Unit III : PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

Mathematical Reasoning

Mathematical reasoning refers to the ability of a person to analyze problem

situations and construct logical arguments to create both conceptual foundations and
connections to be able to process the available information and solve the problems. The
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics ( 2000 ) stated that people who can reason
and think analytically “ tend to note patterns , structure , or regularities in both real world
situations and symbolic objects ; ask if those patterns accidental or if they occur for a
reason ; and conjecture and prove . “ Mathematical reasoning requires more than simply
memorizing facts but thinking beyond rules and procedures to form one’s own questions
and conjunctures.

Most occupations require good problem – solving skills. For instance , architects and engineers
must solve many complicated problems as they design and construct modern buildings that are
aesthetically pleasing , functional , and that meet stringent safety requirements. Two goals of this unit
are to help you become a better problem solver and to demonstrate that problem solving can be an
enjoyable experience.

Objectives

At the end of this unit , the student should be able to :

 Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made

about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
 Write clear and logical proofs.
 Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following
Polya’s four step.
 Organize one’s method and approaches for proving and solving problems.

When is a mathematical reasoning correct ? What methods can be used to construct

effective mathematical reasoning ?

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

LESSON I : INDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive Reasoning is the process of making general based on specific examples .

Examples include the following statements.

1. Every object that you release from your hand falls to the ground . Therefore , the
next object that you will release from your hand will fall to the ground.
2. Every crow I have ever seen is black . Therefore all crows are black.
3. Based on available data the Earth has revolved around the sun following an
elliptical path for million years. Therefore , the Earth will continue to revolve
around the sun in the same manner next year.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according to
some pattern you have observed , you are using inductive reasoning .

Example : Use inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.

a. 4 , 8 , 12 , 16 , ? b. 1 , 3 , 6 , 10 , 15 , ?

Solution

a. Each successive number is 4 larger than the proceeding number . Thus , we

predict that the next number in the list is 4 greater than 16 , which is 20.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2 . The second and the third numbers differ by 3.
It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than
the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5 , we predict that the next
number in the list will be 6 larger than 15 , which is 21.

Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In example we use
inductive reasoning to make conjecture about arithmetic procedure.

Example: Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture.

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8 , add 6 to the
product , divide the sum by 2 , and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to
make conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the
size of the original number.

Solution

Suppose we pick 7 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:

Original number : 7

Multiply by 8 : 7 x 8 = 56

Add 6 : 56 + 6 = 62

Divide by 2 : 62 ÷ 2 = 31

Subtract 3 : 31 – 3 = 28

We started with 7 and followed the procedure to produce 28 . Starting with 8 as our original
number produces a final result of 32 . Starting with 10 as our original number produces a final result
of 40 . Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400 . In each of these cases the resulting number is four
times the original number. We conjecture the following procedures a number that is four times the original
number.

EXERCISE SET

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.

a. 5 , 10, 15 ,20 , 25 , ? b. 2 , 5 , 10 , 17 , 26 . ?

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LESSON II : DEDUCTIVE REASONING

On the other hand , Deductive Reasoning is the process of making specific conclusions
based on general principles.
Examples of deductive reasoning include the following :

1. All men are mortal . I am a man .Therefore , I am mortal.

(General principle: If p implies q and p holds , then q must follow. )
2. Given two supplementary angles with one of them measuring 120 degrees , the
measure of the angle is60 degrees.
( General principle : Supplementary angles add up to 180 degrees ).

3. If 6x = 12 , then x = 2.
( General principle : If a ,b and c are real numbers and a = b , then ac = bd )ll .
4. All numbers are divisible by 3 , if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3 . Consider 339
. The sum of3 , 3 ,and 9 is 15 . Therefore 339 is divisible by 3 .

Example: Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number.

Procedure : Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8 , add 6 to the product , divide
the sum by 2 , and subtract 3 .

Solution

Let n represents the original number.

Multiply the number by 8 : 8n

Add 6 to the product : 8n + 6

8 n+6
Divide the sum by 2 : =4 n+3
2

Subtract 3 : 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n

We started with n and ended with 4n . The procedure given in this example produces a
number that is four times the original number.

EXERCISE SET

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedures produces a number that is
three times the original number.
 Procedure : Pick a number. Multiply the number by6, add 10 to the product, divide
the sum by two , and subtract 5 . ( Hint : Let n represent the original number ).

INDUCTIVE REASONING VERSUS DEDUCTIVE REASONING

In the example below , we analyze arguments whether they use inductive or deductive
reasoning.

Example : Determine types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning

or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years , a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the
tree did not produce plums , so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that
my home improvement will cost ₱ 85,000.00 . Thus , my home improvement will
cost more than ₱ 85,000.00 .

Solution

a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples , so it is an example

of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption , this argument is
an example of deductive reasoning.

Comparing these two approaches further , consider science and mathematics. Science is
the application of inductive reasoning to build knowledge based on observable evidences.
That is why every statement in science is considered a theory. The only way to prove it is to
collect more evidence. However , there is always the possibility that the future evidence
could prove the statement false. On the other hand , mathematics is deductive reasoning
applied to relations among patterns , shapes ,forms ,structures and even changes.
Deductive reasoning is always valid. Nevertheless , to make correct deductions , a complete
understanding of the relevant abstract principles is required. Errors can occur either by
applying principles incorrectly or by starting with incorrect assumptions.

Problem Solving with Patterns

Terms of a Sequence

An ordered list of number such as

 5 , 14 , 27 , 44 , 65 , . . .

is called a sequence . The numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas are the
terms of the sequence. In the above sequence , 5 is the first term , 14 is the second term. 27
is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term. Three dots “ . . . “ indicate
that the sequence continues beyond 65 , which is the last written term . It is customary to
use the subscript notation an to designate nth term of a sequence . That is ,

a1 represents the first term of a sequence.

a2 represents the second term of the sequence.

a3 represents the third term of the sequence.

an represent the nth term of the sequence.

When we examine a sequence , it is natural to ask :

 What is the next term ?

 What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms ?

To answer these questions , we often construct a difference table , which shows the
differences between successive terms of the sequence. The following table is a difference
table for the sequence 2 , 5 , 8 , 11 , 14 , . . .

Sequence: 2 5 8 11 14 ...

First differences : 3 3 3 3 (1)

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table in the difference between the two closest
numbers just above it( upper right number minus upper left number ). The differences in
row (1) are called the first differences of the sequence . In this case ,the first differences are
all the same. Thus , if we use the above difference table to predict the next number in the
sequence , we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term in the sequence. This prediction
might be wrong ;however the pattern shown by the first differences seems to indicate that
each successive term is 3 larger than the preceding term .

The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5 , 14 , 27 , 44 , 65 , . . .

Sequence: 5 14 27 44 65 ...

First differences: 9 13 17 21 . . . (1)

Second differences: 4 4 4 ... (2)

In this table, the first differences are not all the same .In such a situation it is often helpful
to compute the successive differences of the first differences . These are shown in row (2).
These differences of the first differences are called the second differences . The differences
of the second differences are called the third differences .

LESSON III : POLYA’S PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was
George Polya ( 1887 – 1985 ). He was born in Hungary and moved to United State of
America in 1940. The basic problem – solving strategy that Polya advocate consisted of the
following four steps.

Polya’s Four – Step Problem - Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.

2. Devise a plan.

3. Carry out the plan.

4. Review the solution.

Polya’s four – steps are deceptive simple. To become a good problem solver , it helps
to examine each of these steps and determine what is involved.
Understand the Problem : This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You
must have a clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the
problem , consider the following questions.

 Can you restate the problem in your own words ?

 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems ?
 Is there missing information that , if known , would allow you to solve the problem ?
 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem ?
 What is the goal ?

Devise a Plan : Successful problem solvers use variety of techniques when they attempt to
solve a problem . Here are some frequently used procedures.

 Make s list of the known information .

 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram .
 Make an organized list that shows all possibilities.
 Make a table or chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem .
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary , define what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment. 47
 Guess at a solution and check your result.

Carry Out the Plan : Once you have devised a plan , you must carry it out.

 Work carefully.
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
 Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise
another plan or modify your existing plan.

Review the Solution : Once you have found a solution , check the solution.

 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to
other problems.
Example 1 : Apply Polya’s Strategy ( make an organized list )

A baseball team won two out of their last four games . In how many different orders could
they have two wins and two losses in four games ?

Solution

Understand the Problem : There are many different orders . The team may have won two
straight games and lost the last two ( WWLL ). Or maybe they lost the first two and won
the last two ( LLWW ). Of course there are other possibilities , such as WLWL.

Devise a Plan : We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. . An organized list
is a list that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders are
listed once and only once.

Carry Out the Plan : Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a
strategy that makes sure each order is considered , with no duplications. One such strategy
is to always write a W unless doing so will produce too many ws or a duplicate of one of the
previous orders. If it is not possible to write a W , then and only then do we write an L . This
strategy produces the six different orders shown below.

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1. WWLL ( start with two wins )

2. WLWL ( Statr win one win )

3. WLLW

4. LWWL ( start with one loss )

5. LWLW

6. LLWW ( start with two losses )

Review the Solution : We have made an organized list . The list has no duplicates and the
list considered all possibilities , so we are confident that there are six different orders in
which a baseball team can win exactly two out of four games.
Example 2 : Apply Polya’s Strategy

In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams , each team plays each of the other teams
exactly three times . How many league games will be played ?

Solution

Understand the Problem : There are 10 teams in the league , and each team plays exactly
three games against each of the other games . The problem is to determine the total
number of league games that will be played.

Devise a Plan : Try the strategy of working a similar but simpler problem. Consider a league
with only four teams ( denoted by A , B , C , and D ) in which each team plays each other
teams only once . The diagram illustrates that the games cam be represented by line
segments that connect the points A , B , C and D.

A B

Possible pairings of a

League with only four

teams

D C 50

Since each of the four teams will play a game against each of the other three , we might
include that this would result in 4 • 3 = 12 games. However , the diagram shows only six
line segments . It appears that our procedure has counted each game twice . For instance ,
when team A plays team B , team B also plays team A. To produce the correct result , we
must divide our previous result, 12 by 2 . Hence , four teams can play each other once in

4x3
= 6 games.
2

Carry Out the Plan : Using the process developed above , we see that 10 teams can play
10 x 9
each other once in a total of =45 games. Since each team can play each opponent
2
exactly three times , the total number of games is 45 x 3 = 135.
AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ

BC BD BE BF BG BH BI BJ

CD CE CF CG CH CI CJ

DE DF DG DH DI DJ

EF EG EH EI EJ

FG FH FI FJ

GH GI GJ

HI HJ

IJ

Review the Solution : We could check our work by using the diagram above that includes
all 10 teams represented by A , B , C , D , E , F , G , H , I , and J. The figure above shows an
organized list in which the notation BC represents a game between team B and team C. This
list shows that 45 games are required for each team to play each of the other teams once.
Also notice that the first row has nine items , the second row has eight items , the third has
seven items , and so on. Thus , 10 teams require

9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45

Games if each team plays every other team once , and 45 x 3 = 135 , if each team plays
exactly three games against each opponent .

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UNIT III SUMMARY

The following table summarizes essential concepts in this unit . The references given in the
right-hand column list of examples and exercises that can be used to test your
understanding of a concept.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning : Inductive reasoning
is the process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific
examples . A conclusion based on inductive
reasoning is called conjecture. A conjecture
may or may not be correct.
Deductive Reasoning : Deductive
reasoning is the process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general
assumptions , procedures , or principles.
Problem Solving with Patterns
Sequences : A sequence is an ordered list
numbers . Each number in a sequence is
called a term of a sequence . The notation
an is used to designate the nth term of a
sequence . A formula that can be used to
generate all the terms of a sequence is
called an nth-term formula.
Difference Tables : A difference table
shows the difference between successive
terms of a sequence , and in some cases it
can be used to predict the next term in a
sequence.
Problem – Solving Strategy
Polya’s Four – Step Problem – Solving
Strategy :
1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan .
4. Review the solution.

UNIT TEST