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MILLER/SPOOLMAN
LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17TH

CHAPTER 2
Science, Matter, Energy,
and Systems

Core Case Study: A Story About a

Forest
• Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire

• Compared the loss of water and nutrients from an uncut

forest (control site) with one that had been stripped
(experimental site)

• Stripped site:
• 30-40% more runoff
• More dissolved nutrients
• More soil erosion

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The Effects of Deforestation on the Loss

of Water and Soil Nutrients

Fig. 2-1, p. 31

2-1 What Do Scientists Do?

• Concept 2-1 Scientists collect data and develop

theories, models, and laws about how nature works.

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Science Is a Search for Order

in Nature (1)
• Identify a problem
• Find out what is known about the problem
• Ask a question to be investigated
• Gather data through experiments
• Propose a scientific hypothesis

Science Is a Search for Order

in Nature (2)
• Make testable predictions
• Keep testing and making observations
• Accept or reject the hypothesis
• Scientific theory: well-tested and widely accepted
hypothesis

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The Scientific Process

Fig. 2-2, p. 33

Identify a problem

Find out what is

known about the
problem (literature
search)

Ask a question to
be investigated

Perform an
experiment to
answer the
question
and collect data

Analyze data Scientific law

(check for Well-accepted
patterns) pattern in data

Propose a
hypothesis to
explain data

Use hypothesis
to make testable
projections

Perform an
experiment to
test projections

Accept Revise Make

hypothesis hypothesis testable
projections

Test
projections
Scientific theory
Well-tested and
widely accepted
hypothesis Fig. 2-2, p. 33

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Testing a Hypothesis

Fig. 2-3, p. 33

Observation: Nothing happens when I try

to turn on my flashlight.

Question: Why didn’t the light come on?

Hypothesis: Maybe the batteries are dead.

Test hypothesis with an experiment: Put in

new batteries and try to turn on the flashlight.

Result: Flashlight still does not work.

New hypothesis: Maybe the bulb is burned out.

Experiment: Put in a new bulb.

Result: Flashlight works.

Conclusion: New hypothesis is verified. Fig. 2-3, p. 33

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Characteristics of Science…and
Scientists
• Curiosity
• Skepticism
• Reproducibility
• Peer review
• Openness to new ideas
• Critical thinking
• Creativity

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Science Focus: Easter Island: Revisions to

a Popular Environmental Story
• Some revisions to a popular environmental story
• Polynesians arrived about 800 years ago
• Population may have reached 3000
• Used trees in an unsustainable manner, but rats may
have multiplied and eaten the seeds of the trees

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Stone Statues on Easter Island

Fig. 2-A, p. 35

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Scientific Theories and Laws Are the Most

Important Results of Science
• Scientific theory
• Widely tested
• Supported by extensive evidence
• Accepted by most scientists in a particular area

• Scientific law, law of nature

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The Results of Science Can Be

Tentative, Reliable, or Unreliable
• Tentative science, frontier science

• Reliable science

• Unreliable science

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Science Has Some Limitations

1. Particular hypotheses, theories, or laws have a high

probability of being true while not being absolute
2. Bias can be minimized by scientists
3. Environmental phenomena involve interacting variables and
complex interactions
4. Statistical methods may be used to estimate very large or
very small numbers
5. Scientific process is limited to the natural world

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Science Focus: Statistics and

Probability
• Statistics
• Collect, organize, and interpret numerical data

• Probability
• The chance that something will happen or be valid
• Need large enough sample size

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2-2 What Is Matter?

• Concept 2-2 Matter consists of elements and
compounds, which are in turn made up of atoms,
ions, or molecules.

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Matter Consists of Elements and

Compounds
• Matter
• Has mass and takes up space

• Elements
• Unique properties
• Cannot be broken down chemically into other
substances

• Compounds
• Two or more different elements bonded together in
fixed proportions

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Gold and Mercury Are Chemical Elements

Fig. 2-4a, p. 38

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Chemical Elements Used in The Book

Table 2-1, p. 38

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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are

the Building Blocks of Matter (1)
• Atomic theory
• All elements are made of atoms
• Subatomic particles
• Protons with positive charge and neutrons with no charge in
nucleus
• Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus
• Atomic number
• Number of protons in nucleus
• Mass number
• Number of protons plus neutrons in nucleus

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Model of a Carbon-12 Atom

Fig. 2-5, p. 39

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6 protons

6 neutrons

6 electrons

Fig. 2-5, p. 39

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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are

the Building Blocks of Matter (2)
• Isotopes
• Same element, different number of protons
• Ions
• Gain or lose electrons
• Form ionic compounds
• pH
• Measure of acidity
• H+ and OH-

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Chemical Ions Used in This Book

Table 2-2, p. 40

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pH Scale

Supplement 5, Figure 4

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Loss of NO3− from a Deforested Watershed

Fig. 2-6, p. 40

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60
Nitrate (NO3–) concentration
(milligrams per liter)

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Disturbed
Undisturbed (experimental)
20 (control) watershed
watershed

1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972
Year
Fig. 2-6, p. 40

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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are

the Building Blocks of Matter (3)
• Molecule
• Two or more atoms of the same or different elements
held together by chemical bonds

• Compounds

• Chemical formula

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Compounds Used in This Book

Table 2-3, p. 40

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Organic Compounds Are the

Chemicals of Life
• Organic compounds
• Hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons
• Simple carbohydrates
• Macromolecules: complex organic molecules
• Complex carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
• Lipids

• Inorganic compounds

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Glucose Structure

Supplement 4, Fig. 4

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Amino Acids and Proteins

Supplement 4, Fig. 8

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Nucleotide Structure in DNA and RNA

Supplement 4, Fig. 9

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DNA Double Helix Structure and Bonding

Supplement 4, Fig. 10

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Fatty Acid Structure and Trigyceride

Supplement 4, Fig. 11

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Matter Comes to Life through

Genes, Chromosomes, and Cells
• Cells: fundamental units of life; all organisms are
composed of one or more cells

• Genes
• Sequences of nucleotides within DNA
• Instructions for proteins
• Create inheritable traits

• Chromosomes: composed of many genes

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Cells, Nuclei, Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes

Fig. 2-7, p. 42

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A human body contains trillions

of cells, each with an identical
set of genes.

Each human cell (except for red

blood cells) contains a nucleus.

Each cell nucleus has an

identical set of chromosomes,
which are found in pairs.

A specific pair of chromosomes

contains one chromosome from
each parent.

Each chromosome contains a

long DNA molecule in the form
of a coiled double helix.

Genes are segments of

DNA on chromosomes that
contain instructions to make
proteins—the building blocks of life.
Fig. 2-7, p. 42

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Some Forms of Matter Are More

Useful than Others
• High-quality matter
• Highly concentrated
• Near earth’s surface
• High potential as a resource
• Low-quality matter
• Not highly concentrated
• Deep underground or widely dispersed
• Low potential as a resource

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Examples of Differences in Matter Quality

Fig. 2-8, p. 42

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High Quality Low Quality

Solid Gas

Salt Solution of salt in water

Coal Coal-fired power plant emissions

Gasoline Automobile
emissions

Aluminum can Aluminum ore Fig. 2-8, p. 42

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2-3 What Happens When Matter

Undergoes Change?
• Concept 2-3 Whenever matter undergoes a physical
or chemical change, no atoms are created or
destroyed (the law of conservation of matter).

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Matter Undergoes Physical,

Chemical, and Nuclear Changes
• Physical change
• No change in chemical composition
• Chemical change, chemical reaction
• Change in chemical composition
• Reactants and products
• Nuclear change
• Natural radioactive decay
• Radioisotopes: unstable
• Nuclear fission
• Nuclear fusion

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Types of Nuclear Changes

Fig. 2-9, p. 43

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Radioactive decay
Alpha particle
Radioactive isotope (helium-4 nucleus)

Gamma rays

Beta particle (electron)

Radioactive decay occurs when nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously
emit fast-moving chunks of matter (alpha particles or beta particles), high-
energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed rate. A particular radioactive
isotope may emit any one or a combination of the three items shown in the
diagram.

Fig. 2-9a, p. 43

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Nuclear fission
Uranium-235

Energy
Fission
fragment
n n
Neutron
Energy n Energy n
n n
Uranium-235 Fission
fragment Energy

Radioactive isotope Radioactive decay occurs when nuclei of unstable isotopes

spontaneously emit fast-moving chunks of matter (alpha particles or beta particles), high-
energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed rate. A particular radioactive isotope
may emit any one or a combination of the three items shown in the diagram.

Fig. 2-9b, p. 43

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Nuclear fusion
Reaction
Fuel Products
conditions
Proton Neutron
Helium-4 nucleus

Hydrogen-2
(deuterium nucleus)

100
million °C Energy

Hydrogen-3
(tritium nucleus) Neutron

Nuclear fusion occurs when two isotopes of light elements, such

as hydrogen, are forced together at extremely high temperatures
until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus and release a tremendous
amount of energy.
Fig. 2-9c, p. 43

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We Cannot Create or Destroy

Matter
• Law of conservation of matter

• Whenever matter undergoes a physical or chemical

change, no atoms are created or destroyed

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2-4 What is Energy and What Happens

When It Undergoes Change?
• Concept 2-4A When energy is converted from one
form to another in a physical or chemical change, no
energy is created or destroyed (first law of
thermodynamics).

• Concept 2-4B Whenever energy is changed from one

form to another in a physical or chemical change, we
end up with lower-quality or less usable energy than
we started with (second law of thermodynamics).

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Energy Comes in Many Forms (1)

• Kinetic energy
• Flowing water
• Wind
• Heat
• Transferred by radiation, conduction, or convection
• Electromagnetic radiation

• Potential energy
• Stored energy
• Can be changed into kinetic energy

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Wind’s Kinetic Energy Moves This Turbine

Fig. 2-10, p. 44

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Fig. 2-11, p. 45

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Visible light

Shorter Gamma UV Infrared Longer

X rays Microwaves TV, Radio waves
wavelengths rays radiation radiation wavelengths
and higher and lower
energy energy
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 0.1 10 100 0.1 1 10 1 10 100
Wavelengths
(not to scale) Nanometers Micrometers Centimeters Meters

Fig. 2-11, p. 45

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Potential Energy

Fig. 2-12, p. 45

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Energy Comes in Many Forms (2)

• Sun provides 99% of earth’s energy
• Warms earth to comfortable temperature
• Plant photosynthesis
• Winds
• Hydropower
• Biomass
• Fossil fuels: oil, coal, natural gas

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Nuclear Energy to Electromagnetic Radiation

Fig. 2-13, p. 46

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Fossil fuels

Fig. 2-14a, p. 46

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Some Types of Energy Are More

Useful Than Others
• High-quality energy
• High capacity to do work
• Concentrated
• High-temperature heat
• Strong winds
• Fossil fuels
• Low-quality energy
• Low capacity to do work
• Dispersed

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Ocean Heat Is Low-Quality Energy

Fig. 2-15, p. 47

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Energy Changes Are Governed by

Two Scientific Laws
• First Law of Thermodynamics
• Law of conservation of energy
• Energy is neither created nor destroyed in physical
and chemical changes
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Energy always goes from a more useful to a less useful
form when it changes from one form to another
• Light bulbs and combustion engines are very
inefficient: produce wasted heat

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Energy-Wasting Technologies

Fig. 2-16a, p. 48

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2-5 What Are Systems and How Do

They Respond to Change?
• Concept 2-5 Systems have inputs, flows, and outputs
of matter and energy, and feedback can affect their
behavior.

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Systems Have Inputs, Flows,

and Outputs
• System
• Set of components that interact in a regular way
• Human body, earth, the economy

• Inputs from the environment

• Flows, throughputs of matter and energy

• Outputs to the environment

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Inputs, Throughput, and Outputs of

an Economic System

Fig. 2-17, p. 48

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Inputs Outputs
(from environment) Throughputs (to environment)

Energy Work or
resources products

Matter System Waste and

resources processes pollution

Information Heat

Fig. 2-17, p. 48

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Systems Respond to Change

through Feedback Loops
• Positive feedback loop
• Causes system to change further in the same direction
• Can cause major environmental problems

• Negative, or corrective, feedback loop

• Causes system to change in opposite direction

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Positive Feedback Loop

Fig. 2-18, p. 49

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Decreasing
vegetation...

... which causes more

vegetation to die.

... leads to erosion

and nutrient loss...

Fig. 2-18, p. 49

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Negative Feedback Loop

Fig. 2-19, p. 50

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House warms

Temperature reaches
desired setting and
furnace goes off

Furnace on Furnace off

House cools

Temperature drops
below desired setting
and furnace goes on
Fig. 2-19, p. 50

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Time Delays Can Allow a System to

Reach a Tipping Point
• Time delays vary
• Between the input of a feedback stimulus and the
response to it

• Tipping point, threshold level

• Causes a shift in the behavior of a system
• Melting of polar ice
• Population growth

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System Effects Can Be Amplified

through Synergy
• Synergistic interaction, synergy
• Two or more processes combine in such a way that
combined effect is greater than the two separate
effects
• Helpful
• Studying with a partner
• Harmful
• E.g., Smoking and inhaling asbestos particles

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The Usefulness of Models for

Studying Systems
1. Identify major components of systems and
interactions within system, and then write
equations
2. Use computer to describe behavior, based on the
equations
3. Compare projected behavior with known behavior
• Can use a good model to answer “if-then“
questions

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Three Big Ideas

1. There is no away.

2. You cannot get something for nothing.

3. You cannot break even.

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