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Note-taking habits of 21st Century college

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MEMORY
https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2019.1569694

Note-taking habits of 21st Century college students: implications for student

learning, memory, and achievement
Kayla Moreheada, John Dunloskya, Katherine A. Rawsona, Rachael Blasimanb and R. Benjamin Hollisc
a
Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA; bDepartment of Psychology, Kent State University, Salem;
c
Office of Continuing & Distance Education, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Students rely on their notes to memorise and learn critical course content, and recent studies of Received 6 June 2018
note-taking state that most students take notes, citing a survey published in 1974. Over the past Accepted 6 January 2019
four decades, classrooms and note-taking technologies have evolved: students can take notes
KEYWORDS
on electronic devices, and some classes are entirely online. Despite these changes, few studies Note-taking; note-taking
have investigated their impact on note-taking habits. Given that note-taking is critical for habits; survey; technology;
student learning, the purpose of the present study was to update the literature on students’ online courses
general note-taking behaviour and investigate the impact of these newer technological
advances on note-taking. We surveyed 577 college students, using questions from prior
surveys and new questions relevant to technology. As per prior studies, students still
reported taking notes in classrooms, and as important, students reported flexibility in their
note-taking by (a) using a notebook or a laptop depending on course demands and (b) often
deciding not to take notes in online courses. Thus, students are flexible in their note-taking
behaviour, but may not always make the best decisions about how and when to take notes.

With the exception of three reported studies concerning the
utility of notetaking in the fifties … , little other recent attention
in the area of student practices has been evident. The effort
reported here attempts to assess current student attitudes
and practices in the area of notetaking, and to compare
these to earlier findings. (Palmatier & Bennett, 1974, p. 215)
This quote comes from one of the most recent large-scale
surveys focused on student note-taking, which was pub-
lished in 1974. Noting the lack of relevant research from
the 1950s to the 1970s, Palmatier and Bennett raised a
concern that “the appearance of the spiral-bound note-
book” (p. 216) would affect student note-taking. We
suspect that most researchers will agree that the techno-
logical advances introduced in education since 1974 far
exceed the advance of spiral-bound notebooks. Moreover,
recent survey research indicates that when students are
preparing for high-stakes exams, they largely rely on mem-
orising their notes (Karpicke, Butler, & Roediger, 2009;
Morehead, Rhodes, & DeLozier, 2016). Given that the
content of notes is foundational to what students learn, it
is important to understand when and where students
take notes as well as the strategies students use when
studying their notes to enhance memory and learning of
course content. Accordingly, the main goals of the
present research were to provide an extensive and up-to-
date survey of student note-taking habits – both for lec-
tures in classrooms and on-line courses – as well as to
compare student note-taking habits against what is
considered best practices. To provide a context for the
present research, we first discuss what has changed since
1974 and then describe an empirical framework for evalu-
ating the effectiveness of students’ note-taking habits.
Then, we briefly review prior survey studies (in the
context of the framework) and end with an overview of
the present research.
Changes since 1974 that may Influence note-taking
habits
So, what has happened since 1974 that may be relevant to
note-taking and the degree to which students are taking
effective notes and learning from them? With respect to
taking notes, unlike the first laptop computer (which was
introduced in 1981, had no battery, and weighed close to
25 pounds), modern laptop computers are lightweight
and can be readily used to take notes in the classroom.
More recently, eWriters (e.g., Boogie Board™ eWriters,
which function as electronic paper) and other tablets
(e.g., iPads, which have eWriting capabilities as well as
other functions) now allow students to take notes long-
hand without using paper. As for teaching technologies,
many advances have been made that could impact
whether and how students take notes. PowerPoint was
introduced in 1990 and is now used by many teachers to
present course content during lectures. The internet has
led to enrollment in online courses in which students

CONTACT Kayla Morehead kmorehea@kent.edu Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 K. MOREHEAD ET AL.
view lectures and course content online without being in a
classroom.
Given these advances in note-taking and instructional
technologies, one could safely argue that the need to
update our knowledge about students’ note-taking behav-
iour is greater now than in 1974 when the largest impact
on note-taking was the invention of the spiral notebook.
Given that notes themselves represent the focal stimuli rel-
evant to a great deal of student learning, understanding
how students take notes and how they go about studying
them when preparing for exams will have important impli-
cations for memory investigators who seek to improve
student achievement. Accordingly, we conducted a large-
scale survey of students’ note-taking that both connects
with earlier research (by using several of the survey ques-
tions from prior research) and extends it (by surveying stu-
dents about note-taking with respect to the
aforementioned technological advances). Furthermore,
the present survey included more detailed questions
about students’ note-taking beyond whether they take
notes, so as to help memory investigators generate
hypotheses and research ideas based on students’
reported note-taking behaviour.
Empirical framework for interpreting students’
note-taking habits
Students largely self-regulate their note-taking. Teachers
may offer scaffolds (e.g., an outline of a lecture or copies
of PowerPoint slides) to help students take notes, but it is
typically up to each student to decide how and when to
take notes. Unfortunately, the literature on self-regulated
learning has revealed that how students regulate their
learning – including decisions about which strategies to
use and when to use them – often does not match empiri-
cal evidence about how best to regulate learning (Bjork,
Dunlosky, & Kornell, 2013). For instance, many students
report preferring to prepare for exams by rereading their
textbooks instead of testing themselves (Gurung,
Weidert, & Jeske, 2010; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; More-
head et al., 2016), whereas evidence indicates that reread-
ing is less effective than self-testing (for reviews, see
Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, & Willingham, 2013;
Roediger & Butler, 2011).
Accordingly, to provide a framework for interpreting the
outcomes from students’ reports of their note-taking
habits, we first consider the relevant empirical evidence
concerning best practices. We also organised the frame-
work on the distinction between the two main functions
of note-taking: encoding and storage. The encoding func-
tion concerns the degree to which the act of taking
notes improves student learning of the target materials,
whereas the storage function concerns how students sub-
sequently attempt to learn from their notes and its impact
on test performance (for a review, see Kiewra, 1989;
Kobayashi, 2005; Kobayashi, 2006).
Concerning the encoding function, two aspects of note-
taking are arguably most relevant: (a) what method stu-
dents use to take notes and (b) whether students
attempt to organise their notes as they take them. With
respect to note-taking methods, students can take notes
by longhand in a notebook or using an electronic device
(e.g., a tablet or eWriter), or they can type notes on a
laptop computer or tablet. In empirical research of which
method is best, taking notes longhand has generally pro-
duced as good or better performance outcomes when
investigated in real-life courses and in the laboratory
(Carter, Greenberg, & Walker, 2017; Luo, Kiewra, Flanigan,
& Peteranetz, 2018; Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014; for
one exception, see Bui, Myerson, & Hale, 2013). Using a
laptop in a classroom may be especially disruptive,
because computer use (typing, access to the internet)
while taking notes can be distracting for the laptop user
and potentially for students sitting near them (e.g., Sana,
Weston, & Cepeda, 2013). Thus, key questions concerning
the encoding function of note-taking include, Will the
majority of students report taking notes longhand, or do
many now use laptops? And, do any students use both
note-taking methods, and if so, why?
The encoding function of note-taking may also be ben-
efitted by organising and transforming notes, versus just
copying a lecture verbatim. The idea here is that transform-
ing a lecture into one’s own words and organising (or inte-
grating) the lecture content can boost performance, partly
because such generative processes are more effortful than
passively copying a lecture. Better organisation (e.g., using
outlines or the Cornell note-taking method) may support
more effective restudy and subsequently improve the
storage function. Thus, to investigate their approach to
note-taking in the present survey, students who indicated
taking notes also reported whether they tended to copy
notes or organise them in some manner.
The effectiveness of the storage function is largely
reflected by how students study their notes, and some
study strategies are better than others. For instance, to
enhance the storage function, students should test them-
selves on the content of notes instead of merely rereading
them (e.g., Dunlosky et al., 2013; Roediger & Butler, 2011).
General surveys of students’ study behaviour suggest
that they tend to overly rely on less effective strategies
(e.g., rereading), and outcomes from the present survey
provide converging evidence about how students use
their notes to prepare for exams.
Finally, one novel aspect of the present research per-
tains to revealing how students approach taking notes in
online courses, which could have implications for both
the encoding and storage function of note-taking. One
possibility is that some students will not take notes, with
the idea that they will merely view the online lectures
and supporting materials to prepare for exams. Recent
research suggests that students who rely on reviewing
online lectures perform poorly (e.g., Liles, Vuk, & Tariq,
2018). But, is it common for students to rely less on

note-taking for online than in-class lectures? To answer this
question, we compared reports of note-taking habits for
those students who were enrolled in both kinds of
course when taking the survey.
Because students may not always make the best choices
about how to take notes, we included several other ques-
tions on the survey to provide possible insight into why
they might make sub-optimal decisions (e.g., Were they
taught how to take notes?) and whether they are inter-
ested in learning how to improve their note-taking skills.
Historical overview of survey research on note-
taking habits
The first two surveys on note-taking were conducted by
Charters (1924, 1925). The purpose of these studies was
to investigate student study behaviour, including note-
taking. In both survey, female college students (44 in the
first survey, 258 in the second) were interviewed about
their study habits. In the first survey, most women reported
taking notes because it was often required and that note-
taking was useful for organising information in a brief
amount of time. Participants in the second survey reported
that they often kept their notes, thought notes were useful
for review, and believed they would have done poorer on
exams if they had not taken notes. Despite believing note-
taking was important, 68% reported receiving no instruc-
tion on how to take notes. The next survey (Danskin &
Burnett, 1952) investigated what study techniques superior
students used, including how they took notes. The
researchers interviewed 37 students who were in the top
of their class. Eighty-nine percent of students reported
taking notes, and 86% reported organising their notes
while taking them. No survey research on note-taking
behaviour was conducted again until 1974 when Palmatier
and Bennett administered the first large-scale survey (N =
223) pertaining specifically to student note-taking. They
asked participants how they took notes and about their
use of various note-taking techniques. Ninety-nine
percent of students reported taking notes during lectures,
and 96% believed that note-taking was essential for
success in college. Students reported taking notes in
spiral notebooks, on loose-leaf paper, or on legal pads.
Since this survey, few other studies of note-taking
behaviour have been conducted, and these typically did
not include questions relevant to recent technological
advances.1 Nevertheless, we discuss the subset of these
surveys from which we adapted questions for the
present survey. Hartley and Davies (1978) administered a
survey to investigate why students take notes. They sur-
veyed 52 American students about their note-taking
beliefs and skills. Ninety-eight percent of participants
believed note-taking was important, 56% reported receiv-
ing instruction on note-taking, and 67% wished they had
better note-taking skills.
Other research has attempted to develop theories of
note-taking based on student perceptions. The first of
MEMORY 3
such studies by Van Meter, Yokoi, and Pressley (1994) did
so by interviewing 252 students. All students reported
taking notes. Most students reported that their note-
taking was directed towards the goal of doing well in a
course. They reported taking notes for several reasons;
the most common reasons included paying attention
during lectures, organising information from lectures, or
using notes as a study aid. They reported reviewing their
notes by rereading or organising them. Consistent with
this finding, Nandagopal and Ericsson (2012) reported
that 100% of students reported reviewing their notes,
and Tran and Lawson (2001) reported that reference and
repetition were the most popular review strategies (44%
and 76% respectively). Based on the aforementioned
empirical framework of best practices, many students par-
ticipating in this survey were not fully capitalising on the
storage function of note-taking.
A more recent survey of student note-taking, adminis-
tered between 2012 and 2013 involving 435 students,
reported that 99.6% of students took notes at least some
of the time with 93.8% reporting taking notes often or
always (as reported in a general chapter on note-taking
by Peverly & Wolf, 2019). In the same survey, 96.5% of stu-
dents reported taking notes on paper at least sometimes
and 53.4% reported taking notes on a computer at least
sometimes. In another survey by Aguilar-Roca, Williams,
and O’Dowd (2012), 50% of students reported taking
notes on paper and about 22% reported taking notes on
a laptop. Although a smaller percentage reported using
laptops, as noted in the framework above, these students
may be at a disadvantage, and so might students sitting
near them during in-class lectures.
Of course, these outcomes support the anecdotal obser-
vations of anyone who has recently taught (or taken) an in-
class lecture in college: most students take notes in some
fashion or another. But, do they also take notes for lectures
during online courses, and have they begun to adopt
newer technologies (e.g., eWriters or tablets) while taking
notes? Given that most students take and review notes,
how they engage in note-taking with technology has
important consequences for classroom learning.
Overview of present survey of note-taking habits
Given that few large-scale surveys have focused exclusively
on students’ note-taking (with one of the largest scale
surveys being published over forty years ago), and only a
few surveys have addressed the impact of technology on
note-taking (e.g., Aguilar-Roca et al., 2012; Fried, 2008;
Peverly & Wolf, 2019), our goal for the present investigation
was to update the literature by surveying students about
their note-taking and the impact of technology on their
note-taking, including the use of electronic devices in
class and note-taking in online courses. We recruited a
large sample by collecting data from students at Kent
State University on the main campus, on the regional cam-
puses, and enrolled in online courses.
4 K. MOREHEAD ET AL.

To develop survey questions, we used questions from time completing the survey were excluded from analyses.
prior surveys and developed new questions to assess the Data for one participant who did not finish the survey
use of technology in the classroom and note-taking in were also excluded.
online courses. Many questions focused on how students Demographic information was similar across all samples
take and review notes to emphasise the encoding function (see Table 1), as were general results. Because our aim was
(taking notes) and storage function (reviewing notes) as to collect a large sample and results for all three samples
described above. Given that many experimental studies were similar, their data were combined for a total sample
have investigated these functions of note-taking, we size of 577.2
asked students several questions about how they
engaged in both functions. We also asked participants
Materials
about their note-taking skills and whether they had
received training on note-taking. We describe these ques- The survey consisted of 55 questions (see Appendix for a
tions more fully in the Method section. list of all questions asked), but some questions were con-
To summarise, our main goals were to provide an ditional based on answers to prior questions. For
extensive and up-to-date survey of student note-taking instance, if students reported not taking notes in class,
habits. Based on prior evidence, we expected most stu- they did not answer questions about note-taking behav-
dents to report taking notes in a class and studying iour in class. Therefore, most participants did not answer
them in a relatively ineffective manner. Our empirical fra- every question. In the next sections, we discuss the
mework also emphasises the importance of understand- origin of and rationale for the questions used in the
ing the use of technology, because its ineffective use present survey.
could result in poor learning. For instance, we expected
at least some students to report using laptops (which
Table 1. Demographic Information from All Samples.
can undermine performance), but only a few surveys
Main
have investigated how widespread laptops are being Question Choices Campus Regional Online
used in classrooms. Because online courses provide Gender (Q1)a Male 24 19 41
video content that students can review if they would Female 75 78 58
like, we expected some students to report not taking Other 1 3 1
notes in these courses. Again, not taking notes would Age (Q2) Under 18 0 5 0
be expected to limit their learning, but how widespread 18–22 97 73 95
this potential problem may be is currently unknown. 23–25 2 5 3
25–30 0 5 2
30–40 0 5 0
40+ 0 5 0
Method
Ethnicity (Q3) Hispanic/ 2 0 2
Participants Latino
Native 0 0 0
Participants were recruited from three groups of under- American
Asian 3 0 4
graduate students at Kent State University. All students African 10 8 13
completed the survey for course credit. The first group American
(N = 312) consisted of students enrolled in psychology Middle Eastern 2 3 4
Caucasian 83 89 77
courses on the main campus. The second group (N = 37)
consisted of students enrolled in psychology courses on 1st Language English Yes 97 100 91
the regional campuses. Although students in these (Q4) No 3 0 9
cohorts may have been enrolled in online courses and Year (Q7) Freshmen 47 35 60
hence could answer questions about their note-taking in Sophomore 18 24 27
this venue, we also wanted to ensure enough students Junior 17 22 10
Senior 18 19 3
who participated were enrolled in online courses. Thus, a
third group (N = 238) was sampled from students who High School GPA (Q8) 1.0–1.9 0 0 0
were enrolled in at least one web-enhanced course 2.0–2.9 7 11 13
3.0–3.5 46 24 45
where lectures were online. All students signed up for 3.6–4.0 47 65 43
the survey through the university’s SONA system. Although
the first two groups consisted of students enrolled in psy- College GPA (Q9) 0.0–0.9 0 0 0
1.0–1.9 0 5 1
chology courses, most students in the sample were not 2.0–2.9 18 16 14
psychology majors. Across all three groups, only 17% of 3.0–3.5 28 27 30
participants (101) were psychology majors. 3.6–4.0 17 27 10
1st Semester 37 24 44
Nine students completed the survey through both the
Note. Numbers reported are percentages of total N per sample. aQ refers to
main campus and online group. Because these students the actual questions to which participants responded, which are presented
completed the survey twice, their data from the second in the Appendix.

Encoding and storage
Concerning encoding, students were asked about their
note-taking behaviour during both in-class and online lec-
tures. Some questions were adapted from prior surveys.
These questions included: whether students took notes
in class, if they believed that note-taking was essential for
effective learning, if they took notes differently depending
on the lecture, and if they tried to organise their notes
(questions adapted from Bonner & Holliday, 2006;
Danskin & Burnett, 1952; Dunkel & Davy, 1989; Fried,
2008; Hartley & Davies, 1978; Palmatier & Bennett, 1974;
Van Meter et al., 1994). Other questions were developed
by the authors for the present survey and included what
devices students used to take notes, if they took notes
differently in smaller classes, and if having PowerPoint out-
lines affected their note-taking behaviour. Critically, we
developed questions about note-taking behaviour during
online lectures to parallel questions about note-taking
during in-class lectures to investigate whether note-
taking behaviour differed for online classes. The final set
of items consisted of a series of true/false statements
adapted from Hartley and Davies (1978) and Dunkel and
Davy (1989). These items were statements about note-
taking behaviour, and students were asked to decide
whether the statements were true of themselves. We also
created a new item about whether students played
games or were on the internet on their laptops during
class.
Concerning storage, students were asked if they
reviewed their notes and believed that reviewing their
notes was important for learning. If they reported review-
ing their notes, they were asked how they reviewed
them. For this question, they were given several options
from which to choose, such as rereading notes, highlight-
ing or marking them, or testing themselves on their
notes (adapted from Badger, White, Sutherland, & Haggis,
2001; Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012; Morehead et al., 2016;
Tran & Lawson, 2001; Van Meter et al., 1994).
Note-taking skills and training
Finally, students were asked if they believed they took
good notes and if they wished they had better note-
taking skills. They were then asked if they had received
training on how to take notes (questions adapted from
Dunkel & Davy, 1989; Hartley & Davies, 1978; Palmatier &
Bennett, 1974). If they responded yes to this question,
they were asked to explain when they were taught, who
taught them, and for how long they were taught.
Procedure
This survey was approved by the university Institutional
Review Board. Participants completed the survey at their
convenience by following a link to the survey on Qualtrics.
Participants took nine minutes on average to complete the
survey. They first completed demographic information,
MEMORY 5
then answered questions about note-taking including
questions about the encoding function of notes (in class-
rooms, during online classes, and in general), questions
about the storage function of notes, and questions about
their note-taking skills and training.
Results
We present responses to survey questions in Tables 2–8,
and we consider the outcomes in relation to the aforemen-
tioned empirical framework in the Discussion section.
Given that not all students answered every question
(because the presentation of some questions was con-
ditional on prior answers), we also included the number
of respondents (in parentheses) for each question. Impor-
tantly, in most tables, we included not only responses
from the present survey but also the responses from any
prior surveys that included similar questions about note-
taking. Results from research published in 2000 or later
are presented under columns labelled “twenty-first
Century”, and results from research published before
2000 are presented under columns labelled “twentieth
Century”. Accordingly, a quick scan of these tables provides
a comparison across survey studies and highlights those
questions and responses that are unique to the present
survey. In the rest of the Results section, we highlight a
few of the notable outcomes. We encourage readers to
review the tables for further details.
Encoding
Classroom lectures
Results for questions pertaining to note-taking in class-
rooms are presented in Table 2. Consistent with prior
research (Bonner & Holliday, 2006; Dunkel & Davy, 1989;
Hartley & Davies, 1978; Palmatier & Bennett, 1974), most
students reported taking notes in class (96%), whereas
88% of participants reported that taking notes was necess-
ary for effective learning. Most students reported taking
notes longhand in a notebook (86%), but some (46%)
reported taking notes on a laptop. Thirty-two percent of
the students reported taking notes both in a notebook
and on a laptop (not presented in Table 2); these students
were asked to explain why they used more than one
device. When asked to explain, they reported using a
laptop when the instructor spoke quickly (20%), using a
laptop when PowerPoint slides were available (20%), or
that it depended on the class (20%; values not reported
in Table 2).
Fifty-six percent of students reported trying to organise
their notes rather than merely copying what the teacher
said. Seventy-four percent reported taking notes differently
based on the class. When asked to explain, these student
reported changing their note-taking behaviour depending
on the teacher’s style (21%), the discipline (e.g., math vs.
psychology; 18%), or whether outlines or PowerPoint
slides were available online (17%; values not in Table 2).
6 K. MOREHEAD ET AL.

Table 2. Note-taking in Classroom Lectures.

Question Choices Present Survey Twenty-first Century Twentieth Century
Do you take notes? (Q10) Yes 96 (552) 91–99.63,12 89–1004,11,14

Do you feel that taking notes is necessary? (Q12) Yes 88 (510) -- 94–985,7,11

What do you use to take notes? (Q15) Notebook 86 (477) 50–971,12 10011
Laptop 46 (255) 22–641,6,12 --
Tablet 1 (7) 612 --
eWriter 0 (1) -- --
Other 1 (8) -- --

Do you try to organise your notes or copy what the Organise 56 (307) 783 864
teacher says? (Q19) Copy 30 (164) -- --
Depends 15 (81) -- --

How do you organise your notes? (Q20) Rephrase 36 (178) -- --

Bulleted list/Outline 85 (412) -- --
Cornell Notes 4 (19) -- --
Mapping 6 (27) -- --
Other 3 (15) -- --

Do you take notes differently depending on the class? (Q21) Yes 74 (408) -- 83–965,7

Do you take more notes in smaller classes? (Q23) Yes 30 (163) -- --

Do you take notes in some lectures, but not others? (Q11) Yes 37 (212) -- --

What else do you take notes on? (Q24) Textbook Readings 86 (477) -- --
Other Readings 46 (255) -- --
In-class Activities 1 (7) -- --
Class Videos 0 (1) -- --
Other 1 (8) -- --
Note. Main values are percentages, and the numbers in parentheses are the number of respondents. The last two columns present data from prior
research reflecting questions similar to those asked in the present survey. Superscripts denote which studies were pooled for values in the table.
Only studies reporting quantitative outcomes were included. For some questions, responses do not add to 100% because students could select mul-
tiple options. We did not include the percentage responding no for yes/no options.

Online lectures
Thirty-eight percent of participants (n = 220) reported
being enrolled in a course where most or all of the lectures
were online. Results for questions pertaining to note-taking
during online lectures are presented in Table 3. Unlike in-
class lectures, only about half of the students reported
taking notes during online lectures (49%), but 58%
reported that note-taking was necessary for effective learn-
ing. When asked why they did not take notes, 67% of these
students reported not taking notes because the lecture
material is available online as either video lectures or
slides, so they believed taking notes was unnecessary.
Another 20% reported not taking notes because they
were bored or lazy (not reported in Table 3). Of those
who reported taking notes, most reported using a note-
book (86%; 20% reported using a notebook and a laptop)
and trying to organise their notes (70%).
It is possible that students enrolled in online classes
differ from those who only attend in-class lectures.
Hence, we also explored how students enrolled in online
classes took notes in their in-class lectures. Results are pre-
sented in Table 4, which includes in-class and online
lecture outcomes from only students enrolled in online
classes. Note that results for in-class lectures are similar
to results for all participants (Table 2), indicating that
students who enroll in both kinds of course do not take
notes differently in general, but take notes substantially
less often in their online courses than in their in-class
lectures.
General encoding questions
Results for general encoding questions are reported in
Table 5. Most students reported that their teachers pro-
vided PowerPoint slides (70%), and over half of those
students reported that they took notes differently
when PowerPoint slides were provided than when they
were not, either reporting that they took notes on the
provided handouts (49%) or did not take notes at all
(16%). They also reported that when PowerPoint slides
were provided they took the same amount of notes
(48%) or less notes (41%). Also, the majority (66%) of stu-
dents reported not learning about Cornell notes,
suggesting that this organisational technique is not
being widely used in this cohort.
Responses to the true/false statements adapted from
Dunkel and Davy (1989) and Hartley and Davies (1978)
are presented at the bottom of Table 5. Most results
were similar across surveys. However, results differed for
two items in that, compared to prior research, more
 MEMORY 7

Table 3. Note-taking in Online Lectures. Storage function of note-taking

Online
Question Choices Lectures Results for questions pertaining to the storage function of
Do you take notes? (Q26) Yes 49 (107) notes are presented in Table 6. Most students reported
reviewing their notes (93%), and most of these students
Do you feel that taking notes is Yes 58 (127)
(92%) reported doing so by reading their notes. Although
necessary? (Q28)
less popular than rereading, about half of the students
Do you feel that reviewing notes is Yes 80 (175) reported testing themselves on their notes.
necessary? (Q29)

What do you use to take notes? (Q30) Notebook 86 (92)

Laptop 32 (34) Note-taking skills and training
Tablet 2 (2)
eWriter 0 (0) Responses to questions pertaining to note-taking skills and
Other 1 (1) training are presented in Table 7. Most students reported
taking good notes (89%), although 58% reported
Do you try to organise your notes or Organise 70 (75)
copy what the teacher says? (Q33) Copy 25 (27) wanting better note-taking skills. Forty-eight percent of
Depends 5 (5) students reported being taught note-taking skills, and of
these students, most reported being taught note-taking
How do you organise your notes? (Q34) Rephrase 42 (45)
Bulleted list/ 83 (89) skills in middle school or high school by a teacher.
Outline
Cornell Notes 1 (1)
Mapping 6 (6) Gender differences in note-taking
Other 2 (2)
Prior research has revealed gender differences in note-
What else do you take notes on? (Q35) Textbook Readings 72 (68)
Other Readings 32 (30)
taking behaviour. For example, Reddington, Peverly, and
Online 46 (44) Block (2015) reported that females recorded significantly
demonstrations more information in their notes than did males. Because
Other videos 33 (31)
Websites 25 (24)
gender differences have been reported in prior research,
Note. Main values are percentages, and the numbers in parentheses are the
we investigated them in the present research. In particular,
number of respondents. we compared responses on some questions that may differ
between males and females based on prior research. These
results are presented in Table 8, and for interested readers, a
students in the present investigation reported (1) that they table of comparisons for all questions can be obtained from
would not take notes if they did not have to take exams the first author. As shown in Table 8, a few differences
and (2) that they took notes to avoid reading the textbook. occurred. Taking notes during in-class lectures was reported
more often by females than males (χ2 (2, n = 577) = 7.99, p
Table 4. In-class and Onine Lecture results for Students who Reported taking
< .05), and believing that note-taking during in-class lec-
Online Classes. tures is necessary for effective learning was reported more
In-class Online often by females than males (χ2 (2, n = 577) = 24.48, p
Question Choices Lectures Lectures < .001). When PowerPoint slides were provided, females
Do you take notes during Yes 96 (210) 49 (107) were more likely than males to say they took notes on hand-
lectures?
outs and less likely to say they took fewer notes (χ2 (2, n =
Do you feel that taking notes Yes 88 (193) 58 (127) 565) = 13.07, p < .05). Finally, as compared to males, more
is necessary for effective females reported taking good notes (χ2 (2, n = 577) =
learning?
14.82, p < .01). Although these results were exploratory,
What do you use to take Notebook 86 (180) 86 (92) they are consistent with prior research on gender differ-
notes? Laptop 55 (115) 31.8 (34) ences in note-taking.
Tablet 2 (4) 1.9 (2)
eWriter 0 (0) 0 (0)
Other 2 (4) 0.9 (1)
Discussion
Do you try to organise your Organise 58 (121) 70 (75)
notes or copy what the Copy 30 (63) 25 (27) To overview, the present research investigated students’
teacher says? Depends 12 (26) 5 (5) note-taking behaviour both for traditional in-class lectures
and online lectures. Most students reported taking notes
If you organise your notes, Rephrase 27 (56) 21 (45)
how do you do so? Bulleted list/ 74 (156) 42 (89) and believing note-taking was essential for effective learn-
Outline ing. Moreover, when taking notes, the majority of students
Cornell Notes 2 (5) 0.5 (1) reported organising them during in-class lectures (56%,
Mapping 6 (13) 3 (6)
Other 2 (5) 1 (2) Table 2) and online lectures (70%, Table 3). Although
Note. Main values are percentages, and the numbers in parentheses are the such organisation may not always support better perform-
number of respondents. ance (see discussion of the empirical framework in the
8 K. MOREHEAD ET AL.

Table 5. General Encoding Questions.

Twenty-first Twentieth
Question Choices Present Survey Century Century
Do your professors provide PowerPoint slides? (Q36) Yes 70 (402) -- --
No 2 (12) -- --
Some do 28 (163) -- --

Do you take notes differently when PowerPoint Yes, I take notes on handouts. 49 (277) -- --
slides are available? (Q37) Yes, I do not take notes. 16 (90) -- --
No 35 (198) -- --

Do you take the same amount of notes when PowerPoint Yes 48 (270) -- --
slides are available? (Q38) No, I take less notes 41 (231) -- --
No, I take more notes 11 (64) -- --

Have you heard of Cornell notes? (Q39) Yes 34 (197) -- --

No 66 (380) -- --

I sometimes find my note-taking interferes with my immediate True 67 (384) -- 54–605,7

understanding of the lecture. (Q53)

If I did not have to take exams, I would not take notes. (Q54) True 52 (297) -- 29–385,7

I take notes so that I will not have to read the textbook. (Q55) True 46 (266) -- 10–155,7

I often doodle instead of taking notes. (Q51) True 28 (161) -- 25–305,7

I am often on the internet or playing games instead of taking notes. (Q52) True 22 (124) -- --
Note. Main values are percentages, and the numbers in parentheses are the number of respondents.

Introduction), it does suggest that most students attempt
to actively process lecture content versus passively copy.
And, as indicated by directly comparing the present out-
comes to those of prior surveys (Tables 2 and 3, Tables
5–7), these reports are consistent with the general note-
taking literature that demonstrates how much students
value taking notes during in-class lectures and reviewing
them to prepare for exams.
Other results are relatively unique to the present survey,
and we will highlight those outcomes with respect to the
empirical framework. Concerning the encoding function,
what method do students report using while taking
notes? A key outcome of the present research is that
students reported flexibility in their note-taking. Some stu-
dents reported using both notebooks and laptops to take
notes, and most students who reported using both also
indicated that they chose which method to use based on
how quickly the instructor spoke or whether PowerPoints
slides were available. These results suggest that at least
some students attempt to regulate their note-taking so
as to increase the chances that their notes are complete.
These responses also suggest that the relative efficacy of
note-taking devices may depend on the lecturer style
and course material. That is, using a laptop to take notes
may be beneficial in some circumstances, such as when
lectures do not include visuals (that would need to be

Table 6. Storage Function of Note-taking.

Questions Choices Present Survey Twenty-first Century Twentieth Century
Do you review notes? (Q42) Yes 93 (539) 10010 4814

How do you review notes? (Q43) Rereading 92 (497) 28–762,13 --

Make flashcards 56 (303)
13
Highlight/mark them 56 (302) 9 --
Test myself 56 (300)
Copy them 36 (193) 28–332,8,9 1214
Summarise notes 29 (157) -- --
Add questions 9 (47) -- --
Other 2 (10) -- --

If you take notes, why do you do so? (Q41) So I can review them later 85 (490) 2113 96–985.7
To aid learning 79 (454) -- --
It helps me learn by writing 63 (365) -- --
Because I have to take exams 63 (362) 1513 297
So I pay attention during the lecture 62 (356) -- --
Because it is expected 21 (123) -- --
Because the teacher can see me 6 (34) -- --
Other 1 (6) -- --
I do not take notes 2 (9) -- --
Note. Main values are percentages, and the numbers in parentheses are the number of respondents.
 MEMORY 9

Table 7. Note-taking Skills and Training

Twenty-first Twentieth
Question Choices Present Survey Century Century
Do you take good notes? (Q40) Yes 89 (511) 9412 --

Do you wish you had better note-taking skills? (Q48) Yes 58 (335) -- 59–775,7

Were note-taking skills taught to you? (Q44) Yes 48 (276) -- 17–565,7,11

When were you taught note-taking skills? (Q45) Elementary school 26 (72) -- --
Middle school 65 (180) -- --
High school 76 (210) -- --
Community college 2 (6) -- --
College 18 (50) -- --
Other 1 (3) -- --

Who taught you note-taking skills? (Q46) Teacher 96 (266) -- --

Professor 18 (49) -- --
Parent or Guardian 23 (64) -- --
Other 3 (7) -- --

For how long were you taught note-taking skills? (Q47) Part of a class period 31 (85) -- --
An entire class period 18 (49) -- --
A few class periods 45 (124) -- --
A month 4 (10) -- --
A semester 13 (36) -- --
Note. Main values are percentages, and the numbers in parentheses are the number of respondents.

illustrated by hand) or when a lecturer speaks quickly.
Given that some students reported using multiple note-
taking methods, future research should investigate the
degree to which students’ choices are adaptive – that is,
do they choose the most effective method for a particular
context?
Students reported flexibility in note-taking behaviour,
but is this flexibility always beneficial? For instance, about
half of the participants reported not taking notes in
online courses even though most of these students
reported taking notes during in-class lectures (Tables 3
and 4). They often explained that they did not take notes
because they believed that it was unnecessary to do so
given that the lectures are always available, suggesting
that they believe that notes only function as records of
lecture content that would be lost otherwise. However,
some note-taking studies have reported at least some
benefit for taking notes compared to listening to a
lecture (see Kiewra, 1989; Kobayashi, 2005 for review). By
choosing not to take notes in online courses, students
may be negatively impacting their subsequent memory
for the course content, especially if they do not review
the video lectures (e.g., Liles et al., 2018). Even if they do,
merely viewing the video again may be analogous to

Table 8. Responses by Gender.

Question Choices Male Female Other
Do you take notes in class? (Q10) Yes 92 (163) 97 (383) 100 (6)

Do you feel that note-taking is necessary for effective learning? (Q12) Yes 79 (139) 93 (365) 100 (6)

Do you take notes differently when PowerPoints are available? (Q37) Yes, I take notes on handouts 39 (66) 54 (209) 33 (2)
Yes, I do not take notes 22 (37) 13 (52) 17 (1)
No 40 (68) 33 (127) 50 (3)

Do you take good notes? (Q40) Yes 82 (145) 92 (362) 67 (4)

What do you use to take notes in class? (Q15) Notebook 90 (146) 85 (326) 83 (5)
Laptop 39 (63) 49 (189) 50 (3)
Tablet 2 (4) 1 (3) 0 (0)
eWriter 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0)
Other 0 (0) 2 (7) 17 (1)

Do you take notes online? (Q26) Yes 39 (24) 52 (82) 50 (1)

Do you feel note-taking online is necessary for effective learning? (Q28) Yes 53 (32) 60 (94) 50 (1)

Do you feel reviewing notes online is necessary for effective learning? (Q29) Yes 72 (43) 82 (130) 100 (2)

Do you review your notes? (Q42) Yes 90 (160) 95 (373) 100 (6)
Note. Main values are percentages, and the numbers in parentheses are the number of respondents.
10 K. MOREHEAD ET AL.
rereading and hence would be a relatively ineffective strat-
egy (e.g., Dunlosky et al., 2013); moreover, reviewing a
video may be less efficient than studying one’s notes,
assuming that not all of the content in the lecture is critical
material. One straightforward implication is that many stu-
dents will need to be instructed to take notes while watch-
ing to-be-tested content from online courses.
Concerning the storage function (Table 6), when stu-
dents review their notes, the majority of students (92%)
report rereading them. Although this strategy is relatively
ineffective on its own, over half of the students also
reported using flashcards (56%) or testing themselves
(56%), which are normatively more effective strategies. Of
course, students must use self-testing appropriately to
improve achievement. For instance, with respect to flash-
cards, students should continue testing themselves in a
session until they can correctly recall answers and return
to re-learn them (through testing and feedback) in
another session (for an overview of this use of self-
testing, called successive relearning, see Dunlosky &
Rawson, 2015). Unfortunately, in flashcard research using
authentic materials, it has taken students considerable
amount of practice to learn and correctly recall a small
set of conceptual definitions (e.g., Dunlosky & Rawson,
2015; Janes, Dunlosky, & Rawson, 2018). So, when students
use flashcards to test themselves on difficult concepts
during a brief, single session, they benefit little to none
from doing so (e.g., Lin, McDaniel, & Miyatsu, 2018).
Future research should be aimed at exploring the details
of how (and how often) students use self-testing to study
their notes and whether they effectively use instantiations
of self-testing (e.g., successive relearning) in a manner that
can enhance their learning and achievement.
Finally, it is perhaps not too surprising that some stu-
dents’ reported note-taking habits do not match best prac-
tices, because about half (52%) of the students reported
that they had never been taught note-taking skills. And,
for those who did receive training, the amount of training
was often meager – just a part of a class or in only a few
class periods (Table 7). Fortunately, close to 60% of the stu-
dents indicated that they wished they had better note-
taking habits, so many students would likely be receptive
to further instruction and training.
Future directions and Limitations
Results from the present survey suggest other future direc-
tions for note-taking research. First, as noted above, stu-
dents reported flexibility in their note-taking, but their
decisions on how to take notes may not always be
effective. For example, students reported using laptops
when the lecturer spoke quickly or covered a lot of
material, but no research has investigated whether using
laptops to take notes is advantageous under these circum-
stances. Second, few students reported using eWriters or
tablets for note-taking, but as these devices become more
popular, how will they affect the amount and quality of
note-taking? For instance, is using an eWriter to take notes
comparable to taking notes longhand on paper for both
encoding and storage functions? Third, over half of students
reported never being taught note-taking skills, and many
who did report training indicated that they received instruc-
tion in middle school and high school when note-taking
may not be critical in many courses. So, how and when
should students be taught note-taking skills?
A limitation of the present research is that some changes
in reported note-taking habits that have arisen since the
1970s may not be due to historical cohort effects per se
but may have resulted from other differences (e.g., demo-
graphic characteristics of the samples) across the survey
studies. Note, however, that the similarities in reported
note-taking habits across decades seem more prominent
than do the differences, with the latter largely arising from
the development of new technologies (e.g., laptops) that
were not available in the 1970s. Another limitation is that
the survey was conducted at one large state-supported uni-
versity in the midwest of the United States. A question arises
about whether students’ note-taking habits would be sub-
stantively different in other contexts, such as at private uni-
versities, in different countries and cultures, and so forth.
The present survey could be adapted to explore these poss-
ible differences in future survey research.
Closing Remarks
In closing, classrooms have changed in many ways since
1974, with electronic note-taking devices, PowerPoint,
and online courses all potentially affecting student note-
taking. For the most part, students take notes now as
they did in the 1970s (even though more technology is
available for note-taking than ever before). However, stu-
dents reported flexibility in their note-taking, as they
reported taking notes differently (or not at all) based on
characteristics of their classes, and many students reported
not taking notes during online lectures even if they
reported taking notes during in-class lectures. How will
the classroom change over the next forty years? What
note-taking devices will be available to students, and
how will they affect how and when students take notes?
Or – more problematic given that less than half of students
report taking notes in online courses – as more content
becomes available online, will students take notes at all?
Given the importance of effective note-taking to memory
for and learning of course content, continuing to
examine student note-taking behaviour as technologies
change will be an important avenue for future research.
Notes
1. Surveys that included only a few questions about note-taking
are not discussed here (Carrier, Williams, & Dalgaard, 1988;
Isaacs, 1994; Kay & Lauricella, 2014).
2. Outcomes separated by sample are available from the first
author.

Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a National Science Foundation (NSF)
grant, STTR Phase II: Digital e-Writer for the Classroom, Grant
Number 413328. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommen-
dations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF. The authors have no
financial or non-financial interest in the materials discussed in this
manuscript. Many thanks to Asad Khan, Annette Kratcoski, Duane Mar-
hefka, Erica Montbach, and Todd Packer for support and encourage-
ment with this project.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was supported by National Science Foundation (NSF): [Grant
Number 413328].
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Appendix
Instructions and all survey questions

Instructions: “For this study, you will be asked to fill out a brief online survey about note-taking in in-person and/or online classes.”
Demographics
Q1. What is your gender? (male; female; other)
Q2. How old are you? (Under 18; 18–22; 23–25; 25–30; 30–40; 40+)
Q3. What is your ethnicity? (Hispanic/Latino; Native American; Asian; Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander; African American; Middle Eastern; White)
Q4. Is English your first language? (Yes; No)
Q5. What is your major?a
Q6. Which University do you attend? (Kent State Main Campus; Ashtabula; East Liverpool; Geauga Campus; Salem; Stark; Trumbull; Tuscarawas; Other)
Q7. What year are you in school? (Freshman; Sophomore; Junior; Senior)
Q8. What was your high school GPA (on the 4.0 scale)? (0.0–0.9; 1.0–1.9; 2.0–2.9; 3.0–3.5; 3.6–4.0)
Q9. What is your current college GPA? (0.0–0.9; 1.0–1.9; 2.0–2.9; 3.0–3.5; 3.6–4.0; First Semester, do not have one yet)
Classroom Lectures
Instructions: “The next few questions pertain only to lectures you attend in a classroom in-person. As you answer the following questions, consider how you
take notes while in a classroom.”
Q10. Do you take notes during in-class lectures? (Yes; No)
Q11. Do you take notes in some lecture classes but not others? (Yes. Please Explain; No)
Q12. Do you feel that taking notes during in-class lectures is necessary for effective learning? (Yes; No)
Q13. Do you audio record lectures? (Yes; No)
Q14. If yes, do you take written notes as well as audio recording? (Yes; No)
The following questions were only presented if participants selected Yes on Q10
Q15. What do you use to take notes?b (Notebook or loose-leaf paper (i.e., handwrite notes); Laptop; Tablet (e.g., Apple iPad, Amazon Fire, Samsung Galaxy
Tab); eWriter that is specific for writing (e.g. Boogie Board Sync); Other. Please Explain)
Q16. If you selected more than one note-taking device, please explain.a
Q17. If you use a tablet to take notes, do you use a note-taking app? (Yes; No)
Q18. If yes, what app do you use?a
Q19. As you are writing, do you try to organise your notes, or do you copy what the teacher says? (I take organised Notes; I copy what the teacher says;
Depends. Please Explain)
Q20. If you organise your notes, how do you do so?b (Rephrase into my own words; Create a bulleted list or outline; Cornell notes; Mapping; Other. Please
Explain)
Q21. Do you take notes differently depending on the class? (Yes; No)
Q22. If yes, how so?a
Q23. Do you take more notes when you are in a smaller class where the teacher is likely to see you? (Yes; No)
Q24. Besides in-class lectures, what else do you take notes on?b (Textbook readings; Other class readings; In-class activities; Class videos; Other. Please Explain)
Online Classes
Instructions: “The next few questions pertain to online courses. As you answer the following questions, consider how you take notes in an online course. This
includes flipped courses where some of the content is in-class and some is online. However, only answer for the portion of the class that is online.”
Q25. Are you currently enrolled in a class where most or all lectures are online? (Yes; No)
The Next questions were only presented if participants selected Yes on Q25
Q26. While viewing a lecture online, do you take notes? (Yes; No)
Q27. If no, why not?a
Q28. Do you feel that taking notes during online lectures is necessary for effective learning in online courses? (Yes; No)
Q29. Do you feel that reviewing your notes is necessary for effective learning in online courses? (Yes; No)
The following questions were only presented if participants selected Yes on Q26
Q30. What do you use to take notes when viewing a lecture online?b (Notebook or loose-leaf paper (i.e., handwrite notes); Laptop; Tablet (e.g., Apple iPad,
Amazon Fire, Samsung Galaxy Tab); eWriter that is specific for writing (e.g. Boogie Board Sync); Other. Please Explain)
Q31. If you use a tablet to take notes, do you use a note-taking app? (Yes; No)
Q32. If yes, what app do you use?a
Q33. While taking notes during an online lecture, do you try to organise your notes, or do you just copy what the teacher says? (I take organised Notes; I copy
what the teacher says; Depends. Please Explain)
Q34. If you take organised notes, how do you organise your notes?b (Rephrase into my own words; Create a bulleted list or outline; Cornell notes; Mapping;
Other. Please Explain)
Q35. Besides during online lectures, what else do you take notes on?b (Textbook readings; Other class readings; Online demonstrations; Other videos, not
lectures by the teacher; Websites; Other. Please explain)
 MEMORY 13

General Note-taking
Instructions: “The following questions pertain to note-taking in general. For the next questions, please consider how you take notes in general regardless of
whether your classes are in-person or online.”
Q36. Do your professors provide PowerPoint slides? (Yes; No; Some do. Please Explain)
The next two questions were presented if participants did not select No to Q36.
Q37. Do you take notes differently when PowerPoint slides are made available? (Yes, I take notes on the handouts; Yes, I do not take notes; No)
Q38. Do you take the same amount of notes when PowerPoint slides are made available? (Yes; No, I take less notes; No, I take more notes)
Q39. Have you heard of Cornell notes? (Yes; No)
Q40. Do you take good notes? (Yes; No)
Q41. If you take notes, why do you take notes?b (To aid Learning; Because it is expected; Because the teacher can see me; It helps me learn by writing as the
teacher is speaking; So I can review them later; Because I have to take exams; So I pay attention during the lecture; Other. Please Explain; I do not take notes)
Instructions and All Survey Questions (continued)
Q42. Do you review your notes? (Yes; No)
Q43. If yes, how do you review your notes?b (Rereading; Highlight or mark them; Add questions; Make flashcards from notes; Summarise notes; Test myself on
them; Copy them from memory; Other. Please explain)
Q44. Were note-taking skills taught to you? (Yes; No)
The next three questions were only presented if participants selected Yes on Q44
Q45. When were they taught?b (Elementary school; Middle school; High school; Community college; College; Other. Please explain)
Q46. Who taught you note-taking skills?b (Teacher; Professor; Parent or Guardian; Other. Please explain)
Q47. For how long were you taught note-taking skills?b (Part of a class period; An entire class period; A few class periods; A month; A semester)
Q48. Do you wish you have better note-taking skills? (Yes; No)
The following question was only asked of students at the Main Campus
Q49. Are you in the 1st year experience course? (Yes; No)
Q50. If yes, do you have learning modules? (Yes; No)
Questions Taken Directly from Prior Research
Instructions: “The next questions are a series of statements. For each statement, decide if it is true of you. If it is, select true. If not, select false.”
The response options for the following questions are True or False.
Q51. I often doodle instead of taking notes.
Q52. I am often on the internet or playing games instead of taking notes.
Q53. I sometimes find my note-taking interferes with my immediate understanding of the lecture.
Q54. If I did not have to take exams, I would not take notes.
Q55. I take notes so that I will note have to read the textbook.
Note. aResponse was open-ended. bParticipants could select more than one answer.

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