Ion-exchange methods

In 1850, Thomas and Way performed some of the first scientific research that indicated the
existence of an ion exchange process. In their experiment, a solution of ammonium sulfate
was passed through soil. The filtrate collected was composed of calcium sulfate instead of
ammonium sulfate. The importance of this discovery (in ion exchange terms) was not fully
understood until later in that decade, when it was found that this reaction was reversible. Ion
exchange was then primary used to soften water.

The presence of calcium and/or magnesium in water results in water being considered “hard”.
Calcium and magnesium ions in water react with heat, metallic plumbing and chemical
agents such as detergents to decrease the effectiveness of nearly any cleaning task. Hard
water can be softened using an ion exchange softening process.

Ion exchange processes can also remove various charged atoms or molecules (ions) such as
nitrates, fluoride, sulphates, perchlorate, iron and manganese ions as well as toxic metals
(radium, uranium, chromium, etc.) from water.

The most typical application of ion exchange is the preparation of high purity water for
industrial applications, water softening, recovery or removal of metals in the chemical
industry.

Ion exchange resins

Synthetic and industrially produced ion exchange resins consist of small, microporous beads
that are insoluble in water and organic solvents. The most widely used base-materials are
polystyrene and polyacrylate. The diameter of the beads is in the range of 0.3 to 1.3 mm. The
beads are composed of around 50% water, which is dispersed in the gel-structured
compartments of the material.

Fig. 1: Ion exchange resins containing many fine pores filled with water.
Since water is dispersed homogenously throughout the bead, water-soluble materials can
move freely in and out. To each of the monomer units of the polymer, so called “functional
groups” are attached. These functional groups can interact with water-soluble species,
especially with ions. Ions are either positively charged (cations) or negatively charged
(anions). Since the functional groups are also charged, the interaction between ions and
functional groups is exhibited via electrostatic forces. Positively charged functional groups
interact with anions and negatively charged functional groups interact with cations.

The binding force between the functional group and the attached ion is relatively weak. The
exchange can be reversed by another ion passing across the functional group. This process
can be repeated continually, with one exchange reaction following another.

Fig. 2: A fixed and a mobile ion are changing places in so-called ion exchange reaction.

Ion exchange process

The main component of ion exchange equipment is a microporous exchange resin, which is
supersaturated with a loosely held solution. For water softening, this is usually done with
sulfonated polystyrene beds that are supersaturated with sodium to cover the bed surface. As
water passes through this resin bed, ions attach to the resin beads releasing the loosely held
solution into the water.

After a time, the beds become saturated and the exchange resin must be regenerated or
recharged. To regenerate, the ion exchange resin is flushed with a salt brine solution. The
sodium ions in the salt brine solution are exchanged with the ions, which are flushed out with
wastewater.
Fig. 3: The water softening and recharge process.
Intercalation
Solids produced by the reversible insertion of guest molecules into lattices are known as
intercalation compounds.

Graphite intercalation compounds

•Many layered solids form intercalation compounds, where a neutral molecule is inserted
between weakly bonded layers.
•KC8 has potassium ions that sit between the graphite layers, with a resulting increase in the
interlayer spacing of 200 pm.
•The K donates an electron to the graphite (forming K+) and the conductivity of the graphite
increases.
•Graphite electron-acceptor intercalation compounds have been made with NO3-, CrO3, Br2,
FeCl3, AsF5.

Titanium Disulfide
•Layered sulfide are also found for many oxides and sulfides of transition metals.
•Forming intercalation compounds with electron donors can greatly increase the conductivity.