A Systematic Approach in Shoe Last Design for Human Feet

C. S. Wang1, T. R. Chang2, M. C. Lin3

1
Department of Industrial Design, Tung-Hai University, Taichung, Taiwan
2
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Nan-Kai University of Technology, Nan-Tou, Taiwan
3
Department of Industrial Engineering and Enterprise Management, Tung-Hai University, Taichung, Taiwan
E-mail: cswang@thu.edu.tw

Abstract - The main purpose of this research is to build a
process to find the most suitable shoe last for making shoes for
human feet. A fitness function is defined to determine the
optimum shoe last. Based on reverse engineering (RE)
technology, this research scanned the surface of human foot and
shoe last in STL (Stereo Lithography) format. We proposed the
STL feature-based slicing algorithm to automatically construct
the three most important girth characteristics for human feet and
shoe last. Fuzzy theory was used to analyze and build the
membership functions of these three important characteristics
between the shoe last and human feet. The analytical hierarchy
process (AHP) was applied to compare the important index and
decide the weighting functions for each girth characteristic to
determine the fitness function in all shoe last databases for the
feet.
Keywords - Reverse Engineering; Anthropometry; Shoe
Last Design; STL Feature-based; Slicing Process; Fuzzy
Theory; Analytical Hierarchy Process
I. INTRODUCTION
The shoe last is designed according to the features
and characteristics of human feet and is concerned with
II. METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this research is to obtain the point
clouds data of human feet and shoe lasts in the reverse
engineering method by CMM and to search the coordinate
data of the features of girths on the surface. Subsequently,
fuzzy theory and AHP will be applied to find the optimal
shoe last by analyzing the data to describe the
characteristics of human feet and shoe lasts. The primary
methods and the approach are described below (Fig. 1):
1) Scan human feet and shoe lasts to obtain surface
and point cloud data [4, 5, 6].
2) Compute and figure out the three important girths
using a triangular, STL-slicing algorithm.
3) Determine the membership functions in shoe last
girth features by fuzzy theory.
4) Find the weights for each girth by AHP analyzing
process.
5) Case study and rank to find the most suitable
shoe last for the human feet.
Last and Human Feet
Pairwise Comparison
Samples
Matrix of the Girth by
Questionnaires

Analytic Hierarchy Process

Last and Human Feet

Getting 3D
it’s the shape and the functions of feet. The most appearance data
Outline Data

by CMM
important features of feet that the shoe last must take into Find the Eigen
account are length, width, ball girth, instep girth, and Characteristics by
Vector for the Matrix

waist girth. Length and width are related to the size of the Slicing Process

shoe last, and the three girths are related to comfort and The Weights of
the Girth
fitness when people are wearing the shoes. The main Constructing
Characteristics Data Characteristics
purpose of this research is to design a process to find the
most suitable shoe last in the database of shoe lasts for the
human feet based on the length, width, and three main Fuzzy Analyzing and Ranking through
girths of shoe last. An STL (Stereo Lithography), feature- the Girth Characteristics and the
Weights
based, slicing algorithm was used to automatically
construct the three most important feature-girth The Optimal Shoe Last for the
characteristics of human feet and shoe last. A fitness Human Feet

function was defined to determine the optimum shoe last

Fig. 1. Research Process
for human feet. Fuzzy theory was used to analyze and
build the membership functions for the three girths in the
A. Data of STL files
important features of shoe last and feet. The analytical
Point cloud data for feet and shoe lasts can be
hierarchy process (AHP) was applied to analyze the
obtained by CMM. Subsequently, the data can be
important indices from shoe experts to find the weighting
processed to reduce noise, merged, assessed for uniform
factors for each girth to determine the fitness function
points procedures, and, finally, transformed and saved in
between the shoe last and the feet. Three case studies
STL format. This work can be accomplished by using
were implemented to find the optimum shoe last in the
reverse engineering software, specifically Geomagic
database of 10 shoe lasts to prove the optimal solution in
Studio. An STL-processed triangular format of a human
this research.
foot is shown in Fig. 2. For the programming limitation,
the triangular meshes of all objects are controlled within
50,000 meshes.
 Before analyzing feet and shoe lasts, all STL data
must be rotated and transformed to the correct position
and the correct orientation, and then the correct
characteristics data can be determined. As shown in Fig.
3, the Y-axis is set as the direction of the length, the X-
axis is the direction of the width, and the XY plane is
placed as the bottom of the foot and the shoe last.
Fig. 2. A human foot Fig. 3. A shoe last
B. Slicing for Triangular STL Meshes
The STL data file, which is constructed by triangles,
is the de facto format for reverse engineering and rapid
prototyping (RP). Each STL triangle is defined by three
vertices and a normal vector. The point cloud data
obtained by scanning human feet and shoe lasts were
transformed and saved in an ASCII file of STL format.
Slicing is the main process for reverse engineering [1].
The main task for slicing is to use the plane to intersect
with the STL file to get the three important girth features
needed for analysis. The section planes that intersect with
the STL file and the slicing algorithm are two main
components of this process.
1) Section planes of characteristics
Both for feet and shoe lasts, the girth data are obtained by
identifying or searching for the characteristic points on
their appearance. Therefore, the section planes of the girth
can be established according to these points, and then the
three girths are computed by the intersection of the
section plane with the STL data. The section plane for the
girth can be defined by three characteristic points on each
girth. For the plane equation, ax + by + cz = d , a
plane can be determined by a , b, c, d using the
coordinates of these points.
For example, in the case of feet ball girths, inner
and outer foot ball points must be identified as shown in
Fig. 4, and these two points are defined individually as
the maximum and the minimum coordinates of the X-axis
or the width of the foot. So, if the coordinates of the two
points are ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) , a plane that
passes through these two points and parallels the Z-axis is
the ball girth section plane, and a = y2 − y1
b = x1 − x2 , c = 0 , d = x1 y2 − x2 y1 .
Fig. 4. Characteristic points of foot ball girth
2) Slicing Process
The girths of feet and shoe lasts are obtained from the
intersection of STL graphic triangular data with the
characteristic plane. There is a need to determine which
triangles intersect with the plane. If the intersection exists,
there are five conditions in which a triangle can intersect
with a plane [3], as shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1. WAYS A TRIANGLE CAN INTERSECT WITH A PLANE
(a) Intersects with two edges
(b) Intersects with one vertex and one edge
(c) Intersects with one edge within the slicing
layer
(d) Intersects with one vertex
(e) Intersects with the triangle within the slicing
layer
As shown in Table 1, in conditions (a), (b), and (c),
there are two intersection points on each triangle. Because
conditions (d) and (e) have the same intersection points as
the triangles of conditions (b) and (c), they can be
excluded as the special cases, although an intersection
exists between them, as shown in Fig. 5.
(i) Case (d) replaced by case (b) (ii) Case (e) replace by case (c)
Fig. 5. Adjacent triangles intersect with a plane for case (d) and (e)
Therefore, only cases (a), (b), and (c) should be used to
compute intersection points, and the points are estimated
if the vertex is on the section plane and if the edge
intersects with the section plane. And if there exists two
intersection points between the STL triangles and the
section plane, these two intersected points are the result as
the girth points.
The process for determining the intersection point
of the section plane with the STL edge can be explained
as follows. The two vertices of the STL triangular points
are ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) . The section plane
ax + by + cz = d that passes through the line
connecting these two points should satisfy the formula
, ( d − ax1 − by1 − cz1 )( d − ax2 − by2 − cz2 ) < 0 , as
shown in Fig. 6. If an intersection exists between them,
the coordinates ( x , y , z ) of the intersection point can be
estimated by interpolation, and the result is
x = x1 + t ( x2 − x1 )
y = y1 + t ( y2 − y1 ) ……………………… (1)
z = z1 + t ( z2 − z1 ) ,
Where t = (d − ax1 − by1 − cz1 ) /[a( x2 − x1 ) + b( y2 − y1 ) + c( z2 − z1 )]

Fig. 6. Intersection point
C. Fuzzy Analysis of Shoe Lasts
Different conditions, such as weather, time, and
pressure can make the feet girths expand or shrink, but we
do not consider these special conditions. Normally, there
is a tolerance between the girth of the shoe last and the
girth of the foot. Here, we can define the tolerance as the
sense threshold ( ST ), in length, for the difference in girth
between the foot ( FG ) and the shoe last ( LG ).
ST = FG − LG ……………………………… (2)
For example, someone’s foot length ( FL ) is 260mm ,
width ( FW ) is 105mm and the ball girth ( FG ) is
251 mm , so shoe lasts are produced that have various
girths along with appropriate length and width according
to the foot’s length and width. After wear trials, the shoe
with a girth of 245mm ( LG ) among these lasts feels the
most comfortable, so the sense threshold ( ST ) can be
defined as 6mm . In further trials, the lasts with the range
of girth from 242 mm ( LT ) to 249 mm ( LR ) would be the
best fit. The former one (242 to 245 mm ) feel tight, and
the latter one (245 to 249 mm ) feel loose. If it exceeds
this range, it would be too tight or too loose and would
feel uncomfortable. Therefore, the range that should be
chosen is LR − LT (249 – 242 = 7 mm ), and 7 mm is the
“Fit Sense Threshold ( STF )”, where
STF = LR − LT .……………………………… (3)
By the definition and considering the concept of
sense threshold mentioned above, there exists a fuzzy
relationship in design for the feet girth and the shoe last
girth. Therefore, the evaluation and estimation mode that
searches and ranks are proposed initially based on fuzzy
theory, and the optimal shoe last can be determined from
the database of the shoe lasts according to this evaluation
mode.
Fuzzy sets theory was first proposed by Zadeh [8].
In this research, a proposed membership function μ ( x )
in a triangular shape for the foot girth and the shoe last
girth is shown in Fig. 7. LG is the optimal shoe last girth
designed from the foot girth and the sense threshold, and
the difference between LT and LR is the fit sense
threshold ( STF ). Therefore, if the shoe last girth is smaller
than LT , it would cause discomfort by being too tight, and
if the shoe last girth is larger than LR , it would cause
discomfort by being too loose. If the shoe last girth is
between LT and LR , a membership grade of [0, 1] would
be estimated from the membership function μ ( x) .
⎧0, x < LT
⎪( x − L ) /( L − L ), L ≤ x ≤ L .........μ ….. (4)
⎪
μ ( x) = ⎨ T G T T G A
⎪( LR − x ) /( LR − LG ), LG ≤ x ≤ LR .......μB
⎪⎩0, x > LR
Fig. 7. Membership Function of Girth
For the membership grade estimated at this stage,
the number “1” means that the shoe last girth fits the foot
the best, and the number “0” means it doesn’t fit the foot.
As for the membership grade between 0 and 1, the larger
means the level at which the shoe last girth fits the foot
girth. The more items in membership of the shoe last
girths is not 0, the higher in ranking that the shoe last fits
the feet. So, the initial ranking can be created after
analyzing the membership grades of these three girths,
and they can be described as: 1) all membership grades of
the girth items are not 0; 2) two membership grades of the
girth items are not 0; 3) only one membership grade of the
girth items is not 0; and 4) all membership grades of the
three girths are 0.
D. Analytical Hierarchy Process
Although the initial ranking can be established through
analyzing the fuzzy membership grade of each girth,
several shoe lasts could simultaneously occur that cannot
be distinguished from each other for the membership
grades with a value of 0 for the girth. Therefore, for the
subsequent work, each girth must be assigned a weight
related to its relative importance. Each shoe last would be
evaluated by the fitness function R , so the optimal shoe
last can be determined through further, accurate ranking
according to R . As to the weights of these three girths,
the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) would be used to
figure them out.
R = wB M B + wI M I + wW MW ,…………………..(5)
wB is
M B is the Membership Grade of Ball Girth; the
Weight of Ball Girth; M I is Membership Grade of Instep
Girth; wI
is Weight of Instep Girth, M W is Membership
Grade of Waist Girth; and wW is Weight of Waist Girth.
AHP has become preferred by decision-makers as a
reliable tool since it ranks the evaluation factors according
to their relative importance, then assesses the decision
points for every factor, and, finally, uses a mathematical
method to find the percentage distribution of decision
points in terms of the weights that affect the decision [7].
Through AHP, by gathering the comments and the
estimation of shoe experts or decision makers, a pair-wise
comparison matrix of factors is created according to a
nominal scale, and then the priority vector and maximum
eigen value would be determined. Finally, the result
would be estimated if there is consistency. If not, it would
not be accepted. The eigen method is used to solve AHP,
and the eigen-vector w obtained from the pair-wise
comparison matrix is the weights related to all factors.
After determining the eigen-vector, the result must be
examined. Reference [2] proposed the Consistency Index
( CI ) to estimate this value:
CI = (λmax − n) /( n − 1) …………………….(6)
Where λmax is the largest or principal eigen-value of the
comparison matrix, and n is the number of factors or the
order of the comparison matrix.
In general, w = λmax w and if CI ≤ 0.1 , the matrix is
consistent and the eigen-vector w obtained from the
matrix can represent the weights related to all factors.
III. RESULTS
The user interface that implements the method
mentioned above and obtains the measurements of the
characteristic features is programmed by MATLAB, as
shown in Fig. 8. The girths can be sent to Geomagic
Studio or AutoCAD formats for further analysis and
visualization, as shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.
Fig. 8. Operating User Interface programmed by Matlab
Fig. 9. Output the girth to Geomagic for further analysis
Fig. 10. Output the girth to Auto CAD
There are three examinee’s feet and 10 shoe lasts (Table
2) for the verification of the research. For the adult male
examinee, the shoe size No. 9 in the U.S. standard, normal
and right foot are chosen, but deformed, pathological, or
flat feet that are abnormal would not be appropriate for
the study and should be excluded. For the shoe lasts, the
style is a size 9 men’s leather shoe.
TABLE 2. SAMPLES FOR 10 SHOE LASTS
1 (ab0017)
2 (ab0155)
3 (ab9998)
4 (ab8562)
5 (ab9647)
6 (tw698)
7 (tw736)
8 (tw9615)
9 (tw1127)
10 (tw1247)
The first step for AHP is to determine the importance
of the factors in three girths. By sending questionnaires to
the experts and to manufacturers in the shoe industry, we
obtained the related criteria for these girths. All 10
questionnaires were received, and the pair-wise
comparison matrix from the questionnaires was estimated
by the Eigen method to get the weights. Due to the fact
that there were only six questionnaires that passed
consistency index ( CI ) test, the weights that were
estimated from these six questionnaires were used. Then,
the geometric mean method was used to obtain the
synthesized weights from these six consistency
questionnaires, and the weights related to these three
girths were determined to be: ball weight wB = 0.9772;
waist weight ww = 0.1848; and instep weight wI =
0.0816.
As a result of the analysis, the important sequence
of these three girths is Ball > Waist > Instep, and the
evaluation value R can be estimated from the weights
using AHP analysis and the membership grades from
fuzzy sets. Then, a further, more accurate ranking can be
determined according to R .
IV. DISCUSSION
Although the ranking of the optimal shoe last can be
obtained by the estimation obtained from the proposed
method using fuzzy theory and AHP, the shoe last that fits
each examinee the best can be determined according by
the ranking. Once the database that has considerable data
related to shoe last design is set up with the increase of
the lasts, there will be a need for faster ways to obtain a
more accurate ranking among all shoe lasts and to
determine the optimal shoe last for each person.
1) Case 1: First Examinee
There are no shoe lasts for which all the membership
grades of these three girths are not 0 among these 10 lasts,
so there was no optimal shoe last for first examinee
among these 10 lasts. However, for Nos. ab9998, ab8652,
and tw9615, these three shoe lasts all have only two girth
items for which the membership grades are not 0.
Therefore, the optimal shoe last among these three lasts
can be estimated through the accurate ranking of the
formula, R = wB M B + wI MI + wW MW , and the result is
shown below:
Rab9998 = 0.9772 × 0.671 + 0.0816 × 0.885 + 0.1848 × 0 = 0.7279
Rab8652 = 0.9772 × 0.648 + 0.0816 × 0 + 0.1848 × 0.315 = 0.6914
Rtw9615 = 0.9772 × 0 + 0.0816 × 0.523 + 0.1848 × 0.307 = 0.0994
As a result, Rab9998 > Rab8652 > Rtw9615 , which means
the No. ab9998 shoe last would be the optimal last for the
first examinee among these 10 lasts, and it is shown in
Fig. 11(a) for STL and in Fig. 11(b) for the sample.
2) Case 2 - Second Examinee
The No. ab9998 last has all the membership grades that
are not 0 for these three girth items. Therefore, it would
be the optimal last for the second examinee among these
10 lasts, and it is shown in Fig. 11(a) for STL and in Fig.
11(b) for the sample.
3) Case 3 - Third Examinee
Last No. tw736 is the only one for which all the
membership grades of these three girth items are not 0.
Therefore, it would be the optimal last for the third
examinee among these 10 lasts, and it is shown in Fig.
12(a) and Fig. 12(b).
Fig. 11(a). Shoe last No. ab9998 Fig. 11(b). Shoe last No. ab9998
Fig. 12(a). Shoe last tw736 Fig. 12(b). Shoe last tw736
V. CONCLUSION
The concrete efforts in this paper that have been
completed are listed below:
1. A programmed graphic user interface, which
automatically estimates and obtains the data
characteristics of the shoe lasts and human feet, has
been created, allowing human errors to be decreased.
2. A concept of the sense threshold applying to shoe last
and feet from fuzzy theory and the weights of girths
by AHP is proposed. A fitness function in shoe last
and feet is proposed, and the optimal shoe last for
individual feet can be found. All the shoe lasts for
one examinee can be ranked by using the fitness
function.
3. All the characteristics and the graphic data of the
shoe lasts and human feet estimated within this
research can be stored to set up a database that can be
used in subsequent work as a reference for the
modification or design of shoe lasts.
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