Vacuum Infusing Processing With DIAB Core Materials: A Guide To Resin Infusion of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Vacuum Infusing Processing with DIAB core materials
A Guide to Resin Infusion of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
What is Vacuum Infusion?

Vacuum infusion (known as VARTM, SCRIMP, VIP, or a variety of other
acronyms) is a lamination process used in the manufacture of fiber-reinforced
plastic (FRP) parts. Dry materials are stacked onto a male or female mold
surface and a thin plastic vacuum bag or semi rigid counter mold is sealed
around the part perimeter. A vacuum pump is used to evacuate the air and apply
atmospheric pressure to consolidate the dry materials and create a “vacuum
cavity”. Resin is then introduced into the cavity via strategically placed resin
feeder lines. The pressure differential between the cavity and the outside
atmospheric pressure pushes the resin through the porous materials until the
part is completely saturated. The vacuum is maintained until the part cures to
ensure consolidation.
Infusion offers several benefits over conventional hand-layup techniques. It

protects workers and the environment from harmful VOC emissions (volatile
organic compounds) and eliminates the mess of applying resin by hand. It allows
unlimited setup time because the resin is not catalyzed until all the materials are
in place. The vacuum bag promotes ideal resin content and distribution, as well
as improved mechanical properties and low void content.
As the leader in composite sandwich technology worldwide, DIAB is committed to

helping our customers explore and implement new technologies. DIAB has
taken several steps to achieve this goal. We manufacture core materials
especially suitable for infusion. In addition, our in-house engineering team is
ready to provide technical guidance to our customers who want to use the
process. We are continuing to develop materials and ideas to better help our
customers in the future.
This guide is designed to introduce you to the concept of infusion, provide a

starting point for the techniques, and describe our array of products and services
that can assist you.
DIAB Technologies
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315 Seahawk Drive . DeSoto . Texas 75115 . USA . Tel (972) 228 7600 . Fax (972) 228 2667 1 of 17
e-mail tech@diabgroup.com . Web Site www.diabgroup.com
Figure 1: Vacuum Infusion of a 14’ Boat Hull
History
Vacuum infusion is not a new process. Variations have existed for many years,
although they did not enjoy widespread use. Many FRP manufacturers
developed infusion methods independently for use in their own shops. These
techniques were mostly improvised, and little effort was made to standardize or
publicize them. Some people, however, did pursue patent protection for their
infusion-related processes.
The first patented vacuum infusion process, known as the Marco Method1, was
used to produce 40’ Coast Guard patrol boat hulls in the late 1940’s. Despite the
lack of wide spread acceptance, this method produced several hulls that were in
service throughout the 1970’s2. George Smith of California obtained another
related infusion patent in 1959 for making FRP swimming pools3. Smith’s patent
included a resin distribution network, which is a system of arteries that provide a
more even flow of resin throughout the part. The first patent to include the use of
a core material (such as PVC foam and end grain balsa wood) was in 1964 by
Mitchell and Williams of Fort Worth, Texas4. Their process was designed for
making aerospace structures.
Seemann Composites has secured more recent vacuum infusion patents for their
process known as SCRIMPTM (Seemann Composites Resin Infusion Molding
Process) 5. Two key elements of SCRIMP are the use of both a distribution
network and a separate flow medium. The SCRIMP flow medium is a heavily
porous layer placed on the surface(s) of the part to provide a resin flow path.
The flow medium and distribution network are generally removed and discarded
after use. SCRIMP is currently licensed by TPI Composites.
More information on patents can be found in the References and Additional
Patents & Further Reading sections at the back of this guide.
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THE BASICS OF INFUSION
Infusion Theory
How and why does the resin flow through the dry materials? What is needed to
make sure the resin flows where I want it? The answer to these questions is
culminated in one simple equation derived by Henry D’Arcy for aqueous flow
through porous media (originally developed for water irrigation purposes).
∆PK
V=
µ
Equation 1: D’Arcy Porous Flow

With: µ = Viscosity – Resin Viscosity
K = Permeability of the Medium – Flow Medium, Fiberglass, Etc.
V = Volume-Averaged Fluid Velocity – Flow Speed
∆P = Pressure Gradient or Pressure Differential Between Atmospheric and Inside the
Cavity
From this equation, we can see that viscosity is inversely proportional to the resin
flow speed, or the more viscous the resin, the more time it will take to saturate
the part. Conversely, the more porous (higher K value) the materials are and the
higher the pressure differential, the faster the resin will flow. Therefore, to
theoretically optimize an infusion process, the resin needs to be very thin (low
viscosity), the materials need to be very porous, and our pressure differential
needs to be as high as possible.
Laminate Materials
With these variables in mind we must select our laminate materials, which in the
case of FRP sandwich laminates, consist of: the resin matrix, fiber reinforcement,
and core. A wide variety of each material is available, so it is important to
choose wisely.
Resin Matrix – The matrix, in its liquid form, is the flowing material in the
infusion process and needs to be as thin as possible. Typical vacuum
infusion resins will have a viscosity no higher than 300-350 centipoise
(cps) and are non-thixotropic. Some vinyl ester resins can be found with
viscosities as low as 100 cps. Gel time is also a major concern in vacuum
infusion. As a resin gels, its viscosity increases dramatically, thereby
slowing the flow rate. It is good practice to have a medium to long range
gel time (45-60 minutes) when infusing a part for the first time. Gel times
can then be shortened once the proper feed locations and fill times have
been determined. Since the entire laminate is curing simultaneously it is
important to have a low peak exotherm and exotherm evolution before gel
(decreases the risk of solvent attack on core). A lower exotherm can be
achieved by formulating it into the resin itself, or by using cumene
hydroperoxide (CuHP) initiators.
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Fiber Reinforcement – The choice of dry reinforcement for a vacuum
infusion process is also very critical. Any type of fiber commonly used in
composite materials can be used in infusion such as: E-glass, S-glass,
aramid (KevlarTM), carbon, and polyethylene fibers. The important aspect
of the dry reinforcement is using the right type of fabric. Generally, knitted
fabrics and random strand mats provide the highest amount of porosity,
while the textile woven fabrics tend to restrict resin flow. If a woven must
be used, high-harness weaves (twill to 8-harness) work the best as they
reduce the amount of fiber crimping. It is also important to remember that
most fabrics tend to debulk, or loose up to 30% cross sectional thickness
when under vacuum. Due to this, hand-layup designed laminates that are
ideal for a particular application may not have the stiffness needed if the
fabrication process is switched to vacuum infusion.
Core – As with the resin and fiber, the choice of core materials is very
important. A proper core material for vacuum infusion needs to be closed
cell, such as most structural plastic foams like Divinycell/Klegecell and
wood products like ProBalsa. Most honeycomb core materials are
unsuitable for vacuum infusion due to their large and open cells. The
cores must also be somewhat solvent resistant, since they will be exposed
to styrene (if the resin is poly or vinyl ester) for a significant amount of time
during infusion. Since the entire laminate is being cured out at once, the
core material should also have enough temperature resistance to
withstand the higher than normal exotherm temperatures. Core materials
should also have enough compression strength to not crush under the
pressure created by the vacuum. This is not necessarily a major concern
as almost all core materials used in composites have compression
strengths greater than 14.7 psi (maximum atmospheric pressure or
pressure differential).
Infusing with core materials also requires specific scoring, grooving, and/or
perforating of the core for sufficient flow and saturation (a.k.a. increasing the core
material permeability). These score/grooves/etc. or finishes, allow the infusion to
be carried out without a separate flow media. DIAB Inc. produces a variety of
finishes that are used in vacuum infusion processes. The following are finishes
specifically designed and utilized for vacuum infusion. Other available finishes,
such as GS or grid scored materials, can be used in infusion processes, but are
generally not recommended without accompanying one or more of the following
finishes:
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3
Description Density, kg/m (pcf) Thickness A (+/-1.25mm) B (+/- 0.3mm) C (+/-1.25mm)
DC 30-80 (1.9-5.0) <= 38mm (1.5”) 28mm (1.1”) 1mm (0.04”) 16mm (0.63”)
DC 30-80 (1.9-5.0) > 38mm (1.5”) 38mm (1.5”) 1.3mm (0.05”) 19mm (0.75”)
DC 100-160 (6.2-10.0) <= 25mm (1”) 28mm (1.1”) 1mm (0.04”) 16mm (0.63”)
DC 100-160 (6.2-10.0) >25mm (1”) 38mm (1.5”) 1.3mm (0.05”) 19mm (0.75”)
DC 200+ (12.5) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Figure 2: Double Contoured (DC) Cut
A finish originally pioneered by DIAB in the late 1970’s, the core is scored in a
90-degree rectangular grid pattern on both sides (each side offset from the other
by half a grid width). The scores are slightly deeper than half the core thickness
(60% of total thickness), producing pinholes at each intersection with the
opposite side’s cut. This helps the resin flow to either side of the core and
produces an even resin distribution throughout the laminate. The thin cut width
minimizes resin uptake and produces less core print through than some other
scoring patterns. DC finished cores work best for larger radius and/or minimal
curvature geometries. This cut is available with Divinycell or Klegecell rigid PVC
foams with a density under 200 kg/m3 (12.5 lb/ft3), but is not available with
ProBalsa.
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Description A (+-3mm) B (+- 1mm) C (+-0.5mm) Surfaces A (1/2 size +- 3mm)
Standard 25mm (0.98”) 3mm (0.12”) 1.3mm (0.05”) Both N/A
50 50mm (1.96”) 3mm (0.12”) 3mm (0.12”) Both 25mm (1.0”)
*60 60mm (2.36”) 3mm (0.12”) 1.3mm (0.05”) Both 30mm (1.2”)
Can Do Both Directions (00, 900) on GS (Max 32” x 48”) Size Sheets *Not available with ProBalsa
Figure 3: Surface Grooved (VR) Cut
Another finish initially developed by DIAB in the early 1980’s, the core is saw cut
in one direction, or on a 90-degree rectangular grid pattern, on both sheet sides.
The shallow grooves (usually 1.3mm wide x 3mm deep) can be accompanied by
perforations for even resin distribution and flow to either side of the core. The
wider saw cuts allow more resin to flow to the skins more rapidly. VR finished
cores work best for thicker, flat laminates with minimal need for core curvature.
This finish is available on all DIAB core materials*.
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*No tolerance given for orientation or depth of cut.
This cut only applies to GS (Max. 32” x 48”) size sheets.
Figure 4: Infusion Path (IP) Cut
This scoring pattern is a surface scratch (a shallow knife cut pattern,

approximately 75 degrees to the original scored pattern). This cut can be used
on all of the previously mentioned finishes to reduce resin-starvation in the skins
by allowing resin to penetrate the inner block grid pattern. This cut is available
on all DIAB core materials with a density lower than 200 kg/m3 (12.5 lb/ft3).
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Description Thickness A (+/- 0.25")* B (+/- 0.25")* C
P <= 20mm (0.79") 4" (102mm) 4" (102mm) 1/16" (1.59mm)
P > 20mm (0.79") 4" (102mm) 4" (102mm) 1/8" (3.18mm)
Figure 5: Core Perforation
Holes are drilled or punched through the material on the corners of a 4” x 4”

(standard) square, with one hole in the middle of the square. Perforations, used
in conjunction with VR and / or GS core finishes, allow for resin to flow to the tool
side of the laminate during a “top down” infusion (resin feed lines attached to the
non-tool side).
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Since scored/grooved/perforated core materials allow resin to flow throughout the
part, no separate flow medium is required. The core itself is the flow medium.
This saves money, eliminates some disposable materials, may reduce resin
consumption, and minimizes setup time. The following photo demonstrates the
effectiveness of the DIAB Grooved Core Material.
Figure 6: The panel on the left is a typical SCRIMP setup; the

panel at the right is a DIAB (VR) grooved core setup. Note
that theses panels were started at the same time and that the
left panel is not even ½ filled and the right panel is almost
completely wet out.
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Equipment and Process Materials
The following is a description of the essential equipment, as well as the materials
consumed during the infusion process. Many of these materials pertain to
vacuum bagging and are described further in our guide on that subject.
Peel Ply - Peel Ply is an extremely strong, porous, treated nylon or

polyester material. It eliminates the need for sanding or grinding when
removed immediately prior to secondary bonding operations. In some
cases, it can be used as bleeder ply to remove excess resin. It also
prevents infusion lines and bleeder from sticking to the laminate. Peel ply
is available as a release film, perforated film, or in textured/woven
varieties.
Vacuum Bag - The vacuum bag encloses the part and applies a uniform
pressure to the part surface. The bag must be flexible, tear resistant, non-
porous, and compatible with the resin system. Nylon film in a thickness of
.004 or .006 inches is the most commonly used material. More
information is available in our Advanced Vacuum Bagging Techniques
guide.
Sealant Tape - Sealant tape, also known as tacky, mastic, or butyl tape, is
used as a sealing agent to produce an airtight bond between the bag and
mold and to repair leaks. DIAB recommends using a tape that is not
attacked by the resin being used and that sticks to the infusion lines. If
not, “blown” bags can result causing scrap parts.
Infusion Lines - Infusion lines are tubing that supply resin to the part.
The tubing should be flexible, yet rigid enough not to collapse under the
pressure of the vacuum bag. The tubing should also be large enough in
diameter for resin to flow easily and solvent resistant (styrene in
particular). Braided PVC tubing with ½” minimum inside diameter works
well, but you can use anything that meets the above requirements.
Spray Adhesive – On vertical surfaces or complex geometries it may be

necessary to temporarily adhere the dry reinforcement to the mold or
previously stacked materials. A styrene soluble (if using poly or vinyl ester
resin) spray adhesive can be used in sparing amounts to fix the dry
materials in place before a vacuum can be applied. Care must be taken
when using spray adhesives, since using too much can interfere with
interlaminar bonds and resin flow. A typical spray adhesive used for this
application is Super 77TM by 3M.
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Resin Trap - The resin trap is another important component. Its purpose
is to protect your pump equipment from the inflow of resin. It is a reservoir
placed in series between the part and the vacuum system. As resin flows
from the part toward the vacuum system, it encounters the inlet of the
resin trap. The vacuum line is attached to the opposite end of the trap,
separated from the inlet. Resin drops to the bottom of the trap without
entering the vacuum lines. If the trap fills up, it must either be emptied or
discarded. In the ideal infusion system, the resin would stop flowing after
the part is saturated, before it reaches the trap.
Figure 7: Resin Trap Schematic

Vacuum Pump - The vacuum pump provides the pressure differential
necessary for this process. Pumps are available in various configurations.
Most use an electric or gasoline powered motor to drive the evacuation
equipment, such as a rotary vane or piston type pumps. Others used
compressed air along with a venturi system to create a vacuum. For any
type of vacuum pump two aspects are critical for proper use in vacuum
infusion. First, the pump must be able to produce a high vacuum,
preferably –29 ”Hg (-14 psi). This will ensure that the proper pressure is
being applied to the laminate, and that all of the air has been evacuated
from the cavity (if the pump only pulls 80% vacuum, -11.8 psi, then there
is still 20% air in the cavity). In order for the air to be evacuated quickly
and be less sensitive to leaks, the pump must also have a high
displacement, or CFM (cubic feet per minute) rating. For large parts a
displacement of around 10 CFM may be required6.
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Vacuum Infusion Setup
Figure 8 below shows a laboratory infusion setup in which the core is the only
flow medium used:
Resin Trap
Venturi-Style
Vacuum Pump
Vacuum Manifold
(Behind Laminate)
Mastic Sealant
Dry Materials Stack

Under Vacuum Bag
Resin Inlet Manifold
Mold
(Glass Table)
Figure 8: Setup for Resin Infusion Process
This illustrates the concept of infusion, but it is important to realize how versatile
the process is. Your setup, including materials, tools, and equipment, might look
drastically different from what is shown in the picture. As long as you understand
and use the fundamentals of this process, you can devise whatever setup works
best for your application.
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With a basic understanding of the above equipment you can begin to experiment
with infusion. It is advisable to start small and practice with simple parts. The
figures and diagrams in this guide are examples, but remember that each setup
is different. It usually takes quite a bit of experimentation to get a feel for the
process and produce the desired results. This section describes the general
procedure used in Figure 8. For specific questions, please contact DIAB
Technologies.
1. Prepare your fiber-reinforcement materials (also called skins or facings) and

core materials, and fit them to the mold. You may use tacky spray adhesive
such as 3M Super 77 (or equivalent) if necessary, to hold the materials in
place on sloping, vertical, or complex mold surfaces. Finish off the laminate
stack with a layer of peel ply.
2. Cut infusion lines to reach from the resin source to the part. The lines in
Figure 6 are made of ½” spiral wrap to distribute the resin evenly across the
width of the part.
Multiple infusion lines are often necessary. As resin travels out of a line and
through the laminate, it begins to slow due to fiction build up. The thickness
of the part and the properties of the laminate materials will influence how far
resin will travel away from an infusion line (see Infusion Theory above). The
lines should be spaced accordingly. When vacuum infusing with DIAB
grooved core materials, a resin line spacing window of 2ft to 4ft is
recommended depending on laminate layup and grooving pattern.
3. Orient vacuum lines and/or vacuum manifold as required.
4. Apply sealant tape to the perimeter of the bagging area. The tape will go
over the infusion lines and any piping that bridges the external resin trap to
the internal vacuum manifold. Using the flexible bag material, form a bag
over the part, sealing it against the tape.
5. Connect the resin trap to the vacuum lines or manifold, ensuring a tight seal.
6. Connect the vacuum pump as required to the fitting on the resin trap.
7. Place a resin source within reach of each infusion line. The resin source can
be as simple as a bucket or drum. Single or multiple sources may be needed,
depending on the individual setup. The height of the source relative to the
part influences how quickly the resin flows; resin flow can often be increased
by elevating the source. Do not catalyze the resin until you are ready to
begin.
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Procedure
With all the materials and equipment in place, the process can begin.
1. Plug the end of each infusion line with tacky tape, vise grips, or other suitable
clamp. Turn on the vacuum pump. As air is evacuated from the bag, check
for leaks and repair as necessary. A vacuum gage can be installed both near
the pump and near the part. The gages will confirm a good seal. An ultra
sonic leak detector can also be utilized at this time.
2. Catalyze the first resin source and any additional sources as needed. The
resin should be promoted ahead of time to achieve the proper gel time.
Ideally, the resin will gel shortly after the part is wet out. Consult your resin
supplier if you have any questions about its use.
3. Unplug the first infusion line and insert into the resin source. The resin should
easily be drawn through the line and begin to enter the part. Continue
checking for leaks by listening and by watching for bubbles traveling through
the laminate.
4. The resin front will have slowed down by the time it reaches the next infusion
line. Plug the current line, then unplug the next line and insert into its resin
source.
5. Continue Step 4 until all the lines have been used and the part is fully
saturated. At that point, every line should be plugged to ensure full vacuum.
6. At this point it may be beneficial to reduce the pressure if possible. Excessive

pressure may squeeze out too much resin and cause the laminate to be dry.
7. No vacuum bag can have a perfect seal, so leave the pump on until the resin
has gelled or cured. In addition to drawing resin through the part, the vacuum
helps consolidate the part, ensuring better mechanical properties.
8. Once the part has cured, remove the vacuum bag, peel ply, bleeder, infusion
lines, and dispose if necessary.
Inspection
Inspect the finished part. Problems may arise in the experimental stage, and any
part defects will give clues about what adjustments to make. Both sides of the
part should be fully wet out. If only one side is wet then resin is not getting
through to the other side. GS foam sometimes has this problem if the material
between blocks is not completely broken. Prior to infusion, you should manually
break any remaining material between blocks by bending the core. If dry spots
still appear on one side, it may be necessary to perforate the material.
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Signs of a Good Infusion Part
The following is a checklist you should use to evaluate your finished infusion part:
- Consistent surface finish.

- No dry spots.
- Even distribution of resin.
- Cuts/grooves/perfs in core thoroughly filled.
- No wavy appearance.
- Minimal marks from infusion lines.
Practical Applications
Figure 8 illustrates the infusion concept on a basic flat panel, but the process can
be applied to larger and more complex real-world structures. Boat hulls, car
bodies, motor home components, swimming pools, and windmill blades are some
familiar examples of products that have been manufactured using infusion.
Figure 9 below shows a large, 18.3m (60 ft) long tank made with this process.
Figure 9: 18.3m (60 ft) Tank
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The main photo shows the completed tank. The infusion lines were positioned
about the circumference, and the three buckets are resin sources.
The left inset shows the vessel in progress, as the resin spreads.
The right inset focuses on the orientation of the vacuum and infusion lines: The
infusion lines divide the tank into sections. Unlike the setup from Figure 8, no
vacuum manifold was used; instead, a vacuum line is placed at a single point at
the middle of each section.
Although the tank in Figure 9 and the panel in Figure 8 have different setups,
they both follow the basic infusion principles. This illustrates just how versatile
the infusion process is.
For Further Information

DIAB is eager to help its customers become proficient at the infusion process.
This guide will hopefully serve as a useful introduction. In addition, our
engineering and sales departments are staffed with knowledgeable people who
can help you get started.
DIAB Technologies
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References
1. U.S. Patent #2,495,640 – 1950
2. Lacovara, R. ‘Considering Resin Transfer Molding’
3. U.S. Patent #2,913,036 –1959
4. U.S. Patent #3,146,148 – 1964
5. Includes U.S. Patents #4,902,215 – 1990; #5,052,906 – 1991; #5,316,462
- 1994; #5,439,635 – 1995; #5,601,852 - 1997; #5,702,663 - 1997;
#5,721,034 – 1998; #5,904,972 – 1999; #5,958,325 - 1999
6. Gougeon Bros. ‘Vacuum Bagging Techniques’ Catalog # 002-150
Additional Patents & Further Reading

- Group Lotus Car Ltd. ‘Vacuum Molding Patent’, GB Patent #1,432,333 - 30
March 1972
- Palmer, R.J. ‘Resin Impregnation Process’, US Patent #4,311,661 -19
January 1982
- Le Comte, A. ‘Method and apparatus for producing a thin walled article of
synthetic resin, in particular a large sized vehicle’, US Patent #4,359,437 - 16
November 1982
- Ciba-Geigy, Publication, Vacuum Injection Process – Ciba Geigy Aileron
Publications No. 28626/d,f,e 880. 729/40 (Printed in Switzerland)
- Letterman, L.E. ‘Resin Film Infusion Process and Apparatus’, US Patent
#4,622,091 - 11 November 1986
- Seemann, W.H. ‘Vacuum-forming method and apparatus for vacuum forming
fiber reinforced composites’, European Patent Application No. EP0525263A1,
filed 1 August 1991.
- Seeman, W.H. ‘Vacuum-forming fiber reinforced resin composites’, UK Patent
Application #GB 2257938A, filed 25 July 1991
- Seeman, W.H. ‘Plastic transfer moulding techniques for the production of
fiber-reinforced plastic structures’, US Patent #4,902,215. Filed 30 March
1989
- William, Christopher; Summerscales, John; Grove, Stephen, ‘Resin Infusion
Under Flexible Tooling (RIFT)’, School of Manufacturing, Materials and
Mechanical Engineering, University of Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, UK, rev. 21
December 1995
Disclaimer: This document and the data contained herein are subject to revision. DIAB Inc. reserves the right to release
new replacement data. The data presented is derived from tests and experience. Calculations should be verified with
physical tests. The data is furnished without liability to DIAB Inc. or its agents and does not constitute a warranty or
representation in respect of the material or its use. DIAB Inc. assumes no liability for patent infringement either expressed
or implied. Users of this document should check that they have the latest issue, which may be downloaded from the DIAB
web site – www.diabgroup.com or by calling Technical Services at 972-228-7600.
DIAB Technologies
___________________________________________________________________ Rev C 11.19.02

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Vacuum Infusing Processing with DIAB core materials

A Guide to Resin Infusion of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

What is Vacuum Infusion?

Infusion offers several benefits over conventional hand-layup techniques. It

As the leader in composite sandwich technology worldwide, DIAB is committed to

This guide is designed to introduce you to the concept of infusion, provide a

Equation 1: D’Arcy Porous Flow

Figure 2: Double Contoured (DC) Cut

Figure 3: Surface Grooved (VR) Cut

Figure 4: Infusion Path (IP) Cut

This scoring pattern is a surface scratch (a shallow knife cut pattern,

Figure 5: Core Perforation

Holes are drilled or punched through the material on the corners of a 4” x 4”

Figure 6: The panel on the left is a typical SCRIMP setup; the

Peel Ply - Peel Ply is an extremely strong, porous, treated nylon or

Spray Adhesive – On vertical surfaces or complex geometries it may be

Figure 7: Resin Trap Schematic

Dry Materials Stack

Resin Inlet Manifold

Figure 8: Setup for Resin Infusion Process

1. Prepare your fiber-reinforcement materials (also called skins or facings) and

3. Orient vacuum lines and/or vacuum manifold as required.

6. At this point it may be beneficial to reduce the pressure if possible. Excessive

- Consistent surface finish.

Figure 9: 18.3m (60 ft) Tank

For Further Information

Additional Patents & Further Reading

You might also like