How significant was the role of the African-Americans

in achieving American Independence?

When one study the history of the American Revolution, we find much focus is given to the
ideals of liberty, freedom and justice. Even, The Declaration of Independence opens up with
the idea that “all men are created equal.” But it turns out this war was not even about “all
men”, as many African-Americans had their own struggle, to be emancipated from slavery.
And they sticked to their own ideals and took up arms for both sides of the conflict depending
on which side would provide them a better avenue for freedom. So, here we are going to see
how valuable was this African-Americans participation in the war and how it helped the
colonists achieve victory.

Before we start with the discussion, we need to take a look at the historiography. It took years
for African-Americans to come in any historical discussions regarding American Revolution.
This historical amnesia1 was probably due to the scarce resources available about them. As
black soldiers enlisted in large numbers, we do find some sources such as: Pension records,
muster rolls or military rolls and missing slave notices on the local newspaper. 2 Now using
these sources there were some attempts made to write their history. First was by William C.
Nell who in 1850s chronicled their service, using their eulogies and testimonies which
showed how they participated in the same way as a white soldier for the War. But was
criticised for not mentioning the blacks who fled to fight alongside the British to gain
freedom. Then wrote Carter G. Woodson in his monograph about how thousands of slaves
from, Virginia, South Carolina and Georgia fled to the British during the war, and he showed
the Africa-Americans, free or enslaved as valorous ‘Patriotic’ Americans3. After this we find
writings on the same line as Woodson until 1940, when Herbert Aptheker showed how the
Revolution offered the black people an option of freedom as an escape from lifelong,
heritable slavery. He also provided estimates of Black participation in both the Loyalist and
colonist army and argued that “the desire of freedom is the central theme, the motivating
force”4 for their enlistment. Later, Benjamin Quarles further added that their loyalty was to
the principle, and were likely to join the side which would put up the best offer. Since that, an
array of scholars continues to describe the African-American’s contribution under the same
argument as Quarles.

Looking at the Historiography, we find African-Americans did participated in the war. But
were they important for the American cause? To answer that, we have to look at the histories
of African-Americans who sacrificed their life fighting for the colonists.

1
Nash (2006): 2
2
Van Buskirk (2017): pg. 6
3
Woodson, Carter G. The Negro in Our history
4
Herbert Aptheker, The Negro in the American Revolution (New York: International Publishers, 1940), 5–6.
Crispus Attucks was one such African-American who, is referred to in a petition to
Massachusetts Legislature as the first martyr of the Boston massacre of March 5 th, 17705 and
was regarded as one of the key figures leading upto it. He was a runaway who escaped
slavery6 and was working in the sea. On that night, he was at King Street tavern near the
Boston port, who after hearing a commotion, led a populace there and tried to fend off the
soldiers using heavy sticks. He in the process engaged with Capt. Preston and tried to pull his
musket, causing the British soldiers to open fire, killing Attucks in the process. Some
witnesses like John Hancock argued he caused the Boston massacre, whereas others like,
John Adams argued he was like a hero who led the Bostonians at the port 7. Even though, the
British were acquitted, but Attucks with his companions became the first popular martyrs of
the Revolution.

This was a significant instance of black heroism in American history, but there were
complications in terms of black enlistment into the patriot army. The official policy before
the American revolution prohibited Black enlistment, but they still were part of the military
in menial jobs like waggoners and this practice continued for decades. As the hostilities
intensified, there was a need to include Negroes into the military. We see that in the case of
New England where the militia of Concord and Lexington, where in the latter there was a
motley army of 77 which included a slave8, whose name was Prince Estabrook who fought in
Lexington Green, and while others blacks were in Concord in April 1775.9

After these battles, in May 1775, in the meeting of Committee of Safety it was decided, that
free black men would be enlisted but not slaves. Field officers facing a deficit in soldiers,
deceived the order and employed even slaves in their army. Barzillai Lew was one such
enlistee who enlisted in Massachusetts 27th Regiment and one of the, around 150 African-
Americans who fought in the Battle of Bunker Hill. As in its early stages, it was a poor man’s
revolution10, so we find a large number in black enlistment across states. Prominent among
those were Peter Salem, Salem Poor, in Massachusetts, Seymour Burr, Jeremy Jonah in
Connecticut and even a women named Deborah Garnett in Massachusetts. Salem and Poor
both of them fought in the Battle of Bunker Hill under the command of Major Samuel
Lawrence which ended with a British victory but with heavy losses to the British Army.
Important were the deaths of Major Pitcairn and Lieutenant colonel James Abercrombie who
were killed by Peter Salem and Salem Poor11 with both being commended for their service.

5
Nell (1850): pg. 6, 7
6
Fleming, Thomas Liberty! (New York: Penguin, 1997), p. 74
7
Nell (1850): pg. 17
8
Curt Johnson, Battle of American Revolution (New York: Bonanza Books, 1975), p. 33
9
A. J. Langguth, Patriots: The Men Who Started the American Revolution (New York: Simoon & Schuster, 1988),
p. 251
10
Nash (2006): Pg. 10
11
Kaplan and Kaplan, The Black Presence in the Era of American Revolution (Amherst: University of
Massachusetts Press: 1989), 21
They even saved their commander when he was about to be taken as prisoner by the British
troops.12

After Bunker Hill, Continental Congress took over the colonial militia to form the
Continental Army whose helm was held by George Washington. Washington after taking
command issued orders against enlisting blacks but those already in the army are allowed to
stay. Then after the black insurrection in Virginia, the Continental congress declare, to
formally declared all Blacks ineligible for military service in November 1775. 13 But the
weight of common sense and military necessity compelled the abandonment of the policy as
Washington recognized that slavery became a military weakness and due too loss of soldiers
because of Dunmore’s proclamation14. So, on December 1775, he issued orders of enlistment
of blacks but continued ban on recruiting slaves. Even then male slaves were employed and
reported for duty as substituted for their owner who supported the Revolution but did not
want to fight in the battlefield like William Kitchen sent his slave Nate Griffin in his stead.15

Black military enlistment was still low as prejudices against blacks still persisted. But after
the defeat in Battle of New York in 1776, colonists were forced to enlist African-Americans
promising them freedom for their service. This allowed provinces to fulfil their enlistment
quotas by enlisting freed or newly freed black soldiers. As per a Hessian officer’s
observation, every colonial regiment had negroes in abundance. Between October 22 and
November 20, 1777, Colonel Christopher Greene led 400 soldiers, mainly free blacks to
defend Fort Mercer on the Delaware river. As per Philipp Foner, black continental fends off
waves of attacks of from the Hessians and British, but he retreated with the surviving black
soldiers with him16. Similar large-scale recruitment was held in New Jersey, North Carolina,
Maryland, as well. But among the most distinguished group of Black recruits for the Patriot
cause was the First Rhode Island Regiment.

This regiment was formed after the passage of Rhode Island Resolution for Negro
Recruitment of 1778, after the British had conquered Rhode Island capital, Newark. This
allowed discharge for any slave from their master if they enlisted in the service of the
Continental army under Col. Christopher Greene, receiving bounties and wages like white
soldier. Owners discouraged the blacks but blacks and ex-slaves joined the army in large
numbers. They were primarily included in the First Regiment which as per historians had
between 225-250 blacks sign up.17 This regiment in the Battle of Rhode Island between
August 5 and 31, 1778, defended the Continental’s right flank causing heavy causalities to

12
Booker T. Washington, The Story of the Negro (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 315
13
Phillip Foner, Blacks in the American Revolution, (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1976), 46
14
Frey (2005): 117
15
Benjamin Quarles, Negro in the American Revolution (North Carolina: university of North Carolina Press,
1961) 59-60
16
Foner: 327-328
17
Gilbert (2012): 150
the side of Hessians and British. Led by Lieutenant Colonel Olney, they also fought in
defending the Red Bank under Lieutenant Colonel Olney against a massive Hessian troop
which is pronounced as one of the most heroic actions of the war 18 and also fought in Fort
Oswego and Battle of Yorktown as well acting as the most fearsome unit on the American
side and inspiring others throughout the war

Similar instances of Black regiments have been found in Connecticut, and Massachusetts. In
Connecticut, a Congressional committee in 1777 decided on recruiting newly freed blacks
and slaves into the Continental army with state paying the owner recruitment bounty which
would half the slave’s “value”19 To fulfil state quota, Connecticut enlisted black soldiers in
large numbers. They served in Colonel Butler’s regiment and were also employed in Second
company of Connecticut’s fourth regiment. As per the military rolls close to three hundred
black soldiers served in Connecticut regiment and fought for the continental army. In 1778,
Massachusetts, with the need to fill the quota of 15 regiments, enlisted everyone, even
including Negroes. Then a legislative committee decided to form two regiments of black
soldiers: one under Major Samuel Adams, and other under Colonel Middleton called “Bucks
of Massachusetts”. It is suggested that the latter acted as guerrilla force defending Boston.
And as per William Nell, Bucks alongside Colored regiments of Connecticut, and Rhode
Island fought in the Battle of Yorktown as well20. Similar process for black enlistment is seen
in Pennsylvania as well21.

In the navy we can see a large black enlistement. In the case of Virginia, Negro seamen
fought in large number on vessels like the Patriot, the Dragon, the Hero and the Tempest.
Many of them performed extraordinary services and held higher ranks like James Sorrell,
Cuffee, “Captain” Starlins and Caesar Tarrant with the last two even classified among the
heroes of American revolution as they bravely engaged in several sea fights against the
British and were held in high esteem by Virginian naval officers.22 There main duty was to
capture British vessels in Chesapeake Bay, to prevent the British from making raids on the
river plantations, to secure supplies for soldier on land and protect the shores of the state. The
above vessels fought actively like Dragon fought British ships in Rappahannock River and
cruised around the Eastern Shore of Maryland protecting shore against the British, the
Patriots captured a British vessel laden with stores which they supplied to forces at Boston.
Virginia also provided with blacks in the military as they had to fill in 15 regiments, creating
integrated regiments who fought in multiple battles in regions like North bridge, Yorktown,
Savannah, and Stony Point among others.23 But there were two prominent Black Patriots who
18
Nell (1850): 127
19
Livermore An Historical Research Respecting the Opinions of the Founders of the Republic on Negroes As
Slaves, As Citizens, and As Soldiers (Boston: J. Wilson & son), 113-14
20
Nell (1850): 129
21
Gilbert (2012): 166-170
22
Jackson (1942): 264-265
23
Ibid.: Pg. 269, 273
acted as spies in the British Army. One was Saul Matthews from Norfolk County who served
in the American army in 1781 at Portsmouth and acted as a spy under British commanders for
Colonel Parker. He brough back valuable information for him and then led a party of
Americans to the British Garrison. Other was James Armistead who worked as a spy under
James Lafayette and was in the regiment of British General Benedict Arnold. He then kept
going back and forth and also worked under Cornwallis and kept open channel of information
to the army of the State, which helped the revolutionary forces defeat the British during the
Battle of Yorktown.24

So, from the above instances, we know that African-Americans were a significant part of the
Revolutionary army. But then the question arises: were they detrimental in the American
victory? To answer this question, one need to look at Dunmore proclamation. Now after the
Somerset vs Stewart case in England in 1772, which mandated that master could not forcibly
take their slaves out of the country. It didn’t abolish slavery but it was interpreted by many in
the American colonies as British eliminating slavery. Now this facilitated in getting
Dunmore’s proclamation validity, in an atmosphere of revolt by slaves in New England,
Virginia and Boston and many fleeing to the side of the British. So, he wrote to the secretary
of state in London, to arms the Negroes and whoever will join them shall be declared free
which was approved25. He then formed the men into the British Ethiopian Regiment led by
Thomas Byrd who were instrumental in the battle at Norfolk. Since Patriots didn’t have such
a policy many blacks were fleeing to the other side, estimated to be about than 30,00 blacks.
Such loss of able-men and further defeat in the Battle of New York, led to a near situation of
surrender. So, with the white hesitance to join the army, the enlistment of blacks, from being
an option became a necessity for winning the revolution

So, we can conclude that the participation of African-Americans was important for achieving
American Independence. But did they get their freedom from slavery? Some of them did who
performed heroic ventures in the battles like James Armistead, Peter Salem and many more.
And many also continue to remain under the shackles. On the British side as well the
remaining members of regiment after the small pox epidemic killed most of them, were
working as slaves in other British colonies like Sierra Leone. So, after all their hardwork
slavery continued to function, but it finally ended in 1865, following the Civil War.

24
White, Deborah Gray (2013). Freedom on my Mind: A History of African Americans (Volume 1 ed.). Boston:
Bedford/ St. Martin's. pp. 154–155
25
Woody Holton, Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the Revolution in Virginia
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), pp. 141
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