Unit 5: Solids, Liquids & Gases

Chapter 18: Density & Pressure

FORMULAS

1-p=F/A pressure = force / area

2- ρ=m/V density = mass/volume

3-p=hxρxg pressure difference = height x density x gravitational field strength

Density is measured in ‘kilograms per cubic metre’ or ‘grams per cubic centimetre’.

Pressure is measured in the ‘pascals’, where 1 pascal is equal to ‘1n/㎡’. Pressure is

defined as force applied per unit area. An example of this is applying a pin compared
to your finger onto a piece of wood, the pin goes through but your finger most likely
won’t. This is because the pressure is applied to more area when it is your finger,
whereas when it is a pin, all the force is applied to one point.

Pressure In Liquids & Gases

● A Submersible/Submarine has a very strong hull to withstand the high
pressure exerted upon it by the seawater. Pressure in liquids acts equally in all
directions, as long as the liquid is not moving.
● Gases also exert pressure on the things around them. The pressure exerted on
your body is about 100000 Pa (although the pressure varies from day to day).
However, the pressure inside the body is equal to the outside pressure, that is
why you can’t feel the pressure on the outside as well.

Pressure & Depth

● Pressure in liquid increases with depth.
Unit 5: Solids, Liquids & Gases
Chapter 19: Solids, Liquids & Gases

The States & Matter

Properties of The States of Matter

● Solids - definite rigid shape and they are often very dense. The density of a measure
of how tight the particles are. Some solids have high densities because the particles
that they are made from are very closely packed together in a regular arrangement.
There are solid forces between the particles, which give them definite shapes and
great strength. Although the particles are held together by strong forces, they can
still move. They vibrate about their fixed positions in the solid. When we supply
energy to a solid by heating it, the particles vibrate more - they move more quickly.
We notice the increase in temperature increases alongside the increase in kinetic
energy.
● Liquids - Liquids share a property with gases - they have no definite shape. However,
the particles that makeup liquids tend to stick together, unlike gas particles. Liquids
will occupy the lowest part of any container but gases will expand to fill any
container that they are in. Liquids have much greater densities than gases. This is
because the particles in liquids are still very close together like they are in solids.
Because the particles in liquids are close together, they still attract one another and
hold together. In liquids, there is no fixed pattern and the particles can move around
more freely than in solids. As we heat liquids, the movement of the particles becomes
more energetic.
● Gases - In gases, the particles are very spread out, with large spaces between them.
This means that the forces holding them together are small. Gases have very low
densities and no definite shape. Gases can also be squashed into a smaller space
(compressed). Particles of a gas are moving randomly all the time. The particles will
bump into anything in the gas, or into the walls of the container, and the forces
caused by these collisions are responsible for the pressure that gases exert. Solids
and liquids are very difficult to compress because the particles in them are almost as
close together as they can be.
The Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law:
● We have already said that gases are made up of molecules that are moving.
We believe that the particles in gases are spread out and constantly moving
in a random, haphazard way. When the molecules hit the walls of a container
they exert a force. The combined effect of the huge number of collisions
results in the pressure that is exerted on the walls of the container
● The scientist Robert Boyle discovered something that you have probably
noticed if you have ever used a bicycle pump: air is squashy! He noticed that
you can squeeze air in a cylinder and that it springs back to its original volume
when you release it.

●
● Boyle devised an experiment to see how the volume occupied by a gas
depends on the pressure exerted on it. Pressure is the force acting per unit
area. This is measured in N/m2. One N/m2 is called a pascal (Pa).
●
● Gases can be compressed because the gas molecules are very spread out.
When gas is squashed into a smaller container it presses on the walls of the
container with greater pressure. This is explained in terms of particle theory
as follows. If the gas is kept at the same temperature, the average speed of
the particles stays the same. (Remember that temperature is an indication of
the kinetic energy of the particles.) If the same number of particles is
squeezed into a smaller volume, they will hit the container walls more often.
Each particle exerts a tiny force on the wall with which it collides. More
collisions per second mean a greater average force on the wall and, therefore,
a greater pressure.
Absolute Zero
Boyle took care to conduct his experiment at a constant temperature. He was aware
that temperature also affected the pressure of a gas. Figure 19.10 shows an
experiment to investigate how the pressure of a gas depends on its temperature.
As we cool the gas, the pressure keeps decreasing. The pressure of the gas cannot become
less than zero. This suggests that there is a temperature below which it is not possible to
cool the gas further. This temperature is called absolute zero. Experiments show that
absolute zero is approximate - 273 •c. The Kelvin temperature scale starts from absolute
zero. The Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its
molecules. To convert a temperature on the Celsius scale (in °C) to a Kelvin scale
temperature (in K), add 273 to the Celsius scale temperature:

• temperature in K = temperature in •c + 273

• temperature in •c = temperature in K - 273

The relationship can be explained as follows. The number of gas particles and the space, or
volume, they occupy remains constant. When we heat the gas the particles continue to
move randomly, but with a higher average speed. This means that their collisions with the
walls of the container are harder and happen more often. This results in the average
pressure exerted by the particles increases. When we cool a gas the kinetic energy of its
particles decreases. The lower the temperature of a gas the less kinetic energy its particles
have - they move more slowly. At absolute zero the particles have no thermal or movement
energy, so they cannot exert pressure.
Unit 6: Magnetism & Electromagnetism
Chapter 20: Magnetism & Electromagnetism
Magnetism & Magnetic Materials
Magnets can attract objects made from magnetic materials such as iron, steel, nickel
and cobalt. Magnets cannot attract objects made from materials such as plastic,
wood, paper or rubber. These are non-magnetic materials.

Magnets
The strongest parts of a
magnet are called its
poles. Most magnets
have two poles. These
are called the north pole
and the south pole. If
two similar poles are
placed near to each
other they repel. If two
dissimilar (opposite)
poles are placed near to
each other they attract.
Permanent magnets like the bar magnets shown in Figure 20.3 are made from a
magnetically hard material such as steel. A magnetically hard material keeps its
magnetism once it has been magnetised. Iron is a magnetically soft material and is
not suitable for a permanent magnet. Magnetically soft materials lose their
magnetism easily and are therefore useful as temporary magnets.

Magnetic Fields
Around every magnet, there is a volume of space where we can detect magnetism.
This volume of space is called a magnetic field. Normally a magnetic field cannot be
seen but we can use iron filings or plotting compasses to show its shape and
discover something about its strength and direction. We draw magnetic fields like
that in Figure 20.5 using magnetic field lines. Magnetic field lines don't exist but they
help us to visualise the main features of a magnetic field. The magnetic field lines:

• show the shape of the magnetic field

• show the direction of the magnetic force - the field lines 'travel' from north to south

• show the strength of the magnetic field - the field lines are closest together where
the magnetic field is strongest.
Overlapping Magnetic Fields
Unit 6: Magnetism & Electromagnetism
Chapter 21: Electric Motors and Electromagnetic Induction
Movement From Electricity
When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field it experiences a force, as
long as its motion is not parallel to the field. We can demonstrate this effect by
passing electrons (that is, an electric current) along a wire that is placed in a
magnetic field as shown in Figure 21 .2. When the switch is closed and electrons
flow, the wire will try to move upwards.

Overlapping Magnetic Fields

In certain places, for example, below the wire, the fields are in the same direction
and so reinforce each other. A strong magnetic field is produced here. In other
places, for example, above the wire, the fields are in opposite directions. A weaker
field is produced here. Because the fields are of different strengths the wire 'feels' a
force, pushing it from the stronger part of the field to the weaker part - that is, in this
case, upwards. The overlapping of the two magnetic fields has produced motion.
This is called the motor effect.
The Moving Coil LoudSpeaker
The moving-coil loudspeaker uses the motor effect to transfer electrical energy to
sound energy.

• Electric currents from a source, such as a radio, pass through the coils of a speaker.
• These currents, which represent sounds, are always changing in size and direction,
like vibrating sound waves.

• The fields of the coil and the permanent magnet are therefore creating magnetic
field patterns which are also always changing in strength and direction.

• These fields in turn apply rapidly changing forces to the wires of the coil, which
cause the speaker cone to vibrate.

• These vibrations create the sound waves we hear.

Electric Motors
When there is current in the loop of wire, one side of it will experience a force
pushing it upwards. The other side will feel a force pushing it downwards, so the
loop will begin to rotate (turn). As the loop reaches the vertical position, its
momentum takes it past the vertical. If the rotation is to continue the forces on the
wires must now be reversed so that the wire at the top is now pushed down and the
bottom one is pushed up. This can be done easily by using a split ring to connect the
loop of wire to the electrical supply. Now each time the loop of wire passes the
vertical position, the connections change, the direction of the current changes, and
the forces on the different sides of the loop change direction. The loop will rotate
continuously. To increase the rate at which the motor turns we can:

1 increase the number of turns or loops of wire, making a coil

2 increase the strength of the magnetic field

3 increase the current in the loop of wire.

Electromagnetic Induction
Motors use electricity to move. Generators and alternators are machines that use
motion to produce electricity. They use a process called electromagnetic induction.

The workers shown in Figure 21.9 need electricity for their machines and their lights.
Instead of connecting into the mains supply, as we do at home, the workers have
their generator, which produces the electrical energy they need. The main supply
itself is produced by large generators in power stations. In this next section, you will
discover how a generator produces electricity.

Demonstrating Electromagnetic Induction

We can also generate a voltage and current by pushing a magnet into a coil. In this
situation and the previous one (Figure 21.10), we can see that it is the cutting action
between the wires and the field lines that generates the voltage. If there is no cutting
(that is, the wires and magnets are stationary) no voltage is generated.

This experiment also shows us that the size of the induced voltage (and current) can
be increased by:

1 moving the magnet more quickly

2 using a stronger magnet

3 using a coil with more turns. We can summarise all the discoveries from these
experiments by saying:

• a voltage is induced when a conductor cuts through magnetic field lines

• a voltage is induced when magnetic field lines cut through a conductor

• the faster the lines are cut the larger the induced voltage.

Generators
As the cyclist pedals, the wheel rotates and makes a small magnet within the
dynamo turn around. As this magnet turns, its magnetic field turns too. The field
lines cut through the coil inducing a current in it. This current can be used to work the
cyclist's lights.