Outline

 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives

 Closed-loop Control with Controlled Rectifier –
Two-quadrant
 Transfer Functions of Subsystems
 Design of Controllers
 Closed-loop Control with Field Weakening –
Two-quadrant
 Closed-loop Control with Controlled Rectifier –
Four-quadrant
 References
Solid State Drives 1
 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
• Closed loop control is when the firing angle is
varied automatically by a controller to achieve
a reference speed or torque
• This requires the use of sensors to feed back
the actual motor speed and torque to be
compared with the reference values
Reference + Output
signal Controller Plant signal
−

Sensor

Solid State Drives 2

 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives

 Feedback loops may be provided to satisfy one or

more of the following:
 Protection
 Enhancement of response – fast response with small
overshoot
 Improve steady-state accuracy
 Variables to be controlled in drives:
 Torque – achieved by controlling current
 Speed
 Position

Solid State Drives 3

 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
• Cascade control structure
– Flexible – outer loops can be added/removed depending on control
requirements.
– Control variable of inner loop (eg: speed, torque) can be limited by limiting its
reference value
– Torque loop is fastest, speed loop – slower and position loop - slowest

Solid State Drives 4

 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
• Cascade control structure:
– Inner Torque (Current) Control Loop:
• Current control loop is used to control torque via armature
current (ia) and maintains current within a safe limit
• Accelerates and decelerates the drive at maximum permissible
Torque
current and torque during transient operations
(Current)
Control Loop

Solid State Drives 5

 Closed Loop Control of DC Drives
• Cascade control structure
– Speed Control Loop:
• Ensures that the actual speed is always equal to reference speed *
• Provides fast response to changes in *, TL and supply voltage (i.e. any
transients are overcome within the shortest feasible time) without
exceeding motor and converter capability

Speed
Control
Loop
Solid State Drives 6
 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant
Current
• Two-quadrant Three-phase Controlled Control Loop

Rectifier
DC Control
Speed Motor Drives
Loop

Solid State Drives 7

 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant
• Actual motor speed m measured using the tachogenerator (Tach) is
filtered to produce feedback signal mr
• The reference speed r* is compared to mr to obtain a speed error signal
• The speed (PI) controller processes the speed error and produces the
torque command Te*
• Te* is limited by the limiter to keep within the safe current limits and the
armature current command ia* is produced
• ia* is compared to actual current ia to obtain a current error signal
• The current (PI) controller processes the error to alter the control signal
vc
• vc modifies the firing angle  to be sent to the converter to obtained the
motor armature voltage for the desired motor operation speed

Solid State Drives 8

 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Two-quadrant
• Design of speed and current controller (gain and time
constants) is crucial in meeting the dynamic
specifications of the drive system
• Controller design procedure:
1. Obtain the transfer function of all drive subsystems
a) DC Motor & Load
b) Current feedback loop sensor
c) Speed feedback loop sensor
2. Design current (torque) control loop first
3. Then design the speed control loop
Solid State Drives 9
 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
DC Motor and Load
• Assume load is proportional to speed
TL = BLm
• DC motor has inner loop due to induced emf magnetic coupling,
which is not physically seen
• This creates complexity in current control loop design

Solid State Drives 10

 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
DC Motor and Load
• Need to split the DC motor transfer function between m and Va
ωm (s ) ωm (s ) Ia (s )
=  (1)
Va (s ) Ia (s ) Va (s )
• where
ωm (s ) Kb (2)
=
Ia (s ) Bt (1 + sTm )

Ia (s ) (1 + sTm ) (3)
= K1
Va (s ) (1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )

• This is achieved through redrawing of the DC motor and load block diagram.

Back
Solid State Drives 11
 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
DC Motor and Load
• In (2),
J
- mechanical motor time constant: Tm = (4)
Bt

- motor and load friction coefficient: Bt = B1 + BL (5)

• In (3), B
K1 = 2 t
K b + Ra Bt (6)
2
1  Ra Bt  1  Ra Bt   Ra Bt K b 
2
1 1
− ,− = −  +    +  −  +  (7)
T1 T2 2  La J  4  La J   JLa JLa 


Note: J = motor inertia, B1 = motor friction coefficient,

Back
BL = load friction coefficient
Solid State Drives 12
 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
Three-phase Converter
• Need to obtain linear relationship between control signal vc
and delay angle  (i.e. using ‘cosine wave crossing’ method)
−1  vc 
(8)
 = cos  
 Vcm 
where vc = control signal (output of current controller)
Vcm = maximum value of the control voltage
• Thus, dc output voltage of the three-phase converter

3 3  −1 vc  3 VL−L, m (9)
Vdc = VL−L, m cos = VL−L, m cos cos  = vc = K r vc
   Vcm   Vcm

Solid State Drives 13

 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
Three-phase Converter
 Gain of the converter
3 VL−L, m 3 2V V
Kr = = = 1.35 (10)
 Vcm  Vcm Vcm
where V = rms line-to-line voltage of 3-phase supply
 Converter also has a delay
1 60 1 1 1
Tr =   =  (11)
2 360 f s 12 f s
where fs = supply voltage frequency
 Hence, the converter transfer function
(12)
Kr
G r (s ) =
(1 + sTr ) Back

Solid State Drives 14

 Transfer Function of Subsystems –
Current and Speed Feedback
 Current Feedback
 Transfer function: H c
 No filtering is required in most cases
 If filtering is required, a low pass-filter can be included (time
constant < 1ms).
 Speed Feedback
 Transfer function:
K
G ω (s ) = (13)
(1 + sT )
where K = gain, T = time constant
 Most high performance systems use dc tacho generator and low-
pass filter
 Filter time constant < 10 ms

Solid State Drives 15

 Design of Controllers –
Block Diagram of Motor Drive
Current
Speed Control
Control Loop
Loop

 Control loop design starts from inner (fastest) loop to

outer(slowest) loop
 Only have to solve for one controller at a time
 Not all drive applications require speed control (outer loop)
 Performance of outer loop depends on inner loop
Solid State Drives 16
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
DC Motor
Controller Converter & Load

K (1 + sTc )
 PI type current controller: G c (s ) = c (14)
 Open loop gain function: sTc
 K1 K c K r H c 
GH ol (s ) = 
(1 + sTc )(1 + sTm ) (15)

 T c  s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )
 From the open loop gain, the system is of 4th order (due to 4 poles
of system)
Solid State Drives 17
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
• If designing without computers, simplification is needed.
• Simplification 1: Tm is in order of 1 second. Hence,
(1 + sTm )  sTm (16)
Hence, the open loop gain function becomes:
 K1 K c K r H c 
GH ol (s ) = 
(1 + sTc )(1 + sTm )

 Tc  s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )


 K1 K c K r H c  (1 + sTc )(sTm )

 T c  s(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )
GH ol (s )  K
(1 + sTc )
where K =
K1 K c K r H cTm
(17)
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr ) Tc
i.e. system zero cancels the controller pole at origin.
Solid State Drives 18
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
• Relationship between the denominator time constants in (17):
Tr  T2  T1
• Simplification 2: Make controller time constant equal to T2
Tc = T2 (18)
Hence, the open loop gain function becomes:

GH ol (s )  K
(1 + sTc )
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )
K
(1 + sT2 )
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sT2 )(1 + sTr )
GH ol (s ) 
K KK K HT
where K = 1 c r c m
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sTr ) Tc
i.e. controller zero cancels one of the system poles.
Solid State Drives 19
 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
• After simplification, the final open loop gain function:
GH ol (s ) 
K
(19)
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sTr )
where K1K c K r H cTm (20)
K=
Tc

• The system is now of 2nd order.

GH ol (s )
• From the closed loop transfer function: G cl (s ) = ,
1 + GH ol (s )
the closed loop characteristic equation is:
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sTr ) + K
or when expanded becomes:  2  T1 + Tr  K + 1 (21)
T1Tr s + s  + 
  T1Tr  T T
1 r 

Solid State Drives 20

 Design of Controllers–
Current Controller
• Design the controller by comparing system characteristic
equation (eq. 21) with the standard 2nd order system
equation: s 2 + 2 s +  2
n n

• Hence,  T1 + Tr 
 
K +1  =  T1Tr 
n =
2
(22) (23)
T1Tr K +1
2
T1Tr
• So, for good dynamic performance =0.707
– Hence equating the damping ratio to 0.707 in (23) we get

Solid State Drives 21

  T1 + Tr 
 
0.707 =  T1Tr 
Squaring the equation on both sides
K +1
2
T1Tr
2
  T1 + Tr  
2 2
 T1 + Tr   T1 + Tr 
       
  T1Tr    T1Tr  = 1 =  T1Tr 
0.5 =   = 0.5 = K +1 K +1
 2 K +1  2x2x 2x
 T T  T1Tr T1Tr
 1 r 
2
 T1 + Tr 
 
(T1 + Tr )
2
 T1 + Tr 
2
K +1 =
 T1Tr  = K + 1 =  
T1Tr
= K + 1 =
 TT X
2
 1r  2 2T1Tr
22
T1Tr
 2
 T1 + Tr 
 
(T1 + Tr )
2
 T1 + Tr 
2
K +1 =
 T1Tr  = K + 1 =  
T1Tr
= K + 1 =
 TT X
2
 1r  2 2T1Tr
T1Tr

An approximation K >> 1 & T1  Tr Which leads to

2
T1 T1
K =
2T1Tr 2Tr
Equating above expression with (20) we get the gain of current
controller
K1K c K r H cTm T1 T1Tc  1 
= Kc =  
Tc 2Tr 2Tr  1 r c m
K K H T
Back

23
 Design of Controllers–
Current loop 1st order approximation
• To design the speed loop, the 2nd order model of current loop
must be replaced with an approximate 1st order model
• Why?
• To reduce the order of the overall speed loop gain function

2nd order
current loop
model
Solid State Drives 24
 Design of Controllers–
Current loop 1st order approximation
• Approximated by adding Tr to T1  T3 = T1 + Tr

1st order
approximation
of current loop
• Hence, current model transfer function is given by:
K c K r K 1Tm 1
Ia (s )
=
Tc (1 + sT3 )
=
Ki (24)
Ia (s )
*
1+
K K
c r 1 K H T
c m 1 (
1 + sTi )
Tc (1 + sT3 ) Full derivation
available here.
Solid State Drives 25
 Design of Controllers– Current Controller
• After simplification, the final open loop gain function:

GH ol (s ) 
K K K1K c K rTm
= Where K=
(1 + sT1 )(1 + sTr ) 1 + s(T1 + Tr ) + s 2T1Tr Tc

GH ol (s ) 
K Since T1 + Tr = T3
1 + s(T3 ) + s 2T1Tr

Therefore GH ol (s ) 
K
and since T1  Tr
1 + sT3

Solid State Drives 26

 Design of Controllers–
Current loop 1st order approximation
T3
where Ti = (26)
1 + K fi
K fi 1
Ki =
H c (1 + K fi )
(27)

K1K c K r H cTm
K fi = (28)
Tc
• 1st order approximation of current loop used in speed loop
design.
• If more accurate speed controller design is required, values of
Ki and Ti should be obtained experimentally.
Solid State Drives 27
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
DC Motor
& Load

1st order
approximation
of current
loop

• PI type speed controller: G (s ) = K s (1 + sTs )

(29) s
sTs
• Assume there is unity speed feedback:
H (30)
G ω (s ) = =1
(1 + sT )
Solid State Drives 28
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
DC Motor
& Load

1st order
approximation
1 of current
loop

 Open loop gain function:

( )
GH s = 
 K B K s Ki  (1 + sTs )

 BtTs  s(1 + sTi )(1 + sTm ) (31)

 From the loop gain, the system is of 3rd order.

 If designing without computers, simplification is needed.
Solid State Drives 29
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
• Relationship between the denominator time constants in (31):
Ti  Tm (32)
• Hence, design the speed controller such that:
Ts = Tm (33)
The open loop gain function becomes:
K K K 
GH (s ) =  B s i 
(1 + sTs )
 BtTs  s(1 + sTi )(1 + sTm )


 K B K s Ki  (1 + sTm )

 B T
t s  s(1 + sTi )(1 + sTm )
GH (s ) 
K K KK
where K = B s i
s(1 + sTi ) BtTs
i.e. controller zero cancels one of the system poles.
Solid State Drives 30
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
• After simplification, loop gain function:
K (34)
GH(s ) 
s(1 + sTi )
K B K s Ki
where K = (35)
BtTs
• The controller is now of 2nd order. GH (s )
• From the closed loop transfer function: G cl (s ) = ,
1 + GH (s )
the closed loop characteristic equation is:
s(1 + sTi ) + K

or when expanded becomes:  2  1  K  (36)

Ti s + s  + 
  Ti  Ti 
Solid State Drives 31
 Design of Controllers–
Speed Controller
• Design the controller by comparing system characteristic
equation with the standard equation:
s 2 + 2n s + n2
• Hence:
2 n = (37)

n =
2
(38)

• So, for a given value of :

– use (37) to calculate n
– Then use (38) to calculate the controller gain KS
Solid State Drives 32
 Closed Loop Control with Field
Weakening – Two-quadrant
 Motor operation above base speed requires field
weakening
 Field weakening obtained by varying field winding
voltage using controlled rectifier in:
 single-phase or
 three-phase
 Field current has no ripple – due to large Lf
 Converter time lag negligible compared to field time
constant
 Consists of two additional control loops on field circuit:
 Field current control loop (inner)
 Induced emf control loop (outer)
Solid State Drives 33
Closed Loop Control with Field
Weakening – Two-quadrant
Field weakening

Solid State Drives 34

 Closed Loop Control with Field
Weakening – Two-quadrant
Field weakening

Field
current
controller
(PI-type)

Estimated machine -
induced emf
Induced emf
dia
e = Va − Raia + La Induced emf
reference
controller Field current
reference
dt (PI-type with
Solid State Drives 35
limiter)
 Closed Loop Control with Field
Weakening – Two-quadrant
• The estimated machine-induced emf is obtained from:
dia
e = Va − Raia + La
dt
(the estimated emf is machine-parameter sensitive and must be adaptive)
• The reference induced emf e* is compared to e to obtain the induced emf
error signal (for speed above base speed, e* kept constant at rated emf
value so that   1/)
• The induced emf (PI) controller processes the error and produces the field
current reference if*
• if* is limited by the limiter to keep within the safe field current limits
• if* is compared to actual field current if to obtain a current error signal
• The field current (PI) controller processes the error to alter the control
signal vcf (similar to armature current ia control loop)
• vcf modifies the firing angle f to be sent to the converter to obtained the
motor field voltage for the desired motor field flux

Solid State Drives 36

 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Four-quadrant
• Four-quadrant Three-phase Controlled
Rectifier DC Motor Drives

Solid State Drives 37

 Closed Loop Control with Controlled
Rectifiers – Four-quadrant
• Control very similar to the two-quadrant dc motor drive.
• Each converter must be energized depending on quadrant of operation:
– Converter 1 – for forward direction / rotation
– Converter 2 – for reverse direction / rotation
• Changeover between Converters 1 & 2 handled by monitoring
– Speed
Inputs to
– Current-command
‘Selector’ block
– Zero-crossing current signals
• ‘Selector’ block determines which converter has to operate by assigning
pulse-control signals
• Speed and current loops shared by both converters
• Converters switched only when current in outgoing converter is zero (i.e.
does not allow circulating current. One converter is on at a time.)
Solid State Drives 38
 DC Motor and Load Transfer Function -
Decoupling of Induced EMF Loop
• Step 1:

• Step 2:

Solid State Drives 39

 DC Motor and Load Transfer Function -
Decoupling of Induced EMF Loop
• Step 3:

• Step 4:

Back
Solid State Drives 40
 Cosine-wave Crossing Control for
Controlled Rectifiers
Input voltage Vm
to rectifier 0  2 3 4

Cosine voltage Cosine wave compared with

Vcm control voltage vc
vc
Vcmcos() = vc

 vc 
Results of  = cos −1  
comparison  Vcm 
trigger SCRs

Output voltage
of rectifier 

Back
Solid State Drives 41
 Design of Controllers–
Current loop 1st order approximation

K c K r K 1Tm 1 K fi 1
Ia (s )
=
Tc (1 + sT3 ) =
H c (1 + sT3 )
Ia (s )
*
K c K r K 1 H cTm 1 1 + K fi
1
1+
Tc (1 + sT3 ) (1 + sT3 )
K fi K fi 1
Hc H c (1 + K fi )
Ki
= = =
(1 + sT3 ) + K fi  T3  (1 + sTi )
1 + s 

 1 + K fi 
Back
Solid State Drives 42
 220
Go to x10 = 7.09
310 .5
Go to
Go to

Go to