LANGUAGE PRODUCTION

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

Lecturer:

Rani Fairuz, M.Hum

Arranged by Group 4:

1. Cindy Ananda Puteri Mrp

2. Jayanti Fitri Ayu
3. Vita Inesia

Class: TBI-5/ 7th semester

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING

STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA

MEDAN

2021/2022
INTRODUCTION

Language is the most effective means of communication in human life. This is a unique
human heritage that plays a very important role in human life, such as thinking, communicating
ideas, and negotiating with others. Languages do not vary indefinitely. There seems to be a
limitation in the nature of linguistic rules that can reflect the nature of human cognition. Language
characteristics give many different characteristics to speakers / writers and listeners / readers who
share the same system of rules.

Psycholinguistics deals mainly with language understanding, production and acquisition. It

is a part of cognitive science that comprises psychology, linguistics, anthropology, neuro-science
and computer science. The neurology of language functioning is of current interest to
psycholinguists, particularly to those studying sex differences, aphasia, language after congenital
or acquired injury to the immature brain, and developmental disorders of language (dysphasia).
Some psycholinguists have also extended their interests to experiments in nonhuman language
learning (gorillas and chimpanzees) to discover if language as we know it is a uniquely human
phenomenon.

Language production is logically divided into three major steps: deciding what to express
(conceptualization), determining how to express it (formulation), and expressing it (articulation) (
Levelt, 1989). Although achieving goals in conversation, structuring narratives and modulating
the ebb and flow of dialogue are inherently important to understanding how people speak,
psycholinguistic studies of language production have primarily focused on the formulation of
single, isolated utterances. An utterance consists of one or more words, spoken together under a
single intonation contour or expressing a single idea.

In this section, the focus is on the processing of the words themselves. Indeed, most theories
of multi-word utterance or sentence production ultimately boil down to an account of how
sentences acquire their word orders and structures, how the dependencies between words are
accommodated (subject–verb agreement), and a functionally independent account of how
individual content words are generated.
LITERATURE RIVIEW

A. Properties of Spoken Language Production

Language production is a fundamentally more difficult subject to study than comprehension,

because although speech is observable, the ideas that lead to production are more elusive. Some
investigators have made detailed and systematic analyses of naturally occurring errors of
production, and others have given speakers under laboratory conditions, more or less specific
instruction on what to produce (Carrol, 2008:193).

Language production is logically divided into four major steps: deciding what to express
(conceptualization), determining how to express it (formulation), expressing it (articulation), and
the last is self monitoring (Levelt, 1989). Although achieving goals in conversation, structuring
narratives and modulating the ebb and flow of dialogue are inherently important to understanding
how people speak, psycholinguistics studies of language production have primarily focused on the
formulation of single, isolated utterances. An utterances consist of one or more words, spoken
together under a single international contour or expressing a single idea.

B. Selecting a content word

Studies of isolated word production have focused primarily on noun with some studies of verbs
(action words and predicates), ignoring other grammatical classes of content words that are less
often spoken alone. In one word utterances, the properties of word production processes appear
similar for nouns and verbs. There is no reason to suspect that other types of content words are
prepared differently in single word production.

METHOD

This research uses the method of library research or library research. Literature study is a data
collection technique by conducting a review study of books, journal and reports that have to do
with the problem being solved (Nazir, 2003:27).

The theoretical data in this paper was collected using a literature study technique, meaning
that the authors took data through reading various literature and using relevant internet media to
complement the data with the topic of this paper.
DISCUSSION

A. Definition of Language Production

Language production may be described because the method of making and expressing meaning
through language, both written or spoken, it's far summary and physical (Richards & Schmidt,
2013). Nonetheless, every now and then we have a tendency to confuse the idea of language
manufacturing with speech manufacturing. Therefore, a difference have to be clearly established.
As we've got said above, language manufacturing refers to each speak me and writing forms, at
the same time as speech manufacturing refers totally to the articulation of language, that is, it's far
physical, to place it simply, it refers back to the speech shape of language. Furthermore, some of
theories in psycholinguistics and cognitive psychology tries to account for the specific approaches
worried in language manufacturing. Language is a tool of how human communicate with others.

Language is a communication media that connect one another. Language produce from our
mind in oral and written form, The function of language is to share our idea with other by oral or
written language that human can understand. To make our idea can be understand by other, we
need to produce a good language. A good language consist of a good words choice and
arrangement that easily understand by people. Instead of that conclusion, there come a question
how we can produce a good language weather verbal or written?

Language production in psycholinguistic is how people produce their language, how they talk,
how they convey the information to be a language, in a syntactic, semantic and conceptual
structure. It is a study of how people produce each word from their mind into verbal language and
non-verbal language and the way how they arrange words into a good sentence from their mind.
In contemporary psycholinguistic language production, language production center on how and
what the motives of people talk and utterance their ideas.

B. Intelligence influence language production

Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract reasoning,
mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to learn, emotional
knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment effectively.
 Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary for
adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context (1997, p. 1).
Meanwhile, according to Suharsono (2002: 43), the notion of intelligence is "the ability to solve
problems correctly, which is relatively faster than his biological age. Some researchers argue that
intelligence is a general ability, whereas others make the assertion that intelligence comprises
specific skills and talents. Psychologists contend that intelligence is genetic, or inherited, and
others claim that it is largely influenced by the surrounding environment.

Things that affect intelligence according to Antonius Atosokhi and Yohanes Babari (2003),
talent or intelligence is influenced by the following:

1. Genetic Elements; Genetic factors play a major role. This biological factor is closely related to
brain function. When the left brain is dominant, all actions and work are related to verbal,
intellectual, orderly and logical problems. While the right brain is associated with spatial, non-
verbal, aesthetic and artistic and athletic problems. Off spring inherit genetic traits from the
owner of the gene.
2. Exercise; talent development is influenced by the frequency of practice. We can only
distinguish gifted or not after a series of exercises where those who have intelligence or talent
will master it more quickly.
From this explanation we can know one form of relationship between language and
intelligence, from the language spoken by someone we can know the level of intelligence.
Because the language itself is in accordance with what is being thought by someone. Someone
who is intelligent will be able to manage (regulate) his language with the intelligence of his
mind. So the language spoken will be easy to digest and easy to understand.
Experts reveal that the relationship between language and intelligence can be viewed from
two angles:
1. A constructive or active relationship between a person's memory of words and their ratio
of intelligence. Someone who think deeply and varied, are forced to explore radically about
facts or data and knowledge. As a result they have a myriad of great minds. These thoughts
encourage the creation of words and terms that can be expressed.
2. The relationship between intelligence and vocabulary is a continuous relationship. The
more a person's potential in understanding the sentences read, the clearer the relationship
 between a meaning. So if a person's potential in understanding sentences increases, then
the language obtained will also be more interesting and of high quality.

C. Stage of Language Production

Speech Process Speaking is basically one of the most complex cognitive processes performed
by humans. In English, a normal speech rate is about 150 words per minutes. Which means that a
speaker can withdraw two to three words per second from the approximately 30.000 daily
vocabulary that they have to speak. What’s even more amazing is that a speaker is able to speak
continuously with an extraordinary degree of accuracy, given the large average number of
vocabulary they have (Field 2004:283).

Generally, experts agree that the sentence production process consist of four general stages,
namely the conceptualization stage, Formulation stage, Articulation stage and Self-Monitoring.
Levelt in Harley (2001:374), The conceptualization process until the last stage occurs sequentially
in our mental and then the result of this mental process are ready to be described into speech in the
form of sounds that can be understood by the interlocutor.

1. Conceptualization

In the conceptualization stage, the speaker forms a concept and determines what message they
wants to convey then sorts out the relevant information in their memory to prepare it into the
intended utterance arrangement. At this stage, the speaker also considers the situational limitations
in which the planned utterance can be expressed in appropriate situations (Griffin and Ferreira
2006: 22).

According to David McNeil, conceptualization is the very beginning of spoken utterance.

There are 2 concurrent and parallel models of thought, namely: Syntactic thinking and Imagistic
thinking.

2. Formulation

This stage is divided into several sub-stages, the first is the stage of selecting words that match
the message to be conveyed (Lexicalization). Determining the word you want to use in an utterance
involves considering the suitability of the word with semantic and pragmatic meaning factors. The
word that is considered to represent the message is called the lemma. Furthermore, the process of
planning the sound in accordance with the words that have been selected. In this process, the
phonological forms of each selected word are arranged by sorting them addition, this stage also
involve syntactic detail. The words that have been selected are then placed hierarchically in their
respective positions in the form of sentences according to the applicable syntactic rules.

However, some opinions state that attention to the syntagtic form of a sentence to be uttered is
not convey the message that has been planned at the previous conceptualization stage (Harley,
2001:374).

3. Articulation

Articulation comes from the word articulation which means pronunciation, meaning the
pronunciation of the sound symbols of the language according to standard patterns so that they can
be understood by others. Articulation is the change of cavities and spaces in the vocal tract to
produce language sounds. The articulation area extends from the outer lip to the vocal cords,
where phonemes are formed based on the vibration of the vocal cords accompanied by changes in
the position of the tongue and the like (Rahardjo 1996: 34).

Articulation is a way of saying words while speaking. Improving clear articulation means
improving the pronunciation of words to make them easier to understand. A similar understanding
is also explained by Simanungkalit (in Suharto 2009: 2) who states that articulation is a sound that
occurs due to the movement of the speech apparatus.

Articulation is the pronunciation or pronunciation of words. At the time of expression.

Articulation is very important because when communicating the speaker and listener use spoken
language, not written. If the speaker's pronunciation is not clear, it is very difficult to communicate
well.

According to Hermanto, articulation is a pronunciation or pronunciation of words or changes

in cavities and spaces in the vocal tract to produce language sounds. There are several organs of
articulation are:

a. Labium Superior
b. Labium Emperior
 c. Lingual
d. Dental Superior
e. Dental Imperior
f. Alvelum
g. Palatum
h. Uvula
i. Pharink

4. Self- Monitoring

Self-monitoring is the nature of someone who is able to monitor and control how to carry
oneself, emotions, as well as behavior when in certain situations and environments. That is, a
person knows very well how his behavior impacts his environment.

The concept of self-monitoring was first conceived by an American psychologist Mark

Snyder in the 1970s. Snyder also designed a self-reporting scale to determine how much this self-
monitoring affects human behavior in various situations. Some signs someone has good self-
monitoring include:

• Good at imitating other people's behavior

• Can act to entertain others
• Saying something in a social event to get the surrounding approval
• Changing opinions to side with others
• Behave differently depending on the situation or person you are dealing with
• Listen to other people's suggestions about what to say, think, wear, or do

People with high levels of self-monitoring can easily change their behavior to compromise the
situation. On the other hand, those who are not good at self-monitoring will behave according to
their feelings and needs.

In addition, sometimes this self-monitoring can also change depending on the situation at hand.
For example, a person monitors himself more when he is in certain social situations or when he is
under stress.
 a. Self-monitoring type

Generally, self-monitoring is divided into two main types, depending on the purpose. They
are:

1. Acquisition

Type of self-monitoring aims to gain the approval and attention of others. Individuals with
this type of self-monitoring will assess how people around them react and then change their
behavior to be more integrated. This is done to feel fit with the status or authority of others.

2. Protective

The purpose of self-monitoring is to protect oneself from rejection or disapproval of others.

That is, the individual will monitor the situation and reaction first before changing his behavior to
be approved by the group. The main focus is not to feel embarrassed or rejected.

In fact, self-monitoring is a natural human thing. However, sometimes this can be attempted
in different situations. This self-monitoring becomes useful when it is used to:

• Changing specific behavior

• Increase self-awareness
• More sensitive to other people
• Improve interpersonal skills
• Assessing the impact of an action in a given situation
• Recognizing symptoms that may need treatment
• Finding ways to behave in a competitive environment

D. Emotions influence language production

Sarwono (2010) defines emotion as a complex judgment reaction (positive or negative) from
a person's nervous system to stimuli from outside or from within himself. This definition illustrates
that emotions begin with a stimulus, both from outside (objects, humans, situations, weather), as
well as from within us (blood pressure, sugar levels, hunger, sleepiness, freshness, etc.).
 Emotions are reactions to stimuli in the form of experiences from outside the individual and
internal stimuli in the form of hormonal dynamics, conscious and unconscious states which are
manifested through visible behavior.

Clark and Finkel (2005: 1) divide expressions into several parts, namely: happy expressions,
fearful expressions, and angry expressions. It can be seen that these expressions can be found in
everyday life, everyone has different emotional psychology, one of which is the symptom of anger.

Every human being has thoughts and feelings. This will arise from feelings of emotion.
Emotions can be expressions of affection, joy, anger, and hatred. Emotions can stimulate new
thoughts, new fantasies, and new behaviors. Sometimes it's easy to see the connection between
feelings and behavior. This means that emotions can lead us to certain behaviors. The more
intense the emotion, the harder it is to make a decision whether to express it and how to express it.
Positive emotions or pleasant emotions are emotions that cause positive feelings in affected people,
such as love, affection, pleasure, admiration and so on. Emotions are basically a form of
communication.

Emotions can be the embodiment of love, joy, anger, and hate. Emotions can stimulate new
thoughts, new fantasies, and new behaviors. Sometimes it is easy to see the connection between
feelings and behavior. The meaning we give to emotions can lead us to certain behaviors. The
more intense the emotion, the more difficult it is to decide whether to express it and how to express
it.

Muhammad (2011: 50-52) ranks several types of emotional expressions, namely facial
expressions, vocal expressions, physiological changes, body movements and cues, as well as
emotional actions, namely:

1. Facial Expressions. Aristotle (in Carol Wade & Carol Tavris, 2007: 107) writes, "there are
certain facial expressions that follow anger, fear, erotic stimulation, and all other strong
feelings". Emotions of happiness and sadness can be seen from the facial expressions.
Through a person's face, it can be seen what emotions he is experiencing, be it anger,
sadness, happiness, fear or surprise.
2. Vowel Expression. The tone of a person's voice will change according to the emotions he
is experiencing. People who are angry, the tone of his voice will rise. Likewise for people
 who are happy, in general their tone of voice is more loose and fluent. In contrast to people
who are sad, he will stammer when he speaks.
3. Physiological Changes. Physiologically, if you are experiencing certain emotions, there
will be changes in your heart rate which tends to increase, your feet and hands will vibrate
and even goosebumps, facial muscles will tighten and you will sweat.
4. Movement and Body Gestures. Emotions can be expressed through gestures and body
cues. This can be seen in people who are nervous or in love. People who are nervous will
be careless, make a lot of unnecessary movements, make mistakes and sweat a lot. People
who are in love will stare at their loved ones more often, sit leaning against them, and smile
more broadly.
5. Emotional Actions. Some emotional actions include hitting, crying, silence, curling under
the table, throwing things and other actions that clearly show the emotions that are being
experienced.

From the explanation above, it can be seen that this is part of Psycholinguistics. The use of
language in expressing the emotion of joy can be categorized as a new learning. Mastery of
language is part of human learning in general, closely related to personality, closely intertwined
with culture of second language learning, involves distraction, creation of new linguistic systems,
and learning of discourse and the communicative function of language (Brown, 1993).

E. Intellectual and Emotional

Human has some intelligence in their self. Intellectual intelligence (IQ) has often been used as
a measure of one’s success, especially in a career. Another intelligence namely SQ (Spiritual
Intelligence) is no less important. In addition to intelligence, there is another thing that us no less
important, namely emotional intelligence (EQ).

In his book published in 1995 and 1998, “ Emotional Intelligence: why it can matter more tha
IQ and working with emotional intelligence”. Daniel Goleman categorizes emotional intelligence
into five component, namely: self-awareness, the ability to express self-regulation, motivation,
empathy, and interpersonal skills (people skill).
 1. Self- awareness talks about a person’s awareness of himself, including their strengths and
weaknesses. A person with high self-awareness understands how these things can affect
other people. Generally, people with good self-awareness can also handle cristicism from
others well.
2. Self-regulation or the ability to express oneself speaks of a person’s ability to regulate when
and how they expresses their feelings. People with good self-expressions skills are
generally able to channel their emotion in a mature way and are trained to contain them
when necessary.
3. Motivation not only talks about someone’s desire to achieve something, but also talks about
the person’s persistence. People with good emotional intelligence can be self-motivated,
resilient, and also remain optimistic even in the face of disappointment or failure. People
who have high motivation are also usually driven by their own desires and not just by the
lure of position or money.
4. Empathy talks about a person’s ability to feel and understand the emotions of others. People
who have high emotional intelligence usually have high empathy as well. Well, in the
world of work, people with high empathy can understand the concerns of others better and
also provide better services.
5. Interpersonal skills or people skills talks about a person’s ability to build interaction and
trust with other people in a team. With good interpersonal skills, people can relate to and
do their jobs better, especially now that everything depends in good communication.

So, sometimes people who are highly intellectual but can become more emotional in language
production because it should be underlined that this language production starts when we are young,
even when we are born. And why we can easily get emotional in language production that could
be influenced by environmental factors. And we need to know that learning the language we start
or we can get first from home or our own parents. And then his emotional language could have
been obtained from his family and the surrounding environment.

CONCLUSION

According to Richards & Schmidt, 2013, Language production may be described because
the method of making and expressing meaning through language, both written or spoken, it's far
summary and physical. Language production is the production spoken or written language. It
describes all of the stages between having s concept and translating that concept into linguistics
form. There four stage of language production, namely: conceptualization, Formulation,
Articulation and Self Monitoring.

According to David McNeil, conceptualization is the very beginning of spoken utterance.

And there are 2 concurrent and parallel modes of though, namely Syntactic thinking and Imagistic
thinking. Articulation is a way of saying words while speaking. Improving clear articulation
means improving the pronunciation of words to make them easier to understand. A similar
understanding is also explained by Simanungkalit (in Suharto 2009: 2) who states that articulation
is a sound that occurs due to the movement of the speech apparatus. Self-monitoring is the nature
of someone who is able to monitor and control how to carry oneself, emotions, as well as behavior
when in certain situations and environments. That is, a person knows very well how his behavior
impacts his environment.

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