1.

The Wave Functions

1. The Schrodinger Equation

2. The Statistical Interpretation

3. Probability

4. Normalization

5. Momentum

6. The Uncertainty Principle

 1.1. The Schrodinger Equation

The dynamical state of a particle is completely specified by a wave function Y.

For a non-relativistic, spinless particle,

the evolution of Y(r,t) is governed by the Schrodinger equation

¶Y !2 2
i! =- Ñ Y +V Y
¶t 2m

æ ¶2 ¶2 ¶2 ö
Ñ f =ç 2 + 2 + 2÷ f
2
Laplacian
è ¶x ¶y ¶z ø

h
!= = 1.054572 ´ 10-34 J s
2p
 Quantization Rule

The Schrodinger equation can be obtained by applying the operator rules

¶ !
E ® i! p® Ñ r®r
¶t i

to the classical relation for a conservative system

p2
E= +V
2m

so that
¶ æ !2 2 ö
i! Y = ç - Ñ + V ÷Y p × p ® - !2 Ñ × Ñ
¶t è 2m ø
 2. The Statistical Interpretation

Born: Y = Probability amplitude

b
d x Y ( x, t )
2
ò
a
= probability of finding particles between a & b at time t.
¥
d x Y ( x, t )
2
ò
-¥

likely to find particle here

no chance of finding particle here

 Philosophy
l Realist (Einstein): There is an objective reality. Causality & locality hold. Statistical
nature of quantum theory means that it is incomplete (there are hidden variables).

l Orthodox (Copenhagen interpretation / Born ): Statistical nature of measurement is a

fundamental property of nature (“strict” causality does not exist).

l Agnostic: No need to worry about such metaphysical questions.

Answer to the question:

“Where is the particle just before measurement shows that it is at point C.

l Realist : At C.
l Orthodox: Nowhere.
l Agnostic: Meaningless question.
John Bell
see p.4 &
footnote
 Collapse of Wave Function

Repeating a measurement right away always gives the same value.

Wave function collapses to an eigenfunction of the measurement operator.

 3. Probability
3.1. Discrete Variables

Let N(j) = number of people whose age is j.

In a certain room,
N(14) = 1, N(15) = 1, N(16) = 3, N(22) = 2, N(24) = 2, N(25) = 5,
N(j) = 0, otherwise ¥
Total number of people: N = å N ( j ) = 14
j=0

Probability of finding a person of age j in room:

N ( j)
P ( j) =
N
Probability of finding a person of age j or k :

P ( j ) + P (k )
Can always find a person of age between 0 and ¥ :
¥

å P ( j) = 1
j=0
Sum rule
 Most probable age : 25
(highest probability)

Median age : 23
( 7 people with age below 23; 7 above)
jm -1 ¥

å P ( j) = å P ( j)
j=0 j = jm +1

¥
Average age : 21 j = å j P ( j)
j=0
Expectation value

Average (expectation) value of a function f of j :

¥
f ( j) = å f ( j) P ( j)
j=0
 Most probable j = 5.

ì 1 8ü ì 1 2 ü
í P ( 4 ) = P ( 6 ) = , P ( 5) = ý íP ( j) = for j = 1, 2,3, 4,6,7,8,9, P ( 5) = ý
î 10 10 þ î 10 10 þ
4 9 4 9
å P ( j) = 1 = å P ( j)
j =1 j =6
median j = 5. å P ( j) = 4 = å P ( j)
j =1 j =6

1 8 1 1 2
j = 4´ + 5´ + 6´ = 5 mean j = 5. j = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 ) ´ + 5´ = 5
10 10 10 10 10

Variance ( Standard deviation ) : (j- )

2 2 2
sº j = j2 - 2 j j + j = j2 - j

1 8 1 1 1 2
s 2 = 1´ + 0 ´ + 1´ = s 2 = 2 (16 + 9 + 4 + 1) ´ + 0´ = 4
10 10 10 5 10 10
3.2. Continuous Variables

Probability of variable having a value between x and x+dx is r(x) dx for dx ® 0.

r = probability density.
Probability of variable having a value between a and b is
b
Pab = ò r ( x ) dx
a

¥
ò r ( x ) dx = 1
-¥

¥
x = ò x r ( x ) dx
-¥

¥
f ( x) = ò f ( x ) r ( x ) dx
-¥

(x - x )
¥
r ( x ) dx = (x - )
2
s =ò
2 2 2
-¥
x = x2 - x
 Example 1.1
A rock drops from rest a height h. What is the time average of the distance dropped?

Answer: Let x(t) be the distance dropped at time t, with x(T) = h.

T 1 T
x =ò x (t ) r (t ) d t = ò x (t ) d t
0 T 0

1
All time intervals of the same length are the same. \ r (t ) =
T
1 2 1
Constant acceleration : x (t ) = g t with h = g T2
2 2

g T 1 1
x =
2T ò
0
t2 d t =
6
gT 2 = h
3
 Example 1.1 Alternative Solution

Let x be the random variable ( as Griffiths assumed by measuring a million photos )

h
x = ò xr ( x) d x
0

dt 1 dt
r ( x ) d x = r (t ) d t ® r ( x ) = r (t ) = ×
dx T dx
1 2 2x dt 1
x= gt ® t= ® =
2 g dx 2g x
1 1
r ( x) = = where
1
h = g T2
T 2g x 2 hx 2

1 h 1
x =
2 h ò
0
x dx = h
3
 4. Normalization
b
d x Y ( x, t )
2
ò a
= probability of finding particles between a & b at time t.
¥
d x Y ( x, t )
2
ò -¥

Y ( x, t )
2
¥
r ( x, t ) = d x Y ( x, t )
2
\ ¥
d x Y ( x, t )
2
if ò = N is finite.
ò
-¥
-¥ ( Y is square-integrable
or normalizable )

1
Setting F ( x, t ) = Y ( x, t ) r ( x, t ) = F ( x, t )
2
®
N
¥
d x F ( x, t )
2
and ò -¥
=1

( F is normalized )
 Schrodinger Eq. Preserves Normalization
d ¥ ¥ ¶
d x Y ( x, t ) Y ( x, t )
2 2

d t ò-¥
= ò dx
-¥ ¶t

¶ ¶ ¶Y* ¶Y
= (Y Y) = Y + Y*
2
Y *

¶t ¶t ¶t ¶t

¶Y !2 ¶ 2Y ¶Y* ! 2 ¶ 2 Y*
i! =- +V Y ® -i ! =- + V Y*
¶t 2m ¶ x 2 ¶t 2m ¶ x 2

¶Y ! ¶Y
2 2 ¶Y* !2 ¶ 2 Y*
i ! Y* =- Y* 2 + V Y* Y -i ! Y=- Y + V Y *
Y
¶t 2m ¶x ¶t 2m ¶ x 2

¶ 2 ! æ * ¶ 2 Y ¶ 2Y* ö ! ¶ æ * ¶Y ¶Y * ö
\ Y =- çY - Y÷ = - çY - Y÷
¶t 2m i è ¶x 2
¶x 2
ø 2m i ¶ x è ¶x ¶x ø
¥
d ¥ ! æ * ¶Y ¶Y ö *
if Y is normalizable
d x Y ( x, t )
2

d t ò-¥
® =- Y - Y =0
2m i çè ¶x ¶ x ÷ø -¥
(Y ® 0 as |x| ® ¥ )
 Equation of Continuity
¶ 2 ! ¶ æ * ¶Y ¶Y * ö
Y =- çY - Y÷
¶t 2m i ¶ x è ¶x ¶x ø
¶ !
Ñ × éë Y *ÑY - ( ÑY * ) Y ùû
2
3D case : Y =-
¶t 2m i

® ¶r dr Equation of continuity.
+ Ñ× j = 0 =
¶t dt Conservation of probability.
where 2
r= Y

j=
!
2m i
(
Y*ÑY - ( ÑY * ) Y )
! æ * ¶Y ¶Y * ö
jx = çY - Y÷
2m i è ¶ x ¶ x ø
See Prob. 1.14
 5. Momentum
¥ ¥
x = ò d x x Y ( x, t ) = ò d x Y* ( x, t ) x Y ( x, t )
2
Expectation value of x :
-¥ -¥

á x ñ = average value of x measured on an ensemble of particles in the same state.

Reminder: repeated measurements (within a short time interval)

on a particle gives only ONE value of x.

d ¥ ¶ ! ¥ ¶ æ * ¶Y ¶Y * ö
Y ( x, t ) = -
2mi ò-¥
2
x = ò dx x dx x çY - Y÷
dt -¥ ¶t ¶x è ¶x ¶x ø
b dg x =b b df
Integration by part : òa f d x = ò f d g = f g x =a - ò g
x =b
dx
dx x =a a dx

d x ! ¥ æ * ¶Y ¶Y * ö ¥
* ! ¶
2mi ò-¥
= d x ç Y - Y ÷ ò-¥
= d x Y Y
dt è ¶ x ¶ x ø m i ¶x
¥
º vx = ò d x Y*v x Y
-¥

® 1 !
v= p p= Ñ ( Operator rule for 1st quantization )
m i
In general, any dynamical function f (r, p) in classical mechanics can become a
quantum operator by applying the “quantization” rule

¶ !
E ® i! p® Ñ r®r ( r - representation )
¶t i
where upon

* æ ! ö
f ( r, p ) = ò dt Y f ç r , Ñ÷ Y
All space è i ø

Eg. p2 1 ! ! !2 2
T= ® Ñ× Ñ = - Ñ
2m 2m i i 2m

!
L = r´p ® r ´Ñ
i
Full discussion in Chapter 3.
 6. The Uncertainty Principle

de Broglie formula:
If Y of a particle is a travelling wave of wavelength l,
the magnitude of the momentum of the particle is
h 2p
p= =!k k= = wave number
l l
For a wave with a definite l, p is definite but x is undefined.

For a wave with a small spread in l, p is spreaded while x is better defined.

For a wave composited of all l’s, p is undefined while x is definite.

!
Uncertainty principle: s xs p ³
2
sf = standard deviation of the values of f measured
over an ensemble of identically prepared systems.