FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

Forensic Chemistry
 Branch of chemistry that deals with the application of Chemical theories and principles in the solution of
legal problems in connection with the administration of justice.

 An interdisciplinary field of Chemistry tasked to solve cases that can only be explained or resolved by
applying analytical method of investigation and instrumentation with chemistry as the main core of
discussion.

 It is an application of scientific principles to criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in
a criminal justice system.

Scope of Forensic Chemistry

1. Dangerous drugs
2. Explosives examination and principles
3. Gunshot residue(paraffin casting, distance determination and firearms examination)
4. Forensic Toxicology (human internal organ, food sample and water and gastric contents)
5. Examination of fake products for unfair trade competition
6. Marco etching
7. Ultraviolet examination of ultraviolet powder
8. Tools and other marks
BLOOD

Blood- refers to a highly complex mixture of cell, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances.

Components of Blood:

1. Plasma- (55% of blood content) - fluid portion composed principally of water.

2. Suspended solid cells (45% of blood content)

a. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)- function to transport oxygen from the lung to the different tissues of
the body and in turn. Remove carbon dioxide from the tissues/organs and transport it out to the body
through the lungs.

b. White blood cells (leucocytes)- participate in protecting the body from infection. Examples of WBC
are neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.

c. Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)- participate in the clotting of the blood.

Hemoglobin- it the red substance presenting blood which is responsible for transporting oxygen in the body.

Serum- is a straw yellowish liquid that separates when blood is allowed to clot. The yellowish liquid contains
certain proteins known as antibodies.

Tests for Blood

1. Spot Test/ Screening/Presumptive Test

These methods depend on the fact on the fact that the haem group of hemoglobin possesses a
peroxidase- like activity which catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide. The oxiding species formed in this
reaction can then react with a variety of substances produce a visible colour change.

Tests that determine whether an alleged bloodstain is whether BLOOD or NOT. Need to be
confirmed for its origin whether animal or human.

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a. Benzedrine test
Presumptive test for the presence of blood. Blue coloration indicates the presence of blood upon the
addition of benzidine reagent and hydrogen peroxide.

b. Kastle-Meyer test
Using phenolphthalein and hydrogen peroxide forming a pink coloration due to the presence of peroxidase
(enzyme) activity of the hemoglobin.

c. Luminol test

Luminol’s major application is in areas where blood may be present but is difficult to see, such as outdoors
among vegetation, or where attempts have been made to clean up blood and traces are still present. A positive can
also sometimes be given by bloodstained clothing which has been washed.

Luminol is applied as a spray and the presence of blood produces a bluish luminescence which persists for
about 45 seconds. This is viewed under ultraviolet Lamp/black light.

d. Leucomalachite Greem Test

Malachite green + Hydrogen peroxide produce malachite green with bluish green or peacock blue color.

e. Hemastix Test
-Green Color
-Dip stick method

2. Microcystalline Test/Confirmatory Test

Based on the formation of haemoglobin derivative crystals such as haematin, haemin and
haemochromogen. Determines the alleged bloodstain as BLOOD. Blood origin cannot be determined.

a. Takayama or Haemochogen Test

An alkaline solution of pyridine is added to the stain and, if blood is present large rhombic crystals
with salmon color.

b.Teichmann or Hemin test

Dark brown rhombic crystals form if the blood is present
 
c.Wagenhaar Test or Acetone Haematin Test
Small dark circular crystals

3. Biological Test

a. Precipitine test
For this the anti serum of the human blood or animal blood is needed and when is put on the questioned
blood, a gray/white precipitation appears between the juncture of two fluids proving the blood to be human or
animal.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor to the perpetrator of the crime.

2. For disputed parentage
3. Determination of the cause of the death and the length of time of victim survive the attack.
4. Determination of the direct escape of the victim assailant.
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood
6. Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed using the of bloodstain.

SEMEN

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Semen- is a viscid albuminous fluid with faint grayish-yellow color, having the characteristics fishy odor
containing spermatozoa, epithelial cells, lecithin bodies and other substance.

Flavins- substance which help give yellowish color to semen and cause it to fluoresce under ultraviolet light.

Spermine and Choline-present only in semen

Test for Semen

1. Physical test

A general visual examination for a gray –white or yellow stain is done

For wet semen- determination of the presence of spermatozoa
For dried semen-staining method using Loffler’s Methylen Blue to visualize the spermatozoa.

2. Microcrystalline test

a. Florence test- (test for the presence of choline periodide)

b. Barberio’s test- Yellow needle- shaped crystals are formed after the addition of picric acid.

c. Acid Phosphatase test- A deep purple color is produced upon the addition of phenol reagent and
Sodium bicarbonate.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF SEMEN

1. For disputed parentage.

2. As a circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or favor of the perpetrator of the crime.

3. In cases of rape or sexual assaults.

DANGEROUS DRUGS
Drug
 It is a substance other than food which is intended to affect the structure or function of the body of
man or animal. This substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, treatment or prevention of
diseases in a man or animals. (Webster’s Dictionary)
 
 It is any substance that produces behavioral, emotional, mental or physical changes in the user.

Drug Abuse- it is a wrongful or improper use of any drugs.

Drug Addiction- it is the chronic disorder by the compulsive use of substance resulting to physical, psychological
social harm to the user. It refers to the state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated
consumption of a drug.

MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS

I. According to the source of origin

1. Natural drugs-are active ingredients secondary metabolic products of plants and other living systems
that may be isolated by extraction [example; morphine from opium].

2. Semi-Synthetic drugs-are products from natural source but they have to undergo a chemical process
(example; heroine from morphine)

3. Synthetic Drugs-are artificially produced substances, synthesize in the laboratory, for the illicit market
which are mostly wholly manufactured from chemical compounds in illicit laboratories.

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 4. Designer drugs- are substances whose molecular structure has been modified in order to optimize their
effect on the one hand, and in order to bypass laws and regulation goveming the control substances on the other
hand.

II. According too physical and chemical Properties

1. Physical Property-taste, smell, odor, texture, crystal formation.

2. Chemical Property-volatile or non-volatile

Solid, liquid or gas
Compounds, molecules or ions

Classification of Dangerous Drugs :( according to pharmacological effects)

1. Depressants-they depress or lower the functions of the central nervous system

2. Stimulants –they stimulate the central nervous system, increase alertness and physical disposition, reduce
hunger and yield a feeling of self-confidence and well-being.

3.Hallucinogens-also called psychedelics: these drugs affect sensation,thingking ,self –awareness, and emotion.

 They cause hallucination in the abusers and cause changes in sensation, distortions of perception, illusions
and delusions.

4.Inhalants- these are any liquid ,solid or mixed substances that has the property of releasing
toxic(psychoachoactive)

A. DEPRESSANTS:

1. Narcotics-drugs which induce sleep or stupor relive pain

-something that soothe or cause a sensation of mental numbness
-these include: opium, opiates, heroin, morphine and codeine

Opium- is an air –dried milky exudation obtained by incising the unripe capsules of papaver somniferum or its
variety Album de Candolle

Types of Narcotics:

a. Morphine
 Darkened with age
 Also called as “Salt of Opium”
 Done by extracting opium with water and base to obtain a crystalline substance

b.Heroine

 Is an acetylated morphine , diamorphine or acetylated morphine

 Five times potent that morphine

c.Codeine

 Is an acetylated morphine
 20 time less toxic than morphine

2. Tranquilizers-substance that reduce anxiety, ease tension and muscles

3. Sedatives and hypnotics-calm the nerves, reduce tension and induce sleep.

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 (Barbiturates and alcohol)

B. STIMULANTS

Stimulants-are sometimes referred to as uppers and reverses the effects of fatigue on both mental and physical
tasks.

 Used in moderation, these substances tend to relieve malaise and increase alertness.

Kinds of Stimulants:

1. Cocaine- most potent natural stimulant extracted from Eryyhroxylon Coca

 used as local anesthetic
 scientifically known as benzoyl methylnecgonine

2. Methamphetamine Hydrochloride (Shabu)-poor man`s cocaine

C. HALLUCINOGENS OR PSYCHEDELIC

Hallucinogens- are drugs that can cause marked alterations in normal thought perceptions, and moods.

Kind of Hallucinogens:

1.Marijuana- known as “Cannabis Sativa L.”

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)- is the active component of marijuana responsible for its hallucinogenic effect

Preparation of Marijuana:

1. reefer or cigarette
2. Hashish- pure alcoholic resin extract
3. charas- pure resin exudates
4. bhang- marijuana plant is being reduced into powder and mixture with honey, spices
and water.
5. Ganja- marijuana plant crushed and form a sticky mass.

II. LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMINE (LSD)

 extracted from ergot (a fungus that grows on rye and other cereals)
 they are sometimes impregnated in sugar cubes, cookies, crackers, back of
postage stamps or letter paper

III. MDMA OR ECSTACY (Methylenedioxymethamohetamine)- is a designs drug that exhibits

mild altering hallucinogenic and amphetamine-like effect. It is originally patented as
appetite suppressant.

METHODS OF EXAMINATION DANGEROUS DRUGS

1. Qualitative Examination- is an examination used to determine the active components of the substance.

Steps common to qualitative examination:

a. Physical Test
- involves weighing of the specimen
- microscopic examination

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 b. Chemical Test
- spot test or color test

c. Confirmatory Test
- Thin-Layer Chromatographic Test

2. Quantitative Examination

Instrument used:

a. GCMS

b. HPLC

SCREENING TEST AND COLOR CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF DRUGS

A. OPIUM DERIVATIVES
Marquis Ferric Sulfate Mecke Froehde
Opium Violet Brownish purple
Morphine Violet to reddish Blue Green Greenish-blue
purple
Codeine Blue Green Yellow-green
Heroin Blue Green Purplish-brown

B. AMPHETAMINE AND OTHER DRUGS

Marquis Cobalt Simon test Chen Kao Duquenois
thiocyanate Levine test
Meth (Shabu) Orange to Blue
brown
MDMA Black Blue
Marijuana Violet
Ephedrine Light violet
Pseudo- Light violet
ephedrine with white
precipitate
Cocaine Blue

GUNPOWDER AND EXPLOSIVES

Three (3) purpose of the study of gunpowder nitrates:

I. To determine whether or not a person fired a gun with bare within a pertinent period
of time.
Example: Paraffin or Dermal Nitrates Test

2 Kinds of Gunpowder

1. Black Powder
Potassium or Sodium Nitrate- 75%
Charcoal -15%
Sulfur - 10%

2. Smokeless Powder
Cellulose nitrate or glycerol nitrate
Stabilizer like Vaseline, graphite, or lead salts

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Factors used in evaluating the presence of gunpowder nitrates

1. Character of the specks- blue tailing or threadlike in appearance

2 Distribution and location of the specks- thumb, index and middle finger
3. Time of reaction

FACTORS THAT PRODUCE A FALSE NEGATIVE RESULT

1. Humidity
2. Wind velocity and direction
3. Type and caliber of the firearm
4. Tight mechanism of the firearm
II. To determine the possible gunshot range.

1. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held directly in contact with the body.

Characteristics:
a. Smudging and tattooing
b presence of gaping hole
c. singeing of the fabric
d. presence of partially burned gunpowder nitrates

2. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held from 2-36 inches away.

Characteristics:
a. smudging and tattooing (2-8 inches away)
b. presence of partially burned nitrates

3. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held more than 36 inches away.
- Presence of partially burned nitrates.

III. How recent the firearm has been fired.

- Presence of grayish- black in color to black residues collected inside the barrel of the gun.

EXPLOSIVES
Explosives- any chemical compound or mixture that under the influence of heat, pressure, friction or shock
undergoes a sudden chemical change or decomposition.

I. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES

1. Low Explosives
Combustible material containing within them oxygen needed for combusting which burns but do not
explode and function by producing explosion. The rate of its decomposition is relatively low and the wave
produced is less than the speed of sound. They were applied for launching rockets, projectiles from guns and
missile systems

Groups of Low Explosives

a. Black Explosives
It is a stable mixture of potassium and sodium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur. Black powder becomes
explosives and lethal only when it is confined.

b. Smokeless Explosives
It is the safest and most powerful low explosive. This explosive usually consists of nitrated cotton
or nitrocellulose (single base powder) or nitroglycerin mixed with nitrocellulose (double-base powder).

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2. High Explosives
The speed of its detonation wave is equal to 100 m/s and pressure is equal to thousands atmospheres. Such
intensity can broke material into fragrant long before its opportunity to move away.
Example: dynamites and grenades

Groups of High Explosives

a. Primary Explosives

It is an ultrasensitive shock or friction and will normal conditions will detonate violently instead of
burning. They are used to detonate other explosive through a chain reaction. (PRIMERS)

b. Secondary Explosives

Insensitive to heat, shock or friction and will normally burn rather than detonate if they are ignited in
small quantities in the open air.

Example:
Dynamite
TNT (trinitrotoluene)
PETN (pentaerythritrate)
RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)
Tetryl (2, 4, 6-trinitrophenlmethylnitramine)

Three requirements must satisfy if combustion is to be initiated and sustained:

1. A fuel must be present.,

2. Oxygen must be available in sufficient quantity to combine with the fuel.
3. Heat must be applied to initiate the combustion, and sufficient heat must be generation
to sustain the reaction.

FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY

Toxicology- is the scientific study poisons that treat of their nature, properties, effects and detection and treatment
in case of poisoning
.
Forensic Toxicology-is the use of toxicology and other discipline such as chemistry, pharmacology and clinical
chemistry to aid medico-legal investigation of death, poisoning and drug use.

Poisons-It is substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism in sufficient amounts causes
injury or death, chemically producing a morbid or noxious condition.

Classification of Poisons

A. According to Source or Origin

a. Animal Toxin-a poison produced by living organism stimulating the production of antibodies. It is
usually transferred through bites and sting of venomous terrestrial or marine animals.
Examples: poisonous snakes, scorpions, ants, jellyfist stingrays.

B.Vegatable-poison ivy and jimsonweed plants. Mercuric acid is used as herbicide.

C.Mineral-Hydrochloric Acid, Caustic alkali

D.Micribial-produced by microorganisms.Ex: bacteria and fungi

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 E.Synthetic –manufactured in the laboratory such as drugs, pesticides as well
as chemically purified from natural sources such as metals from ores and
solvents from gasoline.

B. According to Chemical Properties

a. Volatile poison –poisonous compounds that can be isolated using steam distillation and analyzed using the Gas
chromatography.
Example :( Acidic medium) Carbon tetrachloride chloroform, Methanol, Nitrobenzene
(Basic medium) aniline, amphetamine, nicotine.

b.Gases-poisonous gases that are not chemically detectable however some may be isolated from blood or lung
tissue. Usually air sample are collected at the scene of exposure.
Example: Carbon monoxide, Chlorine

c.Non-volatile poisons-poisons which can be collected by means of extraction.

Example: drugs
C. According to Physical Form/Property

a. Physical Form-(solid, liquid, gas, vapor or aerosol) –influence the exposure and absorbability. Solid are
not well absorbed into the blood, they must be dissolved in aqueous liquid lining the intestinal tract if ingested or
respiratory tract if inhaled.

D. According to Physiological Action

a Irritants- by direct contact, this poison inflames the mucous membrane or the parts it comes in contact
resulting to nausea,vomiting,pain and diarrhea.
Example: bromine, chlorides.

b.Corrosives –by direct contact, chemically produce local destruction of tissues.

Example: Nitric Acid, Hydrochloric Acid, Caustic Soda.

c.Neurotics-those that affect the central nervous system

` c1.Cerebral Neurotics: Narcotics-inducing drowsiness, sleep or stupor, complete or incomplete

insensibility or loss of feeling.

c.2Spinal Neurotics:Tetanics-a poison that acts on the spinal cord producing spasmodic or continuous
contractions of muscles resulting in stiffness of the parts which they are attached.
Example: bacterial disease “tetanus”, picrotoxin

c.3 Cerebrospinal Neurotics

c.3.a Deliriants- are poisons that act on the brain causing disorder of mental functions resulting
to confusion of free will.

Example: cocaine, belladonna

c.3.b Depressants- a substance that depress or retard the physiological action of an organ

Example: antipyrine

c.3.c Aesthetics/Exhautives- poisons that cause marked or loss of vital or muscular power or
general weakness.

Example: digitalis, KCN

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d. Systemic Poisons- Act on the nervous system or the organs of the body without eating or destroying tissue by
direct chemical action.

e. Cumulative Poison- is one that increases suddenly in its intensity of action after gradual additions.

E. According to their Effects on the Body/Target Sites

a. Skin and Tissue- those in which cause local destruction of tissues and skin..
Example: phenol and HCI

b.Blood poisons-carbon monoxide, hydrocyanic acid

c.nervous Poisons (Nervous System)

d.Cardiac Poisons ( Cardiovascular system)-stop the heart

Example: digitalis

Anesthetics-these are substances that produce sleep and insensibility to pain.

Example: chloroform ,ether

TYPES OF POISONING

I. According to Medical Point of View

1. Acute Poisoning –one in which there is prompt or marked disturbance of the functions of death within a
shorter period of the time due to taking of strong poison in excessive single dose or several doses at short interval.

2. Chronic Poisoning- king of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of tissues and may or may
not result in death. It may be produced by:
a. Taking several small doses at long intervals.
b. taking only toxic doses of the drugs

II. According to Legal Point of View

1. Accidental-king of poisoning in which the poison was taken by the victim without the intention to cause death or
injury.
2. Suicidal –king of poisoning in which the poison was taken by the victim with intention to cause the death.
3. Homicidal-king of poisoning in which the poison was given to the victim with the intention to cause death.

Conditions Modifying the Effects of Poisons

1. Age, sex, and physical state-usually middle aged person tolerate more than the aged and children. .
2. Idiosyncracy-this is the term applied when an individual exhibits peculiar, unusual reactions to certain
substances.
3. Habit –repeated small doses of a poison generally lessen the effect.
4. Tolerance-some individuals exhibit a very noteworthy resistance to the action of certain poisons.
5. Disease –this may cause an increase or diminished susceptibility to drugs.
6. Exhaustion –tends to increase susceptibility.
7. Sleep-tends diminishes or retards the action of poisons due to lessened functional activity.

Posology-(dosage) - a science which deals with the study the dosage of be administered within
a certain period.

Types of Dose

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 1. Safe dose is one that dose not cause harmful effects. Something, however, it may be too small to produce
the desired effects.
2. Minimum dose-is the smallest amount of medicine that can produce the desired therapeutic effect
without causing harm.
3. Maximum dose –the largest amount that will cause no injury but at the same time can produce the
desired therapeutic effects.
4. Toxic or poisonous dose-is one that is harmful both to the healthy and the sick.
5. Lethal of fatal dose-is the dose that kills.

Antidotes-is any agent that neutralizes a poison or otherwise counteracts or opposes its effect

Kinds of Antidote

1. Mechanical Antidote – is an agent that removes the poison without changing it, or so coats the surface of the
organ that absorption is prevented.

Examples:
a. Stomach tube or gastric lavage
b. Emetics –an agent that causes vomiting
c. Cathartics – an agent that causes intestinal evacuation
d. Demulcents – an agent that forms a protective film, to soothe and protect the parts they are applied.
e. Precipitants – these are substances that prevent absorption of poisons by precipitating them and rendering
them insoluble.

2. Chemical, true or specific Antidote – is one that makes the poison harmless by chemically altering it.

TRACE EVIDENCE

Trace Evidences – are materials left by any suspect or victim who serves as a link to a crime? This includes
impression (tire, bite, tool mark, etc.), hairs, fibers, glass and polymers (Plastics), metallic fragments, etc.

MOULAGE
It is the process of reproducing a faithful representation of an object by taking an impression using molding
and casting technique.

Types of Moulage Impression

1. Molding – positive impression usually the impression itself.

2. Casting – negative impression of the cast taken.

Cases that require Moulage Examination

1. Tire and footwear pattern analysis

2. Bite and tooth impression
3. Tool marks and other scratches.

HAIR EVIDENCE

Hairs are composed primarily of protein called keratin. These are the appendage of the skin that covers the
body except the palms of hands, soles of feet and lips.

Hairs can be collected in incidents like homicide, assault or sexual offenses.

Head hair -50 pieces full length hair

Pubic hair – 24 pieces full length pubic hair.

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Parts of the Hair:

I. External Structure
a. Tip
b. Shaft or body of the hair
c. Root – Usually used in DNA analysis and Toxicology

II. Internal Structure

a. Cuticle
It is outer covering of the hair shaft that is “scale-fish” like in appearance.
b. Cortex
It is the thickest layer of the hair shaft which holds the coloring pigment of the hair.
c. Medulla
It is the center or core portion of the hair shaft. It consists of collection of cells having the appearance
of a central cabal running through the hair. Not all hairs have medulla. Medulla can be continuous, interrupted,
fragmented or absent.
Human hair – Generally, no medulla or fragmented and rare to show continuous medullation.

Animal hair – Continuous or interrupted

Medullary Index – Refers to the measurement of the diameter of the medulla relative to the diameter of the hair
shaft and expressed as fraction.

Example: Human hair – less than 1/3

Animal hair – Continuous or interrupted

Points for Cross Matching: Color, length, diameter of the hair and distribution of
granules (Medulla)

FIBERS
 Any tough pliable, filament like substance that can be spun or woven.

Classification of Fibers:

I. Natural Fibers

A. Mineral Fiber

a. Asbestos- found in nature in fibrous forms, anhydrous silicate of magnesium or iron.

B. Vegetable Fibers:

These are fibers made up of polymers of cellulose which come from seed, stem or leaves of plants.
.
1. Cotton (seed fiber) – Appears as ribbon-like shape with twists of irregular intervals
2. Linen (stem fiber)
3. jute (stem fiber) – used in making woven mats and some linoleums.
4. Hemp (stem fiber) - lighter than jute used in ropes, cord or sacks
5. Manila hemp (leaf fiber) - used in making twines and ropes.
6. Sisal (leaf fiber) - used in making mats, ropes and strings.

C. Animal Fiber

a. sheep’s wool
b. silk

II. Man-made Fibers/Synthetic Fibers

POLYMER- it is the basic chemical substance of all synthetic fiber.

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 1. nylon
2. acetate
3. polyesters
4. spandex

Keys to Fibers

1. Fibers that burn slowly and give odor like that a burning feather. When removed from the flame, they do not
continue burning and charred beads remain at the end of the fiber. Fumes turn red litmus paper to blue. – Animal
Fiber

a. wool (sulfur fiber)

b. silk no sulfur content)

2. Fibers that burn rapidly with a flame and give off but like smoke or fumes. Charred bead not present when fibers
are removed from the flame. Fumes turn blue litmus paper to red. – Vegetable Fiber

GLASS FRACTURE

Glass

It is an organic chemical substance, a super cooled liquid that possesses high viscosity and rigidity. Glass
binds in response to any force that is exerted on any one of its surface; when the limit of its elasticity is reached.
The glass fractures.

Glass Fracture

Reveal information be related to the force and direction of an impact. It is useful reconstructing events at
crime scene investigation.

Types of Glass fracture

1. Radial or Primary Fracture- usually appearing at the exit side of the glass. It radiates outward like the spokes
of the wheel in fairly stretched lines from the point where force was applied. Usually produced by bullets or stones.

2. Concentric or Secondary Fracture- it is an entrance side fracture. This appears in concentric rings around the
point of impact. These cracks join the radial fractures and give rise to the formation of wedge-shaped fragments.

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