Lesson 1.

3: Location and Measurement of Earthquakes

Location and Measurement of Earthquakes

Seismic Instruments
The invention of instruments that could accurately record seismic waves was an important
scientific advancement. These instruments can be used to measure ground motion, as well as to
find the location of an earthquake.

Seismic Instruments

1. Seismometer is the instrument used to measure seismic waves. Seismometers are usually
placed in clusters of three in order to record motion in three dimensional space along x, y, and
z- axes.
2. Seismograph is a device which records the Earth motion detected by the seismometer.
 3. Seismogram is the actual paper record of earth vibration from the seismograph. It can be used
to measure the strength of an earthquake.

Locating Earthquakes
1. First, distance of a seismograph station to an earthquake is determined

Let the seismograph record seismic waves.

From the seismograph record (seismogram), measure time delay or time lag between the
first arrivals of P-wave and S-wave.
Use time travel curve to determine the distance to earthquake as a function of the time delay
or time lag between the first arrivals of P-wave and S-wave.

2. Repeat the activity for at least three (3) stations to triangulate a point (epicenter of earthquake).

Plot a circle around the given seismograph station with its radius equal to the distance of the
station to the earthquake.
Repeat the process for at least two (2) other stations. The point of intersection of the three circles
is taken as the epicenter.
Trivia: The time travel between the first arrivals of P-wave and S-wave becomes larger as the
distance of a seismograph station from the source of an earthquake increases. This said increase in
P-S wave interval is considered regular with increasing distance for several thousand kilometers.
Do note, however, that a single station can determine only the distance to a quake but not the
direction.

Measurement of Earthquakes
Measuring an Earthquake (in terms of Depth)

Analysis of seismograms also indicate at what depth beneath the Earth's surface the earthquake
has occurred. These are classified as follows:

1. Shallow focus earthquakes refer to earthquakes whose focus is at a depth of 0 to

70 kilometers.
2. Intermediate focus earthquakes refer to earthquakes with focal depths of 70 to 350 kilometers.
3. Deep focus earthquakes refer to earthquakes having 350 to 670 kilometers for focal depth.

Measuring an Earthquake (in terms of Size)

In determining the size of an earthquake, two common terms usually come into play - magnitude
and intensity. In simpler terms, magnitude is the measure of the total amount of energy released by
an earthquake whereas intensity is the measure of an earthquake's effect as perceived by people or
manifested through building damage. Different scales are used to gauge these parameters as
enumerated below:

Magnitude Scales

1. Richter Scale was invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934 to characterize Southern California
earthquakes. It also known as local magnitude scale (M L), since it was originally developed for a
specific area only. Richter scale is logarithmic, with the difference between the two consecutive
whole numbers on this scale meaning an increase equal to ten times in terms of the amplitude of
Earth's vibration.

ML = log ( A
Ao

A = maximum trace amplitude of a standard Wood-Anderson seismometer located 100km from

the epicenter (in micrometers)
Ao = maximum trace amplitude of a zero-magnitude earthquake (in micrometers)

This scale does not scale well when measuring very strong earthquakes. Beyond a certain point,
the scale with measure a constant magnitude. This is known as magnitude saturation. For local
magnitude, the scale begins to saturate at ML 6.5.

2. Moment Magnitude (Mw) was developed by Hanks and Kanamori in 1979. This gives a reliable
estimate even for larger earthquakes; thus, now recognized as the standard measure of
magnitude for earthquakes. The subscript w stands for mechanical work done.

MW = 32 log10 (M ) − 10.7
0
M0 is the seismic moment which can be determined by:

M0 = GAf Ds
G = shear modulus of the rock (dyne/cm2)

Af = area of fault rupture in cm2

Ds = average fault slip or displacement in cm

This magnitude scale shows that a increase of 1.0 in magnitude is a 32-fold increase in the
energy released by the earthquake.

Earthquake effects at different magnitudes are shown below.

Intensity Scales

The Modified Mercalli Scale was invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902 and modified by Harry
Wood and Frank Neumann in 1931. This scale is used to calibrate the observations of people
who experienced the earthquake. In the local scene, an alternate system is also used known
as PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale or PEIS. The local intensity scale was introduced
in response to the 1990 Luzon Earthquake. These systems are tabulated below:
MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY (I) SCALE

Not felt. Marginal and long period effects of large earthquakes.

II Felt by persons at rest, on upper floors, or favorably placed.
Felt indoors. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of light trucks. Duration estimated. May not be recognized as an
earthquake.
Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing heavy trucks; or sensation of a jolt like a heavy ball striking the walls.
IV
Standing cars
rock. Window, dishes, doors rattle. Glasses clink. Crockery clashes. In the upper range of IV, wooden walls and frames
creak.
Felt outdoors; direction estimated. Sleepers awakened. Liquids disturbed, some spilled. Small unstable objects displaced or
V
upset. Doors swing, close, open. Shutters, pictures move. Pendulum clocks stop, start, change rate.
Felt by all. Many frightened and run outdoors. Persons walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken. Knick-knacks,
VI books,
etc. fall off shelves. Pictures fall off walls. Furniture moved or overturned. Weak plaster and masonry D cracked. Small
bells ring (church and school). Trees, bushes shaken visibly, or heard to rustle.
Difficult to stand. Noticed by drivers. Hanging object quiver. Furniture broken. Damage to masonry D, including cracks.
Weak chimneys broken at roof line. Fall of plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles, cornices, also unbraced parapets and
VII
architectural ornaments. Same cracks in masonry C. waves on ponds, water turbid with mud. Small slides and caving-in along
sand or gravel
banks. Large bell ring. Concrete irrigation ditches damaged.
Steering of cars affected. Damage to masonry C; partial collapse. Some damage to masonry B.; none to masonry A. Fall of
stucco and some masonry walls. Twisting, fall of chimneys, factory stacks, monuments, towers, elevated tanks. Frame houses
VIII
moved on foundations if not bolted down; loose panel walls thrown out. Decayed piling broken off. Branches broken off
trees. Changes inflo
or temperature of springs and wells. Cracks in wet ground and on steep slopes.
General panic. Mason ry D destroyed; masonry C heavily damaged, sometimes with complete collapse; masonry B
lX seriously
damaged. General damage to foundations. Frame structures, if not bolted, shifted off foundations. Frames racked. Conspicuous
cracks in ground. In alluvial areas, sand and mud ejected, earthquake fountains, sand craters.
Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations. Some well-built wooden structures and bridges
X destroyed.
Serious damage to dams, dikes, embankments. Large landslides. Water thrown on banks of canals, rivers, lakes, etc. Sand and
muc shifted horizontally on beaches and flat land. Ra ils bent slightly
XI Rails bent greatly. Underground pipelines completely out of service.
XII Damage nearly total. Large masses displaced. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
PHIVOLCS EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY SCALE (PEIS)
I.scAn‹:ni.v rxncs:reInss vi.‘vi:nv s›noxs