Module 2 - Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

2.1 THE STRUCTURE OF ATOM

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

  Atoms possess internal structure; that is, they are made up of even smaller
particles, which are called subatomic particles. A subatomic particle is a very
small particle that is a building block for atoms. Three types of subatomic
particles are found within atoms: electrons, protons and neutrons. The key
properties of these three types of particles are summarized in the table below.
Subatomic
  Charge Mass (in grams) Mass (in amu)
particle
 
 
Proton +1 1.6726 x 10-24 1
 
Neutron
  0 1.6749 x 10-24 1
 
Electron -1 9.1093 x 10-28 Negligible
 
 

            All protons and all neutrons present are found at the center of an atom in a very tiny volume
called the nucleus. The nucleus is the small, dense positively charged center of an atom. A nucleus is
always positively charged because it contains positively charged protons. The outer (extranuclear)
region of an atom contains all of the electrons. The volume occupied by the electrons is sometimes
referred to as the electron cloud. Closely resembling the term nucleus is the term nucleon. A nucleon is
any subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. Thus, both protons and neutrons are nucleons,
and the nucleus can be regarded as containing a collection of nucleons.

            An atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Because an atom has the
same number of electrons as protons, the atomic number also specifies the number of electrons
present.

   Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

            The symbol Z is used as a general designation for atomic number.

            A mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom. Thus, the mass number gives the number gives the number of subatomic particles present in
the nucleus.

   Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

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            The symbol A is used as a general designation for mass number.

            The number and identity of subatomic particles present in an atom can be calculated from its
atomic and mass numbers in the following manner:

                        Number of protons       = atomic number = Z

                        Number of electrons     = atomic number = Z

                        Number of neutrons      = mass number – atomic number = A – Z

Nuclide – the general term applied to each unique atom; represented by 

Where:    X = Element symbol

              A = Mass Number

              Z = Atomic Number

Atoms of an element that differ in neutron count are called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of an element
that have the same number of protons and the same number of electrons but different number of
neutrons. Different isotopes always have the same atomic number and different mass numbers.

             Isotopes of an element have the same

chemical properties, but their physical
properties are often slightly different. Isotopes
of an element have the same chemical
properties because they have the same
number of electrons. They have slightly
different physical properties because they have
different numbers of neutrons and therefore
different masses.

2.1a PRACTICE EXERCISES

**Determine the following information for an atom whose complete chemical symbol is

1.        Atomic number - ____19_____________________

2.        Mass number - _____39____________________

3.        Number of protons present - ______19___________________

4.        Number of electrons present - ______19___________________

5.        Number of neutrons - _____20____________________

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2.1b PRACTICE EXERCISES

**Using the periodic table, identify the element X based on the given complete chemical symbol for X.

1.   1                2.                3.            4.  

2.1c PRACTICE EXERCISES

**With the help of the periodic table, complete the following table:

Element Complete Atomic Mass Number Number of Number of

Chemical Number Protons Neutrons
Symbol

(1) 2 3 2 1

    Nickel (2) (3)  60 (4)  (5) 

(6) (7)  18 37 (8)  (9) 

(10) (11)  (12)  90 (13)  52

 Chlorine  (14) 17 (15)  (16)   18

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2.2 THE UNUSUAL NATURE OF CARBON ATOM

THE UNUSUAL NATURE OF CARBON ATOM

Organic compounds are the chemical basis for life itself, as living. Proteins, carbohydrates, enzymes, and
hormones are organic molecules. Organic compounds also include natural gas, petroleum, coal, gasoline
and many synthetic materials such as dyes, plastics and clothing fibers. They were used in ancient times
by Romans and Egyptians as dyes, medicines, and poisons from natural sources, but the composition of
the substance was unknown. In the 16th century, organic compounds were isolated from nature in the
pure state (Scheele, 1769) and analytical methods were developed for determination of elemental
composition (Lavosier, 1784). In 1807, Jon Jacob Berzelius began to categorize compounds into two
types: organic and inorganic. Compounds obtained from living organisms were called organic
compounds, and compounds obtained from mineral constituents of the earth were called inorganic
compounds. He believed in Vitalism, that is, organic compounds originate from living organisms through
the action of some vital force. This concept was proven incorrect in 1828 by the German chemist
Friedrick Wohler who was a student of Berzelius. Wohler heated an aqueous solution of two inorganic
compounds, ammonium chloride and silver cyanate and obtained urea (a component of urine).

The terms organic and inorganic continue

to be used in classifying compounds, but the definitions of these terms no longer reflect their historical
origins. Organic chemistry is the study of hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen) and their
derivatives. Inorganic chemistry is the study of all substances other than hydrocarbons and their
derivatives. August Kekule established the foundation for the structural theory in organic chemistry.

Carbon atoms have the ability to bond each

other in a wide variety of ways that involve
long chains of carbon atoms or cyclic
arrangements (rings) of carbon atoms.
Sometimes both chains and rings of carbon
atoms are present in the same molecule.
Elemental forms of carbon include the
following carbon-only structures: diamond,
graphite and buckministerfullerene.

Carbon’s ability to join with itself and other elements gives its versatility not seen with any other
elements in the periodic table. The variety of covalent bonding “behaviors” possible for carbon atoms is
related to carbon’s electron configuration.

1.       Carbon is a member of Group IVA of the periodic table.

2.       It has four valence electrons.
3.       In compound formation, four additional valence electrons are needed to give carbon atoms
an octet of valence electrons (covalent bond formation)
4.       Carbon can meet this four-bond requirement in three different ways: 

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 a. by bonding to four other atoms. This situation requires the presence of
four single bonds.
b. by bonding to three other atoms. This situation requires the presence of
two single bonds and one double bond.
c. by bonding to two other atoms. This situation requires the presence of
either two double bonds or a triple bond and a single bond.
 
2.2a PRACTICE EXERCISES
**Indicate whether each of the following situations meet or do not meet the “bonding requirement” for
carbon atoms. Write Yes or No. (#1 is given as an example)
1.        Two single bonds and a double bond -  Yes
2.        A single bond and two double bonds - __________________________
3.       Three single bonds and a triple bond - __________________________
4.        A double bond and a triple bond - __________________________
5.       Two double bonds - __________________________

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2.3 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
             The distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an atom is called the atom’s electronic
structure or electron configuration. This is something very useful to know about an element because the
arrangement of electrons in the outer parts of an atom, which is determined by its electron
configuration, controls the chemical properties of the element. An orbital is a mathematical function
used to describe regions in an atom where the electron charge density or the probability of finding an
electron is high.
            Three principles are involved in the energy distribution of electrons among the orbitals:
1.       Pauli Exclusion Principle – “No two electrons in an atom can have the same values for all four
of their quantum numbers”.
2.       Aufbau Principle – a set of rules enabling the construction of an electron structure of an
atom from its atomic number.
3.       Hund’s Rule – “when electrons are placed in a set of equal energy, they are spread out as
much as possible to give as few paired electrons as possible”.
The periodic table below is divided into regions of 2, 6, 10 and 14 columns, which are the numbers of
electrons that can occupy s, p, d and f subshells.

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Electron configurations are built up by filling lowest energy orbitals first as shown in the diagram below.

2.3a PRACTICE EXERCISES
**The elements Si, Al, Cd, S and Se are all used in the manufacture of various semiconductor devices.
Write the expected electron configuration for these atoms.
1.         14Si – 1s22s22p63s23p2 or [Ne] 3s23p2
2.        13Al - ____________________________________________________________________
3.        16S - _____________________________________________________________________
4.         34Se - _____________________________________________________________________

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2.4 VALENCE ELECTRONS AND THE LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURES

VALENCE ELECTRONS AND THE LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURES

 
Chemical bonds
       Attractive force that holds two atoms together in a more complex unit.
       Form as a result of interactions between electrons found in the combining atoms.
 Two types of Chemical Bonds
      Ionic Bonds
      Chemical bond formed through the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom or
group of atoms to another atom or group of atoms.
o      Ionic Compound
o      A compound in which ionic bonds are present.
      Covalent Bonds
      Chemical bond formed through the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two
atoms.
o      Molecular Compound (Covalent Compound)
o       A compound in which atoms are joined through covalent bonds.
 
Two fundamental concepts
1. Not all electrons in an atom participate in bonding. Those that participate are called valence
electrons.
2. Certain arrangements of electrons are more stable than others, as is explained by the octet rule.

Valence Electron
      An electron in the outermost electron shell of a
representative element or noble-gas element.
      Valence electrons are found in either s or p
 
Lewis Symbol
       Chemical symbol of an element surrounded by dots equal in
number to the number of valence electrons present in atoms
of the element.
 

Valence Electrons and Lewis symbols

Three Important Generalizations
1. Representative elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
2. The number of valence electrons for representative elements is the same as the Roman numeral
periodic-table number.
3. The maximum number of valence electrons for any element is eight.
 
The Octet Rule
     Certain arrangements of valence electrons are more stable than others.
     The valence electron configurations of the noble gases are considered the most stable of all
valence electron configurations.

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      In forming compounds, atoms of elements lose, gain, or share electrons in such a way as to
produce a noble-gas electron configuration for each of the atoms involved.
 
Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds
     Ion formation requires the presence of two elements:
     A metal that can donate electrons. Example: sodium, Na
     A nonmetal that can accept electrons. Example: chlorine, Cl
     The electrons lost by the metal are the same ones gained by the nonmetal.
     The positive and negative ions simultaneously formed from such electron transfer attract one
another.
     Combination of Lewis symbols that represents either the transfer or the sharing of electrons
in chemical bonds.
     Examples:
o      Reaction between sodium and chlorine
o      Reaction between sodium and oxygen
o      Reaction between calcium and chlorine
 
 
Key Differences between Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Ionic Bond Covalent Bond
·         Ionic bonds form between a metal and ·         Covalent bonds usually form between
nonmetal. nonmetals.
·         Ionic bonds involve electron transfer. ·         Covalent bonds involve electron sharing.
·         Ionic compounds do not contain discrete ·         Covalent compounds has a molecule as its
molecules basic structural unit.
·         All ionic compounds are solids at room ·         Covalent compounds are varied.
temperature ·         Soluble covalent compounds usually
·         Soluble ionic solids form aqueous solutions produce a nonconducting aqueous solution
that conduct electricity

Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds

(Bonding Electrons)   
 Pairs of valence electrons that are
shared between atoms in a covalent
bond.
      Represent the shared electron pairs
with dashes. 

Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds

(Non-Bonding Electrons)
      Pairs of valence electrons on an atom
that are not involved in electron sharing.
      Also referred to as unshared electron
pairs, lone electron pairs, or lone pairs.

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Single Covalent Bond
      A covalent bond
in which two
atoms share one
pair of electrons.

Double Covalent Bond

      A covalent bond
in which two
atoms share two
pairs of electrons.

 Triple Covalent Bond

     A covalent bond
in which two
atoms share three
pairs of electrons.

Valence Electrons and Number of Covalent Bonds Formed

      There is a strong tendency for atoms of nonmetallic elements to form a specific number of
covalent bonds.
      The number of bonds formed is equal to the number of electrons the nonmetallic atom must
share to obtain an octet of electrons.
Steps in Writing Lewis Structures:
1. Calculate the total number of valence electrons available in the molecule by adding together the
valence electron counts for all atoms in the molecule. (Use the periodic table.)
2. Write the chemical symbols of the atoms in the molecule in the order in which they are bonded
to one another, and then place a single covalent bond, involving two electrons, between each
pair of bonded atoms.
3. Add nonbonding electron pairs to the structure such that each atom bonded to the central atom
has an octet of electrons. Remember that for hydrogen, an “octet” is only 2 electrons.
4. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom of the structure.
5. If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, then use one or more pairs
of nonbonding electrons on the atoms bonded to the central atom to form double or triple
bonds.
 
Electronegativity
      The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.
     A measure of the relative attraction that an atom has for the shared electrons in a bond.
     On the periodic table, electronegativity generally increases across a period and decreases
down a group.

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 Non-Polar Covalent Bond
     A covalent bond in which there is equal
sharing of electrons between two atoms.

 Polar Covalent Bond

     A covalent bond in which there is unequal
sharing of electrons between two atoms.
     It creates fractional positive and negative
charges on atoms.
     Electrons spend more time near the more
electronegative atom of the bond and less
time near the less electronegative atom of
the bond.

Bond Polarity
      A measure of the degree of inequality in the sharing of electrons between two atoms in a
chemical bond.
     The greater the electronegativity difference between the two bonded atoms, the greater the
polarity of the bond.
 
Bond
  Type Electronegativity Difference
Nonpolar
  Covalent 0.4 or less
Polar
  Covalent Greater than 0.4 to 1.5
Polar
  Covalent Between 1.5 and 2.0 (between
  nonmetals)
Ionic
  Between 1.5 and 2.0 (metal and
  nonmetal)
Ionic
  Greater than 2.0
 
 
2.4a PRACTICE EXERCISES
**How many valence electrons do atoms with the following electron configurations have?
1.       1s2 2s2 - ______________
2.       1s22s22p63s2 - ______________
3.       1s22s22p63s23p1 - ______________       
2.4b PRACTICE EXERCISES
**Draw Lewis symbols for atoms of each of the following elements.
1.          12Mg
2.           19K
3.          15P
 
2.4c PRACTICE EXERCISES
**Using Lewis structures, show how ionic compounds are formed by atoms of

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 1.          Mg and S
2.          K and N
3.          F and Ca

2.5 IONIC BONDING AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

IONIC BONDING AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

             The nucleus of an atom is unchanged by chemical processes, but some atoms can readily gain or
lose electrons. If electrons are removed from or added to a neutral atom, a charged particle called an
ion is formed.
Ion
     Ion with a positive charge is
called a cation
     Ion with a negative charge us
called an anion
     An atom (or group of atoms)
that is electrically charged as a
result of the loss or gain of
electrons.
     If an atom gains one or more
electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion.
     If an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a positively charged ion.
 
Categories of Electrons
1. Inner (core) electrons are those in the previous noble gas and in any completed transition series.
They fill all the lower energy levels of an atom.
2. Outer electrons are those in the highest energy level (have the highest n value) and on average
are farthest from the nucleus.
3. Valence electrons are those involved in forming compounds. Among the main-group elements,
the valence electrons are the outer electrons. Among the transition elements, some inner d
electrons are also often involved in bonding and are counted among the valence electrons.
 

Valences of Common Elements and Radicals

1. Cations
Aluminum, Al3+                                             Iron (II) or Ferrous, Fe2+
Ammonium, NH4+                                                 Iron (III) or Ferric, Fe3+
Antimony (III) or Antimonous, Sb3+             Lead (II) or Plumbous, Pb2+
Antimony (V), Sb5+                                      Lead (IV) or Plumbic, Pb4+
Arsenic (III) or Arsenous, As3+                     Manganese (II) or Manganous, Mn2+
Arsenic (V), As5+                                         Mercury (I) or Mercurous, Hg1+
Chromium (II) or Chromous, Cr2+               Mercury (II) or Mercuric, Hg2+
Chromium (III) or Chromic, Cr3+                Nickel (II) or Nickelous, Ni2+
Cobalt (II) or Cobaltous, Co2+                      Nickel (III) or Nickelic, Ni3+
Cobalt (III) or Cobaltic, Co3+                     Platinum (II) or Platinous, Pb2+
Copper (I) or Cuprous, Cu+                          Platinum (IV) or Platinic, Pt4+

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Copper (II) or Cupric, Cu2+                        Silver, Ag+
Gold (I) or Aurous, Au+                              Tin (II) or Stannous, Sn2+
Gold (III) or Auric, Au3+                            Tin (IV) or Stannic, Sn4+
                                    Zinc, Zn2+

2. Anions and Polyatomic ions

Acetate, CH3COO-  or C2H3O2-                   Sulfide, S2-
Bromide, Br-                                                Selenide, Se2-
Borate, BO33-                                               Silicate, SiO32-
Carbonate, CO32-                                        Telluride, Te2-
Chlorite, ClO2-                                       Nitrate, NO3-
Chlorate, ClO3                                             Fluoride, F-
-

Ferricyanide, Fe(CN)63-                              Ferrocyanide, Fe(CN)64-

Carbide, C4- or C22-                                    Iodide, I-
Chloride, Cl-                                                Chromate, CrO42-
Nitride, N3-                                                  Cyanide, CN-
Oxide, O2-                                                    Dichromate, Cr2O72-
Peroxide, O-                                                Dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO4-
Phosphide, P3-                                              Hydride, H-
Silicide, Si4-                                                Hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate, HCO3-
Hydrogen phosphate, HPO42-                   Hydrogen sulfite or bisulfite, HSO32-
Hydroxide, OH-                                          Hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate, HSO42-     
Hypochlorite, ClO-                                      Nitride, N3-
Nitrite, NO2-                                                Oxalate, C2O42-
Perchlorate, ClO4-                                      Permanganate, MnO4-
Sulfite, SO32-                                              Sulfate, SO42-
Thiocyanate, SCN-                                    Thiosulfate, S2O32-
Phosphite, PO43-                                        Phosphate, PO43-

 
WRITING OF FORMULAS FOR INORGANIC COMPOUNDS FROM KNOWN VALENCES
Steps:
1. Write the symbols of the elements or formulas of the radicals that constitute the compound.
2. Determine the valence number of each.
3. Write the appropriate subscript of each element or radical observing the following rules
 If the valence of the positive and negative ions are numerically equal, combine the
atoms or radical for atom or radical.
 If the valences are not equal, make the valence number of one the subscript of the
other, and vice-versa. In other words, cross multiply the numerical values of the ions.
Then, reduce the subscripts to the lowest terms.
 If the radical occurs more than once in the formula, enclose it in parenthesis and
indicate with a subscript, the number of times it is supposed to be taken.
4. Check the total positive valence equals the total negative valence.
 
NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Binary compounds – are composed of only two elements
 

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  General rule of nomenclature: The cation is named first and the anion second. The anion is         named
by taking the first part of the name of the element and adding “-ide”.
 
          Full name of the metal + stem name of the non-metal  + suffix “-ide”
 
Binary Acids– These are binary compounds consisting of hydrogen combined with a non-metal. In
solutions, however, binary acids are named as hydroacids. The name is formed by adding the
prefix “hydro” and the suffix “ic” to the first part of the name of the element followed by the word
“acid”.

      Following the rules given above, name the following acids:
      Binary compound Chemical Name Chemical name as Binary acid
HCl Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid
HBr Hydrogen bromide Hydrobromic acid
 
 The exception is HCN which is not a binary acid. It is named as hydrocyanic acid.
 
Binary Salts – These are compounds consisting of a metal combined with a non-metal. If the metal exists
in more than one valence or oxidation state, the name of the metal is followed by its valence number in
Roman numeral enclosed in parenthesis. Or the last few letters in the name are dropped and the suffix
“ous” or “ic” is added, depending on whether the element is in the lower or higher valence state.
       Examples:
NaCl Sodium chloride
CaBr2 Calcium bromide
 
Metallic Oxides – a metal combined with oxygen forms a metallic oxide. The same rules of nomenclature
applied to binary salts are applied here.
      Examples:       
MgO Magnesium oxide
Al2O3 Aluminium oxide
CuO Copper (II) oxide / Cupric oxide
Fe2O3 Iron (III) oxide / Ferric oxide
 
2.5a PRACTICE EXERCISES
**Name the following compounds:
1.       Ba(OH)2 _________________________________________
2.       FeCl3 _________________________________________
3.       Cr2O3 - _________________________________________   
 
2.5b PRACTICE EXERCISES 2.E.2
**Write the chemical formulas for the following compounds:
1.       Potassium sulfide - ____________________
2.       Magnesium sulfate - ____________________
3.       Lead (II) nitrate - ____________________
 

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2.6 COVALENT BONDING AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS

COVALENT BONDING AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS

 Binary Covalent Compounds – These are compounds of two non-metals. In naming these compounds,
the name of each element is preceded by a numerical prefix (mono, di, tri, tetra…) indicating the
number of atoms of each element in the molecule.
 Examples: 
CO Carbon monoxide
PCl3 Phosphorus trichloride
CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride
P2O3 Diphosphorus trioxide
 
Sometimes in common usage, the prefix preceding the name of the first element is   omitted or the
number is followed by its valence number in Roman numeral enclosed in   parenthesis.
P2O5 Phosphorus (V) oxide
P2O3 Phosphorus (III) oxide
Ternary Compounds
Much more numerous than the binary compounds are the ternary compounds, which contains three
different elements. In many ternary compounds the negative ion consists of a group of atoms which, as
a unit, behaves in many ways like a single atom. Such a group of atoms is called a radical.
 
Ternary Acids or Oxyacids – these are ternary compounds in which hydrogen is combined with an
oxygen-containing negative radical. All ternary acids contain both hydrogen and oxygen, and a third
element which forms the central portion of the compound.
     To name the acid, the suffix “ous” or “ic” is added to the significant letters of the name of the
central element and the word acid is added.
     If the central element forms only one acid with hydrogen and oxygen, the name of the acid
ends in “ic”.Example: H2CO3 – Carbonic Acid
     If the central element forms two ternary acids with hydrogen and oxygen, the name of the
acid containing the smaller number of oxygen atoms ends in “ous” and the other acid containing
the greater number of oxygen atoms ends in “ic.
 Examples:
HClO Hypochlorous acid
HClO2 Chlorous acid
HClO3 Chloric acid
HClO4 Perchloric acid
 
Salts of Oxyacids. Salts of oxyacids are formed when all or some of the hydrogen of the oxyacid have
been replaced with a metal or positive radical.

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       If all the hydrogens are replaced, the result is a normal salt. The compound is named by giving
the name of the metal or positive ion followed by the name of the anion.
Examples:
Na2SO3 Sodium sulfite
NH4NO3 Ammonium nitrate
Ca3(PO4)2 Calcium phosphate
      If not all the hydrogens in the acid are replaced, the result is an acid salt. The naming is
somewhat the same as for normal salt except that to the second word, the prefix “bi” or acid is
used.
Examples:
NaH2PO4 Sodium dihydrogen phosphate
Na2HPO4 Disodium hydrogen phosphate / disodium biphosphate
       Some salts, in the form obtained by crystallization form aqueous solutions, contain a definite
quantity of water. They are called hydrates. Hydrates are named by giving the name of the salt
followed by the word hydrate which is preceded by a numerical prefix indicating the number of
moles of water.
Examples:
MgCl2.6H2O     Magnesium chloride hexahydrate
CuSO4.5H2O Copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate
 
Bases- these are compounds in which the anion is a hydroxide ion (OH-). They are named by giving the
name of the cation followed by the word hydroxide.
Examples:
NaOH      Sodium hydroxide
NH4OH Ammonium hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 Iron (III) hydroxide / Ferric hydroxide

2.6a PRACTICE EXERCISES
**Name the following compounds:
1.       SO2 - _____________________________________________
2.       N2O3 - ____________________________________________
3.       NF3 - _____________________________________________
 
2.6b PRACTICE EXERCISES
**Give the chemical formulas for the following compounds:
1.       Silicon tetrabromide         - _________________________________
2.       Dinitrogen tetroxide         - _________________________________
3.       Tetraphosphorushexasulfide - _______________________________
 

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2.7 sp3, sp2, sp HYBRID ORBITALS

sp3, sp2, sp HYBRID ORBITALS

Hybridization – the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals to produce a

set of equivalent hybrid orbitals.

Why do we need to understand hybridization? Experiments revealed that the

carbon atom in methane (CH4) and other alkanes has a tetrahedral geometry.
A reminder that in tetrahedral geometry, all the angles are 109.5 o and the
bonds have identical length. This means that carbon in methane and other
organic compounds form 4 chemical bonds.

Recall that carbon atom has 6 electrons with electronic

configuration C – 1s22s22p2. This is the ground state
electronic configuration of Carbon. The valence electrons
are the ones in the 2s and 2p orbitals and these are the ones
that participate in bonding and chemical reactions. If we
look at the orbital diagram on the right, it shows that the 2
electrons in the 2s orbitals are already paired and only the
two electrons in the 2p orbitals are unpaired which shows
that carbon can form two bonds only. This is not consistent
with the theories discussed above.Also, it is impossible to
make four, identical in bond length, energy, and everything
else (degenerate) bonds because one of the orbitals is a
spherical s, and the other three are p orbitals. And this is
where we get into the need of a theory that can help us
explain the known geometry and valency of the carbon
atom in many organic molecules. So, hybridization is a
theory that is used to explain certain molecular geometries
that would have not been possible otherwise.

 Ground state – the lowest-energy or most stable state of an atom.

 Excited state – a higher energy state than the ground state of an atom

The first step involved in hybridization of orbitals is the promotion of electrons wherein one electron
jumps from the lower energy orbital to the next higher energy orbital (e.g., 2s to the 2p orbital). This
leads to the excited state of
the carbon:

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Hybrid orbitals – an orbital that results from the mixing of different kinds of atomic orbitals on the same
atom.

Sigma (δ) bond - Electron pair is shared in an area centered on a line running between the atoms.
Pi (π) bond - Forms double and triple bonds by sharing electron pair(s) in the space above and below
the σ bond. Uses the unhybridized p orbitals

 sp3 hybrid orbital – results from the mixing or hybridizing of one s orbital and three p orbitals.
                   - 25% s-character and 75% p-character
                   - all single bonds; sigma (δ) bonds

Example: sp3 Hybridization in Methane   

 sp2 hybrid orbital – results from the mixing or hybridizing of one s orbital and two p orbitals.
                             - 33.3% s-character and 66.7% p-character
                            - double bond = one sigma bond (δ) bond and one pi (π) bond (formed from
unhybridized p orbital)
                            - 2 single bonds = sigma (δ) bonds

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Example: sp2 Hy bridization in
Ethylene, H2C=CH2 

 sp hybrid orbital – results from the mixing or hybridizing of one s orbital and one p orbital.
                  -  50% s-character and 50% p-character
                  - triple bonds; one sigma (δ) bond and two pi (π) bonds

Example: sp Hybridization in Acetylene,  HC≡CH

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The table below gives the summary of the hybrid orbitals and their bond angles and molecular
geometries.
Hybrid orbital Bond Angle Molecular Geometry No. of groups Example
attached
sp 180o Linear 2 CO,  C2H2
sp2 120o Planar trigonal 3 BF3, C2H4
sp3 109.5o Tetrahedral 4 H2O, CH4

Bond Length and Bond Strength

 The more s character, the

shorter and stronger the bond.
 The shorter the bond, the
stronger it is.
 The greater the electron density
in the region of orbital overlap,
the stronger the bond.
 The more s character, the
greater the bond angle.
 A π Bond is Weaker Than a σ Bond
 

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