Science

Nervous System rest of the body (impulses may travel

as fast as 268 miles/hr)
 regulates and coordinates all body activities
 31 pairs of spinal nerves
 center of all mental activity (thought,
 affects limbs and lower part of
learning and memory
body
 brain, spinal cord, nerves
Anatomy of the Brain
Major Divisions of the Nervous System
 Cerebrum  largest part and uppermost
Central Nervous System (CNS) portion of the brain
 main processing center  responsible for thought,
language, senses, memory, voluntary
 processes and stores sensory and motor
movement, consciousness, sensations,
information
emotions
 controls consciousness
 cortex  outer surface
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
longitudinal fissure divides
 connects the CNS to the organs and limbs cerebrum into 2 hemispheres
relaying information through the nerves
 Cerebellum  at base of brain
 12 pairs of cranial nerves
 responsible for muscle
 31 pairs of spinal nerves coordination, balance, posture
- transmits sensory and motor impulses  Brain Stem  connects brain to spinal cord
back and forth between CNS and rest of
 responsible for breathing,
the body
swallowing, heartbeat, blood pressure,
Central Nervous System respiration

 region between diencephalon

 Brain  surrounded by bone for protection
and spinal cord
and enclosed in cranium
 consists of midbrain, pons
 mass of 100 billion neurons located
and medulla oblongata
inside the skull

 Spinal cord  surrounded by vertebrae for Peripheral Nervous System

protection and surrounded by meninges and
 Somatic Nervous System (SNS)  voluntary
cerebrospinal fluid
control over skeletal muscle contractions
 column of nerves from brain
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 
to tailbone
involuntary control over smooth muscle,
 responsible for conducting cardiac muscle and glandular activity and
impulses between the brain and the

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secretions in response to the commands of
the CNS
 Sympathetic nerves
 increase heart rate
 constrict blood vessels
 raise blood pressure
 fight-or-flight response
 Parasympathetic nerves
 slow heart rate
 increase peristalsis of intestines
 increase glandular secretions
 relax sphincters
 Nerves  visible bundles of axons and
dendrites that extend from the brain and
spinal cord to all other parts of the body
 sensory nerves  carry messages
from body to brain (pain pressure,
temperature)
 motor nerves  carry messages
from brain to body to respond
Cells of the Nervous System
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 neurons  microscopic nerve cells that
make up the brain, spinal cord and nerves
- cell body  contains the nucleus and
cytoplasm
- axon  conducts impulses away from
the cell body
 some are covered with a myelin
sheath
- dendrite  conducts impulses toward
the cell body
- synapse  space between 2 nerves
which the impulse must cross
 neurotransmitters  messages are sent
across the synapses by special chemicals
Problems of the Nervous System
 Concussion  temporary disturbance of the
brain’s ability to function due to a hard blow
to the head
 Paralysis  loss of sensation and movement
of part of the body due to an injury of the
spinal cord or brain
 Parkinson’s Disease  the brain does not
produce enough of the neurotransmitter
that transmits messages from the brain to
the muscles
 symptoms: tremors,
rigid muscles, shuffling
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walk and loss of facial  anterior lobe  adrenocorticotropin, growth

expression hormone, thyropin, follicle-stimulating
hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin
 Alzheimer’s Disease  gradual shrinking of
the neurons in the cerebrum
Thyroid Gland
 symptoms: memory
 located along the midline of the neck
loss, emotional
disturbances, inability to  two nonsteroid hormones
function on own, death
- triiodothyronine (T3)
 Epilepsy  abnormal transmission of
- thyroxine (T4)
messages between the neurons in the brain
 regulates metabolism
 symptoms: seizures
- increases protein synthesis

- promotes glycolysis, gluconeogenesis,

Endocrine System glucose uptake

- calcitonin: calcium metabolism

 controls the processes involved in
movement and physiological equilibrium
Parathyroid Gland
 tissues and glands that secrete hormones
 parathyroid hormone (Parathyromone)
into the blood
- regulates plasma calcium (osteoclast
 secretion of most hormones is regulated by
activity)
a negative feedback system
- regulates phosphate levels
 the number of receptors for a specific
hormone can be altered to meet the body’s
demand
Adrenal Medulla
 situated directly atop each kidney
Pituitary Gland  stimulated by the sympathetic NS
 marble-sized gland at the base of the brain
 secretes the catecholamines
 controlled by the hypothalamus or other
- epinephrine  fight or flight response
neural mechanisms and therefore the middle
man  increase H.R. and B.P.
 posterior lobe  antidiuretic hormone:  increase respiration
responsible for fluid retention
 increase metabolic rates
 oxytocin: contraction of
 increase glycogenolysis
the uterus
 vasodilation
 exercise  strong stimulant

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- norepinephrine  erythropoietin  regulates red blood cell

production
 house keeping system

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

 chemical messengers
 secretes over 30 different steroid hormones
(corticosteroids)  travel through the bloodstream to tissues or
organs
- mineralocorticoids
 work slowly and affect body processes from
 aldosterone: electrolyte balance
head to toe
- glucocorticoids
 growth and development
 cortisol: gluconeogenesis
 metabolism (digestion,
: mobilization of free fatty elimination, breathing, blood
acids circulation, maintaining body
temperature)
: glucose sparing
 sexual function
: anti-inflammatory agent
 reproduction
- gonadocorticoids: testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone  mood

Pancreas Chemical Classification of Hormones

 located slightly behind the stomach  Steroid Hormones  lipid soluble

 Insulin: reduces blood glucose  diffuse through cell

membranes
- facilitates glucose transport into the cells
 endocrine organs: adrenal
- promotes glycogenesis
cortex, ovaries, testes, placenta
- inhibits gluconeogenesis
 Nonsteroid Hormones  not lipid soluble
 glucagon: increases blood glucose
 received by
Gonads receptors external to the
cell membrane
 testes (testosterone)  muscle development
 endocrine organs:
and maturity
thyroid gland,
 ovaries (estrogen)  maturity and parathyroid gland,
coordination adrenal medulla,
pituitary gland,
Kidneys pancreas

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Hormone Actions
 “Lock and Key” approach  interaction
between the hormone and its specific
receptor
- receptors for nonsteroid hormones 
located on the cell membrane
- receptors for steroid hormones  found
in the cell’s cytoplasm or in its nucleus
Steroid Hormones
 pass through the cell membrane
 binds to specific receptors
 enters the nucleus to bind with the cell’s
DNA which then activates certain genes
(direct gene activation)
 mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and
enters the cytoplasm and promotes protein
synthesis for:
- enzymes as catalysts
- tissue growth and repair
- regulate enzyme function
Nonsteroid Hormones
 react with specific receptors outside the cell
 this triggers an enzyme reaction with lead to
the formation of a second messenger
(cAMP)
 cAMP  intracellular functions
 activates cell enzymes
 change in membrane permeability
 promote protein synthesis
 change in cell metabolism
 stimulation of cell secretions
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Negative Feedback
 primary mechanism through which your
endocrine system maintains homeostasis
 secretion of a specific hormone is turned
on/off by specific physiological changes
 plasma glucose levels and insulin response
Number of Receptors
 down-regulation  decrease of hormone
receptors which decreases the sensitivity to
that hormone
 up-regulation  increase in the number of
receptors which causes the cell to be more
sensitive to a particular hormone
Effects of Hormones in the Body
 hormone levels are too high or too low 
hormone disorder
 stress, infection and changes in your body’s
fluid and electrolyte balance can also
influence hormone levels
 diabetes  most common endocrine
disease in the United States
Disorders due to hormone deficiency
(Hyposecretion)
 Acromicria (adults)  Somatotrophin
 bones of the face and
extremities are small and
delicate
 Addison’s disease  Aldosterone
 hypertension, dizziness,
vomiting, diarrhea, low blood
sugar, low plasma Na+, high
plasma K+, increased urinary
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Na+ and bronze like

pigmentation of skin
Disorders due to excess hormone (Hypersecretion)
 Acromegaly (adults)  somatotrophin
 Cretinism (children)  Thyroxin
 abnormal growth of
 retarded growth, low
bones of face, lower jaw,
intelligence, delayed
hands and feet;
sexual maturity
enlargement of internal
 Diabetes insipidus  Vasopressin (ADH) organs such as lungs,
spleen
 enormous secretion of
urine (polyuria), excess thirst  Adrenal virilism (female)  sex corticoid
(polydipsia)
 masculinization
 Diabetes mellitus  Insulin of females (growth of
beards and moustaches
 hyperglycemia (high
and male voice)
sugar level), glycosuria (sugar
in urine), polyphagia  Conn’s syndrome  Aldosterone
(overheating), polydipsia
 headache, excessive
(excess thirst) and polyuria
urination at night, excessive
(frequent urination)
thirst, excessive urination,
 Dwarfism  Somatotrophin increased volume of blood,
increased blood sodium level,
 short in stature
high alkalinity of blood and
 Myxoedema (adults)  Thyroxin body fluids
 physical  Cushing’s syndrome  Cortisol
sluggishness, mental
 high blood sugar,
dullness, low metabolic
obesity, deposition of
rate, dry and coarse skin
fat in the face, neck, etc.,
and puffy face
rise in plasma Na+ and
 Tetany  Parathormone (PTH) high BP (acute
condition=mental
 steep drop in blood calcium level,
depression and
abnormal rise in excitability of nerves
impotency)
and muscles, sustained and violent
contraction of muscles of face, larynx,  Exophthalmic goiter (Grave’s disease)
hands, feet
 Thyroxin
 Eunuchoidism  Testosterone
 hypertrophy of thyroid gland,
 lack male secondary sexual increased metabolism, high rate of
characters, sterility heartbeat, bulging eyeballs,

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restlessness, nervousness, loss of an endocrine hormone (hormone

weight imbalance)

 Gigantism (children)  Somatotrophin - endocrine disease due to the

development of lesions (nodules or
 excessive height,
tumors)
extreme bone, muscle
and organ growth ~refer to pg 241 for the table :>
 Hyperglycemia  Glucagon

 polyphagia, polydipsia,
polyuria, blurred vision,
The Reproductive System
fatigue, weight loss, poor  system involved in sexual reproduction
wound healing, dry mouth, dry
or itchy skin, tinging in feet or The Male Reproduction System
heels, erectile dysfunction,
 Testis  produces sperm cells
recurrent infections, external
ear infections (swimmer’s ear),  Scrotum  sac of skin that holds the testis
cardiac arrhythmia, stupor,
 Penis  deposits sperms into the vagina
coma, seizures
during mating
 Insulin shock  Insulin
 Vas deferens (tube)  carries sperm from
 abnormal lowering of blood testes to urethra
glucose (hypoglycemia),
 Urethra  carries sperm and urine out of the
sudden fall of body
body
temperature, fatigue, tremors
and unconsciousness  Glands  provide liquid in which sperm can
swim
 Kidney stone  Parathormone
1. seminal vesicle  secretes a fluid that
 accumulation of calcium in
makes up most of the components of
blood and it precipitate with
the semen
phosphates
2. prostate gland  secretes a slightly
 Osteitis fibrosa cystica  Parathormone
alkaline milky fluid that is discharged
 calcification of soft as part of the semen
tissues (blood vessels)
3. bulbourethral gland  secretes a
Causes of Endocrine Disorders thick and clear mucus that lubricates
and neutralizes any trace of acidic
 two categories urine in the urethra

- endocrine disease that results when a

gland produces too much or too little of
The Female Reproductive System
 produces female sex cells

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 receives sperm cells from the male

 nurtures the development of and provides

nourishment for the new individual

 the internal reproductive organs are located

within the pelvis, between the urinary
bladder and rectum
1. Ovary  produces egg cells

2. Oviduct  passageway of eggs from the

ovary to the uterus

 site of egg fertilization

3. Uterus  site of egg implantation

 the fertilized egg develops

4. Vagina  receives the penis of male

during mating

 puberty  onset of sexual maturity and the

ability to reproduce