Road Materials and Pavement Design

ISSN: 1468-0629 (Print) 2164-7402 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/trmp20

Stabilization of compacted clay with cement and/

or lime containing peat ash

Seyed Esmaeil Mousavi

To cite this article: Seyed Esmaeil Mousavi (2016): Stabilization of compacted clay with
cement and/or lime containing peat ash, Road Materials and Pavement Design, DOI:
10.1080/14680629.2016.1212729

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2016.1212729

Published online: 29 Jul 2016.

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 Road Materials and Pavement Design, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2016.1212729

Stabilization of compacted clay with cement and/or lime containing

peat ash
Seyed Esmaeil Mousavi ∗

Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang,
Selangor, Malaysia

(Received 7 December 2015; accepted 7 July 2016 )

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Soft clay is problematic due to its settlement, swelling and strength issues, when applied as
road embankment material. This paper investigates the possibility of the use of cement and/or
lime for improvement ground of shallow clay to support highway embankment. A novel
approach to stabilize the clay is to use peat ash as a supplementary material in the compacted
and stabilized soil. It is worth noting that research on the application of peat ash as a poz-
zolanic material in stabilizing soft clay is relatively scarce. The objectives of this research are:
(i) to stabilize the compacted clay with cement and/or lime, peat ash and silica sand in the lab-
oratory and (ii) to evaluate the effect of binder dosages on short-term and long-term strength
of stabilized soil. To this end, the stabilized soil specimens with the highest maximum dry
density were chosen for further evaluation under laboratory unconfined compression tests. In
addition, the chemical compositions of materials and microstructure of the stabilized clay were
examined using X-ray Fluorescence and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), respectively.
It was found that, the optimal mix design of the stabilized soil is 14% cement, 12% peat ash
and 5% silica sand. SEM analysis suggests that the cementitious products were increased with
cement and peat ash dosages and clogged the pore spaces. It was further revealed that, partial
replacement of cement with 12% peat ash in the optimal mix design resulted in maximum
unconfined compressive strength. In summary, a notable discovery is that the partial replace-
ment of cement with 12% peat ash in the optimal mix design can be sustainably applied in
order to stabilize the clay without failure. Meanwhile, it has been observed that cement con-
tent higher than the lime content enables a better homogeneity of the stabilization, enhancing
the strength development in the stabilized soil.
Keywords: shallow clay; highway embankment; supplementary material; strength; Pozzolan

1. Introduction
Based on several reports by the Kyoto Protocol (an international agreement on climate change),
IPCC (2006) and UNEP (2010), CO2 is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas. Basi-
cally, the raw materials for producing cement operate at a higher peak temperature of about
1500°C. From the aspect of environmental protection, cement production generates more CO2
emission than any other industrial process. Recently, the field demands of cement have been
expanded with new developments. Hence, the research to reduce CO2 emission and protect the
environment in cement production on the one hand, and to find alternative raw materials for
cement on the other is of global concern (Yilmaz & Ozaydin, 2013). A holistic approach to
waste management has positive consequences for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the

*Email: mousavi@khiau.ac.ir

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

 2 S.E. Mousavi

energy, forestry, agriculture, mining, transport and manufacturing sectors (UNEP, 2010). For
this reason, peat ash was chosen as replacement material in this study. With respect to this, peat
is an organic soil with a high content of organic matter. Depending on the fiber content, peat
can be classified as fibric, hemic and sapric. Also, based on the ash content of peat, peat can
be categorized as low ash, medium ash and high ash peat. Based on the pH value, peat can be
further divided into four types, namely highly acidic, moderate acidic, slightly acidic and basic
peat (Bujang, Kazemian, Prasad, & Barghchi, 2011). The application of calcined clays were
extensively investigated by Nimwinya, Arjharn, Horpibulsuk, Phoo-ngernkham, and Poowan-
cum (2016) and Scrivener (n.d.). In order to produce peat ash, a muffle furnace was used to burn
oven-dried peat at a temperature of 440°C for 4 h (ASTM D2974). Having compared peat ash and
cement production, there are numerous damaging environmental impacts of cement that occur
through its mining, preparation and transport. As chemical composition analyses suggest, peat
ash contains a higher percentage of silica (SiO2 ) and alumina (Al2 O3 ). Given its high reactivity
to calcium hydroxide generated as a result of cement hydrolysis for the creation of pozzolanic
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cementation bonds, peat ash could be utilized to replace cement in cemented materials as a nat-
ural pozzolan. Pozzolanic cementation bonds are believed to increase strength gain and enhance
the microstructure of cemented materials. Peat ash can also replace cement as a pozzolanic addi-
tive in stabilized clay. Economical solutions to support highway embankments established on
stabilized soils can be drawn from the stabilized soils (Wong, Hashim, & Ali, 2013). Besides, the
use of soft clay as a road embankment material is not possible without stabilization, as its engi-
neering properties fall below the minimum required (Kergoet, 2001). According to Jauberthie,
Rendell, Rangeard, and Molez (2010), soil stabilization could be achieved with the lime–cement
mix to promote desired characteristics of the host soil. Lime treatment of clay can produce appro-
priate geotechnical layers possessing considerable permanency and strength. On the other hand,
stabilization of soft soils has been practically proved to be able to increase the stability of soils for
construction purposes. Roohbakhshan and Kalantari (2014) have successfully stabilized clayey
soils with lime as a soil stabilizing agent. It is known that lime treatment can improve strength
and durability of fine-grained soils. It can be also used to modify sub-grade and sub-base soils
and expedite construction (Ajayi, 2012). Soft soil can be found in many places, especially in
coastal areas, which imposes many challenges to geotechnical engineers when building on it.
Low shear strength and bearing capacity are common problems encounered in many geotech-
nical projects, due to soil poor engineering properties. Therefore, soft clay has to be improved
before any ground improvement work can commence. Previous published works have shown
that it is viable to use rice husk ash, cement kiln dust, fly ash, biomass ash, kaolin, sodium
bentonite and waste materials as partial cement replacement materials to stabilize clayey soils
(Ashango & Patra, 2016; Baghdadi, 1990; Bahar, Benazzoug, & Kenai, 2004; Chen, 1988;
Clough, Sitar, Bachus, & Rad, 1981; Çokça & Tilgen, 2010; Consoli, Rotta, & Prietto, 2000;
Gharib, Saba, & Barazesh, 2012; Kamon & Bergado, 1992; Kasama, Ochiai, & Yasufuku, 2000;
Ma, Chen, & Chen, 2016; Miqueleiz et al., 2012; Mousavi & Wong, 2015; Purwana & Nikraz,
2013; Shibi & Kamei, 2014; Uddin, 1994; Wong et al., 2013; Yin & Lai, 1998). Horpibulsuk,
Rachan, Chinkulkijniwat, Raksachon, and Suddeepong (2010) stipulated that fly and biomass
ashes could be used to partially substitute cement in cemented soil. Previous studies have shown
that cement could be successfully optimized to stabilize problematic soils. A pozzolan can be
utilized to partially substitute Portland cement in stabilized soil due to its good engineering char-
acteristics such as void and permeability reduction of cemented materials. On the other hand,
utilization of a waste material in the form of peat ash can reduce the cement consumption and
gain adequate strength in a short time. Besides, stabilization of soft clay with cement and/or
lime, peat ash and silica sand is not completely explored. Therefore, this paper primarily focuses
on the use of peat ash as a supplementary material for cement in stabilizing the soft clay in
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 3

laboratory. In an attempt to evaluate the impact of adding peat ash on the early strength of sta-
bilized soil, the unconfined compression tests were undertaken. The outcome of this study is an
optimal mix design of compacted and stabilized soil. The application of the stabilized soil is
recommended for improvement ground of shallow clay in field condition. However, sufficient
laboratory and field testing are required. Thus, it is recommended to further study the in situ
engineering behaviour of the clay stabilization with cement and/or lime containing peat ash in
order to confirm the suitability of the optimal mix design developed from this laboratory research
work. Using the soil parameters developed in both laboratory and site, it is interesting to simulate
the mechanical characteristics of the compacted and stabilized soil with the optimal mix design
in order to observe the long-term performance of the improved soil under the application of a
loading.

2. Materials
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2.1. Soil sample

Soil samples were taken from a depth of 1.5 m from the Taman Wetlands of the Putrajaya, Selan-
gor, Malaysia. The site was chosen because it is located in a low-lying area where problematic
soft clay can be found. Samples were collected from 10 points which were carefully selected to
represent the whole area of the site under study. The water table was found at a depth of 1.5 m
below the ground surface. The soft clay has a thickness of 2 m, which is underlain by a layer of
hard clay. Initial observation and its characterization further show that, Taman Wetlands clay is
soft and sticky. The soil has the same behavior, from one area to another and also from the chem-
ical composition point of view. The location of the soft clay in the plasticity chart is indicated
in Figure 1. It can be seen from Figure 1 that the soil sample is CLAY of high plasticity (CH)
according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The particle size distribution curve
of the soil sample is illustrated in Figure 2. Moreover, a comparison of the index properties of
the natural soil sample with other clays is indicated in Table 1.

Figure 1. Location of the soft clay in the plasticity chart.

 4 S.E. Mousavi
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Figure 2. Particle size distribution curve of the soil sample (Mousavi & Wong, 2015).

Table 1. Main geotechnical properties of the natural soil sample.

Index value
Singapore marine clay Bangkok clay
Natural soil (Bo, Arulrajah, Sukmak, (Horpibulsuk, Rachan,
Basic properties sample & Horpibulsuk, 2015) & Suddeepong, 2011)

Natural moisture content (%) 45 70–88 85

Specific gravity 2.46 2.6–2.72 2.63
Liquid limit (%) 56 80–95 89
Plastic limit (%) 24 20–28 30
Plasticity index (%) 32 60–67 59
USCS CH CH CH
Maximum dry density (kg/m3 ) 1782 – –
Optimum moisture content (%) 16.32 – –

2.2. Additives (peat ash, cement, lime and silica sand)

The sampled peat from Seri Nadi village in Klang, Selangor, Malaysia was oven-dried at 105°C
for 24 h. Then oven-dried peat was burnt in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 440°C for 4 h
(Mousavi & Wong, 2015). Due to Loss on Ignition, the peat ash was produced after burning in
the muffle furnace (ASTM D2974). The peat ash was cooled at room temperature for the pur-
pose of testing. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), equivalent to ASTM type I, supplied by YTL,
is used as binder in the present study. The lime used for soil stabilization is industrial quicklime
(calcium oxide, CaO). Silica sand was collected from Civil Engineering laboratory of Universiti
Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN). Silica sand was used as an additive to modify the grain size distri-
bution of the stabilized soil specimens. The sand used in this study has the following properties:
D60 = maximum size of the smallest 60% of the particles = 0.18 mm; specific gravity = 2.71;
maximum dry density = 1580 kg/m3 . The grain size distribution curve of silica sand is shown
in Figure 3. The chemical composition of the clay and materials by percentage weight of the
total chemical composition from X-ray Fluorescence tests are also indicated in Table 2. Based
on Table 2, in peat ash the sum of silica (SiO2 ) and alumina (AL2 O3 ) is 72.6793% of the total
chemical composition. This is attributed to the pozzolanic properties of the peat ash as justified
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 5
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Figure 3. Grain size distribution curve of the silica sand.

Table 2. Chemical composition of the materials for stabilization of the soil under study.

Weight (%)
Oxide compound Cement Silica sand Clay Peat ash Lime

MgO 1.4876 0.1774 – – 1.4712

Al2 O3 5.8213 5.2772 21.6889 22.7317 1.8813
SiO2 21.7722 88.9901 54.9987 49.9476 4.1941
P2 O5 – 0.7513 – – –
SO3 2.2175 0.1501 – – 0.0256
Alkali (K2 O, Na2 O) – 1.4712 6.9124 2.8795 0.0667
CaO 64.9862 0.3370 1.6799 5.5817 90.5355
TiO2 – 1.4029 2.5714 – –
V2 O5 – – 0.1307 0.3113 0.0324
MnO – – – 0.2383 0.0453
Fe2 O3 3.7152 0.9142 12.0181 17.7264 1.7479
ZnO – 0.0083 – 0.2344 –
SrO – – – 0.3489 –
ZrO2 – 0.5205 – – –
Total weight (%) 100.0000 100.0002 100.0001 99.9998 100.0000

by Wong et al. (2013). By inspecting Table 2, it can be observed that in the oven-dried clay, the
sum of AL2 O3 and SiO2 is 76.6873%. This is attributed to a very high amount of clay minerals
in the soil sample.

3. Mix design and specimen preparation

Prior to compaction, the oven-dried soil, binder (cement and/or lime), supplementary material
(peat ash) and silica sand were thoroughly mixed with optimum water content in a mortar mixer
for 10 min, as recommended by Horpibulsuk et al. (2010). The rather homogeneous soil admix-
ture was thereafter sealed in a plastic bag for the purpose of laboratory testing. In order to
 6 S.E. Mousavi

standard Proctor compaction test, the soil admixture was tamped in three equal layers in a com-
paction mould of 101 mm diameter and 107 mm in height using standard Proctor compaction
device similar to that used by Mousavi and Wong (2015). Then each soil layer was compacted
for 25 blows using a standard rammer (ASTM D698). To avoid moisture loss, the compacted soil
specimens were sealed using cellophane (Runigo, Ferber, Cui, Cuisinier, & Deneele, 2011). For
the purpose of stabilization, cement and lime content varied from 14% to 20%. It is noticeable
that for cement content lower than 14% (i.e. 4.5%, 8%, 9% and 10%) in the presence of peat ash,
a significant strength gain was not noted as confirmed by Mousavi and Wong (2015). For the
purpose of comparison, lime content also was chosen to be 14–20%. In addition, peat ash dosage
was ranged to be between 0% and 15% by weight of the dry soil. Silica sand was used as particle
grading modifier and its solid particles contributed for cement to bind and form a load bearing
stabilized test specimen. Effect of silica sand content on UCS of the stabilized test specimen was
investigated. At the same test specimen of 14% OPC and 12% PA, silica sand dosage of 5%,
10%, 15% and 20% were tested using unconfined compression apparatus. The results show that
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for 5% silica sand there was a significant increase in UCS of the stabilized soil specimen (vide
Figure 4). From the standard Proctor compaction tests, the compacted soil specimens with the
highest values of maximum dry density were tested under laboratory unconfined compression
tests in order to evaluate their compressive strength. The trial mix designs of the soil sample and
supplementary materials are tabulated in Table 3. For the purpose of unconfined compression
tests, the uniform stabilized soil was compacted in a cylindrical mould with 100 mm height and
50 mm in diameter. The compacted soil specimen was trimmed to the required size before test-
ing. It is important to highlight that the current research work focused on utilizing a new material
in the form of peat ash for the soil stabilization. Regarding Table 3, the mix designs of stabilized
soil with cement and/or lime, peat ash and silica sand have never been highlighted yet. The effect
of stabilization on the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density is shown in Table 3.
Based on Table 3, the optimum moisture content increased with increasing lime content. This
is due to hydration of calcium cations. Besides, as the percentage of cement increased, the per-
centage reduction of the optimum moisture content also increased. This is may be due to water
requirement for cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction of the lime released during hydration
of cement. These results are supported by the findings of Achampong, Anum, and Boadu (2013).

Figure 4. Influence of silica sand dosage on UCS of the stabilized soil specimen after 24 h.
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 7

Table 3. Mix compositions under study.

Description Mix designation OMC (%) MDD (kg/m3 )

Pure clay Untreated 16.32 1782

Cement stabilization 20% OPC, 0% PA, 5% SS 20.04 1963
17% OPC, 3% PA, 5% SS 20.86 1947
14% OPC, 6% PA, 5% SS 21.03 1926
14% OPC, 9% PA, 5% SS 21.89 1944
14% OPC, 12% PA, 5% SS 23.76 1965
14% OPC, 15% PA, 5% SS 21.94 1943
Lime stabilization 20% L, 0% PA, 5% SS 28.24 1525
17% L, 3% PA, 5% SS 26.72 1586
14% L, 6% PA, 5% SS 25.31 1604
14% L, 9% PA, 5% SS 25.27 1604
14% L, 12% PA, 5% SS 24.97 1614
14% L, 15% PA, 5% SS 24.57 1613
Lime–cement stabilization 10% OPC, 10% L, 0% PA, 5% SS 18.12 1886
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7% OPC, 10% L, 3% PA, 5% SS 18.47 1842

4% OPC, 10% L, 6% PA, 5% SS 18.56 1812
Notes: OMC, optimum moisture content; MDD, maximum dry density; UCS, unconfined compressive strength; OPC,
ordinary Portland cement; L, lime; PA, peat ash; SS, silica sand.

The positive results point that changes in both optimum moisture content and maximum dry den-
sity are significant at 12% peat ash dosage. According to Sariosseiri and Muhunthan (2009), at
lower cement content, changes in optimum moisture content are more noticeable than those of
stabilized with higher percentages of cement.

4. Test program
The unconfined compression tests were carried out on both untreated and stabilized soil speci-
mens. Following the standard ASTM (D2166), the soil sample with its optimum moisture content
was thoroughly mixed with cement and/or lime, peat ash and silica sand. OPC and lime were
designed to be between 14% and 20% and, simultaneously, peat ash varied from 0% to 15%.
In the all stabilized soil admixtures, silica sand was kept at 5% (Table 3). It is noticeable that
0–20% cement content for the clay improvement purpose is commonly used (Bahar et al., 2004;
Horpibulsuk, Phojan, Suddeepong, Chinkulkijniwat, & Liu Martin, 2012; Mousavi & Wong,
2015). The mixing time was arbitrarily adjusted at 10 minutes in accordance with Horpibulsuk
et al. (2012). For the purpose of unconfined compression test, the uniform stabilized soil admix-
ture was transferred to a cylindrical mould. The unconfined compression mould was designed
with a height-to-diameter ratio of 2 (diameter of 50 mm and height of 100 mm). Before com-
paction, the inner surface of the mould was lightly lubricated to prevent the specimen from being
damaged while removing it from the mould (Yilmaz & Ozaydin, 2013). The compacted soil was
trimmed to the required size before testing. The unconfined compression tests were performed
on the test specimens at a room temperature of 25°C. Herein, two different stages were consid-
ered for the unconfined compression tests. In the first stage, the stabilized soil specimens were
removed from the mould after 24 h and tested immediately, although the pozzolanic reaction
may occur as a result of the interaction between the cement or lime, supplementary material in
the form of peat ash and water. It is noticeable that the total time for specimen preparation was
about 60 min, which is less than 2 h (initial set time of the cement). The second stage corresponds
to the soil specimens were cured for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. In this case, the test specimens were
 8 S.E. Mousavi

removed from the mould after 24 h, wrapped in vinyl bags and allowed to cure in a humidity
room of constant temperature (25 ± 2°C). Unconfined compression tests were carried out on the
test specimens after 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of curing. The rate of vertical displacement in uncon-
fined compression tests was adjusted at 1 mm/min as similar to that of conducted by Horpibulsuk
et al. (2012). During the curing period, the moisture content of the soil specimens was monitored
by weighing ( ± 0.001 g).

5. Results and discussion

The variations of optimum moisture content of stabilized soil specimens containing various
dosages of peat ash are illustrated in Figure 5. Based on Figure 5, the effect of 0%, 3%, 6%,
9%, 12% and 15% peat ash on the optimum moisture content of the stabilized soil specimens
with lime, cement and lime–cement is indicated. From Figure 5 it is observable that optimum
moisture content of the stabilized soil with lime decreased with increasing peat ash content. The
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highest value of optimum moisture content is corresponding to the stabilized soil with the binder
composition of 20% L, 0% PA, 5% SS. A similar pattern of increase in the optimum moisture
content of stabilized soil with lime content can be found in the study of Roohbakhshan and
Kalantari (2014). Besides, Figure 6 shows the variations of maximum dry density for the lime,
cement and lime–cement stabilization. Based on Figure 6, the highest value of maximum dry
density is corresponding to the stabilized soil with the binder composition of 14% OPC, 12%
PA, 5% SS. These compaction behaviors depend on the specific gravity and particle size distri-
bution of the natural soil sample, peat ash and cement. Herein, cement coats the clay particles
to form coarse particles, which consequently occupy larger spaces. From Figures 5 and 6 the
difference in the kinetics of the cement and lime reactions can be clearly observed. In the case of
lime–cement treatment, the increase in peat ash dosage led to a fluctuation in optimum moisture
content and decrease in maximum dry density. Having compared the maximum dry density of
stabilized soil with lime, cement and lime–cement, it was revealed that the maximum dry density
of lime-stabilized soil is the lowest while the maximum dry density of cement-stabilized soil is

Figure 5. Effect of peat ash dosage on optimum moisture content of the stabilized soil specimens.
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 9
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Figure 6. Effect of peat ash dosage on maximum dry density of the stabilized soil specimens.

the highest. This behavior is for the natural soil sample to decrease in maximum dry density of
the lime-stabilized soil and the difference in the kinetics of the cement and lime reactions.
The strength properties and behavior of untreated and stabilized soil specimens were exam-
ined by analyzing the results of unconfined compression tests. The robustness of the stabilized
soil can be affirmed on the basis of the positive results from unconfined compression tests. The
unconfined compression test specimens were prepared on the basis of mix designs as stipulated
in Table 3. The graphical relationships of unconfined compressive strength (UCS) (after 24 h)
versus vertical strain of soil specimens are established in Figure 7 (a) and (b). After inspecting
Figure 7, it can be considered that there is a significant improvement in terms of UCS of the
test specimen which is treated with 14% cement, 12% peat ash and 5% silica sand. The UCS of
the untreated soil specimen was found to be 228 kPa. The average values of UCS and modulus
of elasticity of unsoaked soil specimens are tabulated in Table 4. Based on the results, the most
significant influence on the UCS happened to be from a test specimen corresponding to the addi-
tion of 14% OPC, 12% PA and 5% SS. The early UCS (i.e. after 24 h) of the stabilized soil with
the binder compositions of 14% OPC, 12% PA, 5% SS and 14% L, 12% PA, 5% SS improved
by almost 1.8-fold and 1.6-fold, respectively. This phenomenon occurs because the fine particles
of peat ash are capable of acting as filler that clog the pore spaces of the cemented clay, thus
increasing its strength. In that sense, hydration reaction still occur due to cementation process;
however the strength gain of the compacted soil is not largely affected by its saturation.
Also, it was noticed that the type of failure behavior varied from one soil specimen to another.
At failure, the untreated soil specimen showed ductile behavior under unconfined compression
test. While, stabilized soil specimens with 20% OPC, 0% PA, 5% SS and 14% OPC, 12% PA,
5% SS exhibited brittle behavior at failure (Figure 8). The brittle behavior of the stabilized soil
specimens was caused by the binding action of the cement from hydration process and filling
effect of the peat ash. Such binding effect coupled with compaction reduced the soil void ratio
and contributed to the hardening of the stabilized soil. The positive results support the finding
that fine particles of peat ash are capable of acting as fillers that clog the pore spaces of the
cemented clay and thus increase its density and strength. Therefore the stabilized soil matrix was
reinforced, strengthened and closely packed as a result of hydration and pozzolanic reactions
during its cementation process (Wong et al., 2013). According to Horpibulsuk et al. (2010), the
 10 S.E. Mousavi
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Figure 7. UCS of soil specimens after 24 h (a) stabilized with cement and (b) stabilized with lime.

increase in strength in stabilized soil depends on the cement content. With respect to this, the
strength increases with increase in the cement content up to 30%. Thus, in the short stabilization
period, the cementitious crystals fill up the pore spaces of stabilized soil due to solidification of
the cement gel (hydrated cement).
Figure 9 (a) and (b) show the impact of peat ash dosage on the maximum dry density and
strength gain of the stabilized soil, respectively. In addition to peat ash dosage, cement needs
to achieve a particular threshold in order to be effective for soil stabilization. As suggested in
Figure 9 (a) and (b), replacement of cement with peat ash up to 12% is able to bring about
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 11

Table 4. UCS and modulus of elasticity of the soil specimens after 24 h.

Soil composition UCS (kPa) Modulus of elasticity (MPa)

Untreated 228 11
20% OPC, 0% PA, 5% SS 406 41
20% L, 0% PA, 5% SS 385 37
14% OPC, 12% PA, 5% SS 413 44
14% L, 12% PA, 5% SS 374 35
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Figure 8. Behavior of unconfined compression test specimens at failure (a) untreated soil and (b)
stabilized soil with 20% OPC, 0% PA, 5% SS.

increases in maximum dry density and UCS. These figures also indicate that for the peat ash
dosage higher than 12%, UCS and maximum dry density cannot be taken into account. It can
be seen from Figure 9 that OPC was partially replaced with 12% peat ash. Because the UCS of
stabilized soil with 14% OPC, 12% PA, 5% SS exceeds the UCS of stabilized soil with 20%
OPC, 0% PA, 5% SS (vide Table 4). This is demonstrated to save energy, reduce CO2 emissions
and save 6% cement on input. A reduction of 6% in cement consumption can have a good impact
on the outcome of stabilization. Meanwhile, if the mix design is applied for compacted soil on
the site, the amount of 6% reduction of cement can be very significant.
Figure 10(a) and (b) presents the effects of stabilization with lime or cement on the UCS of
the soil specimens compacted at their optimum level after 7, 14, 21 and 28-day curing. From
Figure 10(a) and (b), it can be observed that curing leads to an increase in UCS for both cement
and lime stabilization. However, the increase is more significant for the soil specimens treated
with cement. Indeed, the UCS of stabilized soil with the binder composition of 14% L, 12% PA,
5% SS increases by only 62% after 28-day curing, whereas that of stabilized with 14% OPC,
12% PA, 5% SS increases by almost 87%. It can be also noted that the pozzolanic reaction may
continue for a long time. According to Achampong et al. (2013), in the stabilized soil with lime
for the strength gain greater than 276 kPa, the pozzolanic reaction has taken place. As shown
in Figure 10, the strength development in the soil–cement mixture is greater than the soil–lime
mixture. Achampong et al. (2013) have stipulated that stabilization of clay with lime created
flocculated structure, while the reaction products which were produced through solution process
 12 S.E. Mousavi
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Figure 9. (a) and (b) Partial replacement of cement with peat ash after 24 h.

become less effective, because the surface area was too large for the cementitious material to
create significant increases in the UCSs.
Based on the results, the most significant influence on the UCS happened to be from a 28-day
test specimen corresponding to the addition of 14% OPC, 12% PA, 5% SS. This is logical, as
more pozzolanic materials were available, the more cementation crystals were formed during
hydration to induce hardening in the stabilized soil specimen. The binder composition of the
stabilized soil specimen with 14% OPC, 12% PA, 5% SS enhanced the UCS by about 1.9-fold
in comparison to that of the 28-day untreated soil specimen. On the other hand, the strength
developments in the stabilized soil with cement were greater than those stabilized with lime.
However, due to lime treatment, the pozzolanic reaction has occurred. The pozzolanic reac-
tion between soil and lime involves a reaction between the lime and the silica and alumina
(Ca(OH2 ) + SiO2 = CSH) of the soil to form cementation products. The results of unconfined
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 13
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Figure 10. Effect of curing and binder composition on the UCS of the stabilized soil with (a) cement and
(b) lime.

compression tests confirm that for the stabilized soil with cement and peat ash the pozzolanic
reaction coupled with the dispersing effect of the peat ash particles (Horpibulsuk, Rachan, &
Raksachon, 2009; Keshawarze & Dutta, 1993). This contributed to the higher strength gain
of the stabilized soil with cement and peat ash. Besides, during the early stage of hydration,
the volume of smaller pores significantly decreased while the volume of larger pores slightly
increased (Figure 11(a) and (b)). This implies that, during the early stage of hydration, the cemen-
titious products fill smaller pores, and the un-hydrated cement particles (coarse particles) cause
large clumps (soil–cement clusters) and large pore space. Over time, the cementation crystals
in the pores are clearly seen and the large clumps tend to be larger (Figure 11(c) and (d)).
 14 S.E. Mousavi
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Figure 11. (a) and (b) Existence of large pores, (c) cementation crystals and (d) 28-day stabilized soil
specimen with the optimal mix design.

This eventually implies the growth of cementitious products over time. After 28-day curing,
the UCS of both cement and lime treatment drastically increased, since the cementitious prod-
ucts enhanced the inter-cluster bonding strength and fill the small and large pore spaces of the
specimen. The effect of partial replacement of cement with 3% and 6% peat ash on UCS of
the stabilized soil was little, because the input ash is insignificant compared to the soil mass.
Besides, increase in cement content decreases the degree of hydration; thus, cementitious prod-
ucts decrease due to reduction of water content (Horpibulsuk et al., 2010). On the other hand, at
lower water content, the available free water in the mixture is insufficient to promote hydration
reaction for the formation of cementation crystals (Yilmaz & Ozaydin, 2013). As a result, the
stabilized soil with the binder composition of 14% OPC, 12% PA, 5% SS after 28-day curing
has the highest value of UCS.
The summarized results of UCS for the samples stabilized with cement and/or lime are tabu-
lated in Table 5. The UCS of the samples stabilized with cement is greater than those stabilized
with lime and cement–lime mix. As shown in Table 5, the binder composition of 14% OPC, 12%
PA, 5% SS achieved a UCS of 741 kPa at 28 days, whereas 14% L, 12% PA, 5% SS achieved 617
 Road Materials and Pavement Design 15

Table 5. The summarized results of unconfined compres-

sion tests after 28 days curing.

Mix designation UCS (kPa)

20% OPC, 0% PA, 5% SS 673

17% OPC, 3% PA, 5% SS 629
14% OPC, 6% PA, 5% SS 567
14% OPC, 9% PA, 5% SS 607
14% OPC, 12% PA, 5% SS 741
14% OPC, 15% PA, 5% SS 671
20% L, 0% PA, 5% SS 634
17% L, 3% PA, 5% SS 596
14% L, 6% PA, 5% SS 549
14% L, 9% PA, 5% SS 583
14% L, 12% PA, 5% SS 617
14% L, 15% PA, 5% SS 623
10% OPC, 10% L, 0% PA, 5% SS 657
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7% OPC, 10% L, 3% PA, 5% SS 572

4% OPC, 10% L, 6% PA, 5% SS 493

kPa. However, strength gain from 7 to 28 days for lime treatment is lower than that of cement
treatment.

5.1. Morphological analysis of the optimal mix design

For the purpose of microstructural test, the stabilized soil with partial replacement of OPC with
12% peat ash was broken from the center into small fragments (Horpibulsuk et al., 2010). The
SEMs of stabilized soil are indicated in Figure 11. The microstructure of the stabilized clay shows
that the stabilized soil particles are packed in a dense matrix with minimal void ratio. This phe-
nomenon occurred due to adequacy of cement to promote the formation of cementation products
that bind the clay particles together. The peat ash served as supplementary material that further
clogged the pore spaces of the stabilized soil. Figure 11(a) and (b) indicate the existence of pore
spaces within the stabilized soil. Besides, Figure 11(c) and (d) show the evidence of cementa-
tion crystals that functioned to bind the soil particles together. This is justified by Horpibulsuk
et al. (2010) that in the short term, the cementitious crystals fill up the small pore spaces due to
solidification of the hydrated cement. By decreasing the magnification of the stabilized soil to 5
µm as shown in Figure 11(d), the pore spaces of the stabilized soil are not observable. This is
due to the formation of cementation crystals as a binder and silica sand as filler that blocked the
micropores of the stabilized soil.

6. Conclusions
This paper provides an investigation of the assessment of suitability of stabilized clay with
cement and/or lime, peat ash and silica sand for improvement of shallow clay to support highway
embankments. Based on the results, the following conclusions are drawn:

(1) The compacted clay has been successfully stabilized with cement, peat ash and silica
sand in the laboratory. The optimal mix design of the stabilized clay specimen was found
to be 14% OPC, 12% PA and 5% SS.
 16 S.E. Mousavi

(2) The combination effects of peat ash as a supplementary material, cement as a binder
and silica sand as particle grading modifier resulted in a dense stabilized soil matrix
after compaction, and this is vital for the clayey soil to achieve stability for highway
embankment support.
(3) The UCS of the stabilized soil is improved by almost 1.9-fold when compared to that of
untreated one. The 28-day UCS of stabilized soil with 14% OPC, 12% PA and 5% SS
exceeds the minimal required UCS of 345 kPa for stabilized clay as stipulated by ASTM
D4609.
(4) The increase in input cement content does not make any further significant improvement
of UCS. Besides, peat ash in lower percentages was not sufficient to promote hydra-
tion reaction of cement with water. Also, peat ash in excess of 12% perhaps entraps
the cement particles and prevents the interaction between cement and water, hence the
reduction in cementitious products. Consequently, for peat ash content, more than 12%
of the strength decreases.
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(5) The microstructure of the stabilized clay shows that the stabilized soil particles are
packed in a dense matrix with minimal void ratio. This phenomenon happens due to
the formation of the cementation crystals that basically bind and clog the soil particles.
(6) As evident in the SEMs of the test specimens, smaller pores clogged with the cementi-
tious products and filled due to hydrated cement. The existence of larger pores, however,
can be seen. After curing, due to the growth of the cementitious crystals, the pore spaces
of the stabilized soil decreased.

Acknowledgements
The contributions of Fattah of Civil Engineering Department, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, are grate-
fully acknowledged. Many thanks to Mrs. Hamizza of Soil and Material Laboratories, Civil Engineering
Department, Universiti Tenaga Nasional.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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