DSE Biology Chapter 3F Ecosystems 生態系

DSE Biology Chapter 3F Ecosystems 生態系
3F. Ecosystems 生態系
a. Levels of organization 組織層次

b. Major ecosystem types 生態系的主要類別
c. Components of an ecosystem 生態系的成分
d. Relationships between organisms 生物間的關係
e. Ecological Succession 生態演替
f. Energy transfer 能量傳遞
g. Pyramids of numbers and pyramids of biomass
數量錐體和生物量錐體
h. Materials cycling 物質的循環
i. Materials cycling : carbon cycles 物質的循環︰碳循環
j. Materials cycling : nitrogen cycles 物質的循環︰氮循環
k. Conservation of ecosystem 生態系的保育
l. Study of a local habitat 本地生境的研習
1 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fa. Levels of organization 組織層次
1. Species : The breeding between species produces fertilized offspring

2. Population : Same species live in the same habitat
3. Community : All populations live in the same habitat
4. Ecosystem : Community + abiotic (non-living components) factors
e.g. freshwater stream, rocky shore, mangrove, grassland and woodland
5. Biome : A major ecological community of organisms adapted to a particular
climatic or environmental condition on a large geographic area in
which they occur
e.g. desert, forest, grassland, tundra, marine and freshwater
6. Biosphere : worldwide sum of all ecosystems
1. 物種︰「種」之間可以配種生出受精後代
2. 種群︰同一種住在同一生境
3. 群落︰所有種群住在同一生境
4. 生態系︰群落 + 非生物因子
e.g. 淡水河流、岩岸、紅樹林、草地和林地
5. 生物群系︰生物適應某一特定氣候或環境條件的一大片地域面積
之生態群落
e.g. 沙漠、森林、草原、凍原、海洋、淡水
6. 生物圈︰地球上所有生態系的統合整體
3Fb. Major ecosystem types 生態系的主要類別
1. freshwater stream 淡水河流

2. rocky shore 岩岸
3. mangrove 紅樹林
Are a group of trees and shrubs that live in the coastal intertidal zone
由一群樹木及灌木生於沿海潮間帶區域
4. grassland 草地
5. woodland 林地

3Fc. Components of an ecosystem 生態系的成分
1. abiotic factors 非生物因子

a. Daylight : photosynthesis, no eye organism
b. Temperature
c. Soil : sandy soil vs. clay soil (less air, more water)
d. Pollution
e. Water : lower shore (near the sea) vs. upper shore
a. 日光 : 光合作用、無眼生物
b. 溫度
c. 土壤 :沙土 vs. 黏土 (較少空氣、較多水份)
d. 污染
e. 水源 : 低潮帶 (近海) vs. 高潮帶

3Fc. Ecosystems – Components of an ecosystem 生態系 – 生態系的成分
2. Biotic community 生物群落

a. niche : functional role that it plays within an ecosystem
生態位 : 生態系中扮演的功能性角色
b. Food web and food chain 食物網和食物鏈
Food web 食物網
Food chain 食物鏈

- Phytoplankton  clam  octopus  shark
- Phytoplankton  clam  starfish  shark
- Phytoplankton  sea snail  octopus  shark
- Phytoplankton  sea snail  starfish  shark
- Phytoplankton  zooplankton  fish  shark
- Phytoplankton  fish  shark
[Remarks: octopus vs. shark : octopus = prey, shark = predators
八爪魚 vs. 鯊魚︰八爪魚 = 獵物、鯊魚 = 捕食者

3Fc. Ecosystems – Components of an ecosystem 生態系 – 生態系的成分
2. Biotic community 生物群落

c. practical methods that allow you to confirm the feeding relationships
among various organisms
可行方法以確定這生態系內各種生物之間的攝食關係
- by dissecting the gut of the predators to find out what prey items are
inside
- field observation of feeding relationship
- laboratory study by offering different preys to a predator
- 解剖捕食者的消化道 / 腸，檢查內裡有什麼獵物
- 實地觀察攝食關係
- 在實驗室進行實驗，以不同獵物餵飼捕食者

3Fd. Relationships between organisms 生物間的關係
1. commensalism 片利共生 / 偏利共棲 (+,0)

e.g. barnacles attached to crabs 藤壼依附蟹身上
barnacles attached to whale 藤壼依附鯨身上
2. competition 競爭 (–,–)
e.g. soil bacteria and fungi 泥土的細菌與真菌
oysters and barnacles 蠔和藤壼
2 different plants compete for sunlight 兩種爭奪陽光的不同植物
3. mutualism 互利共生 (+,+)

e.g. nitrogen-fixing bacteria and leguminous plant 固氮細菌與豆科植物
human and bacteria in large intestine 人類和大腸中的細菌
lichen is close association of an alga and a fungus which cannot survive
independently
地衣由某種藻類和真菌結合而成，兩者關係密切，不能獨立生存
crab and anemone 寄居蟹和海葵
- crab provides surplus food debris to anemone
while anemone gives protection with sting cells to crab.
寄居蟹提供食物殘骸給海葵，而海葵有刺細胞可保護寄居蟹

4. parasitism 寄生 (+,–)
e.g. fungus vs. infected plant 真菌與受感染植物
mushroom growing on its bark and a tree 生長在樹皮上的菇類和樹
climbers / climbing plants 攀緣植物
- development of suckers 發展出吸管
tapeworm and man 絛蟲和人
- two rings of curved hooks 兩環彎曲的鈎
presence of suckers on the head 頭上具吸盤
 firm attach to the host  緊緊依附在宿主
- long and flattened body 長而扁平的身體
 better absorption of food  更好的食物吸收
- absence of digestive system 沒有消化系統
 since the food has already digested  因為食物已被消化
caterpillar fungus 蟲草 :
- spores of fungus land on the larvae of moths, the spores will
germinate inside the body of the larvae and grow out of their heads
當真菌的孢子落在蛾的幼蟲身上，便會在幼蟲體內萌發，
然後由幼蟲頭部生長出來
5. predation 捕食 (+,–)
e.g. birds and caterpillars 鳥和毛蟲
rabbit and fox 兔和狐

Mode of nutrition 營養模式

1. Autotrophic nutrition 自養營養
e.g. green plant 綠色植物、mosses 蘚類
2. Holozoic nutrition 動物式營養

- carnivores 肉食性動物 e.g. tiger 老虎, pitcher plants 豬籠草
- herbivores 草食性動物 e.g. cow 牛
- omnivores 雜食性動物 e.g. human 人類
3. Parasitic nutrition 寄生營養

e.g. disease-causing bacteria 致病的細菌、
dodder 菟絲子
- possesses haustoria to anchor firmly onto the host
and absorb nutrients from the host
擁有吸器緊緊依附宿主及由宿主吸收營養
4. Saprophytic nutrition 腐生營養

- no digestion / external digestion, only absorption
沒有消化 / 體外消化、只有吸收
e.g. mushroom 菇類、fungi 真菌、bread moulds 麵包黴、
bacteria causing food decay 引致食物腐敗的細菌

3Fe. Ecological Succession 生態演替
1. Primary succession 原生演替

- Place : no living thing  have living thing
- Always starts with a barren area
- e.g. succession after a volcanic eruption
- 地方︰由沒有生物  有生物
- 總是始於不毛之地
- 例︰火山爆發的演替
2. Secondary succession 次生演替 / 繼發演替

- It involves the restoration of the community after a major disturbance /
The succession occurred in pre-existing soil / pre-existing plants
- e.g. succession occurring on an abandoned farmland
succession after deforestation
succession after a flood
succession after a fire
- 涉及經歷重大干擾後的群落復原 /
演替是發生於現有的土壤上 / 植坡上
- 例︰廢棄農田上發生的演替
濫伐林木後的演替
水淹後的演替
火災後的演替
3. primary succession has pioneer community

both succession end with a climax community
原生演替會有先鋒群落
兩個演替都會達致頂級群落

3Fe. Ecological Succession 生態演替
4. pioneer community = the very first community to colonize an area during

primary succession
先鋒群落 = 當原生演替時，非常早期的群落移植一個地方
5. climax community = after a series of ecological succession, attain the final stage
of succession which is relatively stable
頂級群落 = 經過一系列生態演替後，達到的一個保持相對穩定的最終階段
6. dominant species = species which is the most common

or the biomass is the highest in an ecological community
優勢物種 = 一個小數目的物種於生態群落中最常見、
或是生物量最高的物種

3Ff. Energy transfer 能量傳遞
Food web 食物網
Quaternary consumer 四級消費者  Decomposer 分解者

(the 5th trophic level 第五層)

Tertiary consumer 三級消費者  Decomposer 分解者
(the 4th trophic level 第四層)

Secondary consumer 二級消費者  Decomposer 分解者
(the 3rd trophic level 第三層)

Primary consumer 初級消費者  Decomposer 分解者
(the 2nd trophic level 第二層)

Producer 生產者  Decomposer 分解者
(the 1st trophic level 第一層)

1. Energy transfer efficiency from primary consumer to secondary consumer = 10%

由初級消費者到二級消費者能量傳遞的效率 = 10%
2. Solar energy change into chemical energy by photosynthesis of plants

太陽能通過植物的光合作用轉化為化學能
3. Energy flow from one organism to another by predation / feeding

能量通過捕食/進食從一生物轉到另一生物
4. Shorter food chain

 smaller number of trophic levels
 less energy lost along the food chain
較短的食物鏈
 較少的食性層次
 較少能量沿食物鏈散失

5. Energy lost along the food chain / at each trophic

能量沿食物鏈 / 在每個食性層次中損失
- through respiration, death, excretory products and faeces
經呼吸作用、死亡、排泄物或糞便散失
Detail version 詳盡版本
i. energy is lost as heat during respiration
/ energy is lost in form of metabolic wastes
能量在呼吸作用中以熱形式流失
/ 能量以代謝廢物形式流失
ii. Energy is lost / trapped in the undigested
/ unabsorbed parts organisms of the previous level
Energy trapped in the dead bodies of organism is not available to the
organisms of next higher trophic level / is redirected to the decomposers
能量於不能消化 / 未被吸收的 (前一食性層次) 生物部分中流失
/ 累積能量於未被攝食的 (前一食性層次) 生物部分中流失
累積於死去生物屍體的能量未能提供至下一食性層次的生物
/ 轉移至分解者
6. Energy lost is the greatest in the food chain between tree and primary
consumer
- since most of the part of the biomass of trees unconsumed
/ lignin is not consumed
樹木和初級消費者間的食物鏈中，能量損失最大
- 因為樹木大部分的生物量均沒有被食用 / 木質素是不能食用

3Fg. Pyramids of numbers and pyramids of biomass 數量錐體和生物量錐體
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

4th trophic level : birds hawk big fish
3rd trophic level : snakes and lizards small bird middle fish
2nd trophic level : insects and spiders grasshopper small fish
1st trophic level : oak trees grass phytoplankton
第四食性層次 : 鳥鷹大魚
第三食性層次 : 蛇和蜥蝪小鳥中魚
第二食性層次 : 昆蟲和蜘蛛草蜢小魚
第一食性層次 : 橡樹草浮游植物
Pyramid of number 數量錐體
Pyramid of biomass 生物量錐體
Case 1 : Biomass of oak tree is much greater 橡樹的生物量非常大

Case 2 :
- when energy in the lower trophic level is transferred to the next higher level,
there is energy lost
- and the individuals at lower levels are smaller in size
- therefore, a larger number of individuals at a lower trophic level is required to
support those at upper levels.
- 當能量由較低營養級傳遞至較高營養級時，能量有所流失
- 同時，在較低營養級的個體體積較小
- 因此，需要較多低營養級的個體才可以支持較高營養級的個體
Case 3 : Phytoplankton has very high reproduction rate 浮游植物的繁殖率非常高

3Fh. Materials cycling 物質的循環
1. Decomposer is saprophytes, e.g. bacteria and fungi,

can recycle carbon and nitrogen
分解者是腐生生物 (例︰細菌及真菌)，可將碳和氮再循環
2. Decomposition will be promoted under high temperature and high humidity
於高溫度及高濕度下，分解會加速
3. Decomposer break down the organic matter into inorganic matter
which is then absorbed by the producer for growth
Decomposition : dead body  humus  material recycled
分解者將有機物質分解為無機物質，
而生產者會吸收這些無機物質作生長之用
分解︰遺骸  腐殖質  回收物質
4. Humus is composed of microorganisms (dead and alive) and decaying plants
腐殖質包含微生物 (死或生) 及腐爛的植物
5. Material can be recycled, but energy cannot be recycled.
物質可以再循環，但能量不能再循環
6. If all the decomposers in a habitat died out
若某生境內的分解者全部死亡
i. dead organism will not be decomposed, material cannot be recycled
生物的遺骸不會分解，物質不能再循環
ii. the total biomass of the habitat would decrease
該生境內的總生物量將會減少
3Fi. Materials cycling : carbon cycles 物質的循環︰碳循環
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
Decomposition/putrefaction: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
Burning of fossil fuel: CnH2n + (3n/2)O2  nCO2 + nH2O
光合作用: 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
呼吸作用: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
分解作用/腐敗作用: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
燃燒化石燃料: CnH2n + (3n/2)O2  nCO2 + nH2O

3Fj. Materials cycling : nitrogen cycles 物質的循環︰氮循環
Leguminous Plant 豆科植物 e.g. peanuts, soya bean 花生、大豆

1. Nitrogen fixing bacteria (Symbiotic bacteria) in root nodules
根瘤具有固氮細菌 (共生細菌)
nitrogen
 ammonium compounds / ammonium ions / nitrate / nitrogenous compounds
 protein
氮氣  銨化合物 / 銨離子 / 硝酸鹽 / 氮的化合物  蛋白質
2a. After dead of plant 植物死後
- Nitrogen fixing bacteria (Symbiotic bacteria) pass into soil
固氮細菌 (共生細菌) 傳至泥土
- Decomposition (aerobic respiration)
by saprophytic bacteria / putrefying bacteria / fungus
腐生細菌 / 腐敗細菌 / 真菌的分解作用 (有氧呼吸)
Protein (organic material)  ammonium compounds (inorganic material)
蛋白質 (有機物質)  銨化合物 (無機物質)
2b. Animal eat the plant (no microorganism involved)
動物食植物 (沒有渉及微生物)
Protein in plant  protein in animal
植物的蛋白質  動物的蛋白質
[If animal die 若動物死亡  2a  3]
3. Nitrification by nitrifying bacteria 硝化細菌的硝化作用
Ammonium compound in soil / inorganic nitrogen fertilizer
 nitrites in soil  nitrates in soil
泥土的銨化合物 / 無機氮肥  泥土的亞硝酸鹽  泥土的硝酸鹽
4. Denitrification by denitrifying bacteria
反硝化細菌 / 去硝化細菌的反硝化作用
nitrates  nitrogen in air
硝酸鹽化合物  空氣中的氮氣

Non-leguminous Plant 非豆科植物

1a. Lightning (nitrogen fixation) 閃電 (固氮作用)
nitrogen  nitrates in soil
氮氣  泥土中的硝酸鹽
1b. Nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil
泥土中的固氮細菌
nitrogen gas  nitrates in soil
氮氣  泥土中的硝酸鹽
2. Plant absorb the nitrates from soil (no microorganism involved)
植物吸收泥土中的硝酸鹽 (沒有渉及微生物)
nitrates  protein
硝酸鹽  蛋白質
3a. After dead 死後
Decomposition (aerobic respiration)
腐生細菌 / 腐敗細菌 /真菌的分解作用 (有氧呼吸)

Insect-digesting Plant 消化昆蟲的植物

1. Catch the insect and digest it 捕捉昆蟲及消化牠
Protein in animal  protein in plant
動物的蛋白質  植物的蛋白質
2a. After dead 死後
Decomposition (aerobic respiration)
腐生細菌 / 腐敗細菌 /真菌的分解作用 (有氧呼吸)

Fish tank / ecosystem in glass bottle 魚虹 / 玻璃瓶中的生態系

1. Fish 魚 / snail 蝸牛
Nitrogenous wastes released by the fish 魚排出的含氮廢物
2. Decomposition by saprophytic bacteria / putrefying bacteria / fungus
腐生細菌 / 腐敗細菌 /真菌的分解作用
Nitrogenous wastes  ammonia
含氮廢物  氨
3. Nitrification by nitrifying bacteria (biological filter)
硝化細菌 (生物過濾器) 的硝化作用
Ammonia  nitrite  nitrate
氨  亞硝酸鹽  硝酸鹽
4. Aquatic plant 水生植物
Nitrate  protein
Carbon dioxide  oxygen
硝酸鹽  蛋白質
二氧化碳  氧氣
[** chlorine in water kill bacteria 水中的氯氣殺死細菌]

3Fk. Conservation of ecosystem 生態系的保育
1. Conservation of rain forests helps

- to maintain a diversity of species
- to conserve the natural habitat
- to maintain a constant level of carbon dioxide / oxygen in the atmosphere
- to prevent soil erosion
保護雨林有助於
- 維持物種的多樣性
- 保護自然生境
- 維持大氣中二氧化碳/氧的含量於一固定水平
- 防止土壤侵蝕
2. Conservation of Mai Po reserve area

- to provide a habitat for the wildlife / protects the wildlife
- to provides a resting place for migratory birds
保護米埔護理區
- 為野生生物提供了棲息的生境 / 保護野生生物
- 為候鳥提供了棲息之所
3. Method of conservation
- human population control
- pollution control
- sewage treatment
- crop rotation
保育的方法
- 控制人類的人口
- 控制污染
- 污水處理
- 輪作法


4. Endangered species 頻臨絕種動物
a. Reason of appearing
- destruction / lack of habitats
- species have low reproductive potential
- species have poor ability to find food / insufficient food supply
- poor defensive mechanisms against natural enemies
- hunted by humans
出現的原因
- 生境遭破壞 / 很少
- 物種繁殖能力可能較弱
- 物種找尋食物的能力較弱 / 食物供應不足
- 抵抗天敵的自衛機制較弱
- 被人捕獵
b. Solving method
- protecting the habitats (e.g. setting up conservation area)
- banning hunting
- conservation breeding
- breeding in conservation centres and reintroducing them to the
wild when they have reached adulthood.
- animals bred and raised in conservation centres may not survive
in the wild as they have been well taken care of in the
conservation centre
解決方法
- 保護生境 (例如︰設立保育區)
- 禁止捕獵
- 保育育種
- 保育中心繁殖，並在牠們長大後放回野外。
- 保育中心繁殖及飼養的動物得到照顧，
牠們未必可以在野外生存

5. Problem of introducing a new species 引入一種新物種的問題

- may be no predators exist  dominant species
- may feed on other local organism, disturb the local food chains or webs
- may carry new pathogens
- may upset the existing ecological equilibrium
- 可能沒有捕獵者 / 寄生蟲 / 天敵  優勢物種
- 可能攝食其他本土生物，影響本土的食物鏈或食物網
- 可能帶有新病原體
- 可能擾亂現存的生態平衡
(德國小龍蝦)
6. Renewable energy source 可再生能源

- wind energy 風能
- hydroelectric power 水力發電
- geothermal energy 地熱能
- biomass 生物量
- solar energy 太陽能
- tidal energy 潮汐能
Non-renewable energy source 不可再生能源
- nuclear power 核能
- fossil fuel 化石燃料
7. Greenhouse effect : Increase in temperature of the atmosphere

Greenhouse gases : CO2, CH4, CFCs, O3
全球增溫︰增力大氣的溫度
溫室氣體︰CO2, CH4, CFCs, O3

3Fl. Study of a local habitat 本地生境的研習

1. Distribution of organisms
sampling methods : line and belt transects
- Set up a line transect along the site
and record the organism species that touch the line
生物的分佈
取樣法 : 樣線和樣帶
- 沿著地點擺放一條樣線，並記錄觸到樣線的生物
2. Abundance of organisms
sampling methods : quadrats
- Place a transect line between 2 positions
place a quadrat along the transact line at regular intervals
count the number of species in the quadrat and record the results
- Sampling method may not reflect the actual relative abundance
- Quadrat sampling is not accurate for determining the number of
mobile animals
- Only animals on the surface are collected
生物的多度
取樣法 : 樣方
- 兩個地點間放置一條樣線
沿著樣線，每隔一段距離放置一樣方
點算在樣方內物種的數目並記錄結果
- 取樣方法未必反映實際相對豐度
- 不能準確測定如蟹這類能走動的動物
- 只蒐集沙土表面的動物

DSE Biology Chapter 3F Ecosystems 生態系

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DSE Biology Chapter 3F Ecosystems 生態系

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DSE Biology Chapter 3F Ecosystems 生態系

3F. Ecosystems 生態系

a. Levels of organization 組織層次

1 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fa. Levels of organization 組織層次

1. Species : The breeding between species produces fertilized offspring

3Fb. Major ecosystem types 生態系的主要類別

1. freshwater stream 淡水河流

2 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fc. Components of an ecosystem 生態系的成分

1. abiotic factors 非生物因子

3 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fc. Ecosystems – Components of an ecosystem 生態系 – 生態系的成分

2. Biotic community 生物群落

Food chain 食物鏈

4 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fc. Ecosystems – Components of an ecosystem 生態系 – 生態系的成分

2. Biotic community 生物群落

5 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fd. Relationships between organisms 生物間的關係

1. commensalism 片利共生 / 偏利共棲 (+,0)

3. mutualism 互利共生 (+,+)

6 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fd. Relationships between organisms 生物間的關係

7 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fd. Relationships between organisms 生物間的關係

Mode of nutrition 營養模式

2. Holozoic nutrition 動物式營養

3. Parasitic nutrition 寄生營養

4. Saprophytic nutrition 腐生營養

8 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fe. Ecological Succession 生態演替

1. Primary succession 原生演替

2. Secondary succession 次生演替 / 繼發演替

3. primary succession has pioneer community

9 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fe. Ecological Succession 生態演替

4. pioneer community = the very first community to colonize an area during

6. dominant species = species which is the most common

10 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Ff. Energy transfer 能量傳遞

Food web 食物網

Quaternary consumer 四級消費者  Decomposer 分解者

11 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Ff. Energy transfer 能量傳遞

1. Energy transfer efficiency from primary consumer to secondary consumer = 10%

2. Solar energy change into chemical energy by photosynthesis of plants

3. Energy flow from one organism to another by predation / feeding

4. Shorter food chain

12 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Ff. Energy transfer 能量傳遞

5. Energy lost along the food chain / at each trophic

13 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fg. Pyramids of numbers and pyramids of biomass 數量錐體和生物量錐體

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Pyramid of number 數量錐體

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Pyramid of biomass 生物量錐體

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Case 1 : Biomass of oak tree is much greater 橡樹的生物量非常大

14 © by Herman Yeung www.youtube.com/HermanYeung

3Fh. Materials cycling 物質的循環

1. Decomposer is saprophytes, e.g. bacteria and fungi,