F REVISED EDITION New Oxford Modern Science PHYSICSNew Oxford Modern Science PHYSICS Annie Jacob and Maurice Banerjei OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSOXFORD ‘YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001 (Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford, Ie furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, ‘and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York ‘Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered tratle mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries. Published in India by Oxford University Press © Oxford University Press 1980, 2008 ‘The moral rights ofthe authors have been asserted, Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 1980 Second revised edition 2008 Sixth impression 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, ‘without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, ‘Oxford University Press, atthe address above ‘You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover ‘and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer, ISBN-13: 978-0-19-568765-1 ISBNA0: 0-19:568765:5, ‘Third-party website addresses mentioned in this book are provided by Oxford University Press in good faith and for information only. Oxford University Press disclaims any responsibility for the material contained therein. Mustrations by Nitin Chawla, Amit John, and Pankajakshan ‘The cover shows lighting, a natural phenomenon, which is a high-energy electric discharge in the atmosphere. ‘Typeset in Galliard by Star Compugraphics, Delhi Printed in India by Tara Art Printers (P) Lid, Noida 201301 and published by Oxford University Press YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001,Preface Science is an integral part of the world we live in, Students often find it easier to comprehend scientific concepts if they can associate them with things and situations they encounter in their day-to-day lives. Giving students ample scope and opportunity to observe, explore, and talk about things they have seen in the world around them can encourage them to participate actively in the process of learning. Besides developing an understanding of the concepts of science, such activity develops a wide range of skills, such as observation, sequencing, and referencing. The syllabus prescribed by the Inter-State Board for Anglo-Indian Education also places special emphasis on the importance of these skills ‘This thoroughly revised edition of New Oxford Modern Science is a series of ten books, for classes 6 to 8, based on the latest syllabus prescribed by the Inter-State Board for Anglo-Indian Education. For class 6, schools have a choice to use a combined book for physics, chemistry, and biology or separate books for each of these subjects. For classes 7 and 8, separate books are available for physics, chemistry, and biology. A conscious attempt has been made through the series to ~ present scientific concepts in a student-friendly manner, — encourage students to participate actively in the process of learning, and ~ develop in students a variety of skills, such as observation and classification, apart from imparting and strengthening the concepts of science. Key features + Simple, student-friendly language and self-explanatory illustrations make it casier for students to comprehend scientific concepts. * Fact File and ‘Tech File provide interesting information or technological applications pertaining to specific topics discussed in the books. * Think Quest includes questions designed to hone students’ ability to apply the concepts learnt to new situations. Keywords and Summary included at the end of every chapter aid recapitulation. Fun Time provides fun exercises such as word squares and crosswords, which allow students to test their factual knowledge. Project Ideas seek to develop the skills of investigation and experimentation in students. The projects included range ftom those that involve construction of models and charts, which could also be used as teaching aids, to those that involve preparing reports and performing simple experiments, Some of the experiments and models included in this section can also be used as exhibits in science fairs Activities, interspersed within each chapter, are designed to actively involve students in the process of learning, Some of the activities included in the books can also be used as demonstrations by the teacher. Most activities included in the books can be performedusing easily available materials such as seeds, flowers, common food items, mirrors, balloons, glasses, simple cells, wire, and safe household chemicals. For the convenience of teachers, a consolidated list of materials required for performing the activities is included at the end of each book. ‘Teacher's Notes include suggestions on introducing difficult concepts in the classroom. This section also alerts teachers to common misconceptions among students and includes ideas to encourage active participation by students. * Website references are included at the end of every chapter for readers desiring more information on a particular topic. * Practice sheet(s) provided at the end of each book include additional questions for practice. + Skill-based questions, at the end of every chapter, are designed to develop a wide range of skills in students. Each question in this section focuses on a specific skill, which is represented by an icon accompanying the question. Icons used in the books represent the following skills: Observation Classification Reference skills Looking for ‘Communication pattems skills (oral) ‘Sequencing Communication skills (written) The author(s) and the publisher welcome comments and suggestions, which would help them make improvements in fature editions. The Author Team For New Oxford Modern Science John West, BSc, Dip. Ed, an alumnus of University of London and Oxford University, has over 30 years of teaching experience in ICSE schools. He is the resource person for ICSE Chemistry teacher workshops. He is also a member of the Royal Society of Chemistry and a Chartered Chemist PA. Paulose, MSc, BEd, has over 30 years of teaching experience. He was Head of the Department of Biological Sciences at St Joseph's College, Darjeeling, for over two decades, after teaching biology for over a decade at the Senior Cambridge/ICSE levels in its school department. He has also been the Principal at ‘Tagore Mount School, Munnar. Annie Jacob, MSc, BEd, has been teaching physics for over 15 years at both school (Stanes Higher Secondary School, Coonoor) and college (Mount Carmel College, Bangalore) levels. At present, she teaches physics at Riverside Public School, Kotagir. Late Maurice Banerjei, BSc, PGCE (London), taught physics, chemistry, and mathematics at St Joseph's College Schoo! Department, Darjeeling, for four decades. A Fulbright scholar, he was the Assistant Headmaster at the Department during the latter part of his career.CONTENTS Unir 1 The Universe Un 2 Light Unir3 Heat Unit 4 More about Solids, Liquids, and Gases Unit 5 More about Energy Unit 6 Static Electricity Unit 7 Magnetism and Electricity Practice Sheets Appendix Syllabus 22 42 56 76 91 103 117 120 122The Universe Pe Ly | | * Galaxy ‘* Moon: phases, tides, and eclipses | « Constettation = Other solar-system bodies ‘* Solar system: sun and eight planets * Artificial satellites Harry is writing his school address on a chart he is making for his school bulletin board. Have a look at the address. It is so interesting to read. Can you tell what is so special about it?. Waly Pe schol ia Spe? ns rn tty tn Ni You will notice that the address ends at the wniverse. This means that our final home is the big universe. Can you tell what universe means? The sun, the planets, the stars, moon, and all matter, energy, and space that exist constitute this big universe. Every time we gaze at the sky, we wonder how the big universe came into existence. Scientists say that it is almost impossible to tell how old the universe is, but they think that there was a time when all matter, energy, and space was condensed into the size of a pinpoint. This was followed by a huge explosion because of which matter got scattered in all directions. This led to the formation of the universe. Scientists refer to this theory as the Big Bang theory. —_2—§ Expansion of matter The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted theory about the origin of the universe. According to this theory, the universe emerged from an extremely dense and hot state. This was followed by a huge explosion, which gave birth to our universe. Some scientists feel that gravity will cause the universe to collapse, while others think it will expand continually.In this chapter, you will study about galaxies, constellations. pter, y ly . . planets, and many more things. GALAXY The branch of science ) The universe is considered to be made of galaxies, which are the that deals with the study | building blocks of the universe. A galaxy isa vast collection of stars, of the universe is called nebulae, and interstellar material held together by gravity. (Nebula is astronomy. a cloud of dust and gas inside a galaxy, in which a star is born.) ‘As per an estimate, there are probably more than a hundred billion galaxies in our universe! The smallest galaxies contain about 100,000 stars, while the largest contain upto 3,000 billion stars. On the basis of shape, galaxies are classified as irregulan; spiral, and elliptical. Figure 1.1 shows the shape of different galaxies (a) (6) (G) Fig. 1.1 (a) Inegular galaxy; (b) Spiral galaxy; and (c) Eltiotical galaxy Milky Way galaxy Do you know to which galaxy does our solar system belong? We -s y il a Te universe ie very vast | 221225 102 spiral-shaped galaxy called the Milky Way galaxy. When invespoct othe materi, | YoU look up at the night sky, you can see a broad band of light in eae the sky: This is formed by millions of faint stars that together compared to a building 30 | form the Milky Way galaxy. Have you ever wondered why this km high, 30 km wide, and | galaxy is called the Milky Way? Because it looks like a trail of milk 30 km long containing a | spilt across the sky [Fig, 1.1(b)]. grain of sand. Scientists A os believe that hydrogen This spiral galaxy is comprises approximately . ‘90-99% of all matter in Light year the universe. They also believe that there are more stars in the universe than all of the grains of sand on the earth. st, having a diameter of 100,000 light years. You might have measured distances in your day-to-day life in metres or kilometres. But, these units cannot be used to measure distances in space because the distances are extremely large Therefore, astronomers often measure distances in space in light years. A light year is the distance travelled by light in one year.We know that, Distance travelled by light in one second = 3 x 10 m, So, distance travelled by light in one minute = 3 x 10* x 60 m, distance travelled by light in one hour = 3 x 10° x 60 x 60 m, distance travelled by light in one day = 3 x 108 x 60 x 60 x 24m, distance travelled by light in one year = 3 x 108 x 60 x 60 x 24 X 365 m = 9.46 x 10% m or 9.46 x10 km. CONSTELLATION We know that a vast collection of stars is called a galaxy. When you look at stars on a clear night, you can see some groups of stars forming recognizable patterns. Such groups of stars forming recognizable patterns in the sky are called constellations. These are named after animals and mythological characters. There are 88 constellations known so far. When any new star is Fig. 1.2 (a) Ursa Major; and discovered, itis considered to be a part of the constellation it is (6) Big Dipper closest to. Some constellations that you can easily identify with the naked eye are Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, and Orion Ursa Major This constellation consists of many stars arranged in a pattern resembling a bear [Fig. 1.2 (a)]. Out of these stars, a group of seven stars constitute the brightest and the most recognizable part of the Ursa Major. This group of seven stars is called the Big Dipper ox Vribat Saptarishi. If these seven stars are joined with imaginary lines, the figure obtained looks like a spoon with a long handle [Eig. 1.2 (b)]. Fig. 1.3 Little Dipper Ursa Minor Just like Ursa Major, Ursa Minor also consists of many stars, but seven stars called Little Dipper or Laghu Saptarishi form its most recognizable part (Fig. 1.3). However, the stars here are closer and smaller. At the tail of Ursa Minor is a star, of average brightness, called the Pole star or Dhruv tara. It appears to be stationary in the sky, and all other constellations appear to revolve around it. Orion Its often called the Hunter and is one of the most common and easily identifiable constellations in the sky (Fig. 1.4). Orion Fig. 1.4 Orion, the hunterThe pole star is very useful in finding directions at night time by sailors as it always points to the geographic north direction. Early navigators calculated how far north of the equator they were by measuring the altitude of the pole star from the visible horizon. The sun is a giant, spinning ball of very hot gases. 70% of its mass is made of hydrogen, 28% of | helium, and 2% of | heavier elements such | as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. It is about 5 billion years old, and itis believed that the sun will continue to shine for | about another 5 billion dominates the winter sky, and its name in Indian Astronomy is Mriga. THE SOLAR SYSTEM You might have studied about the solar system in earlier classes. The solar system consists of the sun at the centre and the bodies that orbit the sun. (Orbit refers to the fixed path in which the heavenly bodies move.) These bodies include planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. Let us study about them. Sun ‘The sun is our nearest star. It is of average size, mass, and brightness; however, it appears bigger, brighter, and hotter than the other stars because it is much closer to the earth, Its distance from the carth is about 1.49 x 10® km. The light from the sun reaches the earth in approximately 8 minutes and 20 seconds. ‘The sun exerts a huge force of attraction to everything within 600 million km. This is the reason why planets, moons, and other celestial bodies orbit the sun. The internal structure of the sun is made up of four layers. These four layers are namely Corona, Photosphere, Chromosphere, and Core. The outer three layers make up the sun's atmosphere; however, the innermost layer, the core, makes up the interior. Like all stars, the sun produces energy by the process of nuclear fusion, in which small atoms of hydrogen combine to form helium. This releases tremendous amount of energy that we use as light, heat, and other forms of energy. The planets Until 2006, our solar system was believed to consist of nine planets, icc. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.But, in view of recent discoveries and our changing understanding of planetary systems, the IAU has placed Pluto, after seven decades, into another class of planets called ‘dwarf planets’. Thus, our solar system now consists of only eight planets. Figure 1.6 shows the solar system with all the planets. Fig. 1.6 The solar system Mercury: Mercury is the planet closest to the sun. Its surface is covered with craters. It can be seen as a bright spot of light in the sky before sunrise and just after sunset. Mercury is the smallest planet of our solar system and has no natural satellite. Venus: Venus is about the size of the earth. It is the third brightest object in the sky after the sun and the moon. It can also be seen before sunrise and after sunset. Hence, it is known as the morning star ot the evening star. Though it is further away from the sun than Mercury, it is the hottest planet of the solar system. Like Mercury, Venus too has no natural satellite. Earth; Earth is the third planet of our solar system. This is the only known planet which has ideal conditions for life. It has only one natural satellite, the moon. ‘The earth takes 365! days to complete one orbit around the sun, which is one earth year. It takes 24 hours to rotate about it own axis. Mars: Mars is seen in the sky as a reddish planet. It is about half the size of the earth. Mars is referred to as the cold planet and has a very thin atmosphere. Space probes sent to Mars prove the existence of water on the planet. Mars has two natural satellites. Jupiter: Jupiter is the largest planet of our solar system. With a good telescope, we can see the famous Great Red Spot, which is a great hurricane on Jupiter, twice the diameter of the earth. Jupiter has the maximum number of natural satellites, ise., 63°. With new discoveries occurring each day, the number of natural satelites of each planet is likely to change in future The International Astronomical Union (IAU) Is the internationally recognized authority for assigning names and designations to stars and other celestial bodies. The IAU has shifted Pluto (and Ceres and Eris) under a Separate class known as ‘dwarf planets’. ‘Our earth is unique! The composition of its atmosphere and soil, its size, distance from the ‘sun, and the presence of large amounts of water in the liquid form on its surface make it different from any other planet, Po ‘A space probe is an unpiloted spacecraft that is used to make observations in space. It has helped scientists get information about our solar system. The information it gathers helps us to understand the weather and other changes, which happen on other planets.Fig. 1.7 The Great Red Spot on Jupiter Based on your understanding of the planets, answer the following questions. + Name the red planet. + Name a gaseous planet. + Name a planet that does not have a natural satelite + Name the planet that has the maximum number of satelites. + Name the largest planet. Fig. 1.8 The moon Saturn: Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system. ‘The distinctive feature of the planet is the rings made of ice and dust that surround it. This is the reason why Saturn is also known as the ‘inged planet’. The number of natural satellites of Saturn is 56. Uranus: Uranus is a very cold planet, much bigger than the earth. Uranus has a strange spin, i.e., it is the only planet in the solar system that spins on its side! Uranus has 27 natural satellites. Neptune: Being very far away from the sun, this planet is very cold. It looks like a small bluish circle through a powerful telescope. Neptune has 13 natural satellites. ‘The planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are called gaseous planets. Dwarf planet ‘Any celestial body qualifies as a dwarf planet if (i) it is in orbit around the sun; (i) it is nearly spherical in shape; (ii) its orbit around the sun overlaps with that of any other heavenly body; and (iv) it is not a satellite. Since the highly elliptical orbit of Pluto overlaps with that of Neptune, it is classified as a dwarf planet. NATURAL SATELLITES The heavenly bodies that revolve round a planet are called satellites. Satellites that are natural are called natural satellites, and the ones that are man-made are called artificial satellites. The natural satellites are commonly referred.to as moons. Moon Can you tell which is the natural satellite of our earth? The moon that we see in the night sky is the natural satellite of our earth. ‘The moon is the second brightest object in the sky after the sun, Its held in orbit around the earth because of the earth’s gravitational pull. The moon does not have its own light and reflects the light of the sun, When we look at the moon, we are looking at that part of the moon that is reflecting the light from the sun, It is dry and barren, with no atmosphere or water. It mainly consists of solid rock although its core may contain molten rock or iron. The surface is dusty with highlands covered in craters caused by meteorite impacts. As the moon orbits around the earth once per month, the angle between the earth, the moon, and the sun changes, and we see the different phases of the moon.Phases of the moon We know that the moon has no light of its own, and it gets lit by the light from the sun, As the moon revolves round the earth, only some part of it receives the light from the sun, and we see only that part of the moon. This results in the changed shapes of the moon called the phases of the moon. Figure 1.9 shows the phases of the moon. Graters on the moon When the moon is between the sun and the earth, it becomes totally invisible. This phase is called the new moon phase. After a day or two, the moon starts getting visible and we see some part of the moon. This phase is called the crescent moon, which is smaller than half moon. After a week, half of the moon is visible, which is called the first quarter. After this the moon keeps on increasing in size and is referred to as the waxing gibbous moon. Finally, we see the fill moon when the earth comes in between the moon and the sun, on the 15 day. After the full moon, the moon starts getting smaller in size and is called the waning gibbous moon. Gradually half of the moon becomes visible (last quarter), then a part of it (crescent moon), and finally the moon again becomes invisible and we call it the new moon phase. The time between two successive new moons or two successive full moons is 29.5 days Do you know that you always see the same side of the moon? Yes! This is true. Both the rotation and the revolution of the moon around the earth take 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes. This is the reason why we always see the same side of the moon. Fig. 1.9 Phases of the moon ‘Aim: To record the phases of the moon. 3. Observe the interval between two successive Materials required: A diary and a pencil new moons, successive full moons, and between a Procedure: 1. Go out at night and watch the moon new moon and a full moon. carefully. Conclusion: You will see that the time taken 2. Draw its shape in your diary and note the date. _between two successive new moons or two full Do this everyday or once in two days fora month. moons is 29.5 days, and between a new moon and full moon is approximately 15 days.How are tides useful? + The tides move a huge amount of water each day, and hamessing it could provide a great amount of energy. + Tidal power is free. * It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste, + Itneeds no fuel. + Tides are totally predictable. —_______} The sun also pulls on the water, but since the sun is s0 much farther away, the pull is not as strong as the pull of the moon. There are two types of tides: spring tides and neap tides. Spring tides occur when the sun and the moon pull the sea in the same direction, making the water rise and fall more than normal. Neap tides occur when the sun and the moon pull the sea in different directions, so the difference between the high and the low tides is less. Tides ‘The gravitational forces between the earth and the moon cause some interesting effects. The most interesting one is the occurrence of tides. Tides are periodic rise and fall of the water level in large water bodies, ike seas, oceans, etc. The moon’s gravitational attraction is stronger on the side of the earth nearest to it and weaker on the opposite side. This variation in moon’s gravitational force over the volume of the earth causes stretching of the earth. This stretching is mainly in its oceans, which causes bulges on both the sides. We call these bulges high tides. In between the two high tides on both sides are two low tides. Generally, at any place on sea shore, two high tides and two low tides happen in a day. \ Low tide Moon’ Fig. 1.10 Occurrence of tides Eclipse You have learnt in class 7 that opaque objects cast shadows. Eclipses are caused by shadows cast by heavenly bodies. Eclipse means hidden. We know that the earth revolves round the sun, and the moon revolves round the earth. At times, it happens that the sun, the moon, and the earth lie in a straight line. In such a case, the heavenly body which is in between obstructs the sunlight and casts a shadow on the other body. This phenomenon is called an eclipse When the moon is hidden due to the shadow of the earth, we call ita Junar eclipse, and when the sun is hidden due to the shadow of the moon, we call it a solar eclipse Lunar ectipse ‘A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes into the earth’s shadow. When the earth comes in between the moon and the sun, and all three lie in the same plane, the earth’s shadow completely cuts off the sun’s light from reaching the moon (Fig. 1.11).‘Thus, we do not see the moon. This happens on a full moon day. If the entire moon is invisible, we cal it a zotal lunar eclipse. If some part of it is visible, we cal it a partial lunar eclipse. Fig. 1.11 A lunar eclipse Fig. 1.12 Partial lunar Solar eclipse eclipse A solar eclipse occurs when the earth passes into the moon’s shadow. Tt happens only during a new moon day when the moon is directly between the sun and the earth, and all three lie in the same plane (Eig. 1.13). When a total solar eclipse occurs, the moon’s shadow completely cuts off the sun’s light from reaching the earth. During this the sun appears as a black circular disc with a ring of light. On the other hand, during a partial solar eclipse the moon only partially cuts off the light of the sun. (a) Earth Fig. 1.13 A solar eclipse Gather information about when the last solar and lunar eclipse occurred. Also, find out the places where they were best seen. Do the same for future occurrences, —_— (5) Fig. 1.14 (a) Total solar eclipse; and (b) Partial solar eclipse [ "Note that watching the sun directy, or even through be projected through a pinhole on a wall ora reflected a darkened glass, during a solar eclipse can seriously image can be oblained using a mirror! damage your eyes. To observe a solar eclipse, it cansuper Asteroid belt Fig. 1.15 Asteroid belt 1.16 A comet Edmund Halley (1656-1742) Edmund Halley was an English astronomer. He once stated that the comet sightings of 1456, 1531, 1607, and 1682 related to the same comet, which he predicted would return in 1758. When it did, it came to be known as Halley's comet In addition to the planets and moons, the solar system also contains millions of smaller objects called asteroids, comets, meteoroids, etc. They are pieces of debris left over from the birth of the universe. Let us study about them. Asteroids Asteroids mean ‘star-like’. These are large pieces of rock or rock and metal. They are believed to be the pieces of a much larger planet, which broke up due to the gravitational pull of Jupiter. Thus, most of them orbit the sun between Mars and Jupiter in an area called the ‘Asteroid belt? (Fig. 1.15). Jupiter holds clusters of asteroids in its gravity. These asteroids are called Trojans. ‘The first and the largest asteroid to be discovered in our solar system is Ceres, which is now classified as a dwarf planer. Comets Not many sights in the night sky are as awesome as a bright comet! A comet is a luminous heavenly body that revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. When a comet is close to the sun, its nucleus which consists of frozen gases, ice, and dust melts and emits’ large amount of gas and dust, which appears as a luminous long tail (Fig. 1.16). This tail is always directed away from the sun. One of the best known comets is the Halley’s comet. It is named after Edmund Halley, who calculated its orbit. Halley’s comet comes close to the sun once in every 76 years. If Halley’s comet ‘was last seen in the year 1986 when do you think it would be next seen? Meteoroids, meteors, and meteorites Meteorvids are very small picces of space debris. They may be grains of dust from comets, chunks of rock, or even bits of shattered asteroids. Small pieces of space debris that are on a collision course with the earth are called meteoroids. When a meteoroid enters the carth’s atmosphere, we call it a meteor or a shooting star. Most meteors are tiny specks of dust and rapidly burn up in the atmosphere. Some are large and produce spectacular fireballs that are very bright and may even explode, If a meteor survives the frictional heating and strikes the surface of the earth, it is called a meteorite.ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES We have already studied about what satellites are. We know of natural satellites as well. There are many man-made devices orbiting the earth, the moon, and the sun. These are known as artificial satellites, Such satellites mainly gather information about the bodies they orbit. There are now about 5,000 artificial satellites orbiting the earth. Some of these satellites are still hard at work, and some of these have significantly changed our outlook pertaining to the carth and space. Satellites are positioned at different heights above the surface of the earth in order to do different jobs. Have you ever wondered how you can watch so many channels on your television sets while sitting in your living rooms? This is made possible with the help of an artificial satellite called a geostationary satellite. The dish of your television sets receives signals from a geostationary satellite, which makes it possible for news from all over to reach you. These satellites are in orbit above the earth to match the earth’s speed as it rotates on its own axis. Therefore, this satellite always stays above the same point on the earth’s surface. Hence, the name geostationary satellite. Artificial satellites are classified into many types based on their function in space: (i) scientific research, (ii) weather, (ii) communication, (iv) navigation, (v) earth observation, and (vi) military. Some of the most common uses of artificial satellites are as follows: Weather Have you ever wondered how people living near the coastal areas are warned beforehand of an approaching cyclone or a storm? This is made possible by the weather satellites that warn us of impending disasters. They help in forecasting weather, identifying crops, finding natural resources, etc. Farmers and foresters specially benefit from such satellites. | Find out from the internet, the names of the latest satellites that have | been sent into space. Also, find out their respective purposes in space. The first man-made object ever to go into space was a satellite named Sputnik 1 (meaning “a fellow traveller”), launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. It could not take pictures or record information, but it proved that man-made structures could be launched successfully into space. This truly marked the beginning of the space age. Aryabhatta was the first Indian artificial satelite sent into space. Others to follow were Bhaskara, Apple, INSAT 1, INSAT 11, and INSAT 3B. Find out from various resources like library or internet what remote- sensing satelltes are, Aso find out which is the latest Indian Remote Satellite (IRS) sent by the Indian Space Research Organization.‘Advances in technology through the 1950s led the Russian astronaut Yuri Gagarin to become the first man in space (in 1961). His flight lasted for 1 hour and 50 minutes. In 1969, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin were the first to land on the surface of the moon in Apollo 11 spacecraft. Communication ‘A communication satellite (commonly called comsat) is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purpose of relaying, (passing on) all kinds of communication signals to the earth, which include TV programmes, telephone calls, e-mail messages, internet, etc. These pick up communication signals from one place on the earth and send them back down to some other place on the earth. These man-made satellites have made communication across the globe possible. Today, as many as 100 communication satellites are orbiting the earth. Navigation Years ago, sailors at sea used to find their way around by looking up at the sky to check the position of stars. Today, other objects in the sky help them navigate. These objects are navigation sazelites. Navigation satellites help ships to travel across the oceans, giving them aid by locating icebergs and mapping the ocean currents. They also help aircrafts in finding their way in the Military Military satellites are used in Air force, Navy, and Military detection. Some of them are called spy satellites that can detect the launch of missiles, the course of ships at sea, and the movement of equipment on the ground. Military satellites also take pictures using powerful cameras. Space stations Space stations are large satellites where astronauts can live for months. You might have heard of the International Space Station (ISS) whose first module was launched on November 20, 1998. Other modules, are currently being assembled in orbit around the earth. They are scheduled to be completed by 2010. Sunita Williams (of Indian origin) left for ISS on December 10, 2006 for 7 months to rewire the space station. It is surprising to know that after launch, it takes only 5 minutes for the shuttle to reach its final otbit around the earth, and it circles the earth in about 90 minutes (as long as a game of football). Universe The sun, planets, the stars, moon and all the matter, energy, and space Galaxy Vast collection of stars Constellation Groups of recognizable patterns in the sky stars forming Asteroid Large pieces of rock or rock and metal Comet Luminous heavenly bodies revolving round the sun Meteoroid Very small pieces of space debris Geostationary satellite Satellite that orbits at the ‘same speed as the earth rotates on its axis* Agalaxy is a vast collection of stars, nebulae, and interstellar material held together by gravity. We belong to a spiral-shaped galaxy called the Milky Way. * Alight year is the distance travelled by light in one year, which is equal to 9.46 x 10"? km. * Group of stars forming recognizable patterns in the sky is called constellation. The sun is our nearest star. Itis made up of four layers called Corona, Photosphere, Chromosphere, and Core, * The solar system consists of the sun at the centre, the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids which orbit the sun. * We have eight planets in our solar system—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Satum, Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto has recently been grouped under dwarf planets. *+ Moon is the second brightest object in the sky, and itis the natural satellite of the earth. * Tides are periodic rise and fall of the water level in large water bodies. They are caused by the gravitational interaction between the earth and the moon. * At times when the sun, the moon, and the earth lie in a straight line, the object which is in between obstructs the sunlight from reaching the other object. This phenomenon is called an eclipse. * Artificial satellites gather information about the bodies they orbit. |. Review questions ‘A. Choose the correct answer 1, The shape of the Milky Way galaxy (a) elliptical (6) spiral (0) irregular (d) spherical 2. Group of stars forming recognizable patterns in the sky is called ... (a) galaxy (6) Orion (0) constellation 3. Like alll stars, the sun produces energy by the process of son (a) nuclear fission (b) nuclear fusion _(c) ionization (d) vaporization 4. The innermost layer of the sun's atmosphere is called (a) Corona (b) Chromosphere (c) Photosphere ——(d) Core 5. The pole star is found in . constellation (@) Ursa major (b) Ursa minor (0) Orion (d) Scorpio B. Fill in the blanks 1. Scientists refer to the formation of the universe as the... . (evolution/Big Bang) theory. 2, We belong to a galaxy called .... (regular/Milky Way) galaxy. 8. Tlight year = aessrnnne (8.46 x 10°/9.46 x 10) m. 4. (Uranus/Satum) is called a ringed planet. Be se (Venus/Etis) is called a dwarf planet. 6. Asteroid belt is found between .......... (Mars/Mercury) and Jupiter. 7. The phase when the moon is totally invisible is called ... (fullinew) moon phase. 8. When the meteoroids travel all the way through the atmosphere and land on the earth, we Call them... (Meteorites/meteors). 9. .. (Natural/Geostationary) satellites are in orbit above the earth to match the earth's speed as it rotates on its own axis10. When the moon is bigger than a quarter, we call it C."Match the following 4,.Sun 2. Milky Way 3. Orion 4, Corona 5. Moon {a) Natural satelite (b) A star (c) Sun's atmosphere (d) Galaxy (e) Constellation D. Answer the following questions 1. What do you mean by galaxy? Name the different kinds of galaxies. 2. What are constellations? Name any three. 3. Draw a wel-labelled diagram of the phases of the moon, 4, Define the following: (a) asteroids (b) cor mets (0) meteoroids 5. What are artificial satellites? What are the areas in which a satellite helps you (name any (crescent/gibbous). four)? Skill-based questions E. Observe the data given and answer the following questions Planet Diameter of | Average distance | Length of one | Number o planet (in km) | from the sun | year (in earth | moons (in milion ken) days) Mercury 4,880 58 88 days, ° Venus 12,104 108 225 days 0 Earth 12,756 150 365 days 1 Mars 6,787 228 687 days 2 Jupiter 143,000 778 12 years 63 Saturn 120,000 1,427 30 years 56 Uranus 51,100 2,875 84 years 27 Neptune 49,500 4,497 165 years 13 Use the above table to answer the following questions: . Write the names of planets in the ascending order of their sizes. Name the planets that have no natural satellite. |. Which planet takes almost 12 earth years to revolve round the sun? 1 2 3. Which is the largest planet? 4 5. Name the planet that has the largest number of moons, From the list of words given below, which is the best match for each of the following descriptions? Meteoroids Big Bang Galaxy 1. A rocky object orbiting a planet Comet Asteroid | Constellation Solar system2. The sun, its planets, and other objects in orbit. 3, _Assmall rocky object which collides with a planet, or maybe a fragment from an asteroid : 4. Ahuge group of millions of stars ... : 5. The explosion which led to the formation of the universe ... 6. Recognizable patterns in the night sky Fun time Le Sa, Laie] a 0) Ny ‘* Look for constellations like Orion, Big Dipper, Small Dipper, etc. in a field guide or an encyclopaedia. Find out the stories related to them and make a chart, ‘+ Explore the internet to gather information about famous space persons of Indian origin, like Kalpana Chawla, Sunita Williams etc. and write a report based on your finding. ‘+ Make a chart on Stephen Hawking, a living legend. US eS * Students could be made aware of particular times of the year when some constellations, planets, etc. could be spotted. * Some visit to a local planetarium could be organized to make students better understand the occurrence of eclipses, tides, ete. Website references hittp://www.billymeier.com/Beamships/Universe.html (accessed 30 Apr 07) http://www. frontiernet.net/~kidpower/astronomy.html (accessed 03 May 07) http//www.space.com/satellite/ (accessed 03 Apr 07) http://www. bbe.co.uk/science/space/solarsystem/sun/solarectipse.shtml [animation] (accessed 31 May 07)Light LEARNING OUTCOMES ‘+ Refraction of light: laws and refractive» Dispersion through a glass prism index * Lenses: convex and concave * Refraction through a glass slab anda ——_* Optical instruments glass prism * Defects of the eye Look at the following figures. You might have observed such images in your day-to-day life. amare) ar REFRACTION} ova (a) () Can you tell what you notice in the above figures? In (a) you see that the letters below the glass slabs appear to be raised. In (b) you see that the part of the pencil that is dipped in water appears to be bent. Similarly, in (c) you see that the swimming pool appears shallower than its actual depth. Can you tell how all this happens? This is because of a particular property of light rays known as refraction. In this chapter you will study what refraction is, how it is caused, Is the pen that is seen what are its effects, and many more things. through the lens actually broken or appears to be broken? You wil get the REFRACTION answer when you read this | You might have studied in earlier classes that light travels in chapter. straight lines. However,when a ray of light travels from one transparent medium to another such as from water to ais or air to glass (and vice versa), it undergoes a change in its direction at the boundary between the two mediums and bends. This phenomenon is called refraction. Before we learn what causes the light ray to bend, let us see how the speed of light is different in different mediums. Speed of light and optical density of a medium You know that light travels with a speed of 3 x 10% m/s in air. However, its speed in water is 2.25 x 108 m/s and in glass is 1.8 x 10*m/s. Thus, we see that the speed of light is different in different mediums and depends on the properties of the medium. When light slows down in a medium, we say it is an optically denser medium. From the speed of light in different mediums, we can say that water is optically denser than air, and glass is optically denser than water, In other words, we say that water is optically rarer than glass, and air is optically rarer than water and glass. ‘The cause of bending of a light ray is due to the change in the speed of light in different materials/mediums. But the question that arises is why should a light ray bend at the boundary of the two mediums just because it cannot maintain the same speed? What happens if you roll your toy car gently from a smooth bitumen road to a grass lawn? At the boundary of the two surfaces, you will find that the wheel gets deflected from the path it follows (see Fig. 2.1). Thus, bending is a consequence of change in speed. Light rays also behave in the same way. By bending, light rays reach faster, obeying the principle of least time, which states that out of all the available paths, light takes the path that requires the shortest time. Having understood this, let us understand why the pencil, when dipped in water, appears to be bent. Look at Figure 2.2. We have learnt in earlier classes that when light reflected from objects falls on our eyes, we see the objects, When a pencil is put in a beaker of water, light rays from the bottom of the pencil travel first through water (which is optically denser) and then through air to reach our eyes, When the light rays strike the boundary of the two mediums, they bend in such a way that they reach our eyes faster, As a result, the eyes feel as if the light rays are coming from X and not from Y. Hence, the pencil appears to be bent. Fig. 2.1 Toy car rolling from physi The optical density that you study here is different from physical density. The physical density of a material refers to the mass/volume ratio of that material. But, optical density tells you how fast or slow a light ray can pass through the material. I density vs. al density! a road to a grass lawn Y LY Fig. 2.2 Pencil appears to be bent‘Aim: To prove that light rays bend as they travel from ‘one medium to another. Materials required: A beaker, water, and a coin. the coin travel Md Procedure: 1. Take an empty beaker and puta coin through water and init then through air. 2. Now step away from the beaker till the time the Hence, due to coin becomes invisible to you. change of the 3, Stop at the place where you do not see the coin medium, the rays and ask your friend to slowly pour water into the bend and reach beaker. 4. You will see that at some level of water the coin starts becoming visible to you. Conclusion: When you pour water into the beaker, the light rays from your eyes. Thus, the coin seems to be raised. Rules regarding refraction Figure 2.3 shows a single light ray travelling from air to glass, ie, from a rarer to a denser medium. The point where the ray hits the boundary between the two mediums is called the point of incidence. A perpendicular drawn to the air-glass interface at the point of incidence is called the normal. The ray of light in the first medium is called the incident ray, and this ray of light after changing its direction (or after refraction) is called the refracted ray. The angle } between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of Fig. 2.3 Refraction of a ray incidence (44), and the angle between the refracted ray and the of light normal is called the angle of refraction (Zr). Incident Now look at the following three figures. Do you notice any difference in the path of the light ray? [Air ares) ‘Glass (denser) Glass (denser Tey Ae (rarer) (0) © Fig. 2.4 Rules regarding the refraction of light ‘The three figures given above state the three rules regarding the refraction of light: (i) When a ray of light travels obliquely from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the normal (Fig. 2.4 (a)].(ii) When a ray of light travels obliquely from a denser medium toa rarer medium, it bends away from the normal [Fig. 2.4 (b)]. (iii) When a ray of light travels perpendicular to the surface of separation of the two mediums, it goes without any deviation [Fig. 2.4 ()]. We know that the speed of light is lesser in glass than in air because glass is optically denser than air. In (a) we see that the angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence. Thus, we conclude that when the angle of refraction is less, the speed of light in that medium is also less. In (b) you can see that the angle of refraction is more, which tells you that the speed of light in that medium (air) is also more than that in the first medium (which is glass) Laws of refraction ‘The laws of refraction state that (j) the incident ray, the normal to the point of incidence, and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane; and (ii) the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant known as the refractive index of the medium. You will learn about this law, called Snell’s law, in higher classes. sing sine Refractive index We know that refraction results from a change in speed when light passes from one medium to another. ‘The ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in another medium is termed as the refractive index of that medium. This tells you the amount by which the speed of light gets reduced, and the amount by which the light ray is refracted or bent for a given angle of incidence. The refractive index is denoted by the letter 1. Also, since it is a ratio, it has no unit. Speed of light in vacuum (c) peed of light in the medium (p) Can you tell why there is no refraction at C2 (Hint: ‘Normal’ at C is BC itself. Hence, Zi=0.) Draw reflected ray from the mirror and refracted ray into the air. (Hint: apply laws of reflection and rules of refraction.) liga Ifa glass prism is kept in a liquid of the same refractive index as that of glass, will the ray of light bend? Compiete the path of the ray of light. (Hint: ray bends only if the refractive indices of the two mediums are different.)sto is less.) —, AS ute" Looking at the angle of refraction in the figures given, which medium will have the maximum value of refractive index and in which medium will the speed of light be the least? (Hint: when Zr is more, speed of light is more, and refractive index isa Table 2.1 Refractive indices of some materials Note that the speed of light in air and in vacuum is almost equal; therefore, for numerical purposes we take the speed of light in vacuum as that in air. Table 2.1 shows the refractive index of some materials. SOLVED EXAMPLE 1. The speed of light in air is 3 x 10° m/s. Find its speed in diamond if the refractive index of diamond is 2.42. ‘We know that: ‘Speed of light in air/vacuum (c) ‘Speed of light in the medium (v) 3x10" 3x10" Therefore, 2.42 = ———, v= = 1.24 x10°mis v 2.42 ‘Thus, speed of light in diamond has reduced considerably. ‘The refractive index tells you how much light has slowed down in that medium with respect to air. Table 2.1 shows the refractive indices of some materials. You will notice that she speed of light in that medium is low whose refractive index is high. Hence, the angle of refraction will also be less than the angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence is the same as the angle of refraction, the light ray travels straight without any bending. Material Refractive j_ index REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB Air 1.0029 | Ina glass slab, there are two parallel interfaces through which a Ice 1.31 light ray passes. The first interface is the air-glass interface, and Water 1.33 the second interface is the glass~air interface. Alcohol 1.36 Glass 1.50 In order to understand refraction through a glass slab, let us first Benzene 1.50 perform an activity. Diamond 2.42 an fo trace a ray of light through a glass slab, block over its outline again Materials required: A glass slab, a thick sheet of and look at the pins through paper, a pencil, and few thumb pins. the glass block from the block. Ei Procedure: 1. Keep the glass slab on a thick white opposite side. sheet of paper and draw its outline. Now remove the 3. By looking at the images glass slab. And draw a line AB on one side of the of the two pins, place two 2. Fix two thumb pins on the line, one behind the that all the four pins are in a other (as shown in the figure), Now place the glass straight line. Now remove the pins on the other side suchglass slab again and draw a line CD passing through Conclusion: You will find that the light ray has the two pins you placed at the images of the previous _ bent at the two interfaces, first at the air-glass two pins. Join AB to CD. interface and second at the glass-air interface. Now let us study the diagram shown in the activity above to Incigont roy understand how the path of a light ray changes when it passes through a glass slab. Look at Figure 2.5. The light ray AB (incident ray) on reaching the air-glass interface undergoes refraction and bends. Notice that since here the light ray is moving from a rarer to a denser medium, it bends towards the normal and follows the path BC inside the glass slab. Ray BC is the refracted ray. Here, you find that the angle of refraction (4) is smaller than the angle of incidence (2). The refracted ray BC on reaching the glass-air interface again undergoes refraction. This time it bends away from the normal as it moves from a denser to a rarer medium and emerges from the glass slab as CD. Fig. 2.5 Refraction of a light The ray CD is called the emergent vay, and the angle this ray makes "ay through a glass slab with the normal is called the angle of emergence (Ze). When the incident ray is produced further (represented by the dotted line), it is found to be parallel to the emergent ray. The perpendicular distance between these two rays is called lateral displacement. Thus, any object placed at A will be displaced sideways to D as a result of refraction through a glass slab. REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM A prism is a piece of glass or any other transparent material, which is bounded by two triangular surfaces and three rectangular surfaces. The rectangular surfaces are called the refracting surfices. The angle between any two refracting surfaces is called the angle of prism. Figure 2.6 shows an equilateral prism. Principle of reversibility According to the principle of reversibility of light, the path of a light ray is reversible. Hence, if a ray of light travels from air to glass to air as AB, BC and then CD, the ray follows the path DC to CB to BA if itis reversed. A> angie of ism (1A) angle of deviation (1d) glass Fig. 2.6 Refraction through a prismWhy does a parallet-sided glass slab not disperse light just like a glass prism? Actually, @ parallel-sided glass slab also disperses White light but inside the glass slab, each coloured ray emerges parallel to the others and to the original ray. The lens in our eye focuses all the parallel coloured light onto one spot on the retina of the eye; thus, we see only White light coming out of the slab. Fig. 2.7 Dispersion of white light through a prism Consider a ray AB incident on the face PQ of the prism. Since this, ray undergoes refraction while passing from a rarer medium (air) to a denser medium (glass), it bends towards the normal and follows the path BC inside the prism. Here, Zr, is the angle of refraction, The ray BC is called the refracted ray. This refracted ray again undergoes refraction at the glass-air interface, and this time it bends away from the niormal (because now it moves from a denser medium to a rarer medium). The final ray that comes out of the prism moves along CD and is called the emergent ray. The angle between the emergent ray and the normal is called the angle of emergence (Ze). You can see in the figure that the incident ray, which was travelling along AB has been turned along CD such that the ray gets deviated through an angle Zd. This angle is called the angle of deviation. Weis the angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray and is formed by extending the ray AB forward and CD backward. If we measure the angle of incidence, angle of emergence, the angle of the prism, and the angle of deviation, it has been found that 47 +Ze =2.A + ZA, where ZA is the angle of the prism, Dispersion of white light through a prism What happens if, instead of a single light ray, a beam of white light is passed through a prism? Isaac Newton found that when a beam of white light is passed through a glass prism, the white light breaks into its constituent colours, ic., the colours of the rainbow (Fig. 2.7). This phenomenon of splitting up of white light into its constituent colours is called dispersion. From this, Newton concluded that white light is a mixture of seven colours. The band of colours obtained on a screen on passing white light through a prism is called a spectrum, These bands together constitute the colours of the rainbow, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red (VIBGYOR) Do you know why white light splits into seven colours when passing through a prism? Light of all colours travels at the same speed in vacuum, But in other transparent mediums, it travels with different speeds. We have already studied that change in the speed of light is the cause of refraction. When white light is incident on the prism, the different colours of light get refractedor deviated through different angles: In Figure 2.7, you can see that violet deviates the most, while red the least. Remember blue bends better. ‘What would happen if we put two prisms side by side and then make white light pass through them? Will the colours of the spectrum be split up more? No! If a combination of two prisms is made (one lying inverted with respect to the other), and white light is made to pass through both of them, we sce that the first prism disperses white light into its seven constituent colours, and the second prism again combines those seven colours to form white light (Fig. 2.8). ‘Suppose we have a prism which disperses white light into its seven colours. Now we place a slit screen in the path of the seven colours, so that only one colour, say red, is able to pass through the screen. This red beam is made to fall on another prism. Trace the path of the colour through the prism. What will happen to the colour of the beam when it emerges from the prism? (Hint: red colour gets refracted and ‘emerges as red colour.) Fig. 2.8 Recombination of rainbow colours into white light Note that when you join two prisms, as in Figure 2.8, you get parallel sides where the light enters and also where the light leaves. Hence, although the light disperses inside, when it finally emerges out it travels parallel to each other with the same speed, and our brain registers it as white light. Everyday effects of refraction ‘The figures below show some real-life examples of refraction of light. <= oe Fruit appears to be bigger in a glass of water due to refraction, pour) | ‘A swimming pool appears IREFR ACTION! shallower than its actual a depth. A person's lags also << | aver shorter than the | Print appears to be raised | | Actual length when he is when a glass block is standing in a pool. placed over it Due to refraction at the air-water interface, the path of the light is bent and the fish appears to be in a raised position where it actually is not. A visual distortion occurs and the hunter launches the spear at the location where the fish is thought to be and misses the fish |Have you ever marvelled at the colours of the rainbow? A rainbow is the result of dispersion of sunlight by water droplets in the atmosphere. Sunlight which consists of VIBGYOR colours, on entering the water droplets gets refracted (or bent). In a large region of raindrops, the circular symmetry of the drops causes us to see the colours displayed in a circular band in the sky. Apparent postion of te ae ES Fig. 2.9 Apparent position of the sun at sunrise Twinkling of stars Have you ever wondered how the stars in the sky twinkle? The light from the stars reach our earth by travelling a great distance through space and then through the different layers of the atmosphere. We know that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude. ‘Thus, when light from a star travels through different layers of the atmosphere, it bends constantly, and the star appears to change its position slightly and varies in brightness and colour. Apparent position of the sun Do you know that the sun is seen a few minutes before it actually rises above the horizon in the morning and a few minutes longer in the evening after it sets? The ray of light passing through different layers of the atmosphere undergoes refraction and bends, and the viewer views the sun at a higher position than it actually is, This is the reason why we see the sun a few minutes earlier than it actually rises (Fig. 2.9). LENSES We have seen how light behaves when it passes through plane interfaces, like a glass slab and a prism. Let us now study how light rays behave when they pass through curved interfaces like a lens. Any transparent medium which is bounded by atleast one curved surface is called a lens. The common types of lenses are convex lens cor converging lens and concave lens or diverging lens. See Figure 2.10. In case of convex lens, the middle portion is thicker than the edges. However, in case of concave lens, the edges are thicker than the middle. These are called plano-convex: or plano-concave, if they have only one curved surface. If both the surfaces are curved, they are called bi-convex ot bi-concave ity [|] \o lo \Jo |\@ Fig. 2.10 Types of lenses: (a) plano-convex; (b) plano-concave; (c) bi-convex; and (d) bi-concaveA convex lens is called a converging lens because when parallel light rays fall on it, the light rays meet at one point after refraction through the lens, On the other hand, a concave lens is calleda. | + diverging lens because when parallel light rays pass through it, they diverge and seem to be coming from a single point in front of the lens, See Figure 2.11 (a) and (b). @ Terms associated with lenses __\p Optic centre: is the geometric centre of the lens, where a line fl drawn through it horizontally meets the principal axis. See O in ZX — Figure 2.12 (a) and (b). () Contre of curvature: is the centre of the imaginary sphere of Fig. 2.11 (a) Converging which the lens is a part. Since in bi-convex or bi-concave lens, fens; and (b) Diverging lens there are two curved surfaces, they have two centres of curvature. 7 In Figure 2.12, C, and C, are the centres of curvature. f ‘ Principal axis: is an imaginary line joining the centres of © ed curvatures of the two spheres of which lens is a part. See Figure ° 212. (4) Convex lens Principal focus of convex lens (F): is a point on the principal axis where a parallel beam of light, travelling parallel to the principal axis, after refraction actually meet. See Figure 2.13 (a). Principal focus ofa concave lens (F): is a point on the principal axis of a concave lens where a parallel beam of light, travelling parallel to the principal axis, after refraction appears to meet. See Figure 2.13 (b). Lenses have two focal points, one on cach side. We can find the second focal point by reversing the direction of light, and the light then focuses at a point on the other side of the lens. It can be = shown that the focal points are at the same distance from the centre of the lens if it is thin. A lens is considered to be thin if its thickness is very small in comparison to its focal length. Focal length(f): is the distance between the principal focus and the (a) optic centre of a lens. C Se Principal (6) Concave lens Fig. 2.12 Optic centre, centre of curvature, and principal axis of convex and concave lens Radius of curvature: is twice the focal length of any lens (2f). Ray diagrams using convex lens The ray diagram technique that you used for curved mirrors in class 7 will help you to locate images formed by lenses. ‘The rules that apply to a ray of light when it passes through a (6) Fig. 2.13 Focus and focal convex lens are: length of convex and concave lens| Any ray of light travelling parallel to the prir I axis, after refraction, passes through the principal focus. Focal engin Fig. 2.14 Object at infinity A og —{\ ieee Seton oF F VT u yo Fig. 2.15 Object beyond 2F but not infinity Fig. 2.16 Object at 2F F 6 ¥ as / Any ray of light passing [Any ray of light which passes | through the principal focus, | through the optic centre of the after refraction, travels | lens remains undeviated and parallel to the principal axis. passes on without any change in the path. | —_ Keeping the above rules in mind, let us see the different types of images produced in a convex lens, depending on the position of the object. When object is at infinity Here, infinity means a distance much greater than the focal length of the lens. Object (O) ‘at infinity’ means the object is very far from the lens. ‘The rays from an object at infinity are always considered to be parallel. See Figure 2.14. Image characteristics + The image (1) is formed at the principal focus (F) of the lens. + The image is diminished (very small). + The image is inverted. + Iisa real image, icc, if we place a screen at the focal point, an image of the object will be formed on it. When object is beyond 2F, but not infinity 2E means twice the focal length. See Figure 2.15. Image characteristics + The image is formed between F and 2F on the other side of the lens. + The image is diminished. + The image is inverted. + Ieis a real image. This arrangement is used in a photagraphic camera. When object is at 2F Image characteristics + The image is formed at 2F (on the other side of the lens) + The image is of the same size as the object (Fig. 2.16).