2.

Time Independent Schrodinger Equation

1. Stationary States

2. The Infinite Square Well

3. The Harmonic Oscillator

4. The Free Particle

5. The Delta Function Potential

6. The Finite Square Well

 1.1. Stationary States

Schrodinger Equation :

Assume (  is separable )

= const = E if V = V(r)

Time-independent Schrodinger eq.

 Properties of Separable 
1. Stationary States: Expectation values are time-independent.

In particular :
2. Definite E :

Hamiltonian : 

 Time-independent Schrodinger eq. becomes

3. Expands Any General Solution :

Any general solution of the time dependent Schrodinger eq. can be written as

where

The cn s are determined from

{ n } is complete.

Proof :


 Example 2.1
A particle starts out as

What is ( x, t ) ?
Find the probability, and describe its motion.

Ans.

if c &  are real.

Read Prob 2.1, 2.2

 2. The Infinite Square Well

  0 for x  [ 0, a ]

for x  [ 0, a ]

General solution.

Allowable boundary conditions ( for 2nd order differential eqs ) :

 and   can both be continuous at a regular point (i.e. where V is finite).
Only  can be continuous at a singular point (i.e. where V is infinite).
 Boundary Conditions

B.C.:  continuous at x = 0 and a , i.e.,

 

n = 0    0 (not physically meaningful).

  k give the same independent solution.

E is quantized.
Normalization:
 Eigenstates

with B.C.

has a set of normalized eigenfunctions

with eigenvalues

n = 1 is the ground (lowest energy) state.

All other states with n > 1 are excited states.

even, 0 node. odd, 1 node. even, 2 nodes.

 Properties of the Eigenstates

1. Parity = () n  1 . [ True for any symmetric V ]

2. Number of nodes  n  1. [ Universal ]
3. Orthogonality: [ Universal ]

if m  n.

Orthonormality:

4. Completeness: [ Universal ]

Any function f on the same domain and with the same boundary conditions
as the n s can be written as
 Proof of Orthonormality

Orthonormality
 Condition for Completeness
Let where { n } is orthonormal.

Then

 if { n } is complete.
 Conclusion

Stationary state of energy is

General
solution:

where

so that
 Example 2.2
A particle in an infinite well has initial wave function
Find ( x, t ).

Ans.

Using

we have
Normalization:

 for n odd

B = Bernoulli numbers


In general :

{ n } orthonormal

 normalized

If then | cn |2 = probability of particle in state n.

  H   average of En weighted by the occupation probability.

 Example 2.3.
In Example 2.2, ( x, t ) closely resembles 1 (x) ,
which suggests | c1 |2 should dominate. Indeed,

where 

Do Prob 2.8, 2.9

 3. The Harmonic Oscillator
Classical Mechanics:

Hooke’s Newton’s 2nd law.

law:

Solution:

Potential energy:
parabolic

Any potential is parabolic near a local minimum.

where
Quantum Mechanics:

Schrodinger eq.:

Methods for solution:

1. Power series ( analytic )  Hermite functions.
2. Number space (algebraic)  a , a+ operators.
 3.1. Algebraic Method
Schrodinger eq. in operator
form:
Commutator of operators A and B :

Eg. f

 canonical commutation relation

Let ,  real, positive constants


Set

 

Let 

i.e., H , a+a and a a+ all share the same eigenstates.

Their eigenvalues are related by

where
 Adjoint or Hermitian Conjugate of an Operator
Given an operator A , its adjoint (Hermitian conjugate) A+ is defined by

 , 

Proof : ,  real & positive

Integration by part gives: ( ,   0 at boundaries )

 Note:
 n-Representation
Consider an operator a with the property

Define the operator with its eigenstates and eigenvalues

Meaning of a+ n :

 a+ n is an eigenstate with eigenvalue larger than that of  n by 1. a+  raising op

Meaning of a n :

 a n is an eigenstate with eigenvalue smaller than that of  n by 1. a  lowering op

Let N be bounded below ( there is a ground state 0 with eigenvalue 0 ).

  i.e.

Hence
with
 Normalization

Let ( ,   normalization const. )

with n

Assuming ,  real
:
 Orthonormality

for m  n
 Harmonic Oscillator : n-Representation

 a ~ a , a+ ~ a+ , a+ a ~ a+ a 

Equation for 0 :


 0

Set A real :

 Normalized
 Example 2.4
Find the first excited state of the harmonic oscillator.

Ans:

 Example 2.5
Find  V  for the nth state of the harmonic oscillator.

Ans:

Do Prob 2.13
 3.2. Analytic Method

is solved analytically.

Set 

Set
 where
 Asymptotic Form

For x,   

 as    not normalizable

Set  h solved by Frobenius method

(power series expansion)
 h()

Asume 

 recursion formula
 Termination

Even & odd series starting with a0 & a1 , resp.

For large j :


explodes as  

 Power series must terminate. Set   j  n+2


 with E  En
 Hermite Polynomials

Hermite polynomials :
n even : set a0  1 , a1  0
n odd : set a0  0 , a1  1
an  2n

Normalized
:
 n

n3

n2

n1

n0
 | 100 |2 ,  (x)

Classical distribution :

A = amplitude

Do Prob 2.15, 2.16 Read Prob 2.17

 4. The Free Particle

Eigenstate:

Stationary state:

to right phase
to left velocity

k > 0 : to right
Reset:
k < 0 : to left
 Oddities about k (x,t)

Classical mechanics : 

not normalizable

k is not physical (cannot be truly realized physically ).

k is a mathematical solution
( can be used to expand a physical state or as an idealization ).
 Wave Packets

General free particle state :

wave packet

Fourier transform
 Example 2.6
A free particle, initially localized within [ a, a ], is released at t  0 :

A, a real & positive

Find ( x, t ).
Ans:

Normalize ( x, 0 ) : 


 FT of Gaussian
is a Gaussian.
t=0
 Group Velocity
In general : (k) = dispersion

For a well defined wave packet,  is narrowly peaked at some k = k0 .

To calculate ( x, t ), one need only

(  moves with velocity 0 . )

Define group velocity 3-D

Free particle wave packet : 

Reminder: phase velocity Do Prob 2.19 Read Prob 2.20

 Example 2.6 A
Consider a free particle wave packet with  (k) given by

A, a real & positive

Find ( x, t ).
Ans:

Normalize ( x, 0 ) :



t = { 0, 1, 2 }ma2/
5. The Delta Function Potential

1. Bound States & Scattering States

2. The Delta Function Well
 5.1. Bound States & Scattering States

Classical turning points x0 :

If V(r)  E for r  D
and V(r) > E for r  D,
then the system is in a bound state for r 
D.
If V(r)  E everywhere,
then the system is in a scattering state.

Quantum systems (w / tunneling) :

If V() > E,
then the system is in a bound
state.
If V() < E,
then the system is in a scattering state.

If V() = 0, then
E < 0  bound state.
E > 0  scattering state.
 The Delta Function

Dirac delta function :

such that
 f , a, and c > b

 is a generalized function ( a distribution).

[ To be used ONLY inside integrals. ]

Setting f (x) = 1 gives

Rule : ( meaningful only inside integrals.)

Proof :
2. The Delta Function Well

For x  0 :

Bound states : E<0

Scattering states : E>0

Boundary conditions :
1.  continuous everywhere.
2.   continuous wherever V is finite.
 Bound States

For x  0 :

Bound states ( E < 0 ) : Set 

 real & positive

(  ) = 0 

 continuous at x  0  BC
 Discontinuity in 
 (x0) is discontinuous at V(x0)  .

Let

 continuous & finite 


 

 

Only one bound state

Normalization :


 Scattering States

Scattering states ( E > 0 ) : Set  for x  0

k real & positive

 continuous at x  0 

Let 
 2 eqs., 4 unknown, no normalization.

Scattering from left :

A : incident wave C : transmitted wave
B : reflected wave D=0
x

Reflection coefficient

Transmission coefficient
 Delta Function Barrier

 No bound states

For the scattering states, results can be obtained from

those of the delta function well by setting   .

Note: Since E < V inside the barrier,

T  0 is called quantum tunneling. ( T = 0 in CM)

Also: In QM, R  0 even if E > Vmax . Do Prob 2.24

( R = 0 in CM) Read Prob 2.26
6. The Finite Square Well
 Bound States ( E < 0 )

l &  are real & positive

 finite


Symmetry : 

 If (x) is a solution, (x) is also a solution.

 Even Solutions

 continuous at a :
 or
  continuous at a :

  where

 or
Graphic Solutions

E<0  z < z0
 Limiting Cases
1. Wide, deep well ( z0 large ) :
Lower solutions :

c.f. infinite well

2. Shallow, narrow well ( z0 <  / 2 ) :

Always 1 bound state.

Scattering States ( E > 0 )

l & k are real & positive

 Scattering from the Left

 continuous at a
:
  continuous at  a :
 continuous at a :

  continuous at a :

Eliminate C, D and express B , F in terms of A ( Prob 2.32 ) :

 T1 when i.e.
( well transparent )
( at energies of infinite well )

( Ramsauer-Townsend Effect
)

Do Prob 2.34