Aminoff’s

Electrodiagnosis
in Clinical
Neurolog y
Commissioning Editor: Lotta Kryhl
Editorial Assistant: Emma Cole
Project Manager: Nancy Arnott/Maggie Johnson
Design: Stewart Larking
Illustration Manager: Gillian Richards
Illustrator: Jennifer Rose
Marketing Manager (USA/UK): Helena Mutak/Gaynor Jones
 Aminoff’s
Electrodiagnosis
in Clinical
Neurology
SIXTH EDITION

Michael J. Aminoff, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P

Distinguished Professor
Department of Neurology
School of Medicine
University of California, San Francisco
San Francisco, California, USA

With 49 Contributing Authors

SAUNDERS is an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
# 2012, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 1: “The Emergence of Electrophysiology as an Aid to Neurology” by Mary A. B. Brazier is in

the Public Domain.
Chapter 20: “Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Movement Disorders” by Mark Hallett is in the Public
Domain.
First edition 1980
Second edition 1986
Third edition 1992
Fourth edition 1999
Fifth edition 2005

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Saunders
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Electrodiagnosis in clinical neurology. – 6th ed.
1. Electrodiagnosis. 2. Nervous system–Diseases–Diagnosis.
616.8’07547-dc22

ISBN-13: 9781455703081
eBook ISBN: 9781455726769

Printed in China
Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my wife, Jan
This page intentionally left blank
Contributors

VIVIEN C. ABAD, M.D., M.B.A EILEEN E. BIRCH, Ph.D.

Sleep Disorders Center Director, Pediatric Eye Research Laboratory
Palo Alto Foundation Retina Foundation of the Southwest;
Palo Alto, California, USA Adjunct Professor
Chapter 33: Polysomnographic Evaluation of Sleep Disorders Department of Ophthalmology
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
DAVID C. ADAMS, M.D. Dallas, Texas, USA
Associate Professor Chapter 23: Visual Evoked Potentials in Infants and Children
Department of Anesthesiology
University of Vermont College of Medicine THOMAS P. BLECK, M.D.
Burlington, Vermont, USA Professor
Chapter 30: Intraoperative Monitoring by Evoked Potential Department of Neurological Sciences
Techniques Rush Medical College
Chicago, Illinois, USA
JAMES W. ALBERS, M.D., Ph.D. Chapter 35: Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Brain Death:
Emeritus Professor A Critical Appraisal
Department of Neurology
University of Michigan Medical School CHARLES F. BOLTON, M.D.
Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA Adjunct Professor
Chapter 36: Electrophysiologic Techniques in the Evaluation Department of Medicine
of Patients with Suspected Neurotoxic Disorders Queen’s University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
MICHAEL J. AMINOFF, M.D., D.Sc. Chapter 34: Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Patients
Distinguished Professor in the Intensive Care Unit
Department of Neurology
School of Medicine MARY A.B. BRAZIER, Ph.D. (deceased)
University of California, San Francisco Professor, Departments of Anatomy and Physiology
San Francisco, California, USA David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA
Chapter 3: Electroencephalography: General Principles Los Angeles, California, USA
and Clinical Applications Chapter 1: The Emergence of Electrophysiology as an Aid
Chapter 11: Clinical Electromyography to Neurology
Chapter 21: Evaluation of the Autonomic Nervous System
Chapter 26: Somatosensory Evoked Potentials JEFFREY W. BRITTON, M.D.
Chapter 27: Somatosensory Evoked Potentials in Infants Associate Professor
and Children Department of Neurology
Chapter 36: Electrophysiologic Techniques in the Evaluation of Mayo Clinic College of Medicine
Patients with Suspected Neurotoxic Disorders Rochester Minnesota, USA
Chapter 5: Electroencephalographic Artifacts and Benign Variants

vii
viii CONTRIBUTORS

MARK B. BROMBERG, M.D., Ph.D. PEDRO COUTIN-CHURCHMAN, M.D., Ph.D.

Professor Technical Director
Department of Neurology Department of Clinical Neurophysiology
School of Medicine Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center
University of Utah Los Angeles, California, USA
Salt Lake City, Utah, USA Chapter 8: Topographic Mapping, Frequency Analysis, and Other
Chapter 12: Quantitative Electromyography Quantitative Techniques in Electroencephalography

DAVID BURKE, M.D., D.Sc. JASPER R. DAUBE, M.D.

Bushell Professor of Neurology Professor
Royal Prince Alfred Hospital; Department of Neurology
Associate Dean [Research] Mayo Clinic College of Medicine
Sydney Medical School Rochester, Minnesota, USA
University of Sydney Chapter 13: Nerve Conduction Studies
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Chapter 14: Microneurography and its Potential Clinical ANDRÉE DURIEUX-SMITH, Ph.D.
Applications Professor Emeritus
University of Ottawa;
JOHN A. CADWELL, B.S.E.E, M.D. Scientific Director
Director of Engineering Institut de Recherche de l’Hôpital Montfort
Cadwell Laboratories, Inc. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Kennewick, Washington, USA Chapter 25: Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials in Infants
Chapter 2: Electrophysiologic Equipment and Electrical Safety and Children

MICHAEL S. CARTWRIGHT, M.D. ANDREW EISEN, M.D.

Assistant Professor Professor Emeritus
Department of Neurology Division of Neurology
Wake Forest University School of Medicine Department of Medicine
Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA University of British Columbia
Chapter 16: Neuromuscular Ultrasound as a Complement to the Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Electrodiagnostic Evaluation Chapter 26: Somatosensory Evoked Potentials

RONALD G. EMERSON, M.D.

GREGORY D. CASCINO, M.D. Adjunct Professor
Whitney MacMillan, Jr, Professor of Neurosciences Department of Neurology
Department of Neurology Columbia University College of Physicians
Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Surgeons
Rochester, Minnesota, USA New York, New York, USA
Chapter 9: Intraoperative Electroencephalographic Monitoring Chapter 30: Intraoperative Monitoring by Evoked Potential
During Carotid Endarterectomy and Cardiac Surgery Techniques
ROBERT CHEN, M.A., M.B.B.Chir., M.Sc. JEROME ENGEL, Jr., M.D., Ph.D.
Professor Jonathan Sinay Distinguished Professor of Neurology,
Division of Neurology Neurobiology, and Psychiatry and Biobehavioral
Department of Medicine Sciences
University of Toronto; David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA
Senior Scientist Los Angeles, California, USA
Toronto Western Research Institute Chapter 6: Video-EEG Monitoring for Epilepsy
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Chapter 28: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Role of Magnetic
Stimulation in Neurology
 Contributors ix

MORRIS A. FISHER, M.D. MARK HALLETT, M.D.

Professor Chief, Human Motor Control Section
Department of Neurology National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine National Institutes of Health
Maywood, Illinois, USA Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Chapter 18: H-Reflex and F-Response Studies Chapter 20: Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Movement Disorders

JOSEPH M. FURMAN, M.D., Ph.D. MATTHEW C. KIERNAN, Ph.D., D.Sc.

Professor Professor
Departments of Otolaryngology, Neurology, Department of Neurology
Bioengineering, and Physical Therapy Prince of Wales Clinical School
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine University of New South Wales & Neuroscience
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA Research Australia
Chapter 32: Vestibular Laboratory Testing Randwick, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Chapter 15: Nerve Excitability: A Clinical Translation
DOUGLAS S. GOODIN, M.D.
Professor KENNETH D. LAXER, M.D.
Department of Neurology Professor Emeritus
School of Medicine Department of Neurology
University of California, San Francisco School of Medicine
San Francisco, California, USA University of California, San Francisco;
Chapter 29: Event-Related Potentials Director, Sutter Pacific Epilepsy Program
California Pacific Medical Center
San Francisco, California, USA
ARI J. GREEN, M.D., M.C.R.
Chapter 7: Invasive Clinical Neurophysiology in Epilepsy
Debbie and Andy Rachleff Distinguished Professor
and Movement Disorders
of Neurology
Departments of Neurology and Ophthalmology
ALAN D. LEGATT, M.D., Ph.D.
University of California, San Francisco
Professor
San Francisco, California, USA
Department of Neurology
Chapter 22: Visual Evoked Potentials, Electroretinography, and
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Other Electrodiagnostic Approaches to the Visual System
Bronx, New York, USA
Chapter 24: Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials: Methodology
CHRISTIAN GUILLEMINAULT, M.D., D.M., Interpretation, and Clinical Application
D. Biol.
Professor CINDY SHIN YI LIN, Ph.D.
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science School of Medical Sciences
Stanford University School of Medicine University of New South Wales
Stanford, California, USA Randwick
Chapter 33: Polysomnographic Evaluation of Sleep Disorders Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Chapter 15: Nerve Excitability: A Clinical Translation
JIN S. HAHN, M.D.
Professor WILLIAM J. MARKS, Jr., M.D.
Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences Professor
Stanford University School of Medicine Department of Neurology
Stanford, California, USA School of Medicine
Chapter 4: Neonatal and Pediatric Electroencephalography University of California, San Francisco
San Francisco, California, USA
Chapter 7: Invasive Clinical Neurophysiology in Epilepsy
and Movement Disorders
x CONTRIBUTORS

MARC R. NUWER, M.D., Ph.D FRANK W. SHARBROUGH III, M.D.

Professor Professor Emeritus
Department of Neurology Department of Neurology
David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA Mayo Clinic College of Medicine
Los Angeles, California, USA Rochester, Minnesota, USA
Chapter 8: Topographic Mapping, Frequency Analysis, and Chapter 9: Intraoperative Electroencephalographic
Other Digital Techniques in Electroencephalography Monitoring During Carotid Endarterectomy
and Cardiac Surgery
NICOLAE PETRESCU, M.D.
JOHN M. STERN, M.D.
Division of Neurology
Associate Professor
Department of Medicine
Department of Neurology
University of Toronto
David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Los Angeles, California, USA
Chapter 28: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Role of Magnetic
Chapter 6: Video-EEG Monitoring for Epilepsy
Stimulation in Neurology
VIDHYA SUBRAMANIAN, Ph.D.
TERENCE W. PICTON, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.C. Postdoctoral Fellow
Professor Emeritus Pediatric Eye Research Laboratory
Departments of Medicine and Psychology Retina Foundation of the Southwest
University of Toronto Dallas, Texas, USA
Toronto, Ontario, Canada Chapter 23: Visual Evoked Potentials in Infants and
Chapter 25: Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials in Infants Children
and Children
WILLIAM W. SUTHERLING, M.D.
SIMON PODNAR, M.D., D.Sc. Director, Neuromagnetism Laboratory
Associate Professor Huntington Medical Research Institutes;
Institute of Clinical Neurophysiology Medical Director
Division of Neurology Epilepsy and Brain Mapping Center
University Medical Center Ljubljana Huntington Hospital, Pasadena, California, USA
Ljubljana, Slovenia Chapter 10: Magnetoencephalography
Chapter 31: Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Sacral
Function MARGOT J. TAYLOR, Ph.D.
Professor
Departments of Paediatrics and Psychology
DEVON I. RUBIN, M.D. Hospital for Sick Children
Associate Professor University of Toronto
Department of Neurology Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Mayo Clinic College of Medicine Chapter 25: Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials in Infants
Jacksonville, Florida, USA and Children
Chapter 13: Nerve Conduction Studies
JOSEP VALLS-SOLÉ, M.D., Ph.D.
DONALD B. SANDERS, M.D. Professor
Professor Department of Medicine (Neurology)
Division of Neurology University of Barcelona
Department of Medicine Barcelona, Spain
Duke University School of Medicine Chapter 19: The Blink Reflex and Other Cranial Nerve
Durham, North Carolina, USA Reflexes
Chapter 17: Electrophysiologic Study of Disorders of
Neuromuscular Transmission
 Contributors xi

RICHARD A. VILLARREAL, B.S.E. FLORIS L. WUYTS, Ph.D.

Principal Design Engineer Professor
Cadwell Laboratories, Inc. Department of Medical Physics
Kennewick, Washington, USA University of Antwerp
Chapter 2: Electrophysiologic Equipment and Electrical Safety Antwerp, Belgium
Chapter 32: Vestibular Laboratory Testing
DAVID B. VODUŠEK, M.D., D.Sc.
Professor G. BRYAN YOUNG, M.D.
Department of Neurology Professor
Medical School Department of Clinical Neurological Sciences
University of Ljubljana University of Western Ontario
Ljubljana, Slovenia London, Ontario, Canada
Chapter 31: Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Sacral Function Chapter 34: Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Patients in the
Intensive Care Unit
FRANCIS O. WALKER, M.D.
Professor
Department of Neurology
Wake Forest University School of Medicine
Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
Chapter 16: Neuromuscular Ultrasound as a Complement to the
Electrodiagnostic Evaluation
This page intentionally left blank
Preface to the Sixth Edition
Electrophysiologic techniques provide an important
means of investigating the function of the nervous system
in health and disease and of defining the pathophysio-
logic relevance of the anatomic abnormalities that are
often defined so exquisitely by neuroimaging procedures.
They also make it possible to distinguish between disor-
ders that clinically may resemble each other, to recognize
disorders at a preclinical or subclinical stage, and to
monitor disease progression or the functional integrity
of different parts of the nervous system during proce-
dures that put them at risk. In addition, the electrophys-
iologic findings have been incorporated into a number of
disease classifications. Both neurologists and clinical
neurophysiologists therefore need to keep abreast of ad-
vances in the field to ensure that testing is used appropri-
ately, interpreted correctly, and performed optimally,
and that regulatory or recommended standards are
met. This volume encompasses the latest advances in
the field while providing details of the basic principles
of the various electrophysiologic techniques in current
use for neurologic purposes. The electrophysiologic find-
ings are integrated with the clinical context in which they
are obtained to ensure that their significance is appreci-
ated. Common artifacts are described to ensure that they
are not misinterpreted.
Over the last 50 years, electrodiagnosis has evolved
from an obscure and somewhat erudite field into an
established subspecialty (clinical neurophysiology) that
is an integral part of clinical neurology, with its own jour-
nals, professional societies, national and international
conferences, and testing organizations. It would be erro-
neous, however, to conclude that the specialty, with its
established clinical role, is no longer at the forefront of
medical advances, having yielded its place to neuroimag-
ing, neuroimmunology, and molecular biology. Indeed,
nothing could be further from the truth. New techniques
such as nerve excitability studies using threshold track-
ing, microneurography, neuromuscular ultrasonogra-
phy, and methods of studying cranial nerve reflexes
have increased the scope of the electrodiagnostic
examination and provided new insights into disease
mechanisms, in some instances at the ionic level, and into
treatment strategies. The refinement of evoked-potential
techniques to study the function of small fibers in the pe-
ripheral nervous system and the development of a more
comprehensive approach to the evaluation of the visual
system, using multifocal as well as full-field visual evoked
potentials, combined with various ancillary techniques,
promise to extend the diagnostic scope, utility, and reli-
ability of these electrophysiologic methods of evaluating
portions of the nervous system. New surgical treatments
for epilepsy and certain movement disorders have not
only extended the role of clinical neurophysiologists in
guiding operative intervention but have provided them
with remarkable opportunities for gaining fresh insights
into the operation of the nervous system by electrophys-
iologic studies. Magnetic stimulation, once a research
technique, is developing not only an important diagnos-
tic role but also a place for itself in the therapy of certain
neurologic disorders. A number of other electrophysio-
logic techniques, previously regarded essentially as inves-
tigative tools with limited clinical relevance, have now
gained importance in the evaluation and management
of patients with neurologic disease.
These advances have prompted the production of a
new—sixth—edition of this book, thirty-two years after
the first edition was published. New chapters have been
added, or existing ones expanded, to cover the methods
or applications that have developed in recent years. The
bibliography in most chapters has been limited to refer-
ences published in the last 25 years or to classic older
publications, but interested readers can refer to previous
editions for other older references. More comprehensive
bibliographies are provided in chapters dealing with de-
veloping topics, for the convenience of readers. The fo-
cus continues to be on the clinical application of various
techniques for evaluating the nervous system, and
methods that have little or no clinical utility are not dis-
cussed. The generous acceptance of previous editions has
encouraged me to believe that this approach is the
xiii
xiv PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION
correct one and that the book will remain useful for cli-
nicians, clinical neurophysiologists, and trainees in these
fields.
I am grateful to all the contributors to this new edition.
They were generous with their time, tolerant of my re-
quests, and went to a great deal of trouble either to up-
date their chapters from the last edition or—in the case
of new authors—to provide a summary of developments
in their own particular field of interest. It was
my pleasure and privilege to work with them. Some of
the illustrations in the book are taken from previously
published sources, as is acknowledged in the text, and
I am grateful for permission to reproduce them here.
Ms. Charlotta Kryhl, at Elsevier, was of enormous help
to me in the preparation of this edition, and I appreciate
all her assistance and kindness. I am grateful also to pro-
ject manager Maggie Johnson and the production team
at Elsevier for their efforts in bringing the volume to
fruition.
My wife, Jan, supported and encouraged me without
complaint as I worked on this book, and it is to her that
the volume is again dedicated. Our three children have
been a source of great pleasure and pride to us both over
the years, and I thank them for the many ways in which
they have enriched our lives. This book has grown with
them. When the first edition was published in 1980, our
daughter was a toddler and neither of our two sons had
been born. Alexandra is now a pediatrician undergoing
subspecialty training in rheumatology; Jonathan, an
attorney, is a federal public defender in Los Angeles;
and Anthony is a final-year law student at Harvard.
I can but admire their energy, enthusiasm, intellectual
curiosity, and professional focus, which I hope will bring
them much satisfaction. My own parents, now dead,
would have been pleased to see this new edition, for I re-
call the excitement with which they greeted earlier ones.
Finally, as I contemplate the pages of this sixth edition,
I recall with warmth and affection those who encouraged
my own interest in clinical neurology and neurophysiol-
ogy when I was training at University College Hospital,
the National Hospitals for Nervous Diseases at Queen
Square and Maida Vale, and the Middlesex Hospital in
London, England. I would like to believe that they—my
teachers—would have taken pride in this volume, and
I thank them for all that they did for me.
Michael J. Aminoff,
San Francisco, 2011
Preface to the First Edition
Fifty years have passed since Hans Berger’s first paper on
the human electroencephalogram. Over this time, electro-
encephalography has evolved into an investigative tech-
nique of undoubted practical value, and technologic
advances have permitted the development of a number
of new electrophysiologic approaches to neurologic diag-
nosis. These developments have led to certain difficulties
for clinicians and neurophysiologists alike. On the one
hand, the present-day physician is tempted to avail himself
of investigative procedures that he does not entirely un-
derstand and that provide him with information which
he is often unable to interpret. On the other hand, the
neurophysiologist is commonly faced with clinical prob-
lems that he fails to appreciate or to which there is no
ready solution by the means at his disposal. There is there-
fore a need for a conveniently sized monograph that pro-
vides a general introduction to the role of electrodiagnosis
in neurology and is directed at the clinical relevance of
the investigative procedures that are now within the prov-
ince of the electrophysiologist. In preparing the present
volume, it has therefore been my aim, and that of the
other contributors, to provide in simple terms a compre-
hensive but concise account of the clinical application of
various electrophysiologic methods of investigating the
function of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Some of these methods, such as electroencephalography
and electromyography, are admirably covered in encyclo-
pedic detail in certain textbooks aimed at specialists or
trainees in these fields. The chapters covering these topics
in the present volume are in no way intended to take the
place of such works; rather, they are directed at those who
need to know the principles, uses and limitations of the
methods, and who have to relate the information derived
from such studies to the clinical context of individual
cases. Certain quantitative aspects of these subjects have
also been considered, however, because of their potential
clinical utility. A number of the other electrophysiologic
methods that are covered in this book—such as the vari-
ous evoked potential techniques—have been developed
comparatively recently, and their clinical applications
are as yet incompletely defined. In view of the obvious
interest shown by increasing numbers of clinicians
and neurophysiologists in setting up facilities to undertake
such studies for clinical purposes, the technical aspects
of some of these subjects have been reviewed in
somewhat greater detail, although the emphasis has
remained on the practical relevance of the methods.
Electrophysiologic techniques that are of more limited
clinical utility at the present time, such as recording of
the contingent negative variation, have deliberately not
been considered.
I am greatly indebted to the contributors to this book,
all of whom have taken much time and trouble to survey
developments in their own particular fields of interest.
I am grateful also to those authors, editors, and pub-
lishers who have allowed us to reproduce illustrations
previously published elsewhere, and whose permission
is acknowledged in the text. The advice and understand-
ing that I received from Ms. Carole Baker and Mr. Bill
Schmitt of Churchill Livingstone, the publishers, are
greatly appreciated. Finally, it is a pleasure to acknowl-
edge the help, encouragement, and support that my wife,
Jan, gave me during all stages of the preparation of this
book.
Michael J. Aminoff, M.D.
xv
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Contents

Section I: Introduction
1. The Emergence of Electrophysiology as an Aid to Neurology 3
MARY A. B. BRAZIER
2. Electrophysiologic Equipment and Electrical Safety 15
JOHN A. CADWELL and RICHARD A. VILLARREAL

Section II: Electroencephalography and Magnetoencephalography

3. Electroencephalography: General Principles and Clinical Applications 37
MICHAEL J. AMINOFF
4. Neonatal and Pediatric Electroencephalography 85
JIN S. HAHN
5. Electroencephalographic Artifacts and Benign Variants 129
JEFFREY W. BRITTON
6. Video-EEG Monitoring for Epilepsy 143
JOHN M. STERN and JEROME ENGEL, Jr
7. Invasive Clinical Neurophysiology in Epilepsy and Movement Disorders 165
WILLIAM J. MARKS, Jr, and KENNETH D. LAXER
8. Topographic Mapping, Frequency Analysis, and Other Quantitative Techniques
in Electroencephalography 187
MARC R. NUWER and PEDRO COUTIN-CHURCHMAN
9. Intraoperative Electroencephalographic Monitoring During Carotid
Endarterectomy and Cardiac Surgery 207
GREGORY D. CASCINO and FRANK W. SHARBROUGH, III
10. Magnetoencephalography 219
WILLIAM W. SUTHERLING

Section III: Electromyography, Nerve Conduction Studies, and Related Techniques

11. Clinical Electromyography 233
MICHAEL J. AMINOFF
12. Quantitative Electromyography 261
MARK B. BROMBERG

xvii
xviii CONTENTS

13. Nerve Conduction Studies 289

JASPER R. DAUBE and DEVON I. RUBIN
14. Microneurography and its Potential Clinical Applications 327
DAVID BURKE
15. Nerve Excitability: A Clinical Translation 345
MATTHEW C. KIERNAN and CINDY SHIN YI LIN
16. Neuromuscular Ultrasound as a Complement to the Electrodiagnostic Evaluation 367
FRANCIS O. WALKER and MICHAEL S. CARTWRIGHT
17. Electrophysiologic Study of Disorders of Neuromuscular Transmission 385
DONALD B. SANDERS
18. H-Reflex and F-Response Studies 407
MORRIS A. FISHER
19. The Blink Reflex and Other Cranial Nerve Reflexes 421
JOSEP VALLS-SOLÉ
20. Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Movement Disorders 437
MARK HALLETT
21. Evaluation of the Autonomic Nervous System 455
MICHAEL J. AMINOFF

Section IV: Evoked Potentials and Related Techniques

22. Visual Evoked Potentials, Electroretinography, and Other Diagnostic Approaches
to the Visual System 477
ARI J. GREEN
23. Visual Evoked Potentials in Infants and Children 505
EILEEN E. BIRCH and VIDHYA SUBRAMANIAN
24. Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials: Methodology, Interpretation, and Clinical
Application 519
ALAN D. LEGATT
25. Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials in Infants and Children 553
TERENCE W. PICTON, MARGOT J. TAYLOR, and ANDRÉE DURIEUX-SMITH
26. Somatosensory Evoked Potentials 581
MICHAEL J. AMINOFF and ANDREW EISEN
27. Somatosensory Evoked Potentials in Infants and Children 603
MICHAEL J. AMINOFF
28. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Role of Magnetic Stimulation in Neurology 615
ROBERT CHEN and NICOLAE PETRESCU
29. Event-Related Potentials 633
DOUGLAS S. GOODIN
30. Intraoperative Monitoring by Evoked Potential Techniques 651
RONALD G. EMERSON and DAVID C. ADAMS
 Contents xix

Section V: Bladder, Bowel, and Sexual Dysfunction

31. Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Sacral Function 673
SIMON PODNAR and DAVID B. VODUŠEK

Section VI: Tests of Vestibular Function

32. Vestibular Laboratory Testing 699
JOSEPH M. FURMAN and FLORIS L. WUYTS

Section VII: Electrophysiologic Evaluation in Special Situations

33. Polysomnographic Evaluation of Sleep Disorders 727
VIVIEN C. ABAD and CHRISTIAN GUILLEMINAULT
34. Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Patients in the Intensive Care Unit 763
G. BRYAN YOUNG and CHARLES F. BOLTON
35. Electrophysiologic Evaluation of Brain Death: A Critical Appraisal 789
THOMAS P. BLECK
36. Electrophysiologic Techniques in the Evaluation of Patients with Suspected
Neurotoxic Disorders 813
MICHAEL J. AMINOFF and JAMES W. ALBERS

Index 831
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