What is Science?

You have taken up science subjects since primary school years, and the definition
of science has been repeatedly discussed since then. To give you a recall, Science
comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning ‘knowledge’. It refers to a
systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about
how the universe behaves through observation, experimentation or both.

The Nature of Science

It is important to understand the nature of science because it is a critical
component of scientific literacy. It enhances your understanding of science
concepts and enables you to make informed decisions about scientifically-based
personal and societal issues.
The World is Understandable
Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent
patterns that are comprehensible through careful, systematic study. Scientists
believe that through the use of the intellect, and with the aid of instruments that
extend the senses, people can discover patterns in all of nature.
Science Explains and Predicts

The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of

phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data. Such
evidence is obtained by observations and measurements taken in situations that
range from natural settings (such as a forest) to completely contrived ones (such
as the laboratory). To make their observations, scientists use their own senses,
instruments (such as microscopes) that enhance those senses, and instruments
that tap characteristics quite different from what humans can sense (such as
magnetic fields). Scientists observe passively (earthquakes, bird migrations), make
collections (rocks, shells), and actively probe the world (as by boring into the
earth's crust or administering experimental medicines).

Scientific Ideas are Open to Change

Science is more of a process than a set body of knowledge. Scientists are always
testing and revising their ideas, and as new observations are made, existing ideas
may be challenged. Ideas may be replaced with new ideas that better fit the facts,
but more often existing ideas are simply revised. For example, when scientists
discovered how genes control genetic traits, they didn't throw out Mendel's laws
of inheritance. The new discoveries helped to explain why Mendel's laws apply to
certain traits but not others. They showed that Mendel's laws are part of a bigger
picture. Through many new discoveries over time, scientists gradually build an
increasingly accurate and detailed understanding of the natural world.

Science is a Complex Social Activity

Scientific work involves many individuals doing many different kinds of work and
goes on to some degree in all nations of the world. Men and women of all ethnic
and national backgrounds participate in science and its applications. These people
--- scientists and engineers, mathematicians, physicians, technicians, computer
programmers, librarians, and others --- may focus on scientific knowledge either
for its own sake or for a particular practical purpose, and they may be concerned
with data gathering, theory building, instrument building, or communicating.

Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions

There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way.
There are, for instance, beliefs that --- by their very nature --- cannot be proved or
disproved (such as the existence of supernatural powers and beings, or the true
purposes of life). In other cases, a scientific approach that may be valid is likely to
be rejected as irrelevant by people who hold to certain beliefs (such as in
miracles, fortune-telling, astrology, and superstition). Nor do scientists have the
means to settle issues concerning good and evil, although they can sometimes
contribute to the discussion of such issues by identifying the likely consequences
of particular actions, which may be helpful in weighing alternatives.

What is Technology?

Technology, the word often attached side by side with science comes from the
Greek word techne, meaning ‘art, skill or cunning of hand’. Technology involves
the development and use of materials, tools, and approaches for solving human
problems and helping to fulfill human needs and desires.
Relationship between Science, Technology, and Society

Science, technology and society are closely linked, especially through scientific
inquiry, technological problem solving, and communication. Science frequently
utilizes and requires tools and processes developed by technology, and
conversely, technology often employs principles, laws, theories, and processes
developed by means of science. The society as we know it today has been
affected in many ways by science and technology.

Quinto (2019), lists some of our many Filipino scientists, inventors, and
innovators, along with their contributions to society. These include:

Some of our Filipino scientists and inventors are the following:

1. Manuel Guerrero. Studied beriberi in infants in the Philippines during Spanish

era.

2. Leon Ma Guerrero. First licensed pharmacist in the Philippines, and one of the
most eminent botanists in the country in his time.

3. Anaclento del Rosario. Leading chemist in the Philippines during the Spanish
era, regarded as the "Father of Philippine Science and Laboratory", and invented
the formula for producing a pure kind of alcohol from tuba in a nipa palm.

4. Abelardo Aguilar. Invented Erythromycin, an antibiotic from Streptomyces

erythreus.

5. Aisa Mijeno. Invention of Sustainable Alternative Lighting Lamp (SALT lamp),

an environment friendly light source that runs on saltwater. It is safer as it poses
no risk of fire and emit no toxic gases and it benefits those from far-flung barrios.

6. Rolando dela Cruz. Invented a local mole remover from extracts of cashew
nuts.

7. Maria Orosa. Invented the banana ketchup.

8. Fe del Mundo. Invention of medical incubator from indigenous and cheap

materials which did not run-on electricity by placing a native laundry basket inside
a bigger one abd inserting hot water bottles between the baskets to provide
warmth and makeshift hood to allow oxygen circulation. She was the first Asian
woman who admitted into Harvard Medical School. Other breakthroughs in
Philippine medicine attributed to Del Mundo include her works on the
immunization and treatment of jaundice and the BRAT diet (includes banana and
rice) for curing diarrhea.

9. Dominic Chung, Lamberto Andrada, and Antonio Llave. Invention of the

Salamander, an amphibious tricycle that can cross not only flooded streets but
also rivers and lakes.

10. Enrique Ostrea, Jr. Invention of the meconium drug testing

11. Angel Alcala. Outstanding contributions to marine science

12. Caesar Saloma. Outstanding contributions to physics

13. Edgardo Gomez. Outstanding contributions to marine science

14. Fabian Dayrit. Outstanding contributions to herbal medicine

15. Gregory Tangonan. Outstanding contributions to communications

technology

16. Jose Cruz, Jr. Outstanding contributions to electrical engineering

17. Josefino Comiso. Outstanding contributions to Antarctica satellite imaging

18. Lilian Patena. Outstanding contributions to plant biotechnology

19. Lourdes Cruz. Outstanding contributions to sea snail venom

20. Mari-Jo Ruiz. Outstanding contributions to education and graph theory in

mathematics

21. Rafael Guerrero III. Outstanding contributions to tilapia culture

22. Ramon Barba. Outstanding contributions to tissue culture in Philippine

mangoes
23. William Padolina. Outstanding contributions to chemistry

Claudius Ptolemy introduced the geocentric model which described the absolute
perception of the universe with the Earth as its center which was thought to be
true by most of the people and was widely accepted at that time.

Copernican Revolution marks the shift from the belief that the Earth was the
center of the universe to the heliocentric model of the universe where the sun is
the center of the solar system, as articulated by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus in the 16th century. In his heliocentric model, Copernicus
repositioned the Earth from the center of the Solar System and introduced the
idea that the Earth rotates on its own axis causing day and night. The Earth along
with other heavenly bodies rotates around the sun.

The heliocentric model was hardly accepted by the people, primarily by the
church accusing Copernicus of heresy. He even faced persecution because of this.
They held their stance on their beliefs and refused to accept the heliocentric
model of the universe as the truth.

 Tycho Brahe’s careful observation of the star, Cassiopeia. He developed a

compromise between the heliocentric and geocentric models of the
universe.

 Johannes Kepler’s said that all planets move in elliptical orbits and the sun
at the center

 Galileo Galilie’s developed his own telescope and observed Venus

 Sir Isaac Newton’s law of gravitation

Heliocentrism was eventually accepted by people and marks the birth of modern
astronomy which resulted in the transformation of society’s thoughts and beliefs.
The Copernican Revolution marked a turning point in the study of cosmology and
astronomy making it a truly significant intellectual revolution.
This Darwinian Revolution started when Charles Darwin Darwin (1809-1882)
(Figure 3.3) published his book “On the Origin of Species” which emphasizes that
organisms are the result of an evolution, a change in the heritable characteristics
of biological population over successive generations. He theorized that species of
organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small inherited
variations that increase individual’s ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
Natural selection is often described as survival of the fittest, where fitness refers
to the ability to survive and reproduce. This theory of evolution has two main
points: (1) all life on Earth is connected and related to each other and (2) this
diversity of life came about because of the modifications in populations that were
driven by natural selection. Commonly cited example of the evolutionary process
can be seen in the beaks of Galapagos finches.

According to MacNamara, et al. (2018), the field of psychology was considered

more of an art rather than science and was classified under the area of
philosophy. However, because of Sigmund Freud (Figure 3.5), the perception of
society to psychology changed. In the 19th century, Freud developed his theory of
psychoanalysis. According to Quinto, et al. (2019), psychoanalysis is “a scientific
method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within one’s
personality, springing from free associations, dreams and fantasies of the
individual.” Among his ideas include the importance of the unconscious (Figure
3.6.), and the concept of id, ego, and superego (Figure 3.7). Freud emphasized the
understanding of unconscious because of its importance in human behavior

The Banaue Rice Terraces are among the sophisticated products of engineering
by pre-Spanish era Filipinos.

Pre-colonial Filipino science and technology is basically folk science and

indigenous knowledge. There was also no pressure for a large science and
technology development because of the relatively small population, simple needs,
and abundant natural resources

Indigenous Science

According to Pawilen (2005) and Sibisi (2004), indigenous science includes

complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, and representations derived
from traditional knowledge and practices that guide human societies in their
numerable interactions with the natural milieu, such as astronomy, metallurgy,
agriculture, medicine, food technology, naming and explaining natural
phenomena, and strategies for coping with changing environments. It has
developed diverse structures and contents through the interplay between the
society and the environment. Pawilen (2005) also developed a simple framework
for understanding indigenous science.

 The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.

 The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as

people.

 All living and non-living things are interconnected and interdependent

with each other.

 Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural
resources.

 Nature is a friend to human beings – it needs respect and proper care.

An indigenous knowledge system is embedded in the daily life experiences of

young children as they grow up.

Spanish Colonial Period

The Spanish colonial period is regarded as the time when modern science and
technology in the Philippines began. During this era, the Spanish colonizers
changed the way that the Filipino society works. They used of reductions in
consolidating scattered communities into larger and fewer communities within
hearing distance of church bells and adopted how Filipino’s rule. They created
towns, which made tax collection, forced labor, and economic activities much
easier to implement.

Science Education

Schools were established which were primarily managed by priests and

missionaries. Thus, religious education was given focus. The establishment of
schools introduced concepts in science and technology, which began formal
science and technology education.
Higher education was centered in cities such as Manila. However, only a select
few have access to these institutions, such as Spaniards, mestizos, and a few
select Filipinos. Medicine and advanced sciences were introduced in formal
colleges and universities established by Catholic orders, though training were
generally poor. Biology, medicine, and pharmacy were given focus. For Bachiller
en Artes’s degrees, science subjects include physics, chemistry, natural history,
and mathematics.

Vocational education was introduced by the latter part of 19th century. However,
there is a lack of engineering schools and nautical schools and agricultural schools
were few.

Agriculture, Trade, and Industry

The opening of the Suez Canal allowed the penetration of liberal ideas to the
Philippines from Europe and eased communication and transportation. This also
allowed select Filipinos were able to go to Europe and study science and
technology. Prominent ones include Jose Rizal and Antonio Luna.

Galleon trade allowed both goods and ideas from the West to reach the country,
though this benefited the colonizers and the Chinese merchants more than the
Filipinos. Trade was given more focus by the Spaniard colonial authorities due to
the prospect of big profits.

However, the founding of the Real Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Paris
de Filipinas encouraged its eventual development. Many crops were cultivated
and some industries were developed.

Other Aspects

Colonization by the Spaniards provided the Philippines with modern means of

construction. In terms of engineering, Spaniards introduced town planning and
building with materials such as bricks and tiles. Because of this, churches,
hospitals, and other public buildings were built.

Herbal medicines were researched and catalogued. Sanitation was also given
importance for public health purposes. Laboratorio Municipal Ciudad de Manila
was created in 1887 for public health concerns and medical analysis.
Meteorological studies were promoted by the Jesuits, who founded the Manila
Observatory. These studies became important and frequent that public typhoon
warnings were able to be issued. The Observatory also led to seismological and
astronomical studies. Research on Philippine flora, agronomy, geology, and
chemistry was also done during the Spanish era though very little of the results
and activities of these are known.

Some contributors in science and technology during this period are Fr. Ignacio
Mercado., Dr. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Dr. Leon Ma Guerrero, chemist
Anaclento del Rosario, and medicine scholars Dr. Manuel Guerrero, Dr, Jose
Montes and Dr. Elrodario Mercado.

Though the Spaniards colonized the Philippines for more than 300 years, science
and technology did not fully grow and reached its full potential. This is due to
superstitions and Catholic doctrines and poor administration of the Spanish
government, among others.

American Colonial Period and the Commonwealth Period

The American colonial period saw a rapid growth in science and technology in the
Philippines. These are due to progress in public education and research and
science public services.

The Americans established the public education system and created a

Department of Public Instruction in 1901. The public educational system is free,
with English as a medium of instruction. They reorganized school science. Basic
education focused on nature studies and science and sanitation. Normal schools
were also established to train teachers, as well as other professional and technical
schools. Industrial and vocational courses were offered but were not preferred by
Filipinos at the time, and choosing career paths that led to what they perceive as
more prestigious jobs was preferred.

By 1957, the state of science and technology in the Philippines was still declining.
Due to this, the Science Act of 1958 was enacted. This established the National
Science Development Board, the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission, and the
National Institute of Science and Technology. By 1960s, the Philippine Inventor’s
Commission and Philippine Coconut Research Institute were also established.
Also, by 1964, the Philippine Science High School started its operation through
Republic Act 3661 signed by President Diosdado Macapagal.

One of the presidents who ushered in advancements in science and technology

was former president and dictator Ferdinand Marcos. During his term, many
agencies were established such as the Philippine Textile Research Institute,
National Grains Authority (now the National Food Authority), Plant Breeding
Institute, International Rice Research Institute, Philippine Council for
Agricultural Research (now the Philippine Council

for Agriculture, Aquatic, and Natural Resources Research and Development),

Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration,
National Committee on Geological Sciences, Philippine National Oil Company,
National Academy of Science and Technology. The current site of the
Department of Science and Technology in Taguig was then proclaimed as the
Philippine Science Community. It was during Marcos’s term that the National
Science Development Board and its agencies were reorganized into a National
Science and Technology Authority to provide central direction and coordination of
scientific and technological research and development.

· SECOND SONA (January 23, 1967): He declared that science was necessary for
the development programs, and thus, directed the Department of Education to
revitalize the science courses in public high schools.

· THIRD SONA (January 22, 1968): He recognized that technology was the leading
factor in economic development, and channeled additional funds to support
projects in applied sciences and science education

· FOURTH SONA (January 27, 1969): He gave a big part of the war damage fund to
private universities to encourage them to create courses in science and
technology and to research. The government also conducted seminars for public
and private high school and college science teachers, training programs and
scholarships for graduate and undergraduate science scholars, and workshops on
fisheries and oceanography.

· FIFTH SONA (January 26, 1970): He emphasized that the upgrading of science
curricula and teaching equipment is crucial to the science development program.
He also assisted 107 institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by sending
scientists to study nuclear science and technology abroad, and providing basic
training to 482 scientists, doctors, engineers, and technicians.

· SEVENTH SONA (January 24, 1972): He spoke about his major development
projects in reforming sectors of education. Such projects included research and
development schools, technical institutes, science education centers, and
agricultural colleges and vocational high schools.

The presidency of Corazon Aquino saw the replacement of NSTA to DOST. She
also created the Presidential Task Force for Science and Technology which came
up with the first Science and Technology Master Plan or STMP. The goal of STMP
was for the Philippines to achieve newly industrialized country status by the year
2000. It was during her term that Executive Order No.128 was signed, which
reorganized the National Science and Technology Authority.

During Fidel Ramos’ presidency, the number of science and technology personnel
increased, more Philippine High Schools were established (in Visayas and
Mindanao), and health care services were given importance through programs
such as "Doctors to the Barrio Program." His administration also saw the
establishment of the Magna Carta for Science and Technology Personnel
(Republic Act No. 8439), Science and Technology Scholarship Law of 1994
(Republic Act No. 7687), Inventors and Inventions Incentives Act (Republic Act No.
7459), and The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No.
8293), and the Science and Technology Agenda for National Development
(STAND) was established.

The presidency of Joseph Estrada saw the legislation of Philippine Clean Air Act of
1999 (Republic Act No. 8749) and Electronic Commerce Act of 2000 (Republic Act
No. 8792). He also has a full-scale program for cost-effective irrigation
technologies and programs for social and social services for those in need.

During Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo’s term, projects for the environment and

science and technology (like the “Biofuels” act) was given focus to increase
economic level. "Filipinnovation" was also coined to help the Philippines to be an
innovation hub in Asia. The STI was developed further by strengthening the
schools and education system such as the Philippine Science High School (PSHS).
During Benigno Aquino III’s term, he conferred four new National Scientist for
The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs,
projects and policies to boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to
prepare the whole country and its people to meet the demands of a
technologically driven world and capacitate the people to live in a world driven by
science.

Department of Science and Technology

The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the key government

institution for science and technology. DOST has sought the expertise of the
National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) to consult various sectors in
the society to study how the country can prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN
2015 Goals. As a result of the consultation, NCRP is expected to recommend
policies and programs that will improve the competitiveness of the Philippines in
the ASEAN Region. The following were the policies that were the results of the
consultation.

Philippine Development Plan

The Philippine Development Plan 2017-2022 (PDP) is a massive undertaking in

improving the country’s infrastructure, increasing energy access, lowering costs
for citizens, keeping up with economic growth, and staying within the bounds of
global agreements for climate change and sustainable growth. It was approved by
the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) Board and President
Rodrigo Duterte on February 20th, 2017.

· The Philippines will be an upper middle-income country by 2022.

· Growth will be more inclusive as manifested by a lower poverty incidence in

rural areas – from 30 percent in 2015 to 20 percent in 2022.

· The Philippines will have a high level of human development by 2022.

· The unemployment rate will decline from 5.5 percent to 3-5 percent in 2022.

· There will be greater trust in government and in society.

· Individuals and communities will be more resilient.

· Filipinos will have greater drive for innovation.

1. Malasakit: refers to the goal to regain people’s trust in public institutions and
each other. These strategies aim to promote awareness of anti-corruption
measures, invigorate the public sector, increased access to legal aid, and
promoting culture sensitive governance.

2. Pagbabago: aimed at reducing inequality by increasing opportunities for

growth and transformation. The popularized term has been ‘inclusive growth’.
Universal social protection, basic education, and other social services will be
improved upon while also raising the country’s status in the global market for
more opportunities.

3. Patuloy na Pag-unlad: focuses on economic growth. The Philippines have seen

massive growth in the past decade or so through their change from an agricultural
economy to industry and manufacturing focused powerhouse. The Philippines
plan to focus on continued growth of their technology, R&D, and innovation
sectors.

Martin Heidegger, in his work The Question of Technology, aimed to characterize

technology and how humans relate to it. He argued the importance of
understanding the essence of technology because no matter what we do, we will
always be intertwined with technology.

He began his work by discussing how we usually understand technology.

According to Heidegger, technology is commonly understood as both a means to
an end (an instrumental characterization of technology) and a human activity (an
anthropological characterization of technology). For Heidegger, these two notions
of technology are intertwined.

He said that this characterization of technology is correct, even for both

traditional and modern technology, but may not the whole truth. However, it is
important to note that knowing what is “correct” may lead to the “truth”.

To have a better understanding of what technology is when it is seen as a means

to an end, he delved in the question of causality. He used the ancient Greek’s
way of looking at causality to initially determine the essence of technology.
In his work, he discussed what we mean of cause by using the concept of the four
causes: (1) causa materialis, the material by which something is made up of; (2)
causa formalis, the form of the material that makes it what it is; (3) causa finalis,
the purpose of the thing; and (4) causa efficiens, the one which caused for the
thing to be formed. These four causes are deemed to be responsible of bringing
forth something. This bringing forth is termed poiesis.

Poeisis has two forms: bringing-forth through an external influence or poeisis and
bringing-forth that occurs naturally. Heidegger characterized poiesis as a kind of
unveiling, or a way of revealing. In Greek, revealing is aletheia, which can be
translated as “truth”.

Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 BC, is probably the most important ancient
Greek philosopher and scientist. He was a student of Plato, who was then a
student of Socrates. Together, they were considered the 'Big Three of Greek
Philosophy.' Aristotle was the teacher of Alexander the Great.

Aristotle’s background in biological subjects made him more of an empiricist

(truth discovered primarily by the senses) as compared to the mathematician
Plato’s rationalism (truth discovered primarily by reason.) Aristotle attended
Plato’s academy but founded his own school, the Lyceum, later in his life.

Aristotle wrote on an amazing range of topics including logic, metaphysics,

physics, epistemology, astronomy, meteorology, biology, psychology, ethics,
politics, law, and poetics.

We can say that Aristotle influenced more subjects for a longer period of time
than any thinker in the history. His scientific ideas were orthodoxy for 2000 years,
his logic is still used, and his influence in many areas of philosophy is still felt.
His thought in multiple fields was considered definitive for millennia, and his work
in ethics and politics is still widely influential today. He is one of the greatest
thinkers in the history of western philosophy.

The work of Aristotle entitled Nicomachean Ethics may be one of these ethical
bases.

Aristotle’s work contains two works that mainly concern ethics: the
Nicomachean Ethics (which may refer to one of his sons named Nicomachus) and
the Eudemian Ethics (which may refer to one of his friends, Eudemus of Rhodes).
Some of the Books in the Eudemian Ethics are identical to that of the
Nicomachean Ethics, and it was thought Eudemian Ethics was written first before
Nicomachean Ethics. Nicomachean Ethics, however, is the more popular of these
two Aristotelian works.

Nichomachean Ethics (abbreviated as NE or sometimes EN), is a work that deals

with “the nature of moral life and human happiness based on the unique essence
of human nature”. It is concerned with the "end of the things we pursue in our
actions," what he calls the "best good" for a human being (NE I.2.1094a).

Eudaimonia means the good life, which is marked by happiness and excellence. It
is a flourishing life filled with meaningful endeavors that empower the human
person to be the best version of himself/herself.

According to Aristotle, man’s “form” comprises a soul, which has a plant-like

part, an animal part, and a rational part.