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JOURNAL OF
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EXPLORATION
ELSEVIER Journal of Geochemical Exploration 78-79 (2003) 313-316
www. elsevier.com/locate/jgeoexp

Abstract
Basin-scale analysis of variable-density groundwater flow:
Nisku Aquifer, Westem Canadian Sedimentary Basin
Arif Alkalali a'*, Benjamin Rostron b'a
aSaudi Aramco, P.O. Box, 5741, Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia
b University o f Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Abstract

Density-related groundwater flow effects can occur in aquifers through a variety of ways. Using only equivalent freshwater
heads to map groundwater flow in structurally sloping aquifers hosting non-fi'eshwater can lead to errors. A simple technique
has been implemented using a spreadsheet, a Visual Basic code, and mapping software, to appropriately represent flow
directions and correct for density differences in the aquifer.
The method was applied to characterize groundwater flow in the Nisku Aquifer in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin.
A variety of scenarios of density-related flow effects occur in the aquifer that can be properly mapped using this technique.
© 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Driving force ratio (DFR); Variable-density flow; Sloping aquifers; Software

1. Introduction ponents must be corrected for in order to correctly

Results from a recent study of the Nisku Aquifer in
the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (Alkalali,
2002) show that the unit is influenced by a variety of
basin-scale hydrogeological factors including variable-
density groundwater flow. The salinity of groundwater
in the Nisku Aquifer varies drastically with total dis-
solved solids (TDS) between 20 and 320 g/1 across the
basin. Density variations in groundwater can create
buoyancy driving force that can significantly alter the
flow magnitude and direction inferred from maps of
equivalent freshwater heads. Density-driven flow corn-
* Corresponding author. Fax: +9663-862-5099.
E-mail addresses: arif.kalali@aramco.com, alkalali@ualberta.ca
(A. Alkalali), ben.rostron@ualberta.ca (13. Rostron).
i Fax: +1-780-492-2030.
interpret fluid flow in aquifers. A method of handling
the effects of density variations on groundwater flow
forms the focus of this paper, using examples from the
Nisku Aquifer.
The interest in correcting for groundwater density
variations in analyzing flow has been the focus of
several previous studies (Lusczynski, 1961; Davies,
1987; Oberlander, 1989; Bachu, 1995; Bachu and
Michael, 2002). Darcy's law for variable-density
groundwater systems can be written (Garven and
Freeze, 1984; Davies, 1987) as:
An
q = - K [ V h f + - ' ~ VE] (l)
/of
Where q is the Darcy flux, h f is the equivalent
freshwater head calculated at a reference density pf, E

0375-6742/03/$ - see front matter © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi: 10. I 016/S0375 -6742 (03)00093 - 1
 314 Abstract

is the elevation of the top (or bottom) of aquifer, Ap is
the difference in density between the reference and the
formation water densities, and K is the hydraulic
conductivity. The quantity between parentheses, which
is a vector, is the total driving force for groundwater. It
is composed of both Vhf, which is the hydraulic
gradient, and (Ap/pf)VE which is the buoyancy driv-
ing force (Hubbert, 1953). Thus, the factors that can
influence the flow direction are: the magnitude and
direction of structural gradient, the magnitude and
direction of hydraulic gradient, and the density differ-
ence between the reference density and the ambient
groundwater density.
In order to characterize the degree of influence of the
density variations in an aquifer, Davies (1987) defined
the driving force ratio (DFR), which is a criterion to
measure the possible degree of influence of density
variations on groundwater flow. According to Davies
(1987):
DFR-- Ap VE
pf Vhf (2)
Davies (1987) identified the value of DFR = 0.5 as
the threshold at which the density effects may become
significant, and thus correction is necessitated, but
elaborated that this thxeshold may vary according to
flow conditions.
A procedure has been developed using simple tools
to measure effects of density variations in sloping
aquifers on groundwater flow direction. This procedure
can also be easily modified to characterize flow fluxes,
groundwater velocities, and incorporate aquifer and
groundwater parameters such as permeability, porosity,

-1 O0
~5-

reas where DFR>.,

ydraulic head contoul

(m)

nset for Figure 2

- - " 1

~t

47.0fin ?
' ................... ¸¸¸¸ 1
%,i.....
{Tt T T t I

-i20 ......... I I [ -I00

-115 -110 -105

Fig. 1. Map showing the distribution of hydraulic head in the Nisku Aquifer, with calculated DFR>0.5 superimposed as the shaded areas
(C.I. = 200 m).
 Abstract 315

52.65 --

N
t
g
t
52.00
- 15.3 Longitude ~ -113.55

Groundwater driving force ~: "".

f600 ~.. Hydraulic head Contours (rn)

100 krn

Fig. 2. Map showing an example of the effect of density on flow direction (the location of this map is shown in Fig. I; C.I. = 50 m). Note that in
the areas of high hydraulic head gradient, the groundwater driving force is normal or near normal to contour lines. In areas of low hydraulic head
gradient, groundwater driving force is significantly diverted from being normal to the contours of hydraulic head.

anisotropy, and viscosity. The method makes use of
three commercially available software packages: A
mapping software (e.g., Rockworks99), a spreadsheet,
and a Visual Basic routine. First, inputs of hydraulic
heads, structural elevations (top or bottom of aquifer),
pressure, TDS, and temperature are mapped and turned
into discrete grids. Second, using the directional anal-
ysis tool of the mapping software, grids of hydraulic
head gradients and structural gradients are created.
Third, the grids of pressure, TDS, hydraulic head
gradients, and structural gradients are exported to a
spreadsheet. The spreadsheet2 is linked to a Visual
Basic routine, which carries out the vector resolution
and addition required to calculate the groundwater
driving force (Eq. (1)), while accounting for temper-
ature, pressure, and TDS to calculate the density of
groundwater at every grid node location. The result is
the groundwater driving force at every grid node,
whose orientation represents the corrected flow direc-
2 The spreadsheet and related instructions are available upon
reqnest.
tion at each point in the flow domain. The magnitude of
the groundwater driving force is also given for the
calculation of fluxes, or for hydrocarbon migration
vector analyses. The spreadsheet also offers a suite of
other measurements that can help in analyzing the
effects of density variations on groundwater flow such
as the DFR, etc.
2. Results and analyses
Mapped hydraulic head distributions for the Nisku
Aquifer are shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
The variable hydrogeological conditions in the
Nisku Aquifer and the variable relationships between
structural gradient and hydraulic gradient have created
basin-wide recognizable influences (or lack thereof) of
density variations in the aquifer. Areas that are affected
by density, where the DFR>0.5, are shaded on the map
in Fig. 1. These areas are created as a result of interplay
between four factors. Those are (i) the magnitudes of
the structural gradients, (ii) the magnitude of the
316
hydraulic gradient, (iii) the density difference between
freshwater (or reference density) and grotmdwater, and
(iv) the angle difference between structural gradient
and the hydraulic gradient.
Depending on the configuration o f these four
factors, the resulting groundwater driving force vector
may enhance, reduce, or divert the groundwater flow
compared to that inferred from maps of hydraulic
head. In areas of down-dip flow, and if the water
density is higher than that of freshwater, density will
enhance the groundwater driving force, but will not
significantly change its direction. In areas of up-dip
flow, such as that in the upper left comer of Fig. 2, the
buoyancy vector will reduce the magnitude of the
groundwater driving force, or may reverse its direc-
tion if the magnitude buoyancy vector is higher. In
areas of low hydraulic head gradient (such as the basin
margin), or in moderate hydraulic head gradient (such
as deeper parts of the basin), large structural gradients
or large density differences can drive the DFR values
up above 0.5.
Fig. 2 shows details of an area where DFR values
increase above 0.5. The effect of diverting flow can be
seen from the groundwater driving force in the middle
of the figure, where arrows are coming more parallel
to the contours of hydraulic head, rather than normal
them. However, in areas of high hydraulic head
gradients, such as areas of recharge, the groundwater
driving force is dominated by the gradient of
hydraulic head.
Such case is similar to the one shown at the lower
left comer of Fig. 2; the vectors are more normal to
contours of hydraulic head due to the dominance of
hydraulic head gradient on the groundwater driving
force.
3. Conclusions
1. Density-related flow effects can occur in aquifers
through a variety of means. These must be
Abstract
corrected for to obtain correct picture of ground-
water flow in the aquifer.
2. A procedure based on Davies (1987) has been
implemented using simple software packages to
account for density variations.
. The technique presented in this study, when
applied to the Nisku Aquifer, assisted in the
interpretation of groundwater flow in a variable-
density aquifer.
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