2 τ2 ρ2 τ ρ σ2 e σ3 σ
ρ ρ τ2 ρ2 τ σ3 σ e σ2
ρ2 ρ2 τ ρ τ2 σ σ3 σ2 e
It is easy to see that the Aut(D4 ) = e
3.43
3.44 Let a1 , a2 ∈ Zn then I need to show
φ(a1 a2 ) = φ(a1 )φ(a2 )
since a → ka then
φ(a1 a2 ) = k(a1 a2 )
φ(a1 a2 ) = ka1 ka2
φ(a1 a2 ) = φ(a1 )φ(a2 )
3.45 Let G = {a, a2 , ..., an−1 } where a = 11/n Define a map
φ : G 7→ Zn
φ(ak ) = k
Let x, y ∈ G then φ(x · y)
= φ(ak1 ak2 )
= φ(a( k1 + k2 )
= k1 + k2
= φ(ak1 ) + φ(ak2 )
= φ(x) + φ(y)
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Thus φ is a homomorphism.
Let φ(n) = φ(y) → k1 = k2 → ak1 = ak2 → n = y
Thus φ is one-to-one’
For each t ∈ Zn ∃at ∈ G such that φat = t.
Thus φ is onto.
Therefore φ is an isomorphism and G is isomorphic to Zn .
3.46
4.1
5.1
5.2
5.3 We know that the center of a p-group is nontrivial. Since G is non Abelian then Z(G) , G. Hence the order of
Z(G) is p or p2 .
If |Z(G)| = p2 , then |G/Z(G)| = p. Hence, G/Z(G) is cyclic and so G is Abelian. Thus, |Z(G)| = p.
Then, |G/Z(G)| = p2 and G/Z(G) is Abelian. From the property of the commutator in Eq. (3.1) (G/N is abelian,
then G0 ≤ N) we have that G0 ≤ Z(G).
So either G0 = e or G0 = Z(G). But if G0 = {e}, then G/G0 = G and G is abelian. Thus, G0 = Z(G)
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
n−1
Y n−1
Y n−1 Y
Y n−1
5.13 We know that GLn (Fp ) = (pn − 1)(pn − p)(pn − p2 ) ∗ ... ∗ (pn − pn−1 ) = (p − p ) =
n i i
p (p n−i
− 1) = p i
pn−1 − 1.
i=0 i=0 i=0 i=0
n−1
n−1 n−1 P
Y Y i n(n−1)
Manipulating pi , we have that pi = p i=0 = p 2 which is the formula for the sum of integers from 0 to n − 1.
i=0 i=0
n(n−1)
Hence, a sylow p-subgroup of GLn (Fp ) has p 2 elements in it. Now, by the form of an upper unitriangular
matrix, we know that |UTn (Fp )| = pk where k represents the number of elements above the main diagonal. So,
n n−1 n(n − 1)
k = (n − i) = i=
P P
. Thus, by the sylow theorems, UTn (Fp ) is a sylow p-subgroup of GLn (Fp ) with order
i=1 i=0 2
n(n − 1)
.
2
5.14 Let G = GLn (Fp ), where p is prime and n is an integer greater than 1. Fp is the set of all integers mod p. GLn is
the set of all n × n matrices with
T a determinant not equal to zero. p-Sylow groups don’t overlap so since there are at
least two subgroups in G, H1 H2 = {e}.
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5.15 We have that H Cp × Cp which implies that |H| = p2 and p2 | |G|. Thus |G| = pα · m, where α ≥ 2 and (p, m) = 1.
We want to show that α > 2.
Suppose that α = 2. Then, |G| = p2 · m. Then |Sylp G| = p2 and so H is a Sylow p− subgroup and K is a Sylow
p−subgroup. Thus, H is conjugate to K, say H = x−1 Kx, for some x ∈ G. But K x−1 Kx implies that H K. Hence,
Cp × Cp Cp2 which is a contradiction.
5.16 We want to show first that G has a prime power order. Suppose not, then
α
|G| = p1 1 · · · pann
α
From the Sylow’s theorem there exists a Pi such that |Pi | = pi i . Each of Pi is contained in the unique maximal group
α
M. Hence, pi i | |M| for all i = 1, . . . n. Thus |G| | |M| which is a contradiction because a maximal subgroup is proper by
definition.
Next we want to show that G is cyclic. Suppose not, say a1 , . . . an is a generating set for G. Thus,
G = ha1 , . . . , an i
Consider
H := ha1 , . . . , an−1 i
Then, H ≤ M1 for some maximal subgroup M1 . For the same reason ha2 , . . . , an i ≤ M2 for some maximal subgroup
M2 . Since G has a unique maximal subgroup then M1 = M2 , which is a contradiction since an < M1 but an ∈ M2 .
5.17 Assume p, q are primes such that p , q. Let G be a group where |G| = p2 q. We will take two cases:
case 1: p > q
We know from Sylow’s Theorems (Theorem 5.2) that np ≡ 1 mod p, np = [G : NG (P)], and np | q. Thus np = 1 or q.
However, q < p so q . 1 mod p. Therefore np = 1 which is equivalent to saying P, a Sylow p−subgroup, is
normal in G. Thus, G has a normal subgroup and is not simple.
case 2: p < q
We know from Sylow’s Theorems (Theorem 5.2) that nq ≡ 1 mod q, nq = [G : NG (Q)], and nq | p2 . Thus,
nq = 1, p, or p2 . However, p < q so p . 1 mod q which leaves 1 and p2 . If nq = p2 , then there would be p2 Sylow
q−subgroups having order q. These Sylow q−subgroups all intersect at the identity which gives us p2 (q − 1)
distinct elements in the Sylow q−subgroups and thus in G. This leaves p2 elements in G, including the identity.
We know from Sylow’s Theorems (Theorem 5.2) that np ≡ 1 mod p, np = [G : NG (P)], and np | q. Thus,
np = 1 or q. We know that Sylow p−subgroups have order p2 and from above there are only p2 elements left
in G for Sylow p−subgroups. Therefore, np = 1 which means there is only one Sylow p−subgroup and it is
normal in G. Therefore G has a normal subgroup and is not simple.
In either case, we get that G has a normal subgroup and thus cannot be a simple group.
5.18 doesn’t compile
5.19
5.20
5.21 n o
G = S4 , H := σ ∈ S4 |σ(4) = 4 ≤ G
n o
P = h(124)i = (1, (124), (142))
Apparently H ∩ P < Sylp (H).
5.22 Proof by induction. Base case, let G have order pn for some prime p and integer n, then G equals its sylow
n n
p-subgroup and it is trivial that it is the product of its sylow subgroups. Induction case, Suppose that |G| = p1 1 ...pk k
of p j , j ≤ k distinct primes...
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So let G = GLn (Fp ). Then we know for certain that |G| = pα m for some α, m ∈ Z such that (p, m) = 1. Then we know
that G has at least one Sylow p-subgroup. Consider the set of upper triangular matrices U such that an element
u ∈ U looks like
" #
1 x
0 1
Now, it is clear that there are p elements in U as there are p unique choices for our one variable element x.
Closure on this subset with our operand is shown identically to how we found it for question 3.33 earlier in this
paper, as we know there is closure for addition in a finite group Fp , so x + y ∈ Fp if x, y ∈ Fp . Additionally, for any
element u ∈ U, we can find the inverse u−1 simply by finding the additive inverse of x in Fp , and let that be our y in
u−1 . So then U ≤ G such that |U| = p, so then U is a Sylow p-subgroup.
It would be sufficient to find one more Sylow p-subgroup of G such that its only common element with U is
the identity matrix. We in fact have a good candidate for this, that is L, the set of lower triangular matrices, so an
element l ∈ L looks like
" #
1 0
x 1
It is easy to see again that there are p such elements, and for the sake of clarity, note that two elements l1 , l2 ∈ L
multiply so to give
" #" #
1 0 1 0
l1 l2 =
x 1 y 1
" #
1 0
=
x+ y 1
So L has closure for the same reason as U did, as well as inverseness. So L ≤ G. Furthermore, it is a Sylow
p-subgroup as it has p elements. Moreover it’s clear that U ∩ L = e, since their only common element is the identity
matrix. Thus, we have shown two Sylow p-subgroups of G such that their intersection is trivial.
5.24 Let G be a group where |G| = pqr. p, q, r are primes, and p < q < r. Since r - q and r - p, then r - pq. Using Sylow’s
Theorem, we can observe that
nr ≡ 1 mod r
and
nr | pq.
Then nr = 1 or r. But since r - pq, then nr = 1. And from Corollary 5.2, since there is only one Sylow r-group, that
group is a normal subgroup.
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5.25
5.26
5.27 We know that |S4 | = 4! = 24 = 23 ∗ 3. Since the exponent on 3 is 1, the order of the sylow 3-subgroups must be
3. Hence, they are cyclic as 3 is prime, hence there exists a generator for each one. Next, we prove that all sylow
3-subgroup of S4 are generated by 3-cycles.
Proof: Consider a sylow 3-subgroup of S4 . Denote this subgroup as A = {e, f, g}. Well, f 2 = g, hence g2 = f =⇒
f3 = f 2 f = g f . Hence, g f = e =⇒ A =< f >.
Now, back to our original problem. Observing the set of all 3-cycles of S4 we have that C3 = {(123), (124), (132), (134), (142), (143
So there are 8 3-cycles in S4 . The cyclic subgroups of order 3 are < 123 >, < 124 >=< (34)(123)(34) >, < 134 >=<
(24)(123)(24) >, and < 234 >=< (14)(123)(14) >. Now, we know that n3 ≡ 1 mod 3 and must divide 8, so n3 = 1 or
n3 = 4. We have already found 4 such subgroups, so these 4 must account for all sylow 3-subgroups in S4 . To
see that they are all conjugate, since for any (i jk) and (pqr), at most one element can differ between them. WLOG,
we have (i jk) and (i jl). So, (kl)(i jk)(kl) = (i jl), hence all 3-cycles are conjugate. This can also be seen by the fact
that all permutations of the same cycle type belong to the same conjugacy class in Sn in general. Hence, all sylow
3-subgroups are conjugate in S4 .
5.28
5.29 Let a group, G, have the order 45
|G| = 45 = 32 · 5
n3 = 1
n5 = 1
Since both n3 and n5 only have the solution of 1, they both are normal subgroups because primes only have factors
of 1 and themselves, and 1 is always a normal group in Sylow groups, by 5.6 in the book. n3 has the order of 9, so 9
is a normal subgroup of every group with order 45.
5.30 Copied from another book.
5.31 Let G be a finite group such that |96|. Since 96 = 25 · 3 then by the Sylow’s Theorem we get
n2 = 1, 3
n3 = 1, 4, 16.
Assume that G is simple. Therefore n2 = 3 otherwise G would not be simple. But by the index theorem [G : NG (P2 )] = 3
where G is a finite group and NG (P2 ) ≤ G. If 196 - 3! then G is not simple. This is a contradiction to our assumption
so therefore there is no simple group with order 96.
5.32 Let G be a group and |G| = 160 = 25 · 5.
We know from Sylow’s Theorems (Theorem 5.2) that n2 ≡ 1 mod 2, n2 = [G : NG (P2 )], and n2 | 5. Thus, n2 = 1 or 5.
We also know from Sylow’s Theorems (Theorem 5.2) that n5 ≡ 1 mod 5, n5 = [G : NG (Q5 )], and n5 | 25 = 16. Thus,
n5 = 1 or 16.
If G is simple, then n2 = 5 and n5 = 16. Thus [G : NG (P2 )] = 5 and [G : NG (Q5 )] = 16 where P2 is a Sylow 2-subgroup
and Q5 is a Sylow 5-subgroup. The Index Theorem (Theorem 3.16) allows us to use the following:
i) G is a finite group
ii) P2 is a subgroup of G which means the normalizer, NG (P2 ), is also a subgroup of G such that
[G : NG (P2 )] = 5
iii) 160 - 5! = 120
to conclude that G is not a simple group.
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5.34 i) Let G be the group and |G| = p2 g2 . By Sylow first theorem, G has Sylow p-subgroups and Sylow q-subgroups.
Let np and nq be the numbers of Sylow p-subgroups and Sylow q-subgroups respectively. So by Sylow third
theorem,
np = kp + 1, k ≥ 0, np |q2 and nq = tq + 1, t ≥ 1, nq |p2 . Thus gcd(p, q) = 1. We claim: np = 1, nq = 1
If np , 1, then np |q2 or kp + 1|q2 implies q2 ≡ 1 (mod p) which is not possible. Thus np must be 1.
Similarly np must be 1.
Therefore, G has a unique Sylow p-subgroup H and a unique Sylow q- subgroup K. Thus |H| = p2 , |K| = q2 and H
and K are both normal, so H Zp2 Zp × Zp and K Zq2 Zq × Zq
no |H||K|
Now H ∩ K = e , hence |HK| = = p2 q2 . Thus H and K are two normal subgroups of G such that G = HK and
|H ∩ K|
H ∩ K = e. Hence G H × K Zp2 × Zq2 .
G is an internal direct product of two cyclic groups H, K. It is Abelian.
ii) Examples: p2 , p2 q, p2 q2 where p, q are primes
5.35 Since |G| = 33 and 33 = 3 × 11, we consider sylow subgroups for p = 3 and p = 11. By the Sylow Theorem,
the number of subgroups satisfies np 1 mod p and also n3 |11 and n11 |3 therefore n3 = n11 = 1. Therefore, each
p-subgroup must be unique and a group with order 33 must have a unique Sylow 3-subgroup.
|G| = 22 ∗ 33
Then with Sylow’s theorem, for the Sylow p-subgroups we have possibilities
n2 = 1, 3, 9, 27
n3 = 1, 4
First consider the requirements for this group to have no normal subgroups. Then it is necessary that n3 = 4.
Additionally, a Sylow 3-subgroup has 27 elements in this group, so excluding the identity, we have 26 ∗ 4 = 104
elements. Then there are only 4 remaining elements for the Sylow 2-subgroups, and each one has 4 elements in this
group, so n2 = 1, and |G| has a normal subgroup
Otherwise, n3 = 1, so |G| still has a normal subgroup. Therefore, a group of order 108 must have a normal
subgroup.
5.37 Let G175 be an arbitrary group with |G175 | = 175. If we break up the prime factors then we have |G175 | = 52 · 7.
From Sylow’s Theorem, we have
P : n5 ≡ 1 mod 5, where n5 | 7
and
Q : n7 ≡ 1 mod 7, where n7 | 25
Since n5 = 1 and n7 = 1, then there are only one P and one Q Sylow normal subgroup. So, P C G175 and Q C G175 and
G175 is not simple.
From Corollary 5.1, we know that a group with an order of a prime squared (p2 ), is Abelian. Therefore P is
Abelian. Also, from Corollary 2.8, since Q has a prime order, then it is Abelian. Thus, G1 75 is Abelian.
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G175 C175
C25 × C7
C5 × C5 × C7
T(bk at → Hk at
In the 2-subgroups we have at least 2 such subgroups, which have at most 4 elements in common (counting the
identity). Hence, they have at least 11 elements of order 2. Adding to theses 11 elements the 49 elements that we
got above we get a total of 60 > 56. Hence, n2 = 1 or n7 = 1. Therefore, one of the Sylow subgroups is normal.
5.43 To show that a group G with order 48 is not simple we need to prove that G contains a normal subgroup with
order 8 or a normal subgroup with order 16. From Sylow theorem, the group G has either one or three Sylow
2-subgroups with order 16. If has only a subgroup then it is normal.
Assume we have 3 Sylow 2-subgroups with order 16 and two of them are H and K. Assume that |H ∩ K| = 8. If
|H ∩ K| ≤ 4, then from Lemma 2.10
16 · 16
|HK| = = 64,
4
that is impossible. Hence H ∩ K is normal in of two subgroups H and K since has index 2. Normalizer of H ∩ K
contains as H and K and also |H ∩ K| must be a multiple of 16 bigger than se 1 and also divide 48. The only possibility
is that |N(H ∩ K)| = 48. Thus, N(H ∩ K) = G.
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5.44
5.45
5.46 Note that 3159 = 35 · 13 Let G be a simple group of order 3159. From Sylow’s theorem we have n3 = 13 and
n3 = 27. Note that n3 (G) = 13 . 1mod 9. There exists P3 , Q3 ∈ Syl3 (G) such that |NG (P3 ∩ Q3 )| is divisible by 35 and
13. Thus NG (P3 ∩ Q3 ) = G, a contradiction. Thus no group of order 3159 is simple.
5.47 a)
G = 168 = 23 · 3 · 7
n2 = 1, 3, 7, 21
n3 = 1, 4, 7, 28
n7 = 1, 8
n2 , n3 , and n7 are not equal to 1 because G is a simple group, so it contains no normal groups other the trival
subgroup. n7 = 8. Using the index theorem to check n2 = 3, 7, 21 and n3 = 4, 7, 28, n2 = 3 and n3 = 4 are also not
possible solutions.
168 6 |3!
168 6 |6
This is should only be true if G is not a simple subgroup, but since it is n2 , 3 Similarly,
168 6 |4!
168 6 |24
Since, G is a simple group n3 , 4. The amount of element of the Sylow group can be found by adding the trivial
subgroup with the amount of the order of n2 groups with the amount of the order of n3 groups and with the amount
of the order of n7 .
1 + 7(21) + 2(7) + 6(8) = 210
7 is used instead of 1 for the n2 location because 2 is to the 3rd power.
b) Sylow 3-subgroups and 7-subgroups are cyclic because they are p-groups where p is raised only to the power
of 1. The p is the generator of the cyclic group.
5.48 We have
|G| = (23 − 1)(23 − 2)(23 − 22 ) = 168 = 23 · 3 · 7.
Let v, w ∈ V be non-zero and let v1 = v, v2 , v3 and w1 = w, w2 , w3 be two basis of V. Then the function F such that
f (i) = wi , i = 1, 2, 3 extends uniquely to an invertible linear transformation of V in V, i.e. to an element x of G. Since
v(x) = w, G is transitive on the 7 non-zero vectors of V. Let N , {1} be a normal subgroup of G. N is transitive so
7||N|. The stabilizer Gv of a vector v , 0 has index 7, and therefore order 24. The action on the cosets of Gv yields a
homomorphism of G in S7 , whose kernal K is contained in Gv . If K , {1}, and normal, its order is divisible by 7. But
then 7||Gv | = 24, impossible. Hence, K = {1}, and G imbeds in S7 . A subgroup of order 7 cannot be normal in G. If it
is, its image in S7 would have a normalizer of at least 168, but a subgroup of order 7 in S7 is generated by a 7-cycle
and therefore its normalizer has order 7 · ϕ(7) = 7 · 6 = 42. It follows that the number of 7-Sylows is 8, and since 7||N|
and N E G, the eight 7-Sylow are all contained in N. Thus, |N| is divisible by 8 and 7, and so by 56. It contains
8 · (7 − 1) = 48 7-elements, and in addition the eight elements of a 2-Sylow, and so at least 56 elements. If |N| − 56, the
2-Sylow is unique in N, therefore characteristic in N and so normal in G. However, a normal subgroup of G must
have order divisible by 7. Hence, |N| > 56, |N| = 168 and N = G. Hence, it is shown that a transitive subgroup of S7
of order 168 is simple.
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n3 = 1, 7, 22, 154
n7 = 1, 22
n11 = 1
Since n11 = 1 there exists a normal subgroup of G and therefore G is not simple.
5.50 Let |G| = 132. Since 132 = 22 · 3 · 11 then by the Sylow’s Theorem we get
n2 = 1, 3, 11, 33
n3 = 1, 4, 22
n11 = 1, 12.
Assume G is simple then it will not have any proper normal subgroups. Therefore, n2 = 3, n3 = 4 and n11 = 12.
So 1 + 3(x) + 4 · 2 + 12 · 10 = 3(x) + 129 where 3(x) is at least 5 elements. Therefore, 3(x) + 129 ≥ 134 > 132. So, |G| = 132
is not simple.
i) G is a finite group
ii) P3 is a subgroup of G which means the normalizer, NG (P3 ), is also a subgroup of G such that
[G : NG (P3 )] = 4
iii) 168 - 4! = 24
to conclude that G is not a simple group. However we are assuming G is a simple group and thus n3 = 7 or 28. We
know that the Sylow 3−subgroups have order 3 and their intersection is the identity so we will count their order as
(3-1)n3 = 2n3 . Therefore the number of elements in the Sylow 3−subgroups is either 2(7) = 14 or 2(28) = 56.
We know from Sylow’s Theorems (Theorem 5.2) that n2 ≡ 1 mod 2, n2 = [G : NG (P2 )], and n2 | 3 · 7 = 21. Thus
n2 = 1, 3, 7, or 21. If n2 = 1, then P2 is a normal subgroup in G and thus G is not simple but we are assuming G
is simple. Therefore n2 = 3, 7 or 21. If we assume n2 = 3, the Index Theorem (Theorem 3.16) allows us to use the
following:
i) G is a finite group
ii) P2 is a subgroup of G which means the normalizer, NG (P2 ), is also a subgroup of G such that
[G : NG (P2 )] = 3
iii) 168 - 3! = 6
to conclude that G is not a simple group. However we are assuming G is a simple group and thus n2 = 7 or 21. We
know that the Sylow 2−subgroups have order 23 = 8 and their intersection is the identity so we will count their
order as (8-1)n2 = 7n2 . Therefore the number of elements in the Sylow 2−subgroups is either 7(7) = 49 or 7(21) =
147.
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Thus the possibilities for the amount of elements in the Sylow p−subgroups is the sum of the identity, |n2 |, |n3 |,
and |n7 |. We know n7 = 8 and the identity is only one element. If n2 = 21 and n3 = 7, then the sum is
5.52
6.3 Let ni and n j be relatively prime. The order of Cni × Cn j is ni n j . Let Cni = hxi and Cn j = hyi then (x, e) and (e, y)
are elements of Cni × Cn j of orders ni and n j respectively. Since ni and n j are relatively prime (e, y) × (x, e) = (x, y) =
(x, e) × (e, y). Therefore (x, y) has order ni n j . So (x, y) is an element of Cni × Cn j of order ni n j , which generates the
whole group. So Cni × Cn j is the cyclic group of order ni n j and Cni n j is cyclic with order ni n j . Any two cyclic groups
of the same order are isomorphic. Therefore
Qk
i=1 Cni Cn1 ···nk
e ej
6.4 Since the greatest common divisor of pi i and p j is 1 for i , j, the proof follows from the problem above.
6.6 #1.) We prove that this is true by the fundamental theorem of homomorphisms. Define
φ : G×G → G
Homomorphism: φ((g, h)(u, v)) = f (gu, hv) = (gu)(hv)−1 = guv−1 h−1 . Now, since G is abelian, guv−1 h−1 = gv−1 uh−1 =
gh−1 uv−1 = φ(g, h) = φ(u, v). Hence, φ is a homomorphism.
Onto: For any g ∈ G, we have that ∃(h, g−1 h) ∈ G × G such that φ(h, g−1 h) = h(g−1 h)−1 = hh−1 g = g. Hence, φ is
onto.
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Now,
G×G
Hence, by the fundamental theorem of homomorphisms, we have that ≈ Img(φ). However, Img(φ) = G since
Ker(φ)
G×G
φ is onto. Thus, ≈ G.
D
#2.) If G is abelian, then as is G × G. Likewise, every subgroup of an abelian group is normal. Now, suppose that
D is a normal subgroup of G × G, and let x, g ∈ G. Then, (g, x)(g, g)(g−1 , x−1 ) = (g, xgx−1 ) ∈ D. Now, by the structure
of D, we have that g = xgx−1 , hence gx = xg. And so, G is abelian.
6.7 Assume G is the innner direct product of H and K. Define φ : H1 xH2 x...xHn 7→ G such that φ(h1 , h2 , ..., hn ) = h1 h2 ....hn
First we verify this is a homomorphism. φ(h1 )φ(h2 ).... = h1 h2 ...hn thus it is a homomorphism. and every element
commutes with one another.
6.8 Let
f : H1 x...xHn → G
f (a1 , ..., an )(b1 , ..., bn ) = a1 ...an
where this is a bijection. This is also a homomorphism because
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6.15 Let |G| = p2 and p be prime. By Cauchy’s Theorem, there exists an element of p2 or every element is of order
p. If the former is the case, then G Cp2 because the element z of order p2 generates the cyclic group of order p2 .
If the case is the the latter and G is not cyclic, every element in G is of order p and G Cp × Cp . Thus, G Cp2 or
G Cp × Cp .
6.16 An automorphism of Cp × Cp is an isomorphism to itself. As these elements are 2-tuples, we can represent
these isomorphisms as 2 × 2 matrices multiplying 2-tuples as vectors. This would then result in a vector, or
2-tuple. Furthermore, these matrices must be invertible because isomorphisms are bijective, so they must all
have determinants not equal to 0. Aside from this, we know that matrix mutliplication on a tuple (a vector) is
homomorphic. So then, this implies that the automorphism group is the entire general linear group across the
elements of Cp . In otherwords
Z(G) = Z(H1 H2 . . . Hn )
6.18 here
6.19 Suppose G is generated by finitely many elements k. Since each element in G has order 2, the group < g1 , ...gk >
has order of at most 2k . This is a contradiction since G has infinite order, and such a set could not generate G.
Therefore, G is not finitely generated.
6.20
6.21
p1 pn
6.22 Consider rational numbers Q with addition. Assume that Q is finitely generated by generators q1 , . . . , qn , where
pi
each one qi is a simplified ratio. Let p be a prime number of such that it does not divide any of the denominators
p p
q1 , . . . , qn . Then, 1/p can not be in the subgroup Q, which is generated from q1 , . . . , qnn , because p does not divide the
1
denominators of any element in this group. This can be seen easily, since the sum of any two generators is
pi p j pi q j + p j qi
+ = .
qi q j qi q j
6.23 By the Third Sylow Theorem, G has only one subgroup H1 of order 17. So G/H1 has order 35 and must be
abelian. Hence, the commutator subgroup of G is contained in H which tells us that |G0 | is either 1 or 17. If |G0 | = 1,
we are done. Suppose that |G0 | = 17. The Third Sylow Theorem tells us that G has only one subgroup of order
5 and one subgroup of order 7. So there exist normal subgroups H2 and H3 in G, where |H2 | = 5 and |H3 | = 7. In
either case the quotient group is abelian; hence, G0 must be a subgroup of Hi , i = 1, 2. Therefore, the order of G0 is 1,
5, or 7. However, we already have determined that |G0 | = 1or17. So the commutator subgroup of G is trivial, and
consequently G is abelian.
6.24 Let G be Abelian and |G| = 40. Since 40 = 23 · 5 we get G ≈ P23 × P5 . We have |P2 | = 8 = 23 and |P5 | = 5. Therefore
P2 3 −→3 ≈ C23
2+1 ≈ C22 × C2
1+1+1 ≈ C2 × C2 × C2
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C23 × C5
C22 × C2 × C5
C2 × C2 × C2 × C5
3, 3 = 2 + 1, and 3 = 1 + 1 + 1.
Hence, P2 is isomorphic to
C8 , C4 × C2 , and C2 × C2 × C2
The Sylow 5-subgroup P5 has order 52 . The partitions of the exponent 2 are
2 and 2 = 1 + 1.
Hence, P5 is isomorphic to
C25 and C5 × C5
Putting all cases together we have that G is isomorphic to:
• C8 × C25
• C8 × C5 × C5
• C4 × C2 × C25
• C4 × C2 × C5 × C5
• C2 × C2 × C2 × C25
• C2 × C2 × C2 × C5 × C5
6.26 |G| = 720 = 24 ∗ 32 ∗ 5
Since 4 = 4, 4 = 3 + 1, 4 = 2 + 2, 4 = 2 + 1 + 1, 4 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, we get C16 , C8 × C2 , C4 × C2 × C2 , C2 × C2 × C2 × C2 ,
respectively. Since 3 = 3, 3 = 2 + 1, 3 = 1 + 1 + 1, we get C27 , C9 × C3 , C3 × C3 × C3 , respectively.
So,
G C27 × C16 × C5
G C16 × C9 × C5 × C3
G C16 × C5 × C3 × C3 × C3
G C27 × C8 × C5 × C2
G C9 × C8 × C5 × C3 × C2
G C8 × C5 × C3 × C3 × C3 × C2
G C2 7 × C5 × C4 × C2 × C2
G C9 × C5 × C4 × C3 × C2 × C2
G C5 × C4 × C3 × C3 × C3 × C2 × C2
G C2 7 × C5 × C2 × C2 × C2 × C2
G C9 × C5 × C3 × C2 × C2 × C2 × C2
G C5 × C3 × C3 × C3 × C2 × C2 × C2 × C2
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6.27 Let G be a group such that |G| > 1. We will prove it by induction. Assume the statement is true all groups of
order less than |G| = n = p · m.
We want to show that if it is true for |G| = n. If |G| = p, then we are done (Every element x of G has the property
that xp = e). Let |G| > p. There exists x ∈ G, x , e. If p | |X|, then let |x| = p · r. Hence, xpr = e ⇒ (xr )p = e, which implies
|xr | = 1. Note that xr , e because then |x| = r , pr
So suppose p - |x|. Let N = hxi , e. Hence, |N| , 1. Also N C G because G is abelian. By Lagrange’s Theorem,
G/N = |G|/|N|. Since |N| , 1, then |G/N| < |G|. But since p - |x|, then p - |N|, and p | |G|>. Therefore, p | |G/N|. So
|G/N| < |G| = n and p | |G/N|. By assumption of induction hypothesis we have that G/N has an element of order p.
Let’s call that element y = yN. Note that y < N (otherwise ȳ = N implies | ȳ = 1|). Also ȳp = N and so yp ∈ N.
So we have y < N and yp ∈ N. Hence hyp i , hyi. Therefore, |yp | < |y|, and so p | |y| which brings the situation in
the previous case.
6.28 Since |G| = n is square free, then |G| = p1 p2 · · · pk . Hence, G Cp1 × Cp2 × · · · Cpk . Since (pi , p j ) = 1, for all i, j ∈
{1, 2, · · · , k}, then
Cp1 × Cp2 × · · · Cpk Cp1 p2 ···pk = Cn .
Thus G Cn .
6.29 We can note that a group G such that |G| = 108 = 22 ∗ 3 ∗ 5 ∗ 7 has the following property by Theorem 6.3:
G G1 × G2 × G3 × G4
where
G1 = C2 × C2 or G1 = C4
G2 = C3
G3 = C5
G4 = C7
and each composition is unique. Then since we only have on choice for G2 , G3 , and G4 , and two for G1 , then we
have two possible compositions for a group of order 420. Therefore we have
G = C2 × C2 × C3 × C5 × C7
G = C4 × C3 × C5 × C7
And these are the only possible Abelian groups of order 420.
6.30 D6 is the symmetries of a hexagon, such that
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So, MK = D6 and thus D6 M × N. From Theorem 3.3, since M, N, S3 , and C2 are cyclic groups, |M| = |S3 | and |N| = |C2 |,
then
M S3 and N C2 .
Therefore, we can conclude that D6 S3 × C2
From above, we can make a guess thatTD2n Sl × C2 .. There exists subgroups X, Y ∈ D2n such that |Sl | = |X| =
2n2 (where l! = 2n2 ) and |C2 | = |Y| = 2 and X Y = {e}. From that we can see that
f : (GxK) 7→ (HxK)
f (g, k) = (h, k)
φ : (G) 7→ (H)
φ(g) = h
where f(g,k)=(h,k).
1.
Let G1 , g2 ∈ G
for this we have f (g1 , k) = (h1 , k) and f (g2 , k) = (h2 , k)
now consider
φ(g1 ) = φ(g2 )
→ h1 = h2
(h1 , k) = (h2 , k)
f (g1 , k) = (g2 , k)( f → one − to − one)
g1 = g2
Thus φ is one-to-one.
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2.
Let h ∈ H. Then (h, k) ∈ HxK
Since we can find (g, k) ∈ GxK such that
f((g,k))=(h,k)
for this g ∈ G, we have φ(g) = h
Therefore φ is onto.
3. Let g1 , g2 ∈ G → g1 g2 ∈ G
With f (g1 , k) = (h1 , k) and f (g2 , k) = (h2 , k)
{e} / N / G (24.14)
is a normal series of G containing N. If this normal series is also a composition series then we are done. If it is not
a composition series, then you can get to a composition function by refining it. By the Jordan - Hölder Theorem
(Theorem 7.2), any two composition series of a group are equivalent and thus the above composition series (1) must
be isomorphic to a refinement of (2) since composition functions are already refined.
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7.4 Let G be a solvable group. Then, by the definition of being solvable, G has a normal series such that {e} =
P0 / P1 / ... / Gn = G where Gi + 1/Gi is Abelian for all i. Pi+1 /Pi being Abelian implies that it is cyclic. Since it is cyclic,
|Pi+1 /Pi | is prime. It is also true that, by the normal series defined, Pn ⊃ Pn − 1 ⊃ ... ⊃ P1 ⊃ P0 = {e}. The forward
implication has been proven.
Let G have a series of subgroups such that G = Pn ⊃ Pn − 1 ⊃ ... ⊃ P1 ⊃ P0 = {e} where Pi is normal in Pi+1 and the
order of Pi+1 /Pi is prime. Then, since the order of Pi+1 /Pi is prime, Pi+1 /Pi is cyclic and therefore Abelian. Also,
since Pi is normal in Pi+1 and the series of subgroups is defined as above, these Pi subgroups form a normal series
of G. By definition, G is a solvable group.
n o n
7.5 Let n be a positive integer, D2n = r, s : s2 = rn = 1; rs = sr−1 , take H = 1, r, r2 , · · · , rn−1 so that H is cyclic subgroup
no
of D2n of order n. And the series e / H / D2n . We want to show it’s a composition series.
no h i
H is isomorphic to H/ e and H is Abelian and cyclic group of order n generated by r. Also note that D2n : H =
|D2n | 2n
= = 2, so H is normal in D2n (proven in previous exercise). Also D2n /H is isomorphic to Z2 (theorem 3.3)
|H| n no
which is Abelian. So we showed e / H / D2n is the composition series for Dn , so Dn is solvable.
7.6
7.7 If G is a p-cyclic group, then it is generated by an element x with order pn for some n. Then any subgroup of G
a
must be generated by an element xp where 0 ≤ a ≤ n. So let H, K be subgroups of G. Without loss of generalization,
say
a
H = hxp i
b
K = hxp i
b a
where 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ n. Then we know that pa |pb , so pb = cpa for some integer c. Then xp = (xp )c and H ≤ K. We can
similarly say K ≤ H if b ≤ a.
7.8 Let G be a solvable group of order n ≥ 2. If we look at the group as the chains
{1} C G1 C G2 C · · · C Gn = G,
Gn ≤ · · · ≤ G2 ≤ G1 ≤ G0 = G.
where Gi+1 /Gi is Abelian and Gn = {1} . Since we know that since G0 = G and that G1 is the commutator subgroup
of G0 , then G1 is Abelian. Then, following the steps from the proof of Theorem 7.3, we can see that G1 ≤ Gn−1 and,
since the series is Abelian, that Gn−1 ≤ G1 . Therefore the subgroup Gn−1 is abelian and non-trivial.
7.9 here
7.10 a) From Example 5.10 we know that n5 = 1 or n11 = 1.
Case i) n11 = 1. Then, P11 C G. Hence, G = G/P11 has order 45. Thus, |G| = 45 = 32 · 5 implies that
n3 = 1 and n5 = 1
Therefore, we have that P5 C G.
From the Theorem 3.9 we have that there exists K C G such that |K/P11 | = |P5 |. Hence, |K| = 55.
G /G
Ko P5
P11 / {1 }
G
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Case ii): Assume that n5 = 1. Then, P5 C G and G := G/P5 has order 99. By the Sylow’s theorem we get
n3 = 1 and n11 = 1
Thus, P11 C G.
G /G
Ko P11
P5 / {1 }
G
From Theorem 3.9 we have that there exists K C G such that |K/P11 | = |P5 |. Hence, |K| = 55.
b) From a) there exists K C G such that |K| = 55. K is solvable since it is a direct product of two solvable groups.
The quotient group G/K has order 9 and it is solvable since every p-group is solvable. From Lemma 7.6 we have
that G is solvable.
7.11 From the Sylow’s Theorem we get
n2 = 1, 5, 13, 65
n5 = 1, 26
n13 = 1, 40
n2 = 1, 3, and n3 = 1, 4.
If n3 = 1 then P3 C G and G/P3 has order 4. Both P3 and G/P3 are solvable as p-groups. Hence G is solvable.
If n3 = 1 then since np is the index of the normalizer of the Sylow p-subgroup then [G : NG (P3 )] = 4. Let’s denote
H := NG (P3 ). Then from Theorem 3.15 there is a homomorphism
φ : G → S4
such that ker φ ≤ H. Since |G| - 4! then φ is not injective. Hence K = ker φ has order 3 or 9. In both cases K is solvable
(as a p-group) and K C G (as a kernel). It is enough to show that G/K is solvable.
If |K| = 3 then G/K has order 2 · 32 = 18. The reader can easily show directly that this is solvable or use the result
7.9. If |K| = 4 then G/K has order 9 and it is therefore solvable as a p-group.
7.13 Since |G| = 22 · 33 , then from the Sylow’s Theorem we get
n2 = 1, 3, 9, 27, and n3 = 1, 4.
There exists a Sylow 3-group H := P3 < G such that [G : P3 ] = 4. From Theorem 3.15 there exists a homomorphism
φ : G → S4
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such that ker φ ⊂ H. Let K := ker φ. Since |G| - 4! then φ is not an embedding.
Then |K| = 3, 9, 27. Since kernels are normal then G has a normal subgroup of order 3, 9, or 27. Notice that K is
solvable as a p-group. It is enough to show that G/K is solvable.
If |K| = 27 then G/K is solvable as as p-group (it has order 4). Hence G is solvable.
If |K| = 9 then G/K has order 12 = 22 · 3. Every group of order 12 is solvable from a direct application of Sylow’s
Theorem or the following result 7.9. Thus K and G/K are solvable. Hence, G is solvable.
If |K| = 3 then G/K has order 36. Every group of order 36 is solvable; see 7.12.
7.14 A subgroup of a solvable group is solvable (Define Hi = H ∩ Gi , then Hi is a series of H with abelian factors),
and a quotient group of a solvable group is solvable (Define Qi = Gi N/N, then Qi is a series of Q = G/N with abelian
factors).
If Ki is a composition series of G, then each Ki /Ki+1 is a quotient of a subgroup of G, and so also solvable. A
solvable simple group F is abelian, since [F, F] is a proper normal subgroup of the simple group F, and so must be
the identity. Hence, each composition factor has finite (prime) order. Hence G itself is finite, and its order being the
product of the orders of its finitely many composition factors.
7.15 Let G be a finite group and let |G| = pqn where p and q are primes and p < q. Want to show that G is solvable.
By the Sylow’s Theorem we can get
np = 1, qn
nq = 1, p.
np = q is not possible since p . 1modq. Assume np = qn and nq = p but 1 + p(q − 1) + qn (p − 1) > pqn . Therefore np = 1
and nq = 1 so G is solvable.
7.16 We will use some theorems to help prove this. First, we know that the group of just the identity has order one
and is solvable. From Theorem 7.4, we know that all finite p−groups are solvable. This leaves us with
6, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 20, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 51, 52,
54, 55, 56, 57, 58
From Burnside Theorem, we know that a group of order pa qb where p, q are primes and a, b ∈ Z is solvable. This
leaves us with
30 and 42
We must show that groups of order pqr where p, q, r are primes such that WLOG p < q < r are solvable. Let H be
such a group with order pqr. Then r - p, r - p, and thus r - pq. Using Sylow’s Theorem, we know that nr = 1 or r.
However r - pq and so nr = 1 and thus R, a Sylow r− subgroup is simple. Thus we can create the normal series
{e} / R / G
Since the order of R is r, a prime number, it is cyclic and therefore G/R and R/{e} are Abelian.
Therefore, G has a normal series with Abelian factor groups and thus is solvable.
7.17 WTS: (1) Every group of odd order is solvable ⇐⇒ (2) every finite simple group has even order.
(1) =⇒ (2). If every group with odd order is solvable, then, consider every group that is not solvable, simple
groups. These simple groups cannot have odd order, else they would be solvable. Therefore, every finite simple
group has even order.
(2) =⇒ (1). If every finite simple group has even order, then, consider groups of odd order. If these groups of odd
order were simple, they would be of even order. A contradiction. Therefore, all groups of odd order are solvable.
7.18 Take S4 , Since {e} / V4 / A4 / S4 , then S4 is a solvable group because it has a norma series but it is not super -
solvable because S4 has no subgroups which are cyclic.
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7.19 We know that if a group is supersolvable, it has a sylow tower. So, we will show that S4 has no sylow tower.
|S4 | = 24, so a 3-sylow subgroup will have order 3, and a 2-sylow subgroup will have order 8. The subgroup K of S4
generated by (13) and (1234) has order 8, and is thus a sylow-2 subgroup of S4 , potentially ≈ to D4 . The subgroup
M of S4 generated by (123) has order 3, hence it is a sylow-3 subgroup of S4 . Now, since neither K nor M are normal
in S4 , it must be the case that S4 doesn’t have a sylow tower. And so, S4 isn’t super solvable.
7.20 Let a group be supersolvable if G has a chain of subgroups:
{e} = G0 ≤ G1 ≤ · · · ≤ Gn = G
such that every i = 1, . . . , n , there is Gi / G and Gi+1 /Gi is cyclic. All p-groups have cyclic factor groups because each
element of p gets raised to the next power of p, so the factor group is always of the order p which is cyclic because
it is the group generated by the element p.
7.21 Let G be a group with a composition series. Assume that H is a normal subgroup of G. If H = G then we are
done so assume that H , G.
Let
{e} / M1 / · · · / Mn = G (24.15)
be a composition series of G. Since we know H is normal in G,
{e} / H / G
is a normal series of G with H as a term. If H is maximal normal in G, then leave the series to the right of H alone.
However, if H is not maximal normal in G, then there is a maximal normal subgroup of G that contains H. Find the
maximal normal subgroup of G and repeat this process of finding maximal normal subgroups between G and H.
This will refine the right side of the series until we can no longer refine it without adding unnecessary terms.
If H is simple, then we are done because we have a composition series of G with H as a term. If H is not simple,
then there is at least one normal subgroup of H. Find the maximal normal subgroup as before and repeat this
process until arriving at a simple maximal normal subgroup. This will refine the left side of the series and ends
when we start adding unnecessary terms.
Finally, we will have a composition series of G that has H as a term. This composition series will be equivalent
to the composition series (3) by the Jordan - Hölder Theorem (Theorem 7.2).
7.22
7.23 Suppose M and N are normal solvable subgroup of G. For MN/N M/(M ∩ N), and M/(M ∩ N) is solvable as
quotient of solvable M, so MN/N is solvable, N is solvable. Thus MN must be solvable. This show that in every
group, there is a unique maximal normal subgroup (it could be trivial). As we call this group F (G).
Next, we assume that K/F (G) is non-trivial normal solvable subgroup of G/F (G). Then F (G) < K / G with the
commutator subgroup K0 ⊆ F (G). Since F (G) is solvable, K0 is solvable and hence K must be solvable, thus
K ⊆ F (G). But we prove that F (G) is the unique maximal normal subgroup of G, this is a contradiction.
7.24 {e} E {(1 2)(3 4)} E {(1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4)} E A4
{e} E {e, (1 2)(3 4)} E {e, (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)} E A4 E S4
7.25
7.26 This chain is the definition of a solvable group. p-group would be cyclic in G.
7.27 here
7.28 here
7.29
7.30
7.31
Shaska
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MTH 155: Calculus 2 Shaska T.
390
Shaska
c
Bibliography
[1] M. F. Atiyah and I. G. Macdonald, Introduction to commutative algebra, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Mass.-London-Don Mills,
Ont., 1969. MR0242802
[2] Nicolas Bourbaki, Algebra I. Chapters 1–3, Elements of Mathematics (Berlin), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1998. Translated from the French,
Reprint of the 1989 English translation [ MR0979982 (90d:00002)]. MR1727844
[3] David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote, Abstract algebra, Third, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, 2004. MR2286236
[4] A. Krazer, Lehrbuch der thetafunctionen, 1970.
[5] James H. McKay, Another proof of Cauchy’s group theorem, Amer. Math. Monthly 66 (1959), 119. MR0098777
[6] J. S. Milne, Algebraic number theory, AP, 2010.
[7] David Mumford, Caroline Series, and David Wright, Indra’s pearls. The vision of Felix Klein. With cartoons by Larry Gonick., Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002 (English).
[8] J.-P. Serre, A course in arithmetic, Springer-Verlag, New York-Heidelberg, 1973. Translated from the French, Graduate Texts in Mathematics,
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[11] L. Sylow, Sur les groupes transitifs dont le degré est le carré d’un nombre premier, Acta Math. 11 (1887), no. 1-4, 201–256. MR1554755
391
Biographies
Hilbert, 195
Leonard Euler, 16
Ludwig Sylow, 104
Nils Abel, 40
Paul Gordan, 85
Pierre de Fermat, 15
392
Subject Index
393
MTH 155: Calculus 2 Shaska T.
394
Shaska
c
Shaska T. MTH 155: Calculus 2
of an element, 3 characteristic, 97
Orthogonal linear group, 28 commutator, 72, 96
outer automorphisms, 97 cyclic, 50
index, 56
perfect, 244 normal, 56, 63
permutation, 22 proper, 43
cycle, 22 trivial, 43
even, 26 Subring , 143
odd, 26 supersolvable, 129
type, 73 Sylow’s theorem, 99
polar coordinates, 32
Polynomial the set of invariants, 80
root of, 170 Theorem of Correspondence for Rings, 149
separable, 289 Third Isomorphism Theorem for Rings, 149
preimage, 47 tower of field extensions, 247
prime ideal, 151 transcendental, 247
prime subfield, 244 transcendental extension, 247, 248
primitive Transposition, 25
root, 173
primitive element, 248, 253, 289 upper central series, 132
projective special linear group, 146
Viergrouppe, 4
Quaternions, 30, 143
quotient ring, 148 Weierstrass degree, 187
Weierstrass preparation theorem, 186
Rank of R-module, 222
rational canonical form, 231
real part, 32
rectangular coordinates, 32
refinement, 125
regular representation , 74
relations, 19
Riemann sphere, 87
ring, 4, 141
characteristic, 243
perfect, 243
Abelian, 5
commutative, 5
identity, 5
zero, 5
ring F[X], 249
root, 172
Shaska
c 395