Growth and Development of

Livestock
Definition of development
❑ Development is an increase in animal age
leads to changes in the size, shape, and
composition of body (Moran, 1992).
❑ Growth is an increase in body weight with age,
at the same time, development occurs, i.e.
change in the structure and function of body
organs of growing animals due to relative
growth difference of body organs (Fouler, 1968).
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Terms relating to growth
❑ Hypertrophy - hypertrophy refers to an increase in the
size of the cell.
❑ Hyperplasia - hyperplasia refers to an increase in the
number of cells.
❑ Anabolism - synthesis of complex molecules from
simpler ones during which energy is added as input.
❑ Catabolism - the breakdown of larger, more complex
molecules into smaller, simpler ones, during which
energy is released, trapped, and made available for
work.
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Measurements
❑ Meat animals: Live weight, BCS, loin eye area,
back fat thickness.
❑ Breeding animals (ability to produce offspring) :
Live weight, age at first estrus, and testicle size.
❑ Other specialty products: milk, wool, eggs.

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Factors affecting growth of
livestock
❑ Genetic factors
✓ Within the same livestock breeds, carcass
composition can be different. Cattle breeds
can produce carcasses with their own
characteristics.
Factors affecting growth of
livestock
❑ Nutrition factors.
✓ Nutrition is probably the most important
environmental factor affecting carcass
composition, particularly in proportion to fat
content. The response of livestock to the
manipulation of the nutrients given also
determines the final result of carcass
composition.
Factors affecting growth of
livestock
❑ Hormonal factors
✓ Growth is regulated by growth hormone which has
a function to stimulate body cells to develop and
enlarge. Growth hormone from the pituitary
stimulates growth through a number of serum and
somatomedium peptides, while other hormones
that affect growth such as androgens, estrogens,
thyroid hormones from glucocorticoids work by
changing the production and activity of the
medium somato.
Factors affecting growth of
livestock
❑ Sex
✓ Sex hormone can function as growth
hormone by stimulating body cells to
develop and enlarge like other growth
hormones. The results showed that the
tendon growth of males tended to be greater
than that of females. This is a reflection of
the difference in overall body size influenced
by sex.
Factors affecting growth of
livestock
❑ Environmental factors
✓ Physiological factors: environmental factors
related to livestock physiology include
temperature or heat, climate and humidity.
Temperature and humidity can cause stress.
The tolerance of livestock to environmental
temperatures varies, depending on the
species and the environment.
Growth and development of
livestock
❑ In general, the period of growth and development
can be divided into two, namely: the prenatal period
or before birth and the postnatal period or after
birth. Prenatal growth and development can be
divided into three periods, in the form of a
continuous process, namely the ovum, embryo and
fetal periods. Postnatal growth can be divided into
two periods, namely the period, the growth before
weaning and after weaning.
Stationary phase
In this phase, it starts from the embryonic period until the
fetus is 2/3 of the gestation period, for example for cows
until the fetus is 6 months old in the womb. In this phase,
the growth is not clearly seen when compared to the
overall growth, but the percentage growth rate is high.
This is due to the fact that although the average daily
gain (Average Daily Gain) is relatively low but the life
weight is also low so that the ratio between the average
daily weight gain (Average Daily Gain) and the life weight
is high.
Exponential phase
❑ This phase is divided into two parts, namely (a) the first part,
starting from the age of fetus 1/3 of the end of gestation until
the age of sexual maturity (puberty) is reached, for example
in cows from the age of 3 months before birth to the age of
puberty, namely 7- 8 months. In this phase, it is the growth
phase that has the fastest growth rate so that it can be seen
clearly the growth speed. In general, the maximum average
daily weight gain is reached at the time of puberty, which is
called the maximum growth rate, (b) the second part, starts
at puberty until the maximum body size is reached, namely in
cows until the age of 7-8 year. In this part of the phase is a
phase in which the growth process gradually decreases until
one day there is no growth process.
Exponential phase
❑ The average daily gain will reach zero (ADG = 0) at
the time of its maximum body maturity and at that
time the cattle do not gain weight anymore and even
lose weight can occur. In this exponential /
logarithmic phase, the percentage growth rate graph
shows a downward trend and this is because even
though the average daily weight gain is large but its
life weight has a greater increase than the average
gain. daily weight (Average Daily Gain) itself.
Regression phase
❑ This phase is a continuation of the previous phase and
ends with the occurrence of natural death. In this
phase there is no growth, it is even possible to have a
reduction in weight or size so that it is said to be a
regression phase. After maximum growth is achieved,
the growth process can be said to stop but it is
continued with other processes of life which include
regeneration, repair, reproduction, etc. When the
maximum weight is reached, it lasts until it decreases
and when you start to be very old you see a marked
decrease in weight and that's when a negative growth
rate occurs.
Curve ot livestock growth
Pre-natal growth
❑ Pre-natal growth is growth over a period of time while still
being an embryo, which then grows to develop into a fetus.
In other words, pre-natal growth is growth during the period
of life in the womb. In this period, the largest growth of foetus
is starting from 2/3 of the end of the gestation period,
therefore it is important that from then on, mother feeding
should be done as best as possible because pre-natal
growth is much influenced by the condition of the mother
through the function of the placenta. For example, a
pregnant dairy parent will carry out a dry period of the pen
(not milked) starting at 7 months of gestation with the
intention that milk is no longer expressed and the energy
from milk is used to restore conditions and to supply foetus
food which is relatively fast growing. .
Post-natal growth
❑ Post-natal growth starts from the time of birth to the occurrence of
natural death. From birth to weaning, there is a relatively fast growth
and then after weaning, it decreases slightly. The growth rate of a
child from birth to weaning is very dependent on or largely
determined by the production of mother's milk, in addition to the
influence of food and the environment. In other words, growth during
the lactation period is largely influenced by maternal factors. At the
time before adulthood (puberty) there is rapid growth again, while at
the time of body maturity (maturity), the growth rate is relatively slow
and after that the maintenance of beef cattle generally does not
result in weight gain anymore. In mature cattle, sex (puberty) is
reached at the age of approximately 8 months, while the adult body
(maturity) where the maximum body size is reached is
approximately at the age of 6-8 years.
Postnatal growth
❑ Bones grow earlier than muscles and fats.
❑ Muscle development is limited due to the
limited size of muscles.
❑ After muscles reach the maximal growth,
muscle weight gain occurs due to intramuscular
fat deposition.

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Postnatal growth
❑ The rate of intramuscular fat deposition can be
changed by nutritional manipulation regardless
of the development of muscle and bones
❑ During the growth, bone grows continually with
a relatively slow growth rate.
❑ The growth of muscle is relatively rapid so that
the ratio of muscle/bone increases.

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Change in the proportion of
muscle, fat, and bone during
growth

Aberle et al., 2001

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Relation between carcass
component and live animal weight

Soeparno, 2005

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Fattening Period
❑ The growth of muscle occurs slowly, and fat
deposition increases.
❑ Animal slaughter should be carried out once
the fattening reaches the optimum level.

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Muscle
❑ Muscle fibers are formed from multiple cells called
myoblasts.
❑ While the animal is still in the prenatal stage,
myoblasts fuse together to form a myotube, which
develops into a muscle fiber.
❑ As a result, one muscle fiber has multiple nuclei.
❑ Because no new fibers are formed after birth,
postnatal growth of muscle is characterized by
increases in length and diameter.
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Muscle
❑ Muscle fibers are predominantly protein, and
therefore fiber size is determined by the rate of
protein synthesis minus the rate of degradation.
❑ The deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) content of
muscle cells also increases as the animal
develops.

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Bone
❑ Bone tissue grows both before and after birth.
❑ A bone grows in length through the ossification
or harden ing of the cartilage at each end.
❑ After the cartilage on the ends of a bone has
completely hardened the bone stops growing.

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Bone
❑ Bones also have the capability of increasing in
width and can repair them selves if broken.
❑ Although in dividual bones reach a mature
length and stop elongating, bone tissue is
constantly being deposited and resorbed.

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Fat
❑ Fat tissue is comprised of fat cells and
connective tissue.
❑ Fat cells increase or decrease in size
depending on the nutritional status of the
animal.
❑ Two types of fat tissue include White fat, which
stores energy, and brown fat, which maintains a
constant body temperature.
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Fat
❑ Fat is deposited in four different areas
throughout the body or carcass.
❑ Fat that is deposited in the abdominal cavity
around the kidneys and pelvic area is called
intra abdominal fat; it is usually the first fat
deposited.
❑ Fat deposited just under the skin is referred to
as subcutaneous fat, or backfat, and is usually
the largest amount of fat deposited.
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Fat
❑ Fat deposited between the muscles of animals is
called termuscular fat, while fat deposited within the
muscle is called intramuscular fat.
❑ The level of intramuscular fat deposited is referred to
as the degree of marbling and affects the quality and
taste of meat.
❑ Important factor effecting the value of a beef carcass
is its quality grade, which is determined by the
degree of marbling in the carcass.
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Fat
❑ Therefore, manipulation of this process is very
important in meat production systems.
❑ Intramuscular fat is the last type of fat to be
deposited, so animals with high degrees of
marbling also have large amounts of fat
deposited in other areas of the carcass.

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Sequence of Body Fat Deposition
❑ Fat around the kidneys, pelvis, and offal.
❑ Intermuscular fat (fat within muscles)
❑ Subcutaneous fat (fat under the skin)
❑ Intramuscular fat (fat within muscle
fiber/marbling)

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Compensatory growth
❑ Compensatory growth is the accelerated growth of
an organism after a period of slowed growth,
primarily as a result of nutrient deficiencies.
❑ Also referred to as recovery/rehabilitation growth,
chase growth, leap growth. It is possible for high
compensatory growth rates to produce
compensatory, whereby the organism exceeds
normal body weight and often has excessive fat
accumulation.
Factors affecting compensatory
growth
❑ Natural from limited feed,
❑ Degree of nutritional deficiency,
❑ The long period of nutritional deficiency,
❑ The development stage of the body at the
beginning of a nutritional deficiency,
❑ Relative level of maturity,
❑ Availability of feed.
Lifestock factors
❑ The degree of ripeness at the onset of a
nutrient deficiency.
❑ Proportional body weight of the adipose depot
at baseline of nutritional deficiency
❑ Genotype
❑ Sex
❑ Changes in metabolic rate
Nutrient factors
❑ Severity of lack of nutrients required for
maintenance of daily feed intake.
❑ Duration of lack of nutrition.
❑ Feed density during nutrient deficiency.
❑ Feed intake during recovery.
Positive impacts of compensatory
growth
❑ The growing speed was much greater than
before.
❑ Growth exhibited by livestock after a period of
nutritional stress.
❑ The rate of growth curve increases sharply.
❑ Can be used for a filling strategy.
❑ Increased feed consumption during
rehabilitation contributes to increased growth.
Negative impacts of compensatory
groth
❑ Allows more dietary protein and energy for large tissue
growth than basal metabolism.
❑ Low basal metabolism during nutritional restriction due
to visceral weight loss.
❑ The severity of nutrient restriction at the stage of the
growth curve where restriction takes place can affect
how much compensatory growth occurs.
❑ Nutritional restriction early in growth can have long-
term effects on bone tissue and body fat tissue.
❑ May result in permanent stunting of animals of their
size body smaller as adults.